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diff --git a/35747.txt b/35747.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f353e1d --- /dev/null +++ b/35747.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18543 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5 + "Fleury, Claude" to "Foraker" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 1, 2011 [EBook #35747] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE FLORENCE: "... while the new structures erected in their + place, especially those in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, are almost + uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine + architecture." 'Piazza' amended from 'Piaza'. + + ARTICLE FLORIDA: "Not until the last decade of the 17th century did + the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the settlements beyond + the east coast." 'Not' amended from 'no'. + + ARTICLE FLOWER: "The exine is a firm membrane, which defines the + figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it." 'exine' + amended from 'extine'. + + ARTICLE FOG: "... the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the + reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the + case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps + not fairly included." 'rarefaction' amended from 'rarefraction'. + + ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "Association football is indeed, from the + standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in + its infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of + the eleven players into full relief throughout the game." + 'throughout' amended from 'throughtout'. + + ARTICLE FOOTBALL: "This means that one or more of his fellows must + accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any opponent who + tries to tackle him." 'tries' amended from 'trys'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME X, SLICE V + + Fleury, Claude to Foraker + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FLEURY, CLAUDE FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE + FLIEDNER, THEODOR FLYING BUTTRESS + FLIGHT and FLYING FLYING COLUMN + FLINCK, GOVERT "FLYING DUTCHMAN," + FLINDERS, MATTHEW FLYING-FISH + FLINSBERG FLYING-FOX + FLINT, AUSTIN FLYING-SQUIRREL + FLINT, ROBERT FLYSCH + FLINT, TIMOTHY FOCA + FLINT (Michigan, U.S.A.) FOCHABERS + FLINT (county of North Wales) FOCSHANI + FLINT (town of North Wales) FOCUS + FLINT (crystalline substance) FOG + FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO + FLOAT FOGELBERG, BENEDICT ERLAND + FLOCK FOGGIA + FLODDEN FOHN + FLODOARD FOHR + FLOE FOIL + FLOOD, HENRY FOIL-FENCING + FLOOD FOIX, PAUL DE + FLOOD PLAIN FOIX + FLOOR FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES + FLOORCLOTH FOLD + FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS FOLENGO, TEOFILO + FLOR, ROGER DI FOLEY, JOHN HENRY + FLORA FOLEY, SIR THOMAS + FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR FOLI, ALLAN JAMES + FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN FOLIGNO + FLORENCE OF WORCESTER FOLIO + FLORENCE (Alabama, U.S.A.) FOLIUM + FLORENCE (capital of Tuscany) FOLKES, MARTIN + FLORES (Atlantic Ocean island) FOLKESTONE + FLORES (East Indies island) FOLKLAND + FLOREZ, ENRIQUE FOLKLORE + FLORIAN, SAINT FOLLEN, AUGUST LUDWIG + FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE FOLLEN, KARL + FLORIANOPOLIS FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB + FLORIDA FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM + FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE FOND DU LAC + FLORIDOR FONDI + FLORIN FONNI + FLORIO, GIOVANNI FONSAGRADA + FLORIS, FRANS FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA + FLORUS FONSECA, BAY OF + FLORUS, JULIUS FONT + FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD + FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH ADOLF VON FONTAINEBLEAU + FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE + FLOUNDER FONTANA, DOMENICO + FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE FONTANA, LAVINIA + FLOURENS, GUSTAVE FONTANA, PROSPERO + FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE FONTANE, THEODOR + FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY FONTANES, LOUIS + FLOWER FONTENAY-LE-COMTE + FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE + FLOYD, JOHN FONTENOY + FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN FONTEVRAULT + FLOYER, SIR JOHN FOOD + FLUDD, ROBERT FOOD PRESERVATION + FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT FOOL + FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED FOOLS, FEAST OF + FLUKE FOOLSCAP + FLUME FOOL'S PARSLEY + FLUMINI MAGGIORE FOOT + FLUORANTHENE FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE + FLUORENE FOOTBALL + FLUORESCEIN FOOTE, ANDREW HULL + FLUORESCENCE FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK + FLUORINE FOOTE, SAMUEL + FLUOR-SPAR FOOTMAN + FLUSHING (New York, U.S.A.) FOOTSCRAY + FLUSHING (Zeeland, Holland) FOOT-STALL + FLUTE FOPPA, VINCENZO + FLUX FORAGE + FLY FORAIN, J. L. + FLYCATCHER FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON + + + + +FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723), French ecclesiastical historian, was born at +Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for the bar, he was educated +at the aristocratic college of Clermont (now that of Louis-le-Grand). In +1658 he was nominated an advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for +nine years followed the legal profession. But he had long been of a +religious disposition, and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had +been some time in orders when Louis XIV., in 1672, selected him as tutor +of the princes of Conti, with such success that the king next entrusted +to him the education of the count of Vermandois, one of his natural +sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received for his services the +Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rhodez. In 1689 he was +appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of +Berry, and thus became intimately associated with Fenelon, their chief +tutor. In 1696 he was elected to fill the place of La Bruyere in the +French Academy; and on the completion of the education of the young +princes the king bestowed upon him the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the +diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned, with +rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu. About this time +he began his great work, the first of the kind in France, and one for +which he had been collecting materials for thirty years--the _Histoire +ecclesiastique_. Fleury's evident intention was to write a history of +the church for all classes of society; but at the time in which his +great work appeared it was less religion than theology that absorbed the +attention of the clergy and the educated public; and his work +accordingly appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader, +dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine, of +discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priesthood and the +imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success. The first edition, +printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4to, 1691, was followed by many others, +among which may be mentioned that of Brussels, in 32 vols. 8vo, 1692, +and that of Nismes, in 25 vols. 8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury +only comes down to the year 1414. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre +and Goujet down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of +Fleury and its supplement, the general table of contents, published by +Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found very useful. Translations +have been made of the entire work into Latin, German and Italian. The +Latin translation, published at Augsburg, 1758-1759, 85 vols. 8vo, +carries the work down to 1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor +to the young king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans +said, he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but +Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1723. His great learning was equalled +by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness of his conduct. + + Fleury left many works besides his _Histoire ecclesiastique_. The + following deserve special mention:--_Histoire du droit francois_ + (1674, 12mo); _Moeurs des Israelites_ (1681, 12mo); _Moeurs des + Chretiens_ (1682, 12mo); _Traite du choix et de la methode des etudes_ + (1686, 2 vols. 12mo); _Les Devoirs des maitres et des domestiques_ + (1688, 12mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one + volume at Paris in 1807. The Roman Congregation of the Index condemned + his _Catechisme historique_ (1679) and the _Institution du droit + ecclesiastique_ (1687). + + See C. Ernst Simonetti, _Der Character eines Geschichtsschreibers in + dem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury_ (Gottingen, 1746, + 4to); C.F.P. Jaeger, _Notice sur C. Fleury, considere comme historien + de l'eglise_ (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Reichlin-Meldegg, _Geschichte + des Christentums, i._ + + + + +FLIEDNER, THEODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant divine, was born on the +21st of January 1800 at Epstein (near Wiesbaden), the small village in +which his father was pastor. He studied theology at the universities of +Giessen and Gottingen, and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and +at the age of twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent +in teaching and preaching, in 1821 he accepted a call from the +Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine, a few +miles below Dusseldorf. To help his people and to provide an endowment +for his church, he undertook journeys in 1822 through part of Germany, +and then in 1823 to Holland and England. He met with considerable +success, and had opportunities of observing what was being done towards +prison reform; in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist +Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad state. The +prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms, badly fed, and left in +complete idleness. No one dreamed of instructing them, or of collecting +statistics to form the basis of useful legislation on the subject. +Fliedner, at first singly, undertook the work. He applied for permission +to be imprisoned for some time, in order that he might look at prison +life from the inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to +hold fortnightly services in the Dusseldorf prison, and to visit the +inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded themselves +together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first Prison Society of +Germany (_Rheinisch-Westfalischer Gefangnisverein_) was founded. In 1833 +Fliedner opened in his own parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for +discharged female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly +increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time excited his +interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be best served by an +organized body of specially trained women. Accordingly in 1836 he began +the first deaconess house, and the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their +ordination vows the deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the +poor, the sick and the young; but their engagements were not final--they +might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose. In +addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 an infant +school, then a normal school for infant school mistresses (1836), an +orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842), and an asylum for +female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted at the foundation and in +the management of similar institutions, not only in Germany, but in +various parts of Europe. + +In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851 he +travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East--the object +of his journeys being to found "mother houses," which were to be not +merely training schools for deaconesses, but also centres whence other +training establishments might arise. He established a deaconess house in +Jerusalem, and after his return assisted by counsel and money in the +erection of establishments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and +Bucharest. Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian house +of refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other +institutions soon arose) and the "house of evening rest" for retired +deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received the degree of +doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in recognition rather of +his practical activity than of his theological attainments. He died on +the 4th of October 1864, leaving behind him over 100 stations attended +by 430 deaconesses; and these by 1876 had increased to 150 with an +attendance of 600. + +Fliedner's son FRITZ FLIEDNER (1845-1901), after studying in Halle and +Tubingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in Madrid. He followed +in his father's footsteps by founding several philanthropic institutions +in Spain. He was also the author of a number of books, amongst which was +an autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben. Erinnerungen und Erfahrungen_ +(1901). + + Theodor Fliedner's writings are almost entirely of a practical + character. He edited a periodical, _Der Armen und Kranken Freund,_ + which contained information regarding the various institutions, and + also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides + purely educational and devotional works, he wrote _Buch der Martyrer_ + (1852); _Kurze Geschichte der Entstehung der ersten evang. + Liebesanstalten zu Kaiserswerth_ (1856); _Nachricht uber das + Diakonissen-Werk in der Christ. Kirche_ (5th ed., 1867); _Die evangel. + Martyrer Ungarns und Siebenburgens; and Beschreibung der Reise nach + Jerusalem und Constantinopel_. All were published at Kaiserswerth. + There is a translation of the German life by C. Winkworth (London, + 1867). See also G. Fliedner, _Theodor Fliedner, kurzer Abriss seines + Lebens und Wirkens_ (3rd ed., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work + _Kaiserswerth Deaconesses_ (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's + _Deaconesses_ (London, 1862); _The Service of the Poor_, by E.C. + Stephen (London, 1871); W.F. Stevenson's _Praying and Working_ + (London, 1865). + + + + +FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of modern times, +there are few possessing a wider or more enduring interest than that of +aerial navigation (see also AERONAUTICS). To fly has always been an +object of ambition with man; nor will this occasion surprise when we +remember the marvellous freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with +non-volant animals. The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme +difficulty. To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, +at first sight, in the highest degree utopian; and yet there are +thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this feat. These +creatures, however varied in form and structure, all fly according to +one and the same principle; and this is a significant fact, as it tends +to show that the air must be attacked in a particular way to ensure +flight. It behoves us then at the outset to scrutinize very carefully +the general configuration of flying animals, and in particular the size, +shape and movements of their flying organs. + +Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from balloons, +with which they are not unfrequently though erroneously compared; and a +flying machine constructed upon proper principles can have nothing in +common with either of those creations. The ship floats upon water and +the balloon upon air; but the ship differs from the balloon, and the +ship and the balloon differ from the flying creature and flying machine. +The water and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The +analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the +balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature and +flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is supported by the +water and requires merely to be propelled; a flying creature and a +flying machine constructed on the living type require to be both +supported and propelled. This arises from the fact that water is much +denser than air, and because water supports on its surface substances +which fall through air. While water and air are both fluid media, they +are to be distinguished from each other in the following particulars. +Water is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible; air, on +the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and compressible. +If water be struck with violence, the recoil obtained is great when +compared with the recoil obtained from air similarly treated. In water +we get a maximum recoil with a minimum of displacement; in air, on the +contrary, we obtain a minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. +Water and air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form +_movable fulcra_ to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet these +peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying animals +(whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made not of rigid +but of elastic materials. The travelling organs, moreover, increase in +size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid to be acted upon. The +difference in size of the travelling organs of animals becomes very +marked when the land animals are contrasted with the aquatic, and the +aquatic with the aerial, as in figs. 1, 2 and 3. + +The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well +illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying birds. A bird +when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alternately in a +backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil. The water supports +the bird, and the feet simply propel. In this case the bird is lighter +than the water, and the long axis of the body is horizontal (a of fig. +4). When the bird dives, or flies under water, the long axis of the body +is inclined obliquely downwards and forwards, and the bird forces itself +into and beneath the water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both. +In diving or sub-aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, +the wings downwards and _backwards_ (b of fig. 4). In aerial flying +everything is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined obliquely +upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not downwards and backwards, +but downwards and _forwards_ (c of fig. 4). These changes in the +direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming, diving and flying, +and in the direction of the stroke of the wings in sub-aquatic and +aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird is heavier than the air +and lighter than the water. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chillingham Bull (_Bos Scoticus_). Small +travelling extremities adapted for land. r, s, t, u, figure-of-8 +described by the feet in walking.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Turtle (_Chelonia imbricata_). Enlarged +travelling extremities (flippers) adapted for water.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Bat (_Phyllocina gracilis_). Greatly +expanded travelling extremities adapted for air.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a +bird in (a) swimming, (b) diving, and (c) flying.] + +The physical properties of water and air explain in a great measure how +the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and how the latter differs +from the flying creature and flying machine constructed on the natural +type. The sailing ship is, as it were, immersed in two oceans, viz. an +ocean of water and an ocean of air--the former being greatly heavier and +denser than the latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and +the ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which propel +the ship. The moving air, which strikes the sails directly, strikes the +hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the water, which, as +explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. When the ship is in motion +it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by the rudder alone, or +by both combined. A balloon differs from a sailing ship in being +immersed in only one ocean, viz. the ocean of air. It resembles the ship +in floating upon the air, as the ship floats upon the water; in other +words, the balloon is lighter than the air, as the ship is lighter than +the water. But here all analogy ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being +immersed in two fluids having different densities, can be steered and +made to tack about in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in +the case of the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The +balloon in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its +horizontal movements, which ought to be the more important, are +accidental movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the +balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt to steer +a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence of oars, sails +and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by currents of air. The +balloon has no hold upon the air, and this consequently cannot be +employed as a _fulcrum_ for regulating its course. The balloon, because +of its vast size and from its being lighter than the air, is completely +at the mercy of the wind. It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the +wind for the time being, and the direction of the wind in every instance +determines the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to +propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its +destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree of +certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another, and hence +the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as likely as not, +carry its occupants out to sea. The balloon is a mere lifting machine +and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying machine. It resembles the +flying creature only in this, that it is immersed in the ocean of air in +which it sustains itself. The mode of suspension is wholly different. +The balloon floats because it is lighter than the air; the flying +creature floats because it extracts from the air, by the vigorous +downward action of its wings, a certain amount of upward recoil. The +balloon is passive; the flying creature is active. The balloon is +controlled by the wind; the flying creature controls the wind. The +balloon in the absence of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical +line; the flying creature can fly in a horizontal plane in any given +direction. The balloon is inefficient because of its levity; the flying +creature is efficient because of its weight. + +Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to flight. +Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air. The inertia of +the mass of the flying creature enables it to control and direct its +movements in the air. Many are of opinion that flight is a mere matter +of levity and power. This is quite a mistake. No machine, however light +and powerful, will ever fly whose travelling surfaces are not properly +fashioned and properly applied to the air. + +It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed in +some mysterious way to flight, but this is now known to be erroneous. +The bats and some of the best-flying birds have no air sacs. Similar +remarks are to be made of the heated air imprisoned within the bones of +certain birds.[1] Feathers even are not necessary to flight. Insects and +bats have no feathers, and yet fly well. The only facts in natural +history which appear even indirectly to countenance the flotation theory +are the presence of a swimming bladder in some fishes, and the existence +of membranous expansions or pseudo-wings in certain animals, such as the +flying fish, flying dragon and flying squirrel. As, however, the animals +referred to do not actually fly, but merely dart into the air and there +sustain themselves for brief intervals, they afford no real support to +the theory. The so-called floating animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6 +and 7. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Red-throated Dragon (_Draco haematopogon_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Flying Colugo (_Galeopithecus volans_); also +called flying lemur and flying squirrel.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Flying Fish (_Exocoetus exiliens_).] + +It has been asserted, and with some degree of plausibility, that a fish +lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter than the air +might fly: it ought, however, to be borne in mind that, in point of +fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold its own if the water +were in the least perturbed, and that a bird lighter than the air would +be swept into space by even a moderate breeze without hope of return. +Weight and power are always associated in living animals, and the fact +that living animals are made heavier than the medium they are to +navigate may be regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight +being necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the +bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for the +most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that flight in +every instance is the product, not of superior levity, but of _weight_ +and _power_ directed upon properly constructed flying organs. + +This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying +machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily be a +light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of surface. On the +contrary, it favours the belief that it should be a compact and +moderately heavy and powerful structure, which trusts for elevation and +propulsion entirely to its flying appliances--whether actively moving +wings, or screws, or aeroplanes wedged forward by screws. It should +attack and subdue the air, and never give the air an opportunity of +attacking or subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a +master, and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance +elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be _multum +in parvo_. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and must extract +from that air, by means of its travelling surfaces--however fashioned +and however applied--the recoil or resistance necessary to elevate and +carry it forward. Extensive inert surfaces indeed are contra-indicated +in a flying machine, as they approximate it to the balloon, which, as +has been shown, cannot maintain its position in the air if there are air +currents. A flying machine which could not face air currents would +necessarily be a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to +fall back upon _weight_, or rather the structures and appliances which +weight represents. These appliances as indicated should not be +unnecessarily expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever +practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces, in +preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces. + +The question of surface is a very important one in aviation: it +naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface. As +there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal, so there +are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying machine. +Art should follow nature in this matter. The active surfaces in flying +creatures are always greatly in excess of the passive ones, from the +fact that the former virtually increase in proportion to the spaces +through which they are made to travel. Nature not only distinguishes +between active and passive surfaces in flying animals, but she strikes a +just balance between them, and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces +to the strength and weight of the flying creature and the air currents +to which the surfaces are to be exposed and upon which they are to +operate. In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects +are to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she +reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she likewise +reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying surfaces. +While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying animal as a +whole, she increases as occasion demands the active or wing surfaces by +wing movements, and the passive or dead surfaces by the forward motion +of the body in progressive flight. She knows that if the wings are +driven with sufficient rapidity they practically convert the spaces +through which they move into solid bases of support; she also knows that +the body in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it +passes. The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the wing +movements will be readily understood from the accompanying illustrations +of the blow-fly with its wings at rest and in motion (figs. 8 and 9). In +fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body of the insect and the wings are, +as compared with those of fig. 9, trifling. The wing would have much +less purchase on fig. 8 than on fig. 9, provided the surfaces exposed by +the latter were passive or dead surfaces. But they are not dead +surfaces: they represent the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating +wings, which are actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings +travel at a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are +superior to and control the wind; they enable the insect to dart +through the wind in whatever direction it pleases. + +The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to realize +that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes[2] in a flying machine +would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically, as will be shown +by and by. Fig. 9 so cut out would be heavier than fig. 8, and if both +were exposed to a current of air, fig. 9 would be more blown about than +fig. 8. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Blow-fly (_Musca vomitoria_) with its wings at +rest.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Blow-fly with its wings in motion as in flight.] + +It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the +elytra or wing cases--thin, light, horny structures inclined slightly +upwards--which in the act of flight are spread out and act as sustainers +or gliders. The elytra, however, are comparatively long narrow +structures which occupy a position in front of the wings, of which they +may be regarded as forming the anterior parts. The elytra are to the +delicate wings of some insects what the thick anterior margins are to +stronger wings. The elytra, moreover, are not wholly passive structures. +They can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with the +horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight, as flight +in the great majority of instances is performed without them. The elytra +serve as protectors to the wings when the wings are folded upon the back +of the insect, and as they are extended on either side of the body more +or less horizontally when the insect is flying they contribute to flight +indirectly, in virtue of their being carried forward by the body in +motion. + +_Natural Flight_.--The manner in which the wings of the insect traverse +the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support, raises the +whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, therefore, at this +stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat fully to the +subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and bat, a knowledge +of natural flight preceding, and being in some sense indispensable to, a +knowledge of artificial flight. The bodies of flying creatures are, as a +rule, very strong, comparatively light and of an elongated form,--the +bodies of birds being specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying +creatures, however, are less remarkable for their strength, shape and +comparative levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and +complicated movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first +satisfactorily analysed those movements, and reproduced them by the aid +of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867[3] showed that all +natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are screws +structurally, and that they act as screws when they are made to vibrate, +from the fact that they twist in opposite directions during the down and +up strokes. He also explained that all wings act upon a common +principle, and that they present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air, +through which they pass much in the same way that an oar passes through +water in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying +creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already +indicated) strike downwards and _forwards_ during the down strokes, and +upwards and _forwards_ during the up strokes. Lastly he demonstrated +that the wings of flying creatures, when the bodies of said creatures +are fixed, describe _figure-of-8 tracks_ in space--the figure-of-8 +tracks, when the bodies are released and advancing as in rapid flight, +being opened out and converted into _waved tracks_. + + It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his + admirers for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo + da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and + practice of flight (see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Spirals in Nature and + Art_, 1903). The claim is, however, unwarranted; Leonardo's chief work + on flight, bearing the title _Codice sul Volo degli Uccelli e Varie + Altre Materie_, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of + twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations + interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references + to flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In + none of Leonardo's manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures, + is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral + movements made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the + wing itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the + stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by + modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo gives + a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of the + wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes downwards + and _backwards_, whereas in reality it strikes downwards and + _forwards_. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: "The wings + have to row downwards and _backwards_ to support the machine on high, + so that it moves forward." In speaking of natural flight he remarks: + "If in its descent the bird rows _backwards_ with its wings the bird + will move rapidly; this happens because the wings strike the air which + successively runs behind the bird to fill the void whence it comes." + There is nothing in Leonardo's writings to show that he knew either + the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the modern sense. + +Pettigrew's discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements made by the +wing in stationary and progressive flight was confirmed some two years +after it was made by Prof. E.J. Marey of Paris[4] by the aid of the +"sphygmograph."[5] The movements in question are now regarded as +fundamental, from the fact that they are alike essential to natural and +artificial flight. + +The following is Pettigrew's description of wings and wing movements +published in 1867:-- + + "The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less + triangular in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards + the body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical + on section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape + converting the pinions into delicately graduated instruments balanced + with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular + system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air on + the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumerable + varieties occur as to their general contour, some being falcated or + scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some + lanceolate and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of + one or two pairs--the anterior or upper pair, when two are present, + being in some instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous + condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Gr. [Greek: + elytron], a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the + integument, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various + directions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists + as the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity + of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin, + where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae + are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or + spiral stair--the anterior one occupying a higher position than that + farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also + to the margins, _the wings are more or less twisted upon themselves_ + and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper + surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under + surface,--their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with + such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance and + the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the form of + wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited--the + pinions in those insects acting as _helices_, or _twisted levers_, + and elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would + seem to warrant" (figs. 10 and 11).... "To confer on the wings the + multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied with + double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move not only in + an upward, downward, forward and backward direction, but also at + various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with wings thus + hinged may, as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be not inaptly + compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the universality of + motion in one direction ensures comparative fixedness in another."... + "All wings obtain their leverage by presenting oblique surfaces to the + air, the degree of obliquity gradually increasing in a direction from + behind, forwards and downwards, during extension when the sudden or + effective stroke is being given, and gradually decreasing in an + opposite direction during flexion, or when the wing is being more + slowly recovered preparatory to making a second stroke. The effective + stroke in insects, and this holds true also of birds, is therefore + delivered _downwards and forwards_, and not, as the majority of + writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards.... The wing + in the insect is more flattened than in the bird; and advantage is + taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in + heavy-bodied, small-winged, quick-flying insects, _to reverse the + pinion more or less completely during the down and up strokes_."... + "This is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of the + wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction from + above downwards and from behind forwards--the anterior margin + travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating. The wing may + thus be said to attack the air by a _screwing movement_ from above. + During the up or return stroke, on the other hand, the posterior + margin rotates in a direction from below upwards and from before + backwards, so that by a similar but _reverse screwing motion_ the + pinion attacks the air from beneath."... "_A figure-of-8_, compressed + laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running from left to + right of the spectator, represents the movements in question. _The + down and up strokes_, as will be seen from this account, _cross each + other_, the wing smiting the air during its descent from above, as in + the bird and bat, and during its ascent from below as in the flying + fish and boy's kite" (fig. 12). + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_) + when at rest; seen from above.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Right Wing of the Beetle (_Goliathus micans_) + when in motion; seen from behind. This figure shows how the wing + twists and untwists when in action, and how it forms a true screw.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12 shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of + the wing in extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As + the tip of the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the + continuous and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The + arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how + the down and up strokes _cross each other_.] + + ... "The figure-of-8 action of the wing explains how an insect or bird + may fix itself in the air, the backward and forward reciprocating + action of the pinion affording support, but no propulsion. In these + instances the backward and forward strokes are made to counterbalance + each other. Although the figure-of-8 represents with considerable + fidelity the twisting of the wing upon its axis during extension and + flexion, when the insect is playing its wings before an object, or + still better when it is artificially fixed, it is otherwise when the + down stroke is added and the insect is fairly on the wing and + progressing rapidly. In this case the wing, in virtue of its being + carried forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or + spiral course, as shown in fig. 13." + + ... "The down and up strokes are compound movements--the termination + of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the up stroke, and the + termination of the up stroke including the beginning of the down + stroke. This is necessary in order that the down and up strokes may + glide into each other in such a manner as to prevent jerking and + unnecessary retardation."[6]... + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Wave track made by the wing in progressive + flight. a, b, Crests of the wave; c, d, e, up strokes; x, x, down + strokes; f, point corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing, + and forming a centre for the downward rotation of the wing (a, g); g, + point corresponding to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a + centre for the upward rotation of the wing (d, f).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--a, b, line along which the wing travels + during extension and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in + which the wing is spread out in extension and closed or folded in + flexion. + + Extension (elbow). Flexion (wrist). + + Flexion (elbow). Extension (wrist).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge + (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Right Wing of the Red-legged Partridge + (_Perdix rubra_). Dorsal and ventral aspects as seen from behind; + showing auger-like conformation of wing. Compare with figs. 11 and + 18.] + + "The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, is concavo-convex, and + _more or less twisted upon itself_ when extended, so that the anterior + or thick margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature + to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great + measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are twisted + upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular + surfaces--the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other + at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter + of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion. + As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing + may be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the + same plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during + either movement (fig. 14). The secondary action, or the revolving of + the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance + in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and + forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers which + they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact ensures + that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which the primary + and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and down upon the + wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn from the wind during + flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore be compared to a huge + gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet representing the bones of the + wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet the primary and + secondary feathers" (figs. 15 and 16).... "From this description it + will be evident that by the mere rotation of the bones of the forearm + and hand the maximum and minimum of resistance is secured much in the + same way that this object is attained by the alternate dipping and + feathering of an oar."... "The wing, both when at rest and when in + motion, may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw + propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of the + wing corresponds closely with the outline of the propeller (figs. 11, + 16 and 18), and the track described by the wing in space _is twisted + upon itself_ propeller fashion[7] (figs. 12, 20, 21, 22, 23). The + great velocity with which the wing is driven converts the impression + or blur made by it into what is equivalent to a solid for the time + being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel in violent motion, + as is well understood, more or less completely occupy the space + contained within the rim or circumference of the wheel" (figs. 9, 20 + and 21). + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina + gracilis_). Dorsal aspect as seen from above.] + + ... "The wing of the bat bears a considerable resemblance to that of + the insect, inasmuch as it consists of a delicate, semi-transparent, + continuous membrane, supported in divers directions, particularly + towards its anterior margin, by a system of osseous stays or + stretchers which confer upon it the degree of rigidity requisite for + flight. It is, as a rule, deeply concave on its under or ventral + surface, and in this respect resembles the wing of the heavy-bodied + birds. The movement of the bat's wing in extension is a _spiral_ one, + the spiral running alternately from below upwards and forwards and + from above downwards and backwards. The action of the wing of the bat, + and the movements of its component bones, are essentially the same as + in the bird" (figs. 17 and 18). + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Right Wing of the Bat (_Phyllocina + gracilis_). Dorsal and ventral aspects, as seen from behind. These + show the screw-like configuration of the wing, and also how the wing + twists and untwists during its action.] + + ... "The wing strikes the air precisely as a boy's kite would if it + were jerked by its string, the only difference being that the kite is + _pulled forwards_ upon the wind by the string and the hand, whereas in + the insect, bird and bat the wing is _pushed forwards_ on the wind by + the weight of the body and the power residing in the pinion itself" + (fig. 19).[8] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--The Cape Barn-owl (_Strix capensis_), showing +the kite-like surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and +body in flight.] + +The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to lead us to +explain how it happens that the wing, which in many instances is a +comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet attack the air with such +vigour as to extract from it the recoil necessary to elevate and propel +the flying creature. The accompanying figures from one of Pettigrew's +later memoirs[9] will serve to explain the _rationale_ (figs. 20, 21, 22 +and 23). + +As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibration sweeps +through a comparatively very large space. This space, as already +explained, is practically a solid basis of support for the wing and for +the flying animal. The wing attacks the air in such a manner as +virtually to have no slip--this for two reasons. The wing reverses +instantly and acts as a kite during nearly the entire down and up +strokes. The angles, moreover, made by the wing with the horizon during +the down and up strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this +is a remarkable circumstance) they are always adapted to the speed at +which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase and +decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to and fro are due +partly to the resistance offered by the air, and partly to the mechanism +and mode of application of the wing to the air. The wing, during its +vibrations, rotates upon two separate centres, the tip rotating round +the root of the wing as an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior +margin rotating around the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing +is really eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the +rowing feathers of the bird's wing. The compound rotation goes on +throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately associated +with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately seizing and evading +the air. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the +left wing of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to +vibrate. These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing +with the horizon as it hastens to and fro, and show how the wing +reverses and reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite +directions, and describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22 +represent the forward or down stroke (a b c d e f g), figs. 21 and 23 +the backward or up stroke (g h i j k l a). The terms forward and back +strokes are here employed with reference to the head of the insect, x, +x', line to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or +forward stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward +stroke, it will be seen that _the wing crosses its own track_ more or +less completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.] + +The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by the wing +being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the wing to twist +and untwist diagonally on its long axis when it is made to vibrate. The +twisting referred to is partly a vital and partly a mechanical +act;--that is, it is occasioned in part by the action of the muscles and +in part by the greater resistance experienced from the air by the tip +and posterior margin of the wing as compared with the root and anterior +margin,--the resistance experienced by the tip and posterior margin +causing them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior +margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior +margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs. 9, 11, +12, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23. + +The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is represented +in fig. 24. + +Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the remarkable +power which the wing possesses of making and utilizing its own currents. +Thus, when the wing descends it draws after it a strong current, which, +being met by the wing during its ascent, greatly increases the efficacy +of the up stroke. Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it +creates an upward current, which, being met by the wing when it +descends, powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke. +This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with natural +and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes are complete +in themselves. + +The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed, and in +such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide into each other. +It is only in this way that the air can be made to pulsate, and that the +rhythm of the wing and the air waves can be made to correspond. The air +must be seized and let go in a certain order and at a certain speed to +extract a maximum recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements is +regulated by the size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very +much higher speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing, +moreover, travel at different degrees of velocity--the tip and posterior +margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater space, in a +given time, than the root and anterior margin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Wing of the Bird with its root (a, b) cranked +forwards. + + a, b, Short axis of the wing (axis for tip of wing, h). + + c, d, Long axis (axis for posterior margin of wing, h, i, j, k, l). + + m, n, Short axis of rowing feathers of wing. + + r, s, Long axis of rowing feathers of wing. The rotation of the rowing + feathers on their long axis (they are eccentrics) enables them to open + or separate during the up, and close or come together during the down + strokes. + + e f, g p, concave shape presented by the under surface of the wing.] + +The rapidity of travel of the insect wing is in some cases enormous. The +wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at the rate of 110, and the +common house-fly at the rate of 330 beats per second. Quick as are the +vibrations of natural wings, the speed of certain parts of the wing is +amazingly increased. Wings as a rule are long and narrow. As a +consequence, a comparatively slow and very limited movement at the root +confers great range and immense speed at the tip, the speed of each +portion of the wing increasing as the root of the wing is receded from. +This is explained on a principle well understood in mechanics, viz. that +when a wing or rod hinged at one end is made to move in a circle, the +tip or free end of the wing or rod describes a much wider circle in a +given time than a portion of the wing or rod nearer the hinge (fig. 25). + +[Illustration: FIG. 25 shows how different portions of the wing travel +at different degrees of speed. In this figure the rod a, b, hinged at x, +represents the wing. When the wing is made to vibrate, its several +portions travel through the spaces d b f, j k l, g h i, and e a c in +exactly the same interval of time. The part of the wing marked b, which +corresponds with the tip, consequently travels very much more rapidly +than the part marked a, which corresponds with the root. m n, o p, +curves made by the wing at the end of the up and down strokes; r, +position of the wing at the middle of the stroke.] + +One naturally inquires why the high speed of wings, and why the +progressive increase of speed at their tips and posterior margins? The +answer is not far to seek. If the wings were not driven at a high speed, +and if they were not eccentrics made to revolve upon two separate axes, +they would of necessity be large cumbrous structures; but large heavy +wings would be difficult to work, and what is worse, they would (if too +large), instead of controlling the air, be controlled by it, and so +cease to be flying organs. + +There is, however, another reason why wings should be made to vibrate at +high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light, thin, elastic +medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and unless the wings +attacked it with great violence the necessary recoil or resistance could +not be obtained. The atmosphere, because of its great tenuity, mobility +and comparative imponderability, presents little resistance to bodies +passing through it at low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly +accelerated, the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to +elicit a recoil. This comes of the action and reaction of matter, the +resistance experienced varying according to the density of the +atmosphere and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon +it. While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the progress +of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly difficult to +compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy to convert it into +a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary support and forward +impetus. This arises from the fact that bodies moving in air experience +a _minimum of resistance_ and occasion a _maximum of displacement_. +Another and very obvious difficulty is traceable to the great disparity +in the weight of air as compared with any known solid, and the +consequent want of buoying or sustaining power which that disparity +involves. If we compare air with water we find it is nearly 1000 times +lighter. To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are +furnished with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which +they apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of the +third order. In this form of lever the power is applied between the +fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power is represented by the +wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the weight by the body of the flying +animal. Although the third order of lever is particularly inefficient +when the fulcrum is rigid and immobile, it possesses singular advantages +when these conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as +happens with the air, is _elastic_ and _yielding_. In this instance a +very slight movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever +directed towards the body, is followed by an immense sweep of the +extremity of the wing, where its elevating and propelling power is +greatest--this arrangement ensuring that the large quantity of air +necessary for support and propulsion shall be compressed under the most +favourable conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--In this figure f, f' represent the movable +fulcra furnished by the air, p p' the power residing in the wing, and b +the body to be moved. In order to make the problem of flight more +intelligible, the lever formed by the wing is prolonged beyond the body +(b), and to the root of the wing so extended the weight (w, w') is +attached; x represents the universal joint by which the wing is attached +to the body. When the wing ascends as shown at p, the air (fulcrum f) +resists its upward passage, and forces the body (b) or its +representative (w) slightly downwards. When the wing descends as shown +at p', the air (fulcrum f') resists its downward passage, and forces the +body (b) or its representative (w') slightly upwards. From this it +follows that when the wing rises the body falls, and vice versa--the +wing describing the arc of a large circle (f f'), the body (b), or the +weights (w, w') representing it, describing the arc of a small circle.] + +In this process the weight of the body performs an important part, by +acting upon the inclined planes formed by the wings in the plane of +progression. The power and the weight may thus be said to reciprocate, +the two sitting as it were side by side and blending their peculiar +influences to produce a common result, as indicated at fig. 26. + +When the wings descend they elevate the body, the wings being active and +the body passive; when the body descends it contributes to the elevation +of the wings,[10] the body being active and the wings more or less +passive. It is in this way that weight forms a factor in flight, the +wings and the weight of the body reciprocating and mutually assisting +and relieving each other. This is an argument for employing four wings +in artificial flight,--the wings being so arranged that the two which +are up shall always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are +down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve the driving +power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight. + +That the weight of the body plays an important part in the production of +flight may be proved by a very simple experiment. If two quill feathers +are fixed in an ordinary cork, and so arranged that they expand and arch +above it (fig. 27), it is found that if the apparatus be dropped from a +vertical height of 3 yds. it does not fall vertically downwards, but +downwards and _forwards_ in a curve, the forward travel amounting in +some instances to a yard and a half. Here the cork, in falling, acts +upon the feathers (which are to all intents and purposes wings), and +these in turn act upon the air, in such a manner as to produce a +horizontal transference. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--a, b, quill feathers; c, cork; d, e, f, g, +downward and _forward_ curved trajectory made by the feathers and cork +before reaching the ground (h, i).] + +In order to utilize the air as a means of transit, the body in motion, +whether it moves in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a +force super-added, must be heavier than air. It must tread with its +wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water, or as a kite +upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple reason that the body +must be active, the air passive. The flying body must act against +gravitation, and elevate and carry itself forward at the expense of the +air and of the force which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it +were otherwise--if it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the +one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other, it would +float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an ordinary balloon. + +In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must attack +the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must attack the +wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a calm, the wings +must be made to smite the air after the manner of a boy's kite with +great vigour and at a high speed. In this case the wings fly the bird. +If, however, the bird is fairly launched in space and a stiff breeze is +blowing, all that is required in many instances is to extend the wings +at a slight upward angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the +wings present kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly +moving air flies the bird. The flight of the albatross supplies the +necessary illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights +upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his wings with +tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched. This done he extends +his enormous pinions[11] and sails majestically along, seldom deigning +to flap his wings, the breeze doing the work for him. A familiar +illustration of the same principle may be witnessed any day when +children are engaged in the pastime of kite-flying. If two boys attempt +to fly a kite in a calm, the one must hold up the kite and let go when +the other runs. In this case the under surface of the kite is made to +strike the still air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it +suffices if the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands +still. In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface of +the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to the kite what +the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined planes formed by +its wings. + +The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully expanded, +is greater than that of any other class of animal, their weight being +proportionally less. As already stated, however, it ought never to be +forgotten that even the lightest insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier +than the air, and that no fixed relation exists between the weight of +body and expanse of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied +and large-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and +others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and partridge. +Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those apparent inconsistencies +in the dimensions of the body and wings are readily explained by the +greater muscular development of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects, +birds and bats, and the increased power and rapidity with which the +wings in them are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in +the science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a +heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well as by a +lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore, there is +apparently no correspondence between the area of the wing and the animal +to be raised, there is, except in the case of sailing insects, birds and +bats, an unvarying relation as to the weight and number of oscillations; +so that the problem of flight would seem to resolve itself into one of +weight, power, velocity and small surfaces, _versus_ buoyancy, debility, +diminished speed and extensive surfaces--weight in either case being a +_sine qua non_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Hawk and Pigeon.] + +That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and the size +and weight of the body to be elevated is evident on comparing the +dimensions of the wings and bodies of the several orders of insects, +bats and birds. If such comparison be made, it will be found that the +pinions in some instances diminish while the bodies increase, and the +converse. No practical good can therefore accrue to aviation from +elaborate measurements of the wings and body of any flying thing; +neither can any rule be laid down as to the extent of surface required +for sustaining a given weight in the air. The statements here advanced +are borne out by the fact that the wings of insects, bats and birds may +be materially reduced without impairing their powers of flight. In such +cases the speed with which the wings are driven is increased in the +direct ratio of the mutilation. The inference to be deduced from the +foregoing is plainly this, that even in large-bodied, small-winged +insects and birds the wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus +wing area supplying that degree of elevating and sustaining power which +is necessary to prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal. +In this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects, and +the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,--the bats carrying +their young without inconvenience, the birds elevating surprising +quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28). + +While as explained, no definite relation exists between the weight of a +flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there being, as +stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds and bats, and the +converse, and while, as has been shown, flight is possible within a wide +range, the wings being, as a rule, in excess of what are required for +the purposes of flight,--still it appears from the researches of L. de +Lucy that there is a general law, to the effect that the larger the +volant animal, the smaller, by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The +existence of such a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight +is concerned, for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy, +powerful flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently +comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very considerable +importance, as the object desiderated in a flying machine is elevating +capacity. + +De Lucy tabulated his results as under:-- + + +-------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+ + | INSECTS | BIRDS. | + +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ + | | Flying Surface | | | + | | referred to the | | Flying Surface | + | | Kilogramme | | referred to the| + | Names. | = 2 lb. 8 oz. 3 dwt.| Names. | Kilogramme. | + | | 2 gr. avoird. | | | + | | = 2 lb. 3 oz. 4.428 | | | + | | dr. troy. | | | + +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ + | | sq. | | sq. | + | | yds. ft. in. | | yds. ft. in. | + | Gnat | 11 8 92 | Swallow | 1 1 104-1/2 | + | Dragon-fly (small) | 7 2 56 | Sparrow | 0 5 142-1/2 | + | Coccinella (Lady-bird) | 5 13 87 | Turtle-dove | 0 4 100-1/2 | + | Dragon-fly (common) | 5 2 89 | Pigeon | 0 2 113 | + | Tipula, or Daddy-long-legs| 3 5 11 | Stork | 0 2 20 | + | Bee | 1 2 74-1/2 | Vulture | 0 1 116 | + | Meat-fly | 1 3 54-1/2 | Crane of Australia| 0 0 130 | + | Drone (blue) | 1 2 20 | | | + | Cockchafer | 1 2 50 | | | + | / Stag-beetle \ | | | | + | Lucanus < (female) / | 1 1 39-1/2 | | | + | cervus | Stag-beetle \ | | | | + | \ (male) / | 0 8 33 | | | + | Rhinoceros-beetle | 0 6 122-1/2 | | | + +---------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+----------------+ + + "It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always + decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal + increases in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one + another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the + stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs 150 + times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of + surface, &c. It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs about + 10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface. The + pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice as much + surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the Australian crane, + and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now we compare the insects + and the birds, the gradation will become even much more striking. The + gnat, for example, weighs 97,000 times less than the pigeon, and has + 40 times more surface; it weighs three millions of times less than the + crane of Australia, and possesses 140 times more of surface than this + latter, the weight of which is about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 lb. + 5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 lb. 15 oz. 2-1/4 dr. avoirdupois). + + "The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has + the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it + does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139 + sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre. + But every one knows that these grallatorial animals are excellent + birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest + and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted, + the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of + which is the longest maintained."[12] + +The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air, and +reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very obvious +bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body of the flying +creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the wing ascends, and +is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing descends. The wing and +body are consequently always playing at cross purposes, the wing rising +when the body is falling and vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of +the body and wing of the bird are well seen when contemplating the +flight of the gull from the stern of a steamboat, as the bird is +following in the wake of the vessel. The complementary movements +referred to are indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line +represents the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line +that made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, _the wing +advances both when it rises and when it falls_. It is a peculiarity of +natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the principle of +living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed, even in a +strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward. If, for +instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical direction, as at +a b of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and forwards in a double +curve (see continuous line of figure) to c, thus converting the vertical +down stroke into a _down, oblique, forward stroke_. If, again, the wing +be suddenly elevated in a strictly vertical direction, as at c d, the +wing as certainly darts upwards and forwards in a double curve to e, +thus converting the vertical up strokes into an _upward, oblique, +forward stroke_. The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from +e to f and elevated from g to h, the wing describing a _waved track_ as +at e g, g i. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the +body describe _waved tracks_,--the crests of the waves made by the wing +(a, c, e, g, i) being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by +the body (1, 2, 3, 4, 5).] + +There are good reasons why the wings should always be in advance of the +body. A bird when flying is a body in motion; but a body in motion tends +to fall not vertically downwards, but _downwards and forwards_. The +wings consequently must be made to strike _forwards_ and kept in advance +of the body of the bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling +_downwards and forwards_. If the wings were to strike backwards in +aerial flight, the bird would turn a forward somersault. + +That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and up strokes +in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and experiment. If any +one watches a bird rising from the ground or the water, he cannot fail +to perceive that the head and body are slightly tilted upwards, and that +the wings are made to descend with great vigour in a downward and +_forward_ direction. The dead natural wing and a properly constructed +artificial wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet, +just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator believes to +be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of the wing, in spite +of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.--the amount of forward +movement being regulated by the rapidity of the down stroke. This is a +very striking experiment. The same thing happens with a properly +constructed artificial wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with +the natural wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and +forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its wings +towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during the down stroke +_pushed_ the body of the bird in an upward and forward direction; in +reality the wings do not push but _pull_, and in order to pull they must +always be in advance of the body to be flown. If the wings did not +themselves fly _forward_, they could not possibly cause the body of the +bird to fly forward. It is the wings which cause the bird to fly. + +It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite, during +both the down and the up strokes, its under concave or biting surface, +in virtue of the forward travel communicated to it by the body of the +flying creature, being closely applied to the air, during both its +ascent and its descent. This explains how the wing furnishes a +persistent buoyancy alike when it rises and when it falls (fig. 30). + +[Illustration: FIG. 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the +down and up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon +(_a, b_) vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades +the superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air +during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double +dotted lines (c g, i b) represent the down strokes, the single dotted +line (h, i) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and +angles made by the wing with the horizon (a, b) during the down strokes +are indicated at c d e f g, j k l m,--those made during the up strokes +being indicated at g h i. As the down and up strokes run into each +other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards and +the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface of the +wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under surface +seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this figure how the +wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent buoyancy.] + +The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial kite +only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in all its +parts, and is more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the latter is +comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of the kite formed +by the natural wing are rendered necessary by the fact that the wing, as +already stated, is practically hinged at its root and along its anterior +margin, an arrangement which necessitates its several parts travelling +at different degrees of speed, in proportion as they are removed from +the axes of rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the +root, and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets a +_twisting diagonal movement_ of the wing on its long axis, which, but +for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments. The +elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing, and +ensures that no two parts of it shall reverse at exactly the same +instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would reverse at +precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be characterized by +pauses or dead points at the end of the down and up strokes which would +be fatal to it as a flying organ. The elastic properties of the wing are +absolutely essential, when the mechanism and movements of the pinion are +taken into account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying +instrument. + +The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those upon +which the constructors of flying machines very properly ground their +hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be conferred on artificial +wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar structures; and these +structures, if we may judge from what we find in nature, _should be of +moderate size and elastic_. The power of the flying organs will be +increased if they are driven at a comparatively high speed, and +particularly if they are made to reverse and reciprocate, as in this +case they will practically create the currents upon which they are +destined to rise and advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces +with the horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should be +small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated, is true +of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings and their +analogues. + +_Artificial Flight_.--We are now in a position to enter upon a +consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of artificial +flight and flying machines. + +We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenticated account +of an artificial wing was given by G.A. Borelli in 1670. This author, +distinguished alike as a physiologist, mathematician and mechanician, +describes and figures a bird with artificial wings, each of which +consists of _a rigid rod in front and flexible feathers behind_. The +wings are represented as striking _vertically downwards_, as the annexed +duplicate of Borelli's figure shows (fig. 31). + +Borelli was of opinion that flight resulted from the application of an +inclined plane, which beats the air, and which has a wedge action. He, +in fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges itself forward upon the +air by the perpendicular vibration of its wings, the wings during their +action forming a wedge, the base of which (c b e) is directed towards +the head of the bird, the apex (a f) being directed towards the tail +(d). In the 196th proposition of his work (_De motu animalium_, Leiden, +1685) he states that-- + + "If the expanded wings of a bird suspended in the air shall strike the + undisturbed air beneath it with a motion _perpendicular to the + horizon_, the bird will fly with a _transverse motion_ in a plane + parallel with the horizon." "If," he adds, "the wings of the bird be + expanded, and the under surfaces of the wings be struck by the air + _ascending perpendicularly to the horizon_ with such a force as shall + prevent the bird gliding downwards (i.e. with a tendency to glide + downwards) from falling, it will be urged in a horizontal direction." + + [Illustration: FIG. 31. Borelli's bird with artificial wings. + + r e, Anterior margin of the right wing, consisting of a rigid rod. + + o a, Posterior margin of the right wing, consisting of flexible + feathers. + + b c, Anterior; and + + f, Posterior margins of the left wing same as the right. + + d, Tail of the bird. + + r g, d h, Vertical direction of the down stroke of the wing.] + + The same argument is restated in different words as under:--"If the + air under the wings be struck by the flexible portions of the wings + (_flabella_, literally fly flaps or small fans) with a motion + perpendicular to the horizon, the sails (_vela_) and flexible portions + of the wings (_flabella_) will yield in an upward direction and form a + wedge, the point of which is directed towards the tail. Whether, + therefore, the air strikes the wings from below, or the wings strike + the air from above, the result is the same,--the posterior or flexible + margins of the wings _yield in an upward direction_, and in so doing + urge the bird in a _horizontal direction_." + +There are three points in Borelli's argument to which it is necessary to +draw attention: (1) the direction of the down stroke: it is stated to be +_vertically downwards_; (2) the construction of the anterior margin of +the wing: it is stated to consist of _a rigid rod_; (3) the function +delegated to the posterior margin of the wing: it is said _to yield in +an upward direction_ during the down stroke. + +With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing strikes +vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body of a flying +bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion tends to fall +downwards and forwards, the wing must strike downwards and forwards in +order effectually to prevent its fall. Moreover, in point of fact, all +natural wings, and all artificial wings constructed on the natural type, +invariably strike downwards and forwards. + +With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity of the +anterior margin of the wing, it is only necessary to examine the +anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they are in every +case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to properly constructed +artificial wings. If the anterior margins of natural and artificial +wings were rigid, it would be impossible to make them vibrate smoothly +and continuously. This is a matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a +wing with a rigid anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is +characterized by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up +strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady fanning +movement peculiar to natural wings. + +As to the third point, viz. the upward bending of the posterior margin +of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to remark that the +statement is true if it means a slight upward bending, but that it is +untrue if it means an extensive upward bending. + +Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one of his +followers, E.J. Marey, maintains that during the down stroke the wing +yields until its under surface makes a backward angle with the horizon +of 45 deg. Marey further states that during the up stroke the wing +yields to a corresponding extent in an opposite direction--the posterior +margin of the wing, according to him, passing through an angle of 90 +deg., plus or minus according to circumstances, every time the wing +rises and falls. + +That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent during +both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted, alike because of +the very delicate and highly elastic properties of the posterior margins +of the wing, and because of the comparatively great force employed in +its propulsion; but that it does not yield to the extent stated by Marey +is a matter of absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any +one watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will +observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never rises +during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the under +surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards. On the contrary, +he will perceive that the under surface of the wing (during the down +stroke) invariably looks forwards and forms a true kite with the +horizon, the angles made by the kite varying at every part of the down +stroke, as shown more particularly at c d e f g, i j k l m of fig. 30. + +The authors who have adopted Borelli's plan of artificial wing, and who +have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing's action most fully, are +J. Chabrier, H.E.G. Strauss-Durckheim and Marey. Borelli's artificial +wing, it will be remembered, consists of a rigid rod in front and a +flexible sail behind. It is also made to strike vertically downwards. +According to Chabrier, the wing has only one period of activity. He +believes that if the wing be suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles, +it is elevated solely by the reaction of the air. There is one +unanswerable objection to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if +not all the insects, have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate +their wings at pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the +reaction of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Durckheim agrees with +Borelli both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion +that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined plane a +component force (composant) which it employs to support and direct +itself. In his theology of nature he describes a schematic wing as +consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible sail behind. A +membrane so constructed will, according to him, be fit for flight. It +will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers itself successively. It +will of its own accord dispose itself as an inclined plane, and +receiving obliquely the reaction of the air, it transfers into tractile +force a part of the vertical impulsion it has received. These two parts +of the wing, moreover, are equally indispensable to each other. + +Marey repeats Borelli and Durckheim with very trifling modifications, so +late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings, the one composed of a +rigid rod and sail--the rod representing the stiff anterior margin of +the wing; the sail, which is made of paper bordered with cardboard, the +flexible posterior margin. The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in +front and behind of thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He +states that if the wing only elevates and depresses itself, "the +resistance of the air is sufficient to produce all the other movements. +In effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power +of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the extended +nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and flexible. During the +vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure has the power of remaining +rigid, whereas the flexible portion, being pushed in an upward direction +on account of the resistance it experiences from the air, assumes an +oblique position which causes the upper surface of the wing to look +forwards." The reverse of this, in Marey's opinion, takes place during +the elevation of the wing--the resistance of the air from above causing +the upper surface of the wing to look backwards.... "At first," he says, +"the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the animal. It +lowers itself--the front part of the wing strongly resists, the sail +which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by the ribbing (the +anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself, the sail or posterior +margin of the wing being raised meanwhile by the air, which sets it +straight again, the sail will take an intermediate position and incline +itself about 45 deg. plus or minus according to circumstances.... The +wing continues its movements of depression inclined to the horizon; but +the impulse of the air, which continues its effect, and naturally acts +upon the surface which it strikes, has the power of resolving itself +into two forces, a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices +to raise the animal, the second to move it along."[13] Marey, it will be +observed, reproduces Borelli's artificial wing, and even his text, at a +distance of nearly two centuries. + +The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact imitation +of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more or less +triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin, and thin at the +tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid. It is, on the +contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout. It is furnished with +springs at its root to contribute to its continued play, and is applied +to the air by a direct piston action in such a way that it descends in a +downward and forward direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an +upward and forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and +propels both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists +during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in space, +precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most marked at the +tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of the posterior margin +next the tip. The wing when in action may be divided into two portions +by a line running diagonally between the tip of the wing anteriorly and +the root of the wing posteriorly. The tip and posterior parts of the +wing are more active than the root and anterior parts, from the fact +that the tip and posterior parts (the wing is an eccentric) always +travel through greater spaces, in a given time, than the root and +anterior parts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Elastic Spiral Wing, which twists and untwists +during its action, to form _a mobile helix or screw_. This wing is made +to vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be +propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity. + + a b, Anterior margin of wing, to which the neurae or ribs are affixed. + + c d, Posterior margin of wing crossing anterior one. + + x, Ball-and-socket joint at root of wing, the wing being attached to + the side of the cylinder by the socket. + + t, Cylinder. + + r r, Piston, with cross heads (w, w) and piston head (s). + + o o, Stuffing boxes. + + e, f, Driving chains. + + m, Superior elastic band, which assists in elevating the wing. + + n, Inferior elastic band, which antagonizes m. The alternate + stretching of the superior and inferior elastic bands contributes to + the continuous play of the wing, by preventing dead points at the end + of the down and up strokes. The wing is free to move in a vertical and + horizontal direction and at any degree of obliquity.] + +The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields freely in a +downward direction during the up stroke, while it yields comparatively +little in an upward direction during the down stroke; and this is a +distinguishing feature, as the wing is thus made to fold and elude the +air more or less completely during the up stroke, whereas it is made to +expand and seize the air with avidity during the down stroke. The +oblique line referred to as running diagonally across the wing virtually +divides the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating +and propelling, the latter sustaining. + +It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise function +discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment tends to show that +the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior margin propels, and the root +sustains. + +The wing--and this is important--is driven by a direct piston action +with an irregular hammer-like movement, the pinion having communicated +to it a smart click at the beginning of every down stroke--the up stroke +being more uniform. The following is the arrangement (fig. 32). If the +artificial wing here represented (fig. 32) be compared with the natural +wing as depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in +the one which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to +the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to be applied +to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the head of the +piston. This wing, like the single wing described, twists and untwists +as it rises and falls, and possesses all the characteristics of the +natural wing (fig. 34). + +[Illustration: FIG. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Wings of the Gull. Each +wing forms a mobile helix or screw. + + a b, Anterior margin of left wing. + + c d, Posterior margin of ditto. + + d g, Primary or rowing feathers of left wing. + + g a, Secondary feathers ditto. + + x, Root of right wing with ball-and-socket joint. + + l, Elbow joint. + + m, Wrist joint, + + n,o, Hand and finger joints.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston +action. During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly +convex on its upper surface (a b c d, A A'); its under surface (e f g h, +A A') being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards. +It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke. +During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every +direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form two +screws, as seen at a' b' c' d', e' f' g' h', B, B'. The active area of +the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during the up +stroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke; the wing +seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than during the up +stroke. _i, j, k_, elastic band to regulate the expansion of the wing; +l, piston; m, piston head; n, cylinder.] + +He also recommends an elastic aerial screw consisting of two blades, +which taper and become thinner towards the tips and posterior margins. +When the screw is made to rotate, the blades, because of their +elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the angles being least +where the speed of the blades is greatest and vice versa. The pitch of +the blades is thus regulated by the speed attained (fig. 35). + +The peculiarity of Pettigrew's wings and screws consists in their +elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative length +and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air when they are at +rest, and when in motion the speed with which they are driven is such as +to ensure that the comparatively large spaces through which they travel +shall practically be converted into solid bases of support. + +After Pettigrew enunciated his views (1867) as to the screw +configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more +especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings, +and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construction of +flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by D.S. Brown,[14] +elastic aerial screws by J. Armour,[15] and elastic aeroplanes, wings +and screws by Alphonse Penaud.[16] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades +resembling wings (a b c d, e f g h). + + x, End of driving shaft. + + v,w, Sockets in which the roots of the blades of the screw rotate, the + degree of rotation being limited by steel springs (z, s). + + a b, e f, tapering elastic rods forming anterior or thick margins of + blades of screw. + + d c, h g, Posterior or thin elastic margins of blades of screw. The + arrows m, n, o, p, q, r indicate the direction of travel.] + +Penaud's experiments are alike interesting and instructive. He +constructed models to fly by three different methods:--(a) by means of +screws acting vertically upwards; (b) by aeroplanes propelled +horizontally by screws; and (c) by wings which flapped in an upward and +downward direction. An account of his helicoptere or screw model +appeared in the _Aeronaut_ for January 1872, but before giving a +description of it, it may be well to state very briefly what is known +regarding the history of the screw as applied to the air. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Cayley's Flying Model.] + +The first suggestion on this subject was given by A.J.P. Paucton in +1768. This author, in his treatise on the _Theorie de la vis +d'Archimede_, describes a machine provided with two screws which he +calls a "pterophores." In 1796 Sir George Cayley gave a practical +illustration of the efficacy of the screw as applied to the air by +constructing a small machine, consisting of two screws made of quill +feathers, a representation of which we annex (fig. 36). Sir George +writes as under:-- + + "As it may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a machine + rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my present + communication by describing an instrument of this kind, which any one + can construct at the expense of ten minutes' labour. + + "a and b, fig. 36, are two corks, into each of which are inserted four + wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like the + sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A round + shaft is fixed in the cork a, which ends in a sharp point. At the + upper part of the cork b is fixed a whalebone bow, having a small + pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is + then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the + shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by + turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may + unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the cork + with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on the + upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from unwinding, + and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the + ceiling." + +Cayley's screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were superimposed and +rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that if the area of the +screws was increased to 200 sq. ft., and moved by a man, they would +elevate him. His interesting experiment is described at length, and the +apparatus figured in _Nicolson's Journal_, 1809, p. 172. + +Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris Sarti in 1823, +followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing flying models on the +vertical screw principle. In 1842 W.H. Phillips succeeded, it is stated, +in elevating a steam model by the aid of revolving fans, which according +to his account flew across two fields after having attained a great +altitude; and in 1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be +sustained by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by +vertical screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave +de Ponton d'Amecourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who exhibited +models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended with graduated +weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These models were so fragile +that they usually broke in coming in contact with the ground in their +descent. Their flight, moreover, was unsatisfactory, from the fact that +it only lasted a few seconds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--De la Landelle's Flying-machine. m, n, o, p; +q, r, s, t, Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards. +The vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the +machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an extensive +aeroplane.] + +Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton d'Amecourt had a +small steam model constructed. This model, which was shown at the +exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain at the Crystal +Palace in 1868, consisted of two superposed screws propelled by an +engine, the steam for which was generated (for lightness) in an +aluminium boiler. This steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as it only +lifted a third of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle's +ideas. + +All the models referred to (Cayley's excepted[17]) were provided with +rigid screws. In 1872 Penaud discarded the rigid screws in favour of +elastic ones, as Pettigrew had done some years before. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Helicoptere or Screw-Model, by Penaud.] + +Penaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the whalebone and +clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam of the larger ones. +His helicoptere or screw-model is remarkable for its lightness, +simplicity and power. The accompanying sketch will serve to illustrate +its construction (fig. 38). It consists of two superposed elastic screws +(a a, b b), the upper of which (a a) is fixed in a vertical frame (c), +which is pivoted in the central part (d) of the under screw. From the +centre of the under screw an axle provided with a hook (e), which +performs the part of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between +the hook or crank (e) and the centre of the upper screw (a a), the +india-rubber in a state of torsion (f) extends. By fixing the lower +screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times the +requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The apparatus when +liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height of 50 ft., and +gyrates in large circles for a period varying from 15 to 30 seconds. + +Penaud next directed his attention to the construction of a model, to be +propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic aeroplane extending +horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed such a machine in 1810, and +W.S. Henson constructed and patented a similar machine in 1842. Several +inventors succeeded in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and +screws, as, e.g. J. Stringfellow in 1847,[18] and F. du Temple in 1857. +These models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found +exceedingly difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of +stability fore and aft and laterally. Penaud succeeded in overcoming the +difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated an +automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane placed aft +or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic. The two elastic +aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a slight upward angle with the +horizon, the angle made by the smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being +slightly in excess of that made by the larger. The motive power was +india-rubber in the condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The +reader will understand the arrangement by a reference to the +accompanying drawing (fig. 39). + +Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two screws, one +fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions; and in the event of +only one screw being employed it may be placed in front of or behind the +aeroplane. + +When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about 2 ft., after +which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and flies in a forward +direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from the ground for a +distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this distance in from 10 to 11 +seconds, its mean speed being something like 12 ft. per second. From +experiments made with this model, Penaud calculates that one horse-power +would elevate and support 85 lb. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder. + + a a, Elastic aeroplane. + + b b, Automatic rudder. + + c c, Aerial screw centred at f. + + d, Frame supporting aeroplane, rudder and screw. + + e, India-rubber, in a state of torsion, attached to hook or crank at + f. By holding the aeroplane (a a) and turning the screw (c c) the + necessary power is obtained by torsion. (Penaud.)] + +D.S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-biplanes. His +experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes united by a central shaft +or shafts, and separated by a wide interval, always produce increased +stability. The production of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is +in some respects the most difficult, but this also has been attempted +and achieved. Penaud and A.H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged +models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to construct an +artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borelli, Strauss-Durckheim +and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect never having been able to +lift more than a third of its own weight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Penaud's Artificial Flying Bird. + + a b c d, a' b' c' d', Elastic wings, which twist and untwist when made + to vibrate. + + a b, a' b', Anterior margins of wings. + + c d, c' d', Posterior margins of wings. + + c, c', Inner portions of wings attached to central shaft of model by + elastic bands at e. + + f, India-rubber in a state of torsion, which provides the motive + power, by causing the crank situated between the vertical wing + supports (g) to rotate; as the crank revolves the wings are made to + vibrate by means of two rods which extend between the crank and the + roots of the wings. + + h, Tail of artificial bird.] + +De Villeneuve and Penaud constructed their winged models on different +types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird. De Villeneuve +made the wings of his artificial bat conical in shape and comparatively +rigid. He controlled the movements of the wings, and made them strike +downwards and forwards in imitation of natural wings. His model +possessed great power of rising. It elevated itself from the ground with +ease, and flew in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and +at a velocity of 20 m. an hour. Penaud's model differed from de +Villeneuve's in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins +of which in addition to being elastic were free to move round the +anterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber springs were +made to extend between the inner posterior parts of the wings and the +frame, corresponding to the backbone of the bird. + +A vertical movement having been communicated by means of india-rubber in +a state of torsion to the roots of the wings, the wings themselves, in +virtue of their elasticity, and because of the resistance experienced +from the air, twisted and untwisted and formed reciprocating screws, +precisely analogous to those originally described and figured by +Pettigrew in 1867. Penaud's arrangement is shown in fig. 40. + +If the left wing of Penaud's model (a b, c d of fig. 40) be compared +with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew's artificial wing +(fig. 32), the identity of principle and application is at once +apparent. + +In Penaud's artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the addition +of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground, but on being +liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when, having acquired +initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance of 50 or more +feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following are the +measurements of the model in question:--length of wing from tip to tip, +32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber, &c., 73 grammes +(about 2-1/2 ounces). (J. B. P.) + + +_Flying Machines_.--Henson's flying machine, designed in 1843, was the +earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale. Henson was one of the +first to combine aerial screws with extensive supporting structures +occupying a nearly horizontal position. The accompanying illustration +explains the combination (fig. 41). + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Henson's Aerostat.] + + "The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse of its + sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight it + had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced with its + front edge a little raised, the effect of which was to present its + under surface to the air over which it passed, the resistance of + which, acting upon it like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill, + prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining of + the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled + through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged on + the air in its front.... The machine, fully prepared for flight, was + started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it + attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress. + That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the + air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the + steam-engine and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of + velocity; it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight + necessary for that small effect." The editor of Newton's _Journal of + Arts and Sciences_ speaks of it thus:--"The apparatus consists of a + car containing the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, &c., to which a + rectangular frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with + canvas or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side + of the car in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird; + but with this difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the + wings are two vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which + are intended to propel the apparatus through the air. The rainbow-like + circular wheels are the propellers, answering to the wheels of a + steamboat, and acting upon the air after the manner of a windmill. + These wheels receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or + other engine contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car + a triangular frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which + is also covered with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or + contracted at pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of + causing the machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail is a rudder + for directing the course of the machine to the right or to the left; + and to facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts + which rise from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary + for buoying up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot + for each half pound of weight." + +F.H. Wenham, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented in 1866 what he +designated his aeroplanes.[19] These were thin, light, long, narrow +structures, arranged above each other in tiers like so many shelves. +They were tied together at a slight upward angle, and combined strength +and lightness. The idea was to obtain great sustaining area in +comparatively small space with comparative ease of control. It was hoped +that when the aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical +screws, or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float +upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the aeroplanes +would give the same support as if spread out horizontally. The +accompanying figures illustrate Wenham's views (figs. 42 and 43). + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Wenham's system of Aeroplanes designed to carry +a man. + + a, a, Thin planks, tapering at each end, and attached to a triangle. + + b, Similar plank for supporting the aeronaut. + + c, c, Thin bands of iron with truss planks a, a, and + + d, d, Vertical rods. Between these are stretched five bands of holland + 15 in. broad and 16 ft. long, the total length of the web being 80 ft. + This apparatus when caught by a gust of wind, actually lifted the + aeronaut.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A similar system, planned by Wenham. + + a, a, Main spar 16 ft. long; + + b, b, Panels, with base board for aeronaut attached to main spar. + + e, e, Thin tie-band of steel with struts starting from main spar. This + forms a strong light framework for the aeroplanes, consisting of six + webs of thin holland 15 in. broad. The aeroplanes are kept in parallel + plane by vertical divisions of holland 2 ft. wide. + + c, c', Wing propellers driven by the feet.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Stringfellow's Flying Machine.] + +Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson, and built a +successful flying model in 1847, made a second model in 1868, in which +Wenham's aeroplanes were combined with aerial screws. This model was on +view at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, +held at the Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact, +elegant and light, and obtained the L100 prize of the exhibition for its +engine, which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed. The +illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a very good +idea of the arrangement--a, b, c representing the superimposed +aeroplanes, d the tail, e, f the screw propellers. The superimposed +aeroplanes (a, b, c) in this machine contained a sustaining area of 28 +sq. ft., in addition to the tail (d). Its engine represented a third of +a horse power, and the weight of the whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel, +superimposed aeroplanes and propellers) was under 12 lb. Its sustaining +area, if that of the tail (d) be included, was something like 36 sq. +ft., i.e. 3 sq. ft. for every pound. The model was forced by its +propellers along a wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer +could determine, failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme +lightness and the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow, +however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sustained by +its aeroplanes alone. + +The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874, consisted +of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three wheels; a very +effective light engine constructed on a new principle, which dispensed +with the old-fashioned, cumbrous boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal +aeroplanes; and two comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was +to get up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This +accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine would gradually +be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way that the weight of certain +birds--the eagle, e.g.--is thrown upon the wings after a few hops and +leaps. Once in the air the aeroplanes, it was believed, would become +effective in proportion to the speed attained. The machine, however, did +not realize the high expectations formed of it, and like all its +predecessors it was doomed to failure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Moy's Aerial Steamer.] + +Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the problem of +artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those of Prof. S.P. +Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began their aerial experiments about +the same time (1889-1890). By 1893-1894 both had embodied their views in +models and large flying machines. + +Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the Smithsonian +Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small flying models and one +large one. These he designated "aerodromes." They were all constructed +on a common principle, and were provided with extensive flying surfaces +in the shape of rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the +horizon, and more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The +cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at their +anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of powerful vertical +screw propellers driven at high speed--the greater the horizontal speed +provided by the propellers, the greater, by implication, the lifting +capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies, frames and aeroplanes of the +aerodromes were strengthened by vertical and other supports, to which +were attached aluminium wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that +was possible. Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in +this he succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously +shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface being +directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of highly trained +mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and great secrecy was observed +as to his operations. He flew his smallest models in the great lecture +room of the National Museum, and his larger ones on the Potomac river +about 40 m. below Washington. + +While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in 1889, he did not +construct and test his steam-driven flying models until 1893. These +were made largely of steel and aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made +the longest flight then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully +half a mile on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to +carry passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to the +order and at the expense of the American government, which granted a sum +of fifty thousand dollars for its construction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Langley's Flying Machine. a, Large aeroplane; +b, Small aeroplane; c, Propelling screws.] + + Langley's machine shown in fig. 46 was a working model, not intended + to carry passengers. In configuration the body-portion closely + resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very rigid tube of + aluminium steel, 15 ft. in length, and a little more than 2 in. in + diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the framework + corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed 60 oz. and + developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made of thin + hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 lb. each; these + occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was refined + gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was utilized for + a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were twin screw + propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in practice, + to provide for steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute. The + wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames of + tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front + were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at + different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height, or + a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could + be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast + extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the craft, + and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips of + the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this trussing + arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly stiff. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Langley's Aerodrome in flight.] + + In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-convex, + narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free extremities, the + two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed + amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th + of October 1903, just as it left the launching track it was jerked + violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently appeared, + by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was + pulled into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the + aerodrome rose to the surface, it was found that while the front + sustaining surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, + yet the rear ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last + attempt, on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to + the launching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track. + This time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexplained, + was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear + sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support + and it came down almost vertically into the water. Darkness had come + before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger, could aid in the + recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted apart, and + one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened a rope + to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what it + should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in two. + Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see _Annual + Report of the Smithsonian Institution_, 1904, p. 122). + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Sir H. Maxim's Flying Machine.] + + Sir Hiram S. Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly skilled + workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on which stood + a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex aeroplanes + arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward angle with + the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed aft and propelled + by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha, &c. The + boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained in about + 2000 bent copper tubes, only 3/8 in. in external diameter, heated by + over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha or gasoline. + Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute. The + steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 lb. in all, were + placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was provided by a + pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about 8 ft. from the + ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was independently + governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in actual effect, an + amount which, considering that their total weight was only 600 lb., + gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 horse-power for every 2 + lb. weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders were 5 and 8 in. + in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in. When going at full + speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per minute on the two + gigantic propellers that drove the machine along. These were in + appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except that they were + square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad and thin. They + were built from overlapping strips of American pine, planed smooth and + covered with glued canvas. They weighed 135 lb. each, the length of + each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the width at the ends 5-1/2 ft. + The pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully stayed by steel wires to + their shafts, or the first revolution would have snapped them off + short. The material of which the framework was built was thin steel + tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties were of the best + steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the square inch. + The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the fore-part cut + away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the stern over + which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all over it. + High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly concavo-convex + main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an imperceptible angle, + and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 sq. ft., increased by side wings + to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes arranged in tiers, and + large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted and served for vertical + steering. The machine was strengthened in every direction by vertical + and other supports and securely wired together at all points. It was + furnished with four strong flanged wheels and ran along a light + broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track, 1800 ft. long, in the hope that + when the speed reached a certain point it would leave the rails, but + it was prevented from rising more than an inch or so by four arms, or + outriggers, furnished with wheels, which projected from its sides and + ran under an inverted wooden upper or safety track outside the railway + track proper. + + At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main + aeroplane, the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side + planes were in position. After everything had been got in readiness, + careful observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was + connected to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the pump + set so as to deliver over 5000 lb. of water per hour into the boiler. + The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted to + 310 lb. per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more than + 2100 lb. A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had been + adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 lb. and with a strong blast + at 320 lb. The signal being given to let go, the machine darted + forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More + gas was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced 300 + ft., the steam had mounted to 320 lb. per sq. in., and the + safety-valve was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had + travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger + wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was lifting + at least 8000 lb. The speed rapidly increased until when the machine + had run about 900 ft. one of the rear axletrees, which were of 2 in. + steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine + completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft., the + left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety track, and + shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper track--3 in. + by 9 in. Georgia pine--and a plank became entangled in the framework + of the machine. Steam had already been shut off, and the machine + coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four of its wheels + sinking deeply into the turf without leaving other marks. Before + making this run the wheels which were to engage the upper track were + painted, and the paint left by them on the upper track indicated the + exact point where the machine lifted. The area of the aeroplanes was + very nearly 4000 sq. ft. and the total lifting effect was fully 10,000 + lb. The planes therefore lifted 2.5 lb. per sq. ft., and 5 lb. for + each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of the engines was lost in + the screw slip. This showed that the diameter of the screws was not + great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft. + +In 1897 M.C. Ader, who had already tested, with indifferent results, two +full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus with funds furnished +by the French government. This reproduced the structure of a bird with +almost servile imitation, save that traction was obtained by two +screw-propellers. The steam engine weighed about 7 lb. per horse-power, +but the equilibrium of the apparatus was defective. + +Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining +equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal, Percy +Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight by means of +aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They depended mainly on the +utilization of natural air currents, trusting for stability and balance +to movements in their own bodies, or in portions of their machines which +they could control. They threw themselves from natural or artificial +elevations, or, facing the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards +against it until they got under way and the wind caught hold of their +aeroplanes. To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of +demonstrating the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of +reducing gliding flight to regular practice. He made over 2000 glides +safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave, batlike wings, +in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49). It was with a machine +of the latter type that he was upset by a sudden gust of wind and killed +in 1896. Pilcher in England improved somewhat on Lilienthal's apparatus, +but used the same general method of restoring the balance, when +endangered, by shifting the weight of the operator's body. He too made +several hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust +of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his endeavours +to the production of automatic stability, and made the surfaces movable +instead of the man. He used several different forms of apparatus, +including one with five superposed pairs of wings and a tail (fig. 50) +and another with two continuous aeroplanes, one above the other (fig. +51). He made over 1000 glides without accident. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Lilienthal's Gliding Machine.] + +Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur and Orville +Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider developed into a +successful flying machine. These investigators began their work in 1900, +and at an early stage introduced two characteristic features--a +horizontal rudder in front for steering in the vertical plane, and the +flexing or bending of the ends of the main supporting aeroplanes as a +means of maintaining the structure in proper balance. Their machines to +begin with were merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a +horizontal, position, but in 1903 a petrol motor was added, and a flight +lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five flights, +in the longest of which they remained in the air for half an hour and +covered a distance of 24-1/2 m. The utmost secrecy, however, was +maintained concerning their experiments, and in consequence their +achievements were regarded at the time with doubt and suspicion, and it +was hardly realized that their success would reach the point later +achieved. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Chanute's Multiple Gliding Machine.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chanute's Biplane Gliding Machine.] + +Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great +improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and, although +the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still left something to +be desired, it provided the designers of flying machines with what they +had long been looking for--a motor very powerful in proportion to its +weight. Largely in consequence of this progress, and partly no doubt +owing to the stimulus given by the activity of builders of dirigible +balloons, the construction of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a +number of workers, especially in France. In 1906 A. Santos Dumont, after +a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-shaped gas +balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine. It consisted of the +following parts:--(a) A system of aeroplanes arranged like the capital +letter T at a certain upward angle to the horizon and bearing a general +resemblance to box kites; (b) a pair of very light propellers driven at +a high speed; and (c) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine. +The driver occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which +is shown in fig. 52. The machine was furnished with two wheels and +vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts of the +aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground on either side. +With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th of November 1906 a distance +of 220 metres in 21 seconds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Santos Dumont's Flying Machine.] + +About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights on a machine +of the biplane type, consisting of two main supporting surfaces one +above the other, with a box-shaped vertical rudder behind and two small +balancing aeroplanes in front. The engine was an eight-cylinder +Antoinette petrol motor, developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a +minute, and driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th +of October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at +Issy-les-Molineaux, and on the 13th of January 1908 he made a circular +flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of +L2000. In March he remained in the air for 3-1/2 minutes, covering a +distance of 1-1/4 m.; but in the following month a rival, Leon +Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and constructed by the same +makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this performance by flying nearly 2-1/2 +m. in 6-1/2 minutes. In July Farman remained in the air for over 20 +minutes; on the 6th of September Delagrange increased the time to nearly +30 minutes, and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front +with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24-1/2 m. + +But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers--Orville +Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On the 9th of September +1908 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia, made three notable flights; in +the first he remained in the air 57-1/2 minutes and in the second 1 hour +3 minutes, while in the third he took with him a passenger and covered +nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes. Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in +1 hour 14-1/3 minutes, but on the 17th he had an accident, explained as +being due to one of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by +which his machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and +Lieutenant Selfridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards +Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records with a +flight lasting 1 hour 31 minutes 25-4/5 seconds, in which he covered +about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the 11th of October, he made a flight +of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger. On the 31st of December +he succeeded in remaining in the air for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds. + +Wilbur Wright's machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother being +essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched supporting +surfaces, each 12-1/2 metres long, arranged parallel one above the other +at a distance of 1-4/5 metres apart. As they were each about 2 metres +wide their total area was about 50 sq. metres. About 3 metres in front +of them was arranged a pair of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped +like a long narrow ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected +changes of elevation, the driver being able by means of a lever to +incline them up or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. +The rudder for lateral steering was placed about 2-1/2 metres behind the +main surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes. The +lever by which they were turned was connected with the device by which +the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed simultaneously though in +opposite directions; i.e. if the ends of the aeroplanes on one side were +bent downwards, those on the other were bent upwards. By the aid of +this arrangement the natural cant of the machine when making a turn +could be checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol +engine was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the +central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and passenger if one +was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line. Making +about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24 horse-power, and +was connected by chain gearing to two wooden propellers, 2-1/2 metres in +diameter and 3-1/2 metres apart, the speed of which was about 450 +revolutions a minute. The whole machine, with aeronaut, weighed about +1100 lb., the weight of the motor being reputed to be 200 lb. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 1.--PAULHAN FLYING ON FARMAN BIPLANE. + + Photo, Topical Press. + + FIG. 2.--WRIGHT BIPLANE. + + Photo, Topical Press.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 3.--BLERIOT MONOPLANE. + + Photo, Topical Press. + + FIG. 4.--A.V. ROE'S TRIPLANE. + + Photo, Topical Press.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch. + + A, B, Main supporting surfaces. + + C, D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder with fixed semilunar fin E. + + F, Vertical rudder. + + G, Motor. + + H, Screws.] + +A feature of the year 1909 was the success obtained with monoplanes +having only a single supporting surface, and it was on a machine of this +type that the Frenchman Bleriot on July 25th flew across the English +Channel from Calais to Dover in 31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but +performed the same feat on an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw +considerable increases in the periods for which aviators were able to +remain in the air, and Roger Sommer's flight of nearly 2-1/2 hours on +August 7th was surpassed by Henry Farman on November 3rd, when he +covered a distance estimated at 137-1/4 m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec. In +both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation meetings +were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy, Doncaster and +Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was made in a wind of 40 m. +an hour by Latham. This aviator also proved the possibility of flying at +considerable altitudes by attaining on December 1st a height of over +1500 ft., but this record was far surpassed in the following January by +L. Paulhan, who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los +Angeles. In the course of the year three aviators were killed--Lefevbre +and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and four men perished +in September by the destruction of the French airship "Republique," the +gas-bag of which was ripped open by a broken propeller. In January 1910 +Delagrange was killed by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane +on which he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully +flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within 24 hours, for +the _Daily Mail's_ L10,000 prize. + +The progress made by all these experiments at aviation had naturally +created widespread interest, both as a matter of sport and also as +indicating a new departure in the possibilities of machines of war. And +in 1909 the British government appointed a scientific committee, with +Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a consultative body for furthering the +development of the science in England. + +The table below gives some details, approximately correct, of the +principal experiments made with flying machines up to 1908. + + +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+ + | | | Tip | | | Pounds | Speed | Maximum | | Horse-| Pounds | + | Year. | Experimenter. | to | Surface.| Weight. | per | per | Flight. | Motor. | power.| sustained | + | | | Tip. | | | sq. ft.| hour. | | | | per h.p. | + +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+ + | | | Ft. | Sq. ft. | lb. | | Mls. | Ft. | | | | + | 1879 | Tatin | 6.2 | 7.5 | 3.85 | 0.51 | 18 | 100? |Compressed| 0.03 | 110? | + | | | | | | | | | air | | | + | 1885 \| | | | | | | | | | | + | 1889 /| Hargrave (No. 16)| 5.5 | 26.0 | 5.00 | 0.19 | 10 | 343 | " | 0.06 | 79 | + | 1893 | Phillips | 22.0 | 136.0 | 402.00 | 3.00 | 28 | 500? | Steam | 5.6 | 72? | + | 1894 | Maxim* | 50.0 | 4000.0 | 8000.00 | 2.5 | 36 | 300? | " |363.00 | 28 | + | 1896 | Langley | 12.0 | 70.0 | 30.00 | 0.43 | 24 | 4,000 | " | 1.00 | 30 | + | 1897 | Tatin and Richet | 21.0 | 86.0 | 72.00 | 0.83 | 40 | 460 | " | 1.33 | 55 | + | 1897 | Ader* | 49.0 | 270.0 | 1100.00 | 4.00 | 50? | 100? | " | 40.00 | 27 | + | 1895 | Lilienthal* | 23.0 | 151.0 | 220.00 | 1.46 | 23 | 1,200 | Gravity | 2.00 | 110 | + | 1896 | Pilcher* | 23.0 | 170.0 | 200.00 | 1.17 | 25 | 900 | " | 2.00 | 100 | + | 1896 | Chanute* | 16.0 | 135.0 | 178.00 | 1.31 | 22 | 360 | " | 2.00 | 89 | + | 1906 | S. Dumont* | 39 | 560 | 550 | 0.98 | 22.26 | 2,900 | Petrol | 50 | 23 | + | 1908 | W. Wright* | 41 | 650 | 1100 | 1.7 | 37 |295,000 | Petrol | 24 | 46 | + +-------+------------------+------+---------+---------+--------+-------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+ + * The apparatus marked thus * carried a man or men. + + REFERENCES.--Some of the books mentioned under AERONAUTICS contain + details of flying machines; see H.W.L. Moedebeck, _A Pocketbook of + Aeronautics_, trans. by W. Mansergh Varley (London, 1907); Sir Hiram + S. Maxim, _Artificial and Natural Flight_ (London, 1908); F.W. + Lanchester, _Aerodynamics_ and _Aerodonetics_ (London, 1907 and 1908); + C.C. Turner, _Aerial Navigation of To-day_ (London, 1909); also two + papers on "Aerial Navigation" read by Colonel G.O. Fullerton before + the Royal United Service Institution in 1892 and 1906; papers read by + Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell and E.S. Bruce before the Society of Arts, + London, in April 1907 and December 1908 respectively; Cantor Lectures + by F.W. Lanchester (Society of Arts, 1909); and the _Proceedings_ of + the Aeronautical Society (founded 1865), &c. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds + of passage have no air in their bones.--_Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond_. part + xxv., 1857, p. 13. + + [2] By the term aeroplane is meant a thin, light, expanded structure + inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or + rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of + support to any body attached to it. + + [3] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics," by + J. Bell Pettigrew, _Proc. Roy. Inst_., 1867; "On the Mechanical + Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," by the + same author, _Trans. Linn. Soc_., 1867. + + [4] _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de l'Etranger_, + 1869. + + [5] The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording + instrument. It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of + clock-work at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its + surface by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements + to be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more + levers, and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where + they appear as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the + wings the tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious + modification, employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the + different parts of the wings were made actually to record their own + movements. As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave + theory of stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject + of a rigorous _experimentum crucis_. + + [6] This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse + is greatly facilitated by the elastic ligaments at the root and in + the substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when + necessary, in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some + measure what may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are + especially useful in giving it continuous play. + + [7] "The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form + cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated + with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the + wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their + nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is + equivalent--morphologically and physiologically--to one entire insect + wing. In the wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are + short, and in some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary + feathers are greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that + the wing as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by + the insect's wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones, + muscles and feathers have attained a maximum development. The + conformation of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance + in every direction--the waves running longitudinally, transversely + and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently be + removed without essentially altering either its form or its + functions. This is proved by making sections in various directions, + and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the + wing may be lopped off without materially impairing the power of + flight."--_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xxvi. pp. 325, 326. + + [8] "On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics," + _Proc. Roy. Inst._, 1867; "On the Mechanical Appliances by which + Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1867, + 26. + + [9] "On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the movements + by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird," _Trans. + Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. 26. + + [10] The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are--(a) + the elevator muscles of the wings, (b) the elastic properties of the + wings, and (c) the reaction of the compressed air on the under + surfaces of the wings. + + [11] The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across + the back some 14 ft. They are exceedingly narrow, being sometimes + under a foot in width. + + [12] _On the Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in reference to + the subject of Aerial Locomotion,_ by L. de Lucy (Paris). + + [13] E.J. Marey, _Revue des cours scientifiques de la France et de + l'etranger_ (1869). + + [14] "The Aero-bi-plane, or First Steps to Flight," _Ninth Annual + Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874. + + [15] "Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation," _Ninth + Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain_, 1874. + + [16] The _Aeronaut_ for January 1872 and February 1875. + + [17] Cayley's screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and + consequently elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his + writings to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid + screws, it is to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for + convenience and lightness. Pettigrew, there is reason to believe, was + the first to advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial + purposes. + + [18] Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and + figured further on (fig. 44). + + [19] "On Aerial Locomotion," _Aeronautical Society's Report_ for + 1867. + + + + +FLINCK, GOVERT (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves in 1615, was +apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but having secretly acquired +a passion for drawing, was sent to Leuwarden, where he boarded in the +house of Lambert Jacobszon, a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant +preacher than as a painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and +the companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist +only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours of +Jacobszon at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of Rombert Ulenburg, +whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt in 1634. Other members of the +same family lived at Amsterdam, cultivating the arts either +professionally or as amateurs. The pupils of Lambert probably gained +some knowledge of Rembrandt by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly +J. von Sandrart, who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged +as one of Rembrandt's best pupils, and living habitually in the house of +the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years Flinck laboured +on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master's style in all the +works which he executed between 1636 and 1648; then he fell into +peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling forms and grand action of +Rubens's creations. Finally he sailed with unfortunate complacency into +the Dead Sea of official and diplomatic painting. Flinck's relations +with Cleves became in time very important. He was introduced to the +court of the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who +married in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John +Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649. In 1652 a +citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress, daughter of Ver +Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India Company. He was already well +known even then in the patrician circles over which the burgomasters De +Graef and the Echevin Six presided; he was on terms of intimacy with the +poet Vondel and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with +antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often +received the stadtholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still +preserved in the work of the learned Barleius. + +The earliest of Flinck's authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady, dated +1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture is the +"Blessing of Jacob," in the Amsterdam museum (1638). Both are thoroughly +Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in vigour of touch and warmth of +flesh tints. The four "civic guards" of 1642, and "the twelve +musketeers" with their president in an arm-chair (1648), in the +town-hall at Amsterdam, are fine specimens of composed portrait groups. +But the best of Flinck's productions in this style is the peace of +Munster in the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 19 life-size figures +full of animation in the faces, "radiant with Rembrandtesque colour," +and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his own likeness to the +left in a doorway. The mannered period of Flinck is amply illustrated in +the "Marcus Curius eating Turnips before the Samnite Envoys," and +"Solomon receiving Wisdom," in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here +it is that Flinck shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy +in tint, flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh +that looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge. The +chronology of Flinck's works, so far as they are seen in public +galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the "Grey Beard" of +1639 at Dresden, the "Girl" of 1641 at the Louvre, a portrait group of a +male and female (1646) at Rotterdam, a lady (1651) at Berlin. In +November 1659 the burgomaster of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12 +canvases to represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus +Curius and Horatius Cocles, and scenes from the wars of the Batavians +and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than the sketches. In the +same year he received a flattering acknowledgment from the town council +of Cleves on the completion of a picture of Solomon which was a +counterpart of the composition at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and +portraits, such as the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg +and John Maurice of Nassau, and the allegory of "Louisa of Orange +attended by Victory and Fame" and other figures at the cradle of the +first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several pictures +which were painted for the Great Elector, none are preserved except the +"Expulsion of Hagar" in the Berlin museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on +the 22nd of February 1660. + + + + +FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1774-1814), English navigator, explorer, and man of +science, was born at Donington, near Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the +16th of March 1774. Matthew was at first designed to follow his father's +profession of surgeon, but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of +adventure impelled him to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd +of October 1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies, +and after serving in the "Bellerophon" during Lord Howe's "glorious +first of June" (1794) off Ushant, Flinders went out in 1795 as +midshipman in the "Reliance" to New South Wales. For the next few years +he devoted himself to the task of accurately laying down the outline and +bearings of the Australian coast, and he did his work so thoroughly that +he left comparatively little for his successors to do. With his friend +George Bass, the surgeon of the "Reliance," in the year of his arrival +he explored George's river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again +in March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the "Tom Thumb," only 8 +ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a stretch of coast +to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, +when he was promoted to a lieutenancy, Flinders was engaged during +February 1798 in a survey of the Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of +Tasmania. His delight was great when, in September of the same year, he +was commissioned along with Bass, who had already explored the sea +between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and inferred that it +was a strait, to proceed in the sloop "Norfolk" (25 tons) to prove +conclusively that Van Diemen's Land was an island by circumnavigating +it. In the same sloop, in the summer of next year, Flinders made an +exploration to the north of Port Jackson, the object being mainly to +survey Glasshouse Bay (Moreton Bay) and Hervey's Bay. Returning to +England he was appointed to the command of an expedition for the +thorough exploration of the coasts of Terra Australis, as the southern +continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been the +first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of July 1801 the +sloop "Investigator" (334 tons), in which the expedition sailed, left +Spithead, Flinders being furnished with instructions and with a passport +from the French government to all their officials in the Eastern seas. +Among the scientific staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent +English botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders's relative, +John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Leeuwin, on the south-west coast of +Australia, was reached on November 6, and King George's sound on the 9th +of December. Flinders sailed round the Great Bight, examining the +islands and indentations on the east side, noting the nature of the +country, the people, products, &c., and paying special attention to the +subject of the variation of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs +were discovered and explored. On the 8th of April 1802, shortly after +leaving Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders fell +in with the French exploring ship, "Le Geographe," under Captain Nicolas +Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter Bay. In the narrative of the +French expedition published in 1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the +Mauritius) by M. Peron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the +land west of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered +by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for the English +ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when Flinders published his +own narrative, that the real state of the case was fully exposed. +Flinders continued his examination of the coast along Bass's Strait, +carefully surveying Port Phillip. Port Jackson was reached on the 9th of +May 1802. + +After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months, Flinders set +out again on the 22nd of July to complete his circumnavigation of +Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was examined with the greatest care in +several places. The north-east entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was +reached early in November; and the next three months were spent in an +examination of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt +them. An inspection of the "Investigator" showed that she was in so +leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could the +voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey of the Gulf of +Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of Timor, the +"Investigator" sailed round the west and south of Australia, and Port +Jackson was reached on the 9th of June 1803. Much suffering was endured +by nearly all the members of the expedition: a considerable proportion +of the men succumbed to disease, and their leader was so reduced by +scurvy that his health was greatly impaired. + +Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. "Porpoise" as a passenger, +submit the results of his work to the Admiralty, and obtain, if +possible, another vessel to complete his exploration of the Australian +coast. The "Porpoise" left Port Jackson on the 10th of August, +accompanied by the H.E.I.C.'s ship "Bridgewater" (750 tons) and the +"Cato" (450 tons) of London. On the night of the 17th the "Porpoise" and +"Cato" suddenly struck on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to +wrecks. The officers and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4 +ft. above high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many +of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks. The reef +was in about 22 deg. 11' S. and 155 deg. E., and about 800 m. from Port +Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a six-oared cutter in +order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party. The reef was again reached +on the 8th of October, and all the officers and men having been +satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders on the 11th left for Jones Strait +in an unsound schooner of 29 tons, the "Cumberland," with ten +companions, and a valuable collection of papers, charts, geological +specimens, &c. On the 15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he +discovered that France and England were at war. The passport he +possessed from the French government was for the "Investigator"; still, +though he was now on board another ship, his mission was essentially +the same, and the work he was on was simply a continuation of that +commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Nevertheless, on her arrival at +Port Louis the "Cumberland" was seized by order of the governor-general +de Caen. Flinders's papers were taken possession of, and he found +himself virtually a prisoner. We need not dwell on the sad details of +this unjustifiable captivity, which lasted to June 1810. But there can +be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was compelled to +endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his health, and +brought his life to a premature end. He reached England in October 1810, +after an absence of upwards of nine years. The official red-tapeism of +the day barred all promotion to the unfortunate explorer, who set +himself to prepare an account of his explorations, though unfortunately +an important part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The +results of his labours were published in two large quarto volumes, +entitled _A Voyage to Terra Australis_, with a folio volume of maps. The +very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published Flinders died, +at the early age of forty. The great work is a model of its kind, +containing as it does not only a narrative of his own and of previous +voyages, but masterly statements of the scientific results, especially +with regard to magnetism, meteorology, hydrography and navigation. +Flinders paid great attention to the errors of the compass, especially +to those caused by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to +have been the first to discover the source of such errors (which had +scarcely been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the +variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for which +Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards. Numerous +experiments on ships' magnetism were conducted at Portsmouth by +Flinders, by order of the admiralty, in 1812. Besides the _Voyage_, +Flinders wrote _Observations on the Coast of Van Diemen's Land_, _Bass's +Strait_, &c., and two papers in the _Phil. Trans._--one on the "Magnetic +Needle" (1805), and the other, "Observations on the Marine Barometer" +(1806). (J. S. K.) + + + + +FLINSBERG, a village and watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the Iserkamm, 1450 ft. +above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedeberg, the terminus station of the +railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1900) 1957. It contains an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and has some manufactures of wooden wares. +Flinsberg is celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of +feminine disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also a +climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors number about +8500 annually. + + See Adam, _Bad Flinsberg als klimatischer Kurort_ (Gorlitz, 1891). + + + + +FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886), American physician, was born at Petersham, +Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812, and graduated at the medical +department of Harvard University in 1833. From 1847 to 1852 he was +professor of the theory and practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical +College, of which he was one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he +filled the same chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886 +he was professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical +medicine in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He wrote many +text-books on medical subjects, among these being _Diseases of the +Heart_ (1859-1870); _Principles and Practice of Medicine_ (1866); +_Clinical Medicine_ (1879); and _Physical Exploration of the Lungs by +means of Auscultation and Percussion_ (1882). He died in New York on the +13th of March 1886. + +His son, AUSTIN FLINT, junr., who was born at Northampton, +Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at Harvard and +at the university of Louisville, graduated at the Jefferson Medical +College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became professor of physiology +at the university of Buffalo (1858) and subsequently at other centres, +his last connexion being with the Cornell University Medical College +(1898-1906). He was better known as a teacher and writer on physiology +than as a practitioner, and his _Text-book of Human Physiology_ (1876) +was for many years a standard book in American medical colleges. He also +published an extensive _Physiology of Man_ (5 vols., 1866-1874), +_Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease_ (1870), _Effects of +Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise_ (1871), _Source of Muscular +Power_ (1878), and _Handbook of Physiology_ (1905). In 1896 he became a +consulting physician to the New York State Hospital for the Insane. + + + + +FLINT, ROBERT (1838- ), Scottish divine and philosopher, was born near +Dumfries and educated at the university of Glasgow. After a few years of +pastoral service, first in Aberdeen and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he +was appointed professor of moral philosophy and political economy at St +Andrews in 1864. From 1876 to 1903 he was professor of divinity at +Edinburgh. He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the +_Encyclopaedia Britannica_. His chief works are _Christ's Kingdom upon +Earth_ (Sermons, 1865); _Philosophy of History in Europe_ (1874; partly +rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland, 1894); _Theism_ and +_Anti-theistic Theories_ (2 vols., being the Baird Lectures for +1876-1877; often reprinted); _Socialism_ (1894); _Sermons and Addresses_ +(1899); _Agnosticism_ (1903). + + + + +FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840), American clergyman and writer, was born in +Reading, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July 1780. He graduated at +Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as a Congregational minister in +Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued scientific studies with interest; and +his labours in his chemical laboratory seemed so strange to the people +of that retired region, that some persons supposed and asserted that he +was engaged in counterfeiting. This, together with political +differences, led to disagreeable complications, which resulted in his +resigning his charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in the +valley of the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and +a farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the settlers +of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a picturesque work +called _Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed in the Valley of the +Mississippi_ (1826; reprinted in England and translated into French), +the first account of the western states which brought to light the real +life and character of the people. The success which this work met with, +together with the failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish +his more active labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the +_Western Review_ in Cincinnati from 1825 to 1828 and _Knickerbocker's +Magazine_ (New York) in 1833, he published a number of books, including +_Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot_ (1826), his best novel; _A +Condensed Geography and History of the Western States, or the +Mississippi Valley_ (2 vols., 1828); _Arthur Clenning_ (1828), a novel; +and _Indian Wars in the West_ (1833). His style is vivid, plain and +forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on the western +states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass., on the 16th of +August 1840. + + + + +FLINT, a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9803; +(1900) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 38,550. It +is served by the Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by an +electric line, the Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The +city has a fine court-house (1904), a federal building (1908), a city +hall (1908) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf, +established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the +treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has important +manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being automobiles, +wagons, carriages--Flint is called "the vehicle city,"--flour, woollen +goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks and tiles; and its grain +trade is of considerable importance. In 1904 the total value of the +city's factory product was $6,177,170, an increase of 31.1% over that of +1900. The settlement of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the +Flint, began in 1820, but Flint's growth was very slow until 1831, when +it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in 1855. + + + + +FLINT, or FLINTSHIRE (_sir Gallestr_), a county of North Wales, the +smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the Dee +estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by Denbighshire. +Area, 257 sq. m. Included in Flint is the detached hundred of Maelor, +lying 8 m. S.E. of the main part of the county, and shut in by Cheshire +on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire on the S., and by Denbighshire on the +W. and N.W. The Clwyd valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of +the Alyn and Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee, +entering the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the W., +passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N. The Clwyd enters +Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near Rhuddlan, reaches the +Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the county under Moel Fammau, +passes Cilcen and Mold (_y Wyddgrug_), runs underground near Hesb-Alyn +(Alyn's drying-up), bends south to Caergwrle, re-enters Denbighshire and +joins the Dee. Llyn Helyg (willow-pool), near Whitford, is the chief +lake. + + Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their + economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most + important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous + limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwen; it forms the + Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold to + beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series is cherty + in the north--the chert is quarried for use in the potteries of + Staffordshire--but traced southward it passes into sandstones and + grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the + equivalent of the Pendleside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire, + while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought to + correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may be a + representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the coal + measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays and + marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from Talacre + through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope. The + carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a fault, + in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Silurian strata, mostly of Wenlock + age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western border of + the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd valley and + appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead and zinc ores + have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in the north of the + county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer Gwyn and Ffynnon + Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene mammals along with + palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift obscures the older rocks + on the east and north and in the vale of Clwyd. Short stretches of + blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl and Talacre. + +The London & North-Western railway follows the coast-line. Other +railways which cross the county are the Great Western, and the Wrexham, +Mold & Connah's Quay, acquired by the Great Central company. For pasture +the vale of Clwyd is well known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief +crops. Stock and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed +with Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicesters and Southdowns, +while in the thick mining population a ready market is found for meat, +cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in 1901) nearly doubled in +the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day is one of the most densely +populated counties in North Wales. The area of the ancient county is +164,744 acres, and that of the administrative county 163,025 acres. The +collieries begin at Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint, +Halkin (Halcyn), Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlag). At +Halkin, Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is +sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc, +formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and copper +mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting works, oil, +vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries around Buckley send +their produce chiefly to Connah's Quay, whence a railway crosses the Dee +to the Birkenhead (Cheshire) district. Iron seams are now thin, but +limestone quarries yield building stone, lime for burning and small +stone for chemical works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile +manufactures small. + +The county returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary borough +district (returning one member), consists of Caergwrle, Caerwys, Flint, +Holywell, Mold, Overton, St Asaph and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a +small part of the Chester parliamentary borough. There is one municipal +borough, Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley +(5780), Connah's Quay (3369), Holywell (2652), Mold (4263), Prestatyn +(1261) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales and Chester circuit, +assizes being held at Mold. The Flint borough has a separate commission +of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The ancient +county, which is in the dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph, +contains forty-six entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with +parts of eleven others. + +Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the fragmentary +ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:--Caerwys, near +Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation. Bodfary (Bodfari) was +traditionally occupied by the Romans. Moel y gaer (bald hill of the +fortress), near Northop, is a remarkably perfect old British post. Maes y +Garmon (perhaps for _Meusydd Garmon_, as y, the article, has no +significance before a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields +of Germanus). A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of _une victoire sans +larmes, gagnee non par les armes, mais par la foi_ (E.H. Vollet). The +Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and Saxons, at +whose approach the _Alleluia_ of that Easter (A.D. 430) was sung. Panic +duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St Germanus, confessor and +bishop of Auxerre (A.D. 380-448), had to return to the charge in 446. He +has, under the name Garmon, a great titular share in British topography. +At Bangor Iscoed, "the great high choir in Maelor," was the monastery, +destroyed with over 2000 monks, by Aethelfred of Northumberland in 607, as +(by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland was sacked by +the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (ii. 2) that Bangor monastery was +in seven sections, with three hundred (working) monks. The supposed lines +of direction of Watt's and Offa's dykes were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope, +Alyn valley, Oswestry (_Croes Oswallt_, "Oswald's cross"), for Watt's, and +Prestatyn, Mold, Minera, across the Severn (_Hafren_, or Sabrina) for +Offa's. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North Wales) defeated +Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower) and at Coleshill (_Cynsyllt_). +Near Pant Asa (_pant_ is a bottom) is the medieval Maen Achwynfan +(_achwyn_, to complain, _maen_, stone), and tumuli, menhirs (_meini +hirion_) and inscribed stones are frequent throughout the county. There is +a 14th-century cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early +Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county date from +the early Edwards. + + See H. Taylor, _Flint_ (London, 1883). + + + + +FLINT, a municipal borough and the county town of the above; a seaport +and contributory parliamentary borough, on the south of the Dee estuary, +192 m. from London by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) +4265. The seat of great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur +and other chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The +county gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle, +was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with Cheshire.) + +Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by Edward I. +Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward III. bestowed its +constableship upon the earls of Chester, and here Richard II. +surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice taken, after siege, by the +parliamentarians, and finally dismantled in 1647. There remain a square +court (with angle towers), round tower and drawbridge, all three +entrusted to a constable, appointed by the crown under the Municipal +Corporations Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was +chartered by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of +Chester. + + + + +FLINT (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages, possibly +cognate with the Gr. [Greek: plinthos], a tile), in petrology, a dark +grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance which has an almost +vitreous lustre, and when pure appears structureless to the unaided eye. +In the mass it is dark and opaque, but thin plates or the edges of +splinters are pale yellow and translucent. Its hardness is greater than +that of steel, so that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when +drawn across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2.6 or only a little +less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when hammered +readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains. The fracture is +perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer detach flakes which +have convex, slightly undulating surfaces. At the point of impact a bulb +of percussion, which is a somewhat elevated conical mark, is produced. +This serves to distinguish flints which have been fashioned by human +agencies from those which have been split merely by the action of frost +and the weather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably +intentionally made, and is a point of some importance to archaeologists +investigating Palaeolithic implements. With skill and experience a mass +of flint can be worked to any simple shape by well directed strokes, and +further trimming can be effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a +direction slightly across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have +the most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man is known to +have quarried or mined certain bands of flint which were specially +suitable for his purposes. + + Silica forms nearly the whole substance of flint; calcite and dolomite + may occur in it in small amounts, and analysis has also detected + minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic compounds, &c., to + which the dark colour is ascribed by some authorities. These are + dispelled by heat and the flint becomes white and duller in lustre. + Microscopic sections show that flint is very finely crystalline and + consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorphous + silica may also be present but cannot form any considerable part of + the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other organisms, such + as molluscs, polyzoa, foraminifera and brachiopods, often occur in + flint, and may be partly or wholly silicified with retention of their + original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk which + encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure to the + weather produces much the same appearance on broken flints. At first + they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, but this is + subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or yellowish + porcelain. It has been suggested that this change is due to the + removal of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres + and grains of more crystalline structure. This process must be a very + slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material of + great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist + attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of the + south-east of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their + surfaces often show minute crescentic or rounded cracks which are the + edges of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one + pebble on another during storms or floods. + + Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular masses in the + white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see CHALK). It + is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular masses + which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules + often lie in bands which closely follow the bedding, they were not + deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint bands + cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at right + angles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures, such as + bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some + extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the tests of + radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has passed into + solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again + precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its formation is + consequently the result of "concretionary action." Where the flints + lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fact a kind of + metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock has slowly replaced + a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual and the organisms + of the original chalk often have their outlines preserved in the + flint. Shells may become completely silicified, or may have their + cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interior of the + shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind + are familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts. + + Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substance of the + same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or brown, and + commonly occurs in limestone (e.g. the Carboniferous Limestone) in the + same way as flint occurs in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of + radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous radiolarian + oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom of some of + the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found in the + English Greensand; these often contain remains of sponges. + +The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrication of +weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other materials have been +employed where flint was not available, e.g. obsidian, chert, +chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to prehistoric man (see FLINT +IMPLEMENTS below) flint must have been of great value and served many of +the uses to which steel is put at the present day. Flint gravels are +widely employed for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in +architecture. For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not regarded +with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily; binds badly, +yielding a surface which breaks up with heavy traffic and in bad +weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do much damage to tires of +motors and cycles. Seasoned flints from the land, having been long +exposed to the atmosphere, are preferred to flints freshly dug from the +chalk pits. Formerly flint and steel were everywhere employed for +striking a light; and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special +industry in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in +Suffolk. In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade +has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in +semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable. +Powdered flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass, and is +still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties of pottery. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS. The excavation of these remains of the +prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift gravel-beds has marked a +revolution in the study of Man's history (see ARCHAEOLOGY). Until almost +the middle of the 19th century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of +British and European archaeologists that the momentous results of the +excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be dwarfed by +discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous ideas of Man's +antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes observed in some sand +containing mammalian remains, at Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint, +roughly worked into a cutting implement. This "find" was rapidly +followed by others, and Boucher de Perthes published his first work on +the subject, _Antiquites celtiques et antediluviennes: memoire sur +l'industrie primitive et les arts a leur origin_ (1847), in which he +proclaimed his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging +to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French +archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission then +visited his collection and testified to the great importance of his +discoveries. The "finds" at Abbeville were followed by others in many +places in England, and in fact in every country where siliceous stones +which are capable of being flaked and fashioned into implements are to +be found. The implements occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the +tumuli and ancient burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of +prehistoric man in nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and +lake-dwellings; but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of +England and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long +left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These gravels +represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man shared Europe with +the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros. The worked flints of this age +are, however, unevenly distributed; for while the river-gravels of +south-eastern England yield them abundantly, none has been found in +Scotland or the northern English counties. On the continent the same +partial distribution is observable: while they occur plentifully in the +north-western area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway +or Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by +chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no longer +indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier period of the +Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic. Those flint implements, which +show signs of polishing and in many cases remarkably fine workmanship, +and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs and lake-dwellings mixed with the +bones of common domestic animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later +Stone Age. The Palaeolithic flints are hammers, flakes, scrapers, +implements worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements which +resemble rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round, +and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these is ground +or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand, exhibit more +variety of design, are carefully finished, and the particular use of +each weapon can be easily detected. Man has reached the stage of culture +when he could socket a stone into a wooden handle, and fix a flaked +flint as a handled dagger or knife. The workmanship is superior to that +shown in any of the stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic +times. The manner of making flint implements appears to have been in all +ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only kind of +stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any shape, and thus +forms the principal material of these earliest weapons. The blows must +be carefully aimed or the flakes dislodged will be shattered: a +gun-flint maker at Brandon, Suffolk, stated that it took him two years +to acquire the art. + + For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and detailed + descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans, _Ancient + Stone Implements_ (1897), Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (1865, + 1900); also Thomas Wilson, "Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and Knives of + Prehistoric Times," in _Smithsonian Report_ for 1897; and W.K. + Moorehead, _Prehistoric Implements_ (1900). + + + + +FLOAT (in O. Eng. _flot_ and _flota_, in the verbal form _fleotan_; the +Teutonic root is _flut-_, another form of _flu-_, seen in "flow," cf. +"fleet"; the root is seen in Gr. [Greek: pleein], to sail, Lat. +_pluere_, to rain; the Lat. _fluere_ and _fluctus_, wave, is not +connected), the action of moving on the surface of water, or through the +air. The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river, +backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as a mass of +ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed boat, or a raft, +or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support a baited line or +fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or inflated organ by means +of which certain animals, such as the "Portuguese man-of-war," swim, to +a hollow metal ball or piece of whinstone, &c., used to regulate the +level of water in a tank or boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the +cistern of a barometer. "Float" is also the name of one of the boards of +a paddle-wheel or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to +denote the footlights. The word is also applied to something broad, +level and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon for the +purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a special kind of +low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and to a platform on wheels +used for shows in a procession. The term is applied also to various +tools, especially to many kinds of trowels used in plastering. It is +also used of a dock where vessels may float, as at Bristol, and of the +trenches used in "floating" land. In geology and mining, loose rock or +ore brought down by water is known as "float," and in tin-mining it is +applied to a large trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word +is used of the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without +being woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United +States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to bribery +is called a "float" or "floater." + + + + +FLOCK. 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian, from which +come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in other Teutonic languages), +originally a company of people, now mainly, except in figurative usages, +of certain animals when gathered together for feeding or moving from +place to place. For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other +animals most generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular +application of the word to sheep that "flock" is used of the Christian +Church in its relation to the "Good Shepherd," and also of a +congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual head. + +2. (Probably from the Lat. _floccus_, but many Teutonic languages have +the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool, cotton or similar +substance. The name "flock" is given to a material formed of wool or +cotton refuse, or of shreds of old woollen or cotton rags, torn by a +machine known as a "devil." This material is used for stuffing +mattresses or pillows, and also in upholstery. The name is also applied +to a special kind of wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like +cloth, or, in the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting +on a specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of +cotton or silk. The word "flocculent" is used of many substances which +have a fleecy or "flock"-like appearance, such as a precipitate of +ferric hydrate. + + + + +FLODDEN, or FLODDEN FIELD, near the village of Branxton, in +Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of Wooler), the scene of a famous +battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between the English and the +Scots. On the 22nd of August a great Scottish army under King James IV. +had crossed the border. For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King +Henry VIII.'s absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no +organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much precious +time among the border castles, and when Surrey appeared at Wooler, with +an army equal in strength to his own, which was now greatly weakened by +privations and desertion, he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The +English commander promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle, +which the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors, +accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and took up a +strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey's reproaches for +the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge to fight on +Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The English commander, thus +foiled, executed a daring and skilful march round the enemy's flank, and +on the 9th drew up for battle in rear of the hostile army. It is evident +that Surrey was confident of victory, for he placed his own army, not +less than the enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter +ruin. On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took post on +Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 P.M. Surrey's archers +and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the Scots, unable quietly to +endure their losses, rushed to close quarters. Their left wing drove the +English back, but Lord Dacre's reserve corps restored the fight on this +side. In all other parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were +personally opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king's +corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward Stanley in +flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre's force closed +upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself, boldly neglecting an +almost intact Scottish division in front of him, charged in upon the +rear of King James's corps. Surrounded and attacked on all sides, this, +the remnant of the invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen +around the king grew less and less, and in the end James and a few of +his nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to the +last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all the leading men +in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no family of importance that +had not lost a member in this great disaster. The "King's Stone," said +to mark the spot where James was killed, is at some distance from the +actual battlefield. "Sybil's Well," in Scott's _Marmion_, is imaginary. + + + + +FLODOARD (894-966), French chronicler, was born at Epernay, and educated +at Reims in the cathedral school which had been established by +Archbishop Fulcon (822-900). As canon of Reims, and favourite of the +archbishops Herivaeus (d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while +still young an important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was +twice deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on +account of his steady opposition to the election of the count's infant +son to the archbishopric. Upon the final triumph of Archbishop Artold in +947, Flodoard became for a time his chief adviser, but withdrew to a +monastery in 952, and spent the remaining years of his life in literary +and devotional work. His history of the cathedral church at Reims +(_Historia Remensis Ecclesiae_) is one of the most remarkable +productions of the 10th century. Flodoard had been given charge of the +episcopal archives, and constructed his history out of the original +texts, which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the +period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The _Annales_ which +Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly important, by +reason of the author's honesty and the central position of Reims in +European affairs in his time. Flodoard's poetical works are of hardly +less historical interest. The long poem celebrating the triumph of +Christ and His saints was called forth by the favour shown him by Pope +Leo VII., during whose pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes +fourteen books to the history of the popes. + + Flodoard's works were published in full by J.P. Migne (_Patrologia + Latina_, vol. 135); a modern edition of the _Annales_ is the one + edited by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Molinier, + _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (No. 932). + + + + +FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse _flo_, layer, level plain), a +sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of polar ice. It is of +less extent than the field of "pack" ice, which is a compacted mass of +greater depth drifting frequently under the influence of deep currents, +while the floating floe is driven by the wind. + + + + +FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791), Irish statesman, son of Warden Flood, chief +justice of the king's bench in Ireland, was born in 1732, and was +educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards at Christ Church, +Oxford, where he became proficient in the classics. His father was a man +of good birth and fortune, and he himself married a member of the +influential Beresford family, who brought him a large fortune. In his +early years he was handsome, witty, good-tempered, and a brilliant +conversationalist. His judgment was sound, and he had a natural gift of +eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by study of classical +oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood therefore possessed every +personal advantage when, in 1759, he entered the Irish parliament as +member for Kilkenny in his twenty-seventh year. There was at that time +no party in the Irish House of Commons that could truly be called +national, and until a few years before there had been none that deserved +even the name of an opposition. The Irish parliament was still +constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it had +practically no powers of independent legislation, and none of +controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated by the +ministers in London (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Though the great majority of +the people were Roman Catholics, no person of that faith could either +enter parliament or exercise the franchise; the penal code, which made +it almost impossible for a Roman Catholic to hold property, to follow a +learned profession, or even to educate his children, and which in +numerous particulars pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and +subjected them to degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in +practice largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were +throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the economic +theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade of Great +Britain. Men like Anthony Malone and Hely-Hutchison fully realized the +necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only needed the ability and +eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of Commons to raise up an +independent party in parliament, and to create in the country a public +opinion with definite intelligible aims. + +The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening of the +duration of parliament--which had then no legal limit in Ireland except +that of the reigning sovereign's life,--the reduction of the +scandalously heavy pension list, the establishment of a national +militia, and, above all, the complete legislative independence of the +Irish parliament. For some years little was accomplished; but in 1768 +the English ministry, which had special reasons at the moment for +avoiding unpopularity in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill to pass, +which was the first step towards making the Irish House of Commons in +some measure representative of public opinion. It had become the +practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by the +owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their undertaking to +manage the House in the government interest. But during the viceroyalty +of Lord Townsend the aristocracy, and more particularly these +"undertakers" as they were called, were made to understand that for the +future their privileges in this respect would be curtailed. When, +therefore, an opportunity was taken by the government in 1768 for +reasserting the constitutional subordination of the Irish parliament, +these powerful classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood. +In the following year, in accordance with the established procedure, a +money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for acceptance +by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it rejected, but contrary to +custom a reason for this course was assigned, namely, that the bill had +not originated in the Irish House. In consequence parliament was +peremptorily prorogued, and a recess of fourteen months was employed by +the government in securing a majority by the most extensive +corruption.[1] Nevertheless when parliament met in February 1771 another +money bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year Lord +Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked this conflict, +was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a publication, famous in +its day, called _Baratariana_, to which Flood contributed a series of +powerful letters after the manner of Junius, one of his collaborators +being Henry Grattan. + +The success which had thus far attended Flood's efforts had placed him +in a position such as no Irish politician had previously attained. He +had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes, "proved himself beyond +all comparison the greatest popular orator that his country had yet +produced, and also a consummate master of parliamentary tactics. Under +parliamentary conditions that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an +atmosphere charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had +created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and had +inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine spirit of +liberty and self-reliance."[2] Lord Harcourt, who succeeded Townsend as +viceroy, saw that Flood must be conciliated at any price "rather than +risk the opposition of so formidable a leader." Accordingly, in 1775, +Flood was offered and accepted a seat in the privy council and the +office of vice-treasurer with a salary of L3500 a year. For this step he +has been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly in +the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost influence +from the moment he became a minister of the crown, Flood may reasonably +have held that he had a better prospect of advancing his policy by the +leverage of a ministerial position than by means of any opposition party +he could hope to muster in an unreformed House of Commons.[3] The +result, however, was that the leadership of the national party passed +from Flood to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same +session that Flood became a minister. + +Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this long +period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the independence +of the Irish parliament, and had to be content with advocating minor +reforms as occasion offered. He was thus instrumental in obtaining +bounties on the export of Irish corn to foreign countries and some other +trifling commercial concessions. On the other hand he failed to procure +the passing of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges +irremovable, while his support of Lord North's American policy still +more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But an important +event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to some extent his former +position in the country; this event was the alliance of France with the +revolted American colonies. Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a +French invasion, while the English government could provide no troops to +defend the island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on +foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000 men, +disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by the country +gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism of Lord Charlemont. +This volunteer force, in which Flood was a colonel, while vigilant for +the defence of the island, soon made itself felt in politics. A +Volunteer Convention, formed with all the regular organization of a +representative assembly, but wielding the power of an army, began +menacingly to demand the removal of the commercial restrictions which +were destroying Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government +gave way; the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland +for the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood, who +had taken an active though not a leading part in this movement, now at +last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He found to his +chagrin that his former services had been to a great extent forgotten, +and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When in a debate on the +constitutional question in 1779 Flood complained of the small +consideration shown him in relation to a subject which he had been the +first to agitate, he was reminded that by the civil law "if a man should +separate from his wife, and abandon her for seven years, another might +then take her and give her his protection." But though Flood had lost +control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament, the +agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention and by +increasing signs of popular disaffection, led at last in 1782 to the +concession of the demand, together with a number of other important +reforms (see GRATTAN, HENRY). + +No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a question +arose--known as the Simple Repeal controversy--as to whether England, in +addition to the repeal of the Acts on which the subordination of the +Irish parliament had been based, should not be required expressly to +renounce for the future all claim to control Irish legislation. The +chief historical importance of this dispute is that it led to the +memorable rupture of friendship between Flood and Grattan, each of whom +assailed the other with unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective +in the House of Commons. Flood's view prevailed--for a Renunciation Act +such as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parliament +in 1783--and for a time he regained popularity at the expense of his +rival. Flood next (28th of November 1783) introduced a reform bill, +after first submitting it to the Volunteer Convention. The bill, which +contained no provision for giving the franchise to Roman Catholics--a +proposal which Flood always opposed--was rejected, ostensibly on the +ground that the attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of +parliament. The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crown and the +connexion with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by +Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary reform +might be imputed to nothing but "a sober and laudable desire to uphold +the constitution ... and to perpetuate the cordial union of both +kingdoms." The convention then dissolved, though Flood had desired, in +opposition to Grattan, to continue it as a means of putting pressure on +parliament for the purpose of obtaining reform. + +In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House of Commons. +In 1783 he tried again, this time with success. He purchased a seat for +Winchester from the duke of Chandos, and for the next seven years he was +a member at the same time of both the English and Irish parliaments. He +reintroduced, but without success, his reform bill in the Irish House in +1784; supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but +short-sightedly opposed Pitt's commercial propositions in 1785. He +remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation, even defending +the penal laws on the ground that after the Revolution they "were not +laws of persecution but of political necessity"; but after 1786 he does +not appear to have attended the parliament in Dublin. In the House at +Westminster, where he refused to enrol himself as a member of either +political party, he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition +to Fox's India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the +expectations aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition to the +commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however, most able; and in +1790 he introduced a reform bill which Fox declared to be the best +scheme of reform that had yet been proposed, and which in Burke's +opinion retrieved Flood's reputation. But at the dissolution in the same +year he lost his seat in both parliaments, and he then retired to +Farmley, his residence in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of +December 1791. + +When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal friendship with +Grattan, declared that Flood was "perhaps the ablest man Ireland ever +produced, indisputably the ablest man of his own times," he expressed +what was probably the general opinion of Flood's contemporaries. Lord +Charlemont, who knew him intimately though not always in agreement with +his policy, pronounced him to be "a man of consummate ability." He also +declared that avarice made no part of Flood's character. Lord +Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described him as a +pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested flattery. Grattan, who +even after the famous quarrel never lost his respect for Flood, said of +him that he was the best tempered and the most sensible man in the +world. In his youth he was genial, frank, sociable and witty; but in +later years disappointment made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he +was less polished, less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasoner +and a greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition often +governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually sound; and +it was the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have succeeded in +carrying a reform bill which might have preserved Irish parliamentary +independence, if he had been supported by Grattan and the rest of his +party in keeping alive the Volunteer Convention in 1783. Though he never +wavered in loyalty to the British crown and empire, Ireland never +produced a more sincere patriot than Henry Flood. + + See Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838); Henry + Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_ + (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of + Curran and some of his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); _The Irish + Parliament 1775_, from an official and contemporary manuscript, edited + by William Hunt (London, 1907); W.J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her + Agitators_; Lord Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2 + vols., London, 1792); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the + Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols., London, 1878-1890); and _Leaders of + Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged edition, 2 vols., London, 1903); + J.A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_, vols. ii. and iii. (London, + 1881); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols., + London, 1845, 1894); Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish + Nation_ (London, 1833); Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the + State of Ireland_ (London, 1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish + Biography_ (Dublin, 1878); F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_ + (London, 1812), especially for the volunteer movement, on which see + also _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon. + Pamphlet, Brit. Mus.); also _The Charlemont Papers_, and _Irish Parl. + Debates_, (vols. i.-iv.). (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Walpole's _George III._, iv. 348. + + [2] W.E.H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_ (enlarged + edition, 2 vols., 1903), i. 48. + + [3] See Hardy's _Life of Charlemont_, i. 356. + + + + +FLOOD (in O. Eng. _flod_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. +_Flut_, Dutch _vloed_, from the same root as is seen in "flow," +"float"), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a +deluge, hence "the flood," specifically, the Noachian deluge of Genesis, +but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded in the mythology of +other nations than the Hebrew (see DELUGE, THE). In the sense of +"flowing water," the word is applied to the inflow of the tide, as +opposed to "ebb." + + + + +FLOOD PLAIN, the term in physical geography for a plain formed of +sediment dropped by a river. When the slope down which a river runs has +become very slight, it is unable to carry the sediment brought from +higher regions nearer its source, and consequently the lower portion of +the river valley becomes filled with alluvial deposits; and since in +times of flood the rush of water in the high regions tears off and +carries down a greater quantity of sediment than usual, the river +spreads this also over the lower valley where the plain is flooded, +because the rush of water is checked, and the stream in consequence +drops its extra load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent. +That of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m., and +its whole extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood plains may be +the result of planation, with aggradation, that is, they may be due to a +graded river working in meanders from side to side, widening its valley +by this process and covering the widened valley with sediment. Or the +stream by cutting into another stream (piracy), by cutting through a +barrier near its head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer +rock, and by glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling +up its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river's +course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind it, +and indeed anything which checks a river's course and causes it to drop +its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most commonly found +near the mouth of a large river, such as the Rhine, the Nile, or the +Mississippi, where there are occasional floods and the river usually +carries a large amount of sediment. "Levees" are formed, inside which +the river usually flows, gradually raising its bed above the surrounding +plain. Occasional breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to +spread in a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt +covers the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain +made by the United States geological survey show a great variety of +material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured at one +place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying +swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel, +sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any +section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar +character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by meandering, +or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant +pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the +drainage system has ceased to act or is entirely diverted owing to any +cause, the flood plain may become a level area of great fertility, +similar in appearance to the floor of an old lake. The flood plain +differs, however, inasmuch as it is not altogether flat. It has a gentle +slope down-stream, and often for a distance from the sides towards the +centre. + + + + +FLOOR (from O. Eng. _flor_, a word common to many Teutonic languages, +cf. Dutch _vloer_, and Ger. _Flur_, a field, in the feminine, and a +floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of a room, but +specially employed for one covered with boarding or parquetry. The +various levels of rooms in a house are designated as "ground-floor," +"first-floor," "mezzanine-floor," &c. The principal floor is the storey +which contains the chief apartments whether on the ground- or +first-floor; in Italy they are always on the latter and known as the +"piano nobile." The storey below the ground-floor is called the +"basement-floor," even if only a little below the level of the pavement +outside; the storey in a roof is known as the "attic-floor." The +expressions one pair, two pair, &c., apply to the storeys above the +first flight of stairs from the ground (see also CARPENTRY). + + + + +FLOORCLOTH, a rough flannel cloth used for domestic cleaning; also a +generic term applied to a variety of materials used in place of carpets +for covering floors, and known by such trade names as kamptulicon, +oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork-carpet, &c. Kamptulicon ([Greek: +kamptos], flexible, [Greek: oulos], thick) was patented in 1844 by E. +Galloway, but did not attract much attention till about 1862. It was +essentially a preparation of india-rubber masticated up with ground +cork, and rolled out into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers, +sometimes over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has +given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose. Oil-cloth is +a coarse canvas which has received a number of coats of thick oil paint, +each coat being rubbed smooth with pumice stone before the application +of the next. Its surface is ornamented with patterns printed in oil +colours by means of wooden blocks. Linoleum (_linum_, flax, _oleum_, +oil), patented by F. Walton in 1860 and 1863, consists of oxidized +linseed oil and ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated +with the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of pigments +such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed on to a rough +canvas backing between steam-heated rollers. Patterns may be printed on +its surface with oil paint, or by an improved method may be inlaid with +coloured composition so that the colours are continuous through the +thickness of the linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and +thus do not disappear with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material +to linoleum, also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is +stamped out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls. + + + + +FLOQUET, CHARLES THOMAS (1828-1896), French statesman, was born at St +Jean-Pied-de-Port (Basses-Pyrenees) on the 2nd of October 1828. He +studied law in Paris, and was called to the bar in 1851. The _coup +d'etat_ of that year aroused the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who +had, while yet a student, given proof of his republican sympathies by +taking part in the fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant +and fearless attacks on the government in a series of political trials, +and at the same time contributed to the _Temps_ and other influential +journals. When the tsar Alexander II. visited the Palais de Justice in +1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with the cry "Vive la +Pologne, monsieur!" He delivered a scathing indictment of the Empire at +the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took +a part in the revolution of the 4th of September, as well as in the +subsequent defence of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National +Assembly by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed +the _Ligue d'union republicaine des droits de Paris_ to attempt a +reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his efforts +failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers, but soon +released. He became editor of the _Republique Francaise_, was chosen +president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was elected deputy for +the eleventh arrondissement. He took a prominent place among the +extreme radicals, and became president of the group of the "Union +republicaine." In 1882 he held for a short time the post of prefect of +the Seine. In 1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber. +This difficult position he filled with such tact and impartiality that +he was re-elected the two following years. Having approached the Russian +ambassador in such a way as to remove the prejudice existing against him +in Russia since the incident of 1867, he rendered himself eligible for +office; and on the fall of the Tirard cabinet in 1888 he became +president of the council and minister of the interior in a radical +ministry, which pledged itself to the revision of the constitution, but +was forced to combat the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated debates +in the chamber culminated on the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet +and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following February +the government fell on the question of revision, and in the new chamber +of November Floquet was re-elected to the presidential chair. The Panama +scandals, in which he was compelled to admit his implication, dealt a +fatal blow to his career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 1892, +and his seat in the house in 1893, but in 1894 was elected to the +senate. He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1896. + + See _Discours et opinions de M. Charles Floquet_, edited by Albert + Faivre (1885). + + + + +FLOR, ROGER DI, a military adventurer of the 13th-14th century, was the +second son of a falconer in the service of the emperor Frederick II., +who fell at Tagliacozzo (1268), and when eight years old was sent to sea +in a galley belonging to the Knights Templars. He entered the order and +became commander of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in +1291 he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and an +apostate, was degraded from his rank, and fled to Genoa, where he began +to play the pirate. The struggle between the kings of Aragon and the +French kings of Naples for the possession of Sicily was at this time +going on; and Roger entered the service of Frederick, king of Sicily, +who gave him the rank of vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302, +as Frederick was anxious to free the island from his mercenary troops +(called _Almugavares_), whom he had no longer the means of paying, Roger +induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures in the East, in +fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging the empire. The emperor +Andronicus II. accepted his offer of service; and in September 1303 +Roger with his fleet and army arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted +into the imperial family, was married to a grand-daughter of the +emperor, and was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and +the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and bloody +quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after some +successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter quarters at +Cyzicus. In May 1304 they again took the field, and rendered the +important service of relieving Philadelphia, then invested and reduced +to extremities by the Turks. But Roger, bent on advancing his own +interests rather than those of the emperor, determined to found in the +East a principality for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but +the people slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed +the siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was +compelled to retire. Being recalled to Europe, he settled his troops in +Gallipoli and other towns, and visited Constantinople to demand pay for +the _Almugavares_. Dissatisfied with the small sum granted by the +emperor, he plundered the country and carried on intrigues both with and +against the emperor, receiving reinforcements all the while from all +parts of southern Europe. Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly +afterwards the young emperor Michael Palaeologus, not daring to attack +the fierce and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to +Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the massacre of +his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was avenged by his men in +a fierce and prolonged war against the Greeks. + + See Moncada, _Expedicion de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contre Turcos y + Griegos_ (Paris, 1840). + + + + +FLORA, in Roman mythology, goddess of spring-time and flowers, later +identified with the Greek Chloris. Her festival at Rome, the Floralia, +instituted 238 B.C. by order of the Sibylline books and at first held +irregularly, became annual after 173. It lasted six days (April 28-May +3), the first day being the anniversary of the foundation of her temple. +It included theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and +vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings were +characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness. According to +the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus Tatius, and her priest, +the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art Flora was represented as a +beautiful maiden, bedecked with flowers (Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 183 ff.; +Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 49). + +The term "flora" is used in botany collectively for the plant-growth of +a district; similarly "fauna" is used collectively for the animals. + + + + +FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR, a 13th-century romance. This tale, generally +supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the passionate devotion of +two children, and their success in overcoming all the obstacles put in +the way of their love. The romance appears in differing versions in +French, English, German, Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and +Hungarian. The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in E. +Hausknecht's version of the 13th-century Middle English poem of "Floris +and Blauncheflur" (_Samml. eng. Denkmaler_, vol. v. Berlin, 1885). +Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of the story, but France +was in the 12th and 13th centuries the chief market of romance, and the +French version of the tale, _Floire et Blanchefleur_, is the most +widespread. Floire, the son of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in +constant companionship with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian +slave of noble birth. Floire's parents, hoping to destroy this +attachment, send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to +foreign slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is told +that his companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill himself, his +parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the tower of the maidens +destined for the harem of the emir of Babylon, into which he penetrates +concealed in a basket of flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their +constancy touches the hearts of their judges. They are married, and +Floire returns to his kingdom, when he and all his people adopt +Christianity. Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Edelestand du +Meril, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few additions, +the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the usual battles, single +combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes of the story are printed by +Paulin Paris in his _Romancero francais_ (Paris, 1883). The English poem +renders the French version without amplifications, such as are found in +other adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original, and +less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms of the story +must be noted the prose romance (c. 1340) of Boccaccio, _Il Filocolo_, +and the 14th-century _Leggenda della reina Rosana e di Rosana sua +figliuola_ (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The similarity between the story of +Floire and Blanchefleur and _Chante-fable of Aucassin et Nicolete_[1] +has been repeatedly pointed out, and they have even been credited with a +common source. + + See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht + (Berlin, 1885); also H. Sundmacher, _Die altfr. und mittelhochdeutsche + Bearbeitung der Sage von Flore et Blanscheflur_ (Gottingen, 1872); H. + Herzog, _Die beiden Sagenkreise von Flore und Blanscheflur_ (Vienna, + 1884); _Zeitschrift fur deut. Altertum_ (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish + version; the Scandinavian _Flores Saga ok Blankiflur_, ed. E. Kolbing + (Halle, 1896); the 13th-century version of Konrad Fleck, _Flore und + Blanscheflur_, ed. E. Sommer (Leipzig, 1846); the Swedish by G.E. + Klemming (Stockholm, 1844). The English poem was also edited by + Hartschorne (_English Metrical Tales_, 1829), by Laing (Abbotsford + Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1866, re-edited G.H. + McKnight, 1901). J. Reinhold (_Floire et Blanchefleur_, Paris, 1906) + suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as told by + Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not necessarily imply a + connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might with small + alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of the book of + Esther. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French by + G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bedier (Tours, 1901); English by + Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and by + Laurence Housman (1902). + + + + +FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (1831-1891), American actor, of Irish descent, +whose real name was Bernard Conlin, was born on the 26th of July 1831 at +Albany, N.Y., and first attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's +Lyceum in 1851. Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (d. +1906), in association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won +all his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's _The Mighty Dollar_, said +to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856 they had a +successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of the first American +actresses to appear on the English stage. In 1889 Florence entered into +partnership with Joseph Jefferson, playing Sir Lucius O'Trigger to his +Bob Acres and Mrs John Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. +His last appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891, as +Ezekiel Homespun in _The Heir-at-law_, and he died on the 18th of +November in Philadelphia. + + + + +FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118), English chronicler, was a monk of +Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator, on the 7th of +July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is known of his life. He compiled a +chronicle called _Chronicon ex chronicis_ which begins with the creation +and ends in 1117. The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by +Marianus Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards +at Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up to +1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version of the English +Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth comparing with the extant +English Chronicles; and from 1106 he is an independent annalist, dry but +accurate. Either Florence or a later editor of his work made +considerable borrowings from the first four books of Eadmer's _Historia +novorum_. Florence's work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of +Worcester, who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years +of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to Stephen, +but not an indiscriminate partisan. + + The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William + Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc., 2 + vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs + revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an + ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology + of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John Taxter + (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St Edmunds. + Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J. Stevenson in his + _Church Historians of England_, vol. ii. pt. i. (London, 1853); T. + Forester's translation in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1854) + gives the work of Taxter also. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama, U.S.A., on the +N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of Muscle Shoals Canal, and +about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) +6478 (1952 negroes); (1910) 6689. It is served by the Southern, the +Northern Alabama (controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville & +Nashville railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia, +and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated in the +fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on the edge of +the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has various manufactures, +including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons, stoves, fertilizers, staves +and mercantile supplies. At Florence are the state Normal College, the +Florence University for Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for +negroes; founded in 1903 by the American Missionary Association). +Florence was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president of +the United States, and ex-president James Madison being among the early +property holders. For several years Florence and Nashville, Tennessee, +were commercial rivals, being situated respectively at the head of +navigation on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of +Alabama by Federal troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the +Tennessee to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April +1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels were +repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th of May following, +Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed cotton mills and public +and private property; but they were driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy +(1820-1897). On the 11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but +the Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was chartered +as a city in 1889. + + + + +FLORENCE (Ital. _Firenze_, Lat. _Florentia_), formerly the capital of +Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of Italy, and the +sixth largest city in the country. It is situated 43 deg. 46' N., 11 +deg. 14' E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at this point flows +through a broad fertile valley enclosed between spurs of the Apennines. +The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and occupies an area of 3 sq. m. +(area of the commune, 16-1/2 sq. m.). The geological formation of the +soil belongs to the Quaternary and Pliocene period in its upper strata, +and to the Eocene and Cretaceous in the lower. _Pietra forte_ of the +Cretaceous period is quarried north and south of the city, and has been +used for centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. _Pietra +serena_ or _macigno_, a stone of a firm texture also used for building +purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil is very +fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of many kinds +cover both the plain and the surrounding hills; the chief +non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress, the ilex and +the poplar, while many other varieties are represented. The gardens and +fields produce an abundance of flowers, which justify the city's title +of _la citta dei fiori_. + +_Climate and Sanitary Conditions._--The climate of Florence is very +variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high winds from the +north in winter to great heat in the summer, while in spring-time sudden +and rapid changes of temperature are frequent. At the same time the +climate is usually very agreeable from the end of February to the +beginning of July, and from the end of September to the middle of +November. The average temperature throughout the year is about 57 deg. +Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8 deg., and the minimum 36.5 deg., +sometimes sinking to 21 deg. The longest day is 15 hours and 33 minutes, +the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average rainfall is about +37-1/2 inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and children's diseases mild; +cholera has visited Florence several times, but the city has been free +from it for many years. Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued +as a severe epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare +intervals and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis, +measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses. The +drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water brought from +the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good, and the general +sanitary conditions are satisfactory. + + + Churches. + +_Public Buildings._--Of the very numerous Florentine churches the Duomo +(Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most important, founded in +1298 on the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and +consecrated in 1436; the facade, however, was not finished until the +19th century--it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and +unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous Campanile +built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with exquisite bas-reliefs. +Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th +century on the site of an earlier church, and adorned with beautiful +bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, +Santa Maria Novella, are a few among the many famous and beautiful +churches of Florence. The existence of these works of art attracts +students from all countries, and a German art school subsidized by the +imperial government has been instituted. + +The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their splendid +palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the residences of the +noble families of Florence. Among others we may mention the Palazzo +Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government of the Republic and now the +town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, the residence of the Medici and now the +prefecture, the palaces of the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most +perfect specimens of Florentine _quattrocento_ architecture), Corsini, +Davanzati, Pitti (the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della +Lana or gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, +is the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence, which +was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, was pulled down in +1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care was not taken to avoid +destroying certain buildings of historic and artistic value which might +have been spared without impairing the work of sanitation, while the new +structures erected in their place, especially those in the Piazza +Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping +with Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics at the +time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was built, a society +called the _Societa per la difesa di Firenze antica_ was formed by many +prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient buildings and prevent them +from destruction, and a spirit of intelligent conservatism seems now to +prevail in this connexion. The city is growing in all directions, and a +number of new quarters have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary +than in the older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much +aesthetic feeling. The _viali_ or boulevards form pleasant residential +streets with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for +each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming more +and more general. + + + Libraries. + +Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number of smaller +collections. The _Biblioteca Nazionale_, originally founded by Antonio +Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the right, shared by the _Vittorio +Emanuele_ library of Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in +Italy, since 1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with +regard to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed +volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings (including 284 +by Albert Durer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000 letters. The number of +readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately, however, the confusion +engendered by a defective organization has long been a byword among the +people; there is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in +packing-cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very +poor, hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself is +quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new one has now +been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, so that eventually the +whole collection will be transferred to more suitable quarters. The +_Biblioteca Marucelliana_, founded in 1752, contains 150,000 books, +including 620 incunabula, 17,000 engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well +managed and chiefly remarkable for its collection of illustrated works +and art publications. The _Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana_, founded in +1571, has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and +was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the +Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it with +valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of which was the +collection of _editiones principes_ given by Count d'Elci, in 1841, and +the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by the Italian Government in +1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS., including many magnificent +illuminated missals and Bibles and a number of valuable Greek and Latin +texts, 242 incunabula and 11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with +palaeography; it is in some ways the most important of the Florentine +libraries. The _Biblioteca Riccardiana_, founded in the 16th century by +Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books and 650 +incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The state archives +are among the most complete in Italy, and contain over 450,000 _filze_ +and _registri_ and 126,000 charters, covering the period from 726 to +1856. + + + Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums. + +Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of artistic +and historic interest, although the great majority of them belong to a +comparatively limited period--from the 13th to the 16th century. The +chief art galleries are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two +former are among the finest in the world, and are filled with +masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino, Ghirlandaio, +Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine, Umbrian, Venetian, +Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous admirable examples of +antique, medieval and Renaissance sculpture. The Pitti collection is in +the royal palace (formerly the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine +new stairway and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence. +In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological order. +In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan masters, the Botticelli +and Perugino rooms deserve special mention. Other pictures are scattered +about in the churches, monasteries and private palaces. Of the +monasteries, that of St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many +works of Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the +private collections the only one of importance is that of Prince +Corsini. There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance +antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podesta, itself +one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many treasures are +works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other sculptors, and large +collections of ivory, enamel and bronze ware. The Opera del Duomo +contains models and pieces of sculpture connected with the cathedral; +the Etruscan and Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the +Michelangelo museum, the museum of natural history and other collections +are all important in different ways. + + + Population. + +The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners and a +garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363; it increased +largely when the capital of Italy was in Florence (1865-1872), but +decreased or increased very slightly after the removal of the capital to +Rome, and increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the +rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration, as +the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903, since +when there has been a slight increase of the former and a decrease of +the latter. + + + Administration. + +Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the central +government is represented by a prefect (_prefetto_), while local +government is carried on by a mayor (_sindaco_) and an elective town +council (_consiglio comunale_). The city is the seat of a court of +cassation (for civil cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor +tribunals. It is the headquarters of an army corps, and an +archiepiscopal see. + + + Education. + + There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls + (education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 pupils, + and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary education is + provided by one higher and four lower technical schools with 1375 + pupils, three _ginnasii_ or lower classical schools, and three _licei_ + or higher classical schools, with 1000 pupils, and three training + colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher education is imparted at the + university (_Istituto di studii superiori e di perfezionamento_), with + 600 to 650 students; although only comprising the faculties of + literature, medicine and natural science, it is, as regards the + first-named faculty, one of the most important institutions in Italy. + The original _Studio Fiorentino_ was founded in the 14th century, and + acquired considerable fame as a centre of learning under the Medici, + enhanced by the presence in Florence of many learned Greeks who had + fled from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks (1453). + Although in 1472 some of the faculties and several of the professors + were transferred to Pisa, it still retained importance, and in the + 17th and 18th centuries it originated a number of learned academies. + In 1859 after the annexation of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was + revived and reorganized; since then it has become to some extent a + national centre of learning and culture, attracting students from + other parts of Italy, partly on account of the fact that it is in + Florence that the purest Italian is spoken. The revival of classical + studies on scientific principles in modern Italy may be said to have + begun in Florence, and great activity has also been displayed in + reviving the study of Dante; Dante lectures being given regularly by + scholars and men of letters from all parts of the country, above the + church of Or San Michele as in the middle ages, under the auspices of + the _Societa Dantesca_. Palaeography, history and Romance languages + are among the other subjects to which especial importance is given. + Besides the _Istituto di studii superiori_ there is the _Istituto di + scienze sociali_ "_Cesare Alfieri_," founded by the marchese Alfieri + di Sostegno for the education of aspirants to the diplomatic and + consular services, and for students of economics and social sciences + (about 50 students); an academy of fine arts, a conservatoire of + music, a higher female training-college with 150 students, a number of + professional and trade schools, and an academy of recitation. There + are also many academies and learned societies of different kinds, of + which one of the most important is the _Accademia della Crusca_ for + the study of the Italian language, which undertook the publication of + a monumental dictionary. + + + Charities, etc. + + Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most + important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco + Portinari, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been thoroughly + renovated according to modern scientific principles. There are + numerous other hospitals both general and special, a foundling + hospital dating from the 13th century (Santa Maria degli Innocenti), + an institute for the blind, one for the deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the + hospitals and other charitable institutions are endowed, but the + endowments are supplemented by private contributions. + + + Commerce and Industry. + + Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district, + and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies + the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There are no + important industries, except a few flour-mills, some glass works, iron + foundries, a motor car factory, straw hat factories, and power-houses + supplying electricity for lighting and for the numerous tramcars. + There are, however, some artistic industries in and around the city, + of which the most important is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and + the Cantagalli majolica works. There are many other smaller + establishments, and the Florentine artificer seems to possess an + exceptional skill in all kinds of work in which art is combined with + technical ability. Another very important source of revenue is the + so-called "tourist industry," which in late years has assumed immense + proportions; the city contains a large number of hotels and + boarding-houses which every year are filled to overflowing with + strangers from all parts of the world. (L. V.*) + + +HISTORY + +Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae (Fiesole), which +lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built +only in Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by +C. Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later +on formed part of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed +the river Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears +to have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, and in +A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a colony) it +successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the waters of the +Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus mentions it, and Florus +describes it as one of the _municipia splendidissima_. A bishop of +Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313. A group of Italic cremation tombs _a +pozzo_ of the Villanova period were found under the pavement of the +medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio. This took its name from the +_Capitolium_ of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the +Piazza Luna; the three _cellae_ were clearly traceable. The capitals of +the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it became +clear that this temple had supplied building materials for S. Giovanni +and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal altar, probably belonging +to the temple, were found. Remains of baths have been found close by, +while the ancient amphitheatre has been found near S. Croce outside the +Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four +gates, the _Decumanus_ being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del +Corso, and the _Cardo_ by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio +occupied the site of the Forum. + + See L.A. Milani, "Reliquie di Firenze antica," in _Monumenti dei + Lincei_, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.) + + + The countess Matilda. + + Guelphs and Ghibellines. + + Beginnings of the commune. + + War with the nobles. + + The potestas. + +The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city by the +Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general Stilicho. +Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial +garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths. We find +the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one +_Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum_, which suggests that Florence +was the capital of a duchy (one of the regular divisions of the +Longobard empire). Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many +favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its +situation on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the +agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the head of +the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of +San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro Mezzabarba as bishop of +Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with +Rome, which ended in the triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk +Petrus Igneus, champion of the popular reform movement; this event +indicates the beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines. +Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or margraviate, and +the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire. +Under the emperor Otto I. one Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor +Conrad II. (elected in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of +Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the +Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the +margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous countess Matilda, who +ruled for forty years and played a prominent part in the history of +Italy in that period. In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever +on the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor and the +faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and she herself often led armies +to battle. It is at this time that the people of Florence first began to +acquire influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of +justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great +feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in +Tuscany, the _boni homines_ or _sapientes_. As the countess was +frequently absent these _boni homines_ gave judgment without her, thus +paving the way for a free commune. The citizens found themselves in +opposition to the nobility of the hills around the city, Teutonic +feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their +commerce. Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other +cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the +citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations which +were the germs of the _arti_ or gilds. After the death of Countess +Matilda in 1115 the _grandi_ or _boni homines_ continued to rule and +administer justice, but in the name of the people--a change hardly +noticed at first, but which marks the foundation of the commune. After +1138 the _boni homines_ began to be called _consules_, while the +population was divided into the _grandi_ or _delle torri_, i.e. the +noble families who had towers, and the _arti_ or trade and merchant +gilds. At first the _consules_, of whom there seem to have been twelve, +two for each _sestiere_ or ward, were chosen by the men of the towers, +and assisted by a council of 100 _boni homines_, in which the _arti_ +were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few +powerful families. The republic now proceeded to extend its power. In +1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the +_contado_ (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves, +were still powerful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines +to wage war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed. +The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his +authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former +state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful +counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152, +made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Welf of Bavaria as +margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to supply troops to the +emperor for his Lombard campaigns, and he began to establish a +centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a _potestas_, +who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of "San Miniato al +Tedesco"), to represent him and exercise authority in the _contado_; +this double authority of the _consoli_ in the town and the _potestas_ or +_podesta_ outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines were +masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and +Fiesole; but civil commotion within the city broke out between the +_consoli_ and the greater nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened +by the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles +and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, though not +victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted to the +consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief cities of +Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the Alberti whose castle +of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later we find a _potestas_ within the +city, elected for a year and assisted by seven councillors and seven +_rectores super capitibus artium_. This represented the triumph of the +feudal party, which had gained the support of the _arti minori_ or +minor gilds. The _potestates_ subsequently were foreigners, and in 1207 +the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto of Milan; a new council was +formed, the _consiglio del comune_, while the older senate still +survived. The Florentines now undertook to open the highways of commerce +towards Rome, for their city was already an important industrial and +banking centre. + + + Comune and popolo. + + Battle of Montaperti (1260). + +Discord among the great families broke out again, and the attempt to put +an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti and a +daughter of the Amidei, only led to further strife (1215), although the +causes of these broils were deeper and wider, being derived from the +general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the +work of crushing the nobles of the _contado_ and of asserting the city's +position among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war +successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years +against the Sienese with varying results; although the emperor supported +the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure for Germany in 1235 they +were forced to accept peace on onerous terms. During the interregnum +(1241-1243) following on the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline +cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was re-established. The +tumults against the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many +Ghibelline nobles favoured by the _podesta_ Pace di Pesamigola, indicate +a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., having defeated his +enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two Sicilies, appointed his natural +son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil +war broke out, entered the city with 1600 German knights. The +Ghibellines now triumphed completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders +were driven into exile--the first of many instances in Florentine +history of exile _en masse_ of a defeated party. The attempt to seize +Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated +failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six _caporali di +popolo_, who formed the basis of the _primo popolo_ or body of citizens +independent of the nobles, headed by the _capitano del popolo_. The +Ghibellines being unable to maintain their supremacy, the city came to +be divided into two almost autonomous republics, the _comune_ headed by +the _podesta_, and the _popolo_ headed by the _capitano_ and militarily +organized into twenty companies; the central power was represented by +twelve _anziani_ or elders. The _podesta_, who was always a foreigner, +usually commanded the army, represented the city before foreign powers, +and signed treaties. He was assisted by the _consiglio speciale_ of 90 +and the _consiglio generale e speciale_ of 300, composed of nobles, +while the _capitano del popolo_ had also two councils composed of +burghers, heads of the gilds, _gonfalonieri_ of the companies, &c. The +_anziani_ had a council of 36 burghers, and then there was the +_parlamento_ or general assembly of the people, which met only on great +occasions. At this time the _podesta's_ palace (the Bargello) was built, +and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be accepted as the +standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, although greatly +strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be called the democrats as +opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were by no means wholly +victorious, and in 1251 they had to defend themselves against a league +of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine +Ghibellines; the Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after +their plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in its +hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession of +Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines declared +war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs of other towns was +cunningly induced to believe that Siena would surrender at the first +summons; but it was met by a Sienese army reinforced by Florentine +exiles, including Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by +the cavalry of Manfred (q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the +count of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were totally routed +at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. Count Giordano entered +Florence, appointed Count Guido Novello _podesta_, and began a series of +persecutions against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze +the walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the +idea, saying that "he had fought to regain and not to ruin his +fatherland." + + + New constitution. + +During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the old liberties +were abolished, and the _popolo_ was deprived of all share in the +administration. But when Charles I. (q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy +as champion of the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed (1266), +the _popolo_, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, was ready +to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were +expelled, but it was not the _popolo_ who triumphed; the pope and +Charles were the real masters of the situation, and the Florentines +found they had exchanged a foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who +was foreign and Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored; +the _podesta_ who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 _buoni +uomini_, and by the council of the 100 _buoni uomini del popolo_, +"without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, "no great matter nor +expenditure could be undertaken." Other bodies and magistrates were +maintained, and the _capitano del popolo_, now called _capitano della +massa di parte Guelfa_, tended to become a very important person. The +property of the Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six +_capitani di parte Guelfa_ appointed to administer it and in general to +expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole constitution +of the republic, although of very democratic tendencies, seemed designed +to promote civil strife and weaken the central power. + + + Florentine trade and the gilds. + +While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed to argue +small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, the people +had built up a wonderful commercial organization. Each of the seven +_arti maggiori_ or greater gilds was organized like a small state with +its councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and in times of +trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine cloth especially was +known and sold all over Europe, and the Florentines were regarded as the +first merchants of the age. If the life of the city went on +uninterruptedly even during the many changes of government and the +almost endemic civil war, it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who +could carry on the administration without a government. + + + Cardinal Latino. + +After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines defeated +the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan territory. As +Charles perpetually interfered in their affairs, always favouring the +_grandi_ or Guelph nobles, some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a +counterpoise, which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph +of Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come to terms +with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 to give up his +title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the +interregnum following on the death of Frederick II. In 1279 Pope +Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher Latino Frangipani +Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal bishop of Ostia the same year, +to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino to some +extent succeeded, and was granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He +raised the 12 _buoni uomini_ to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be +changed every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. A +force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the _podesta_ and +_capitano_ (now both elected by the people) to keep order and oblige the +_grandi_ to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.) by weakening +Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed at complete independence +of emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the _signoria_ was composed of +the 3 (afterwards 6) _priori_ of the gilds, who ended by ousting the +_buoni uomini_, while a _defensor artificum et artium_ takes the place +of the _capitano_; thus the republic became an essentially trading +community, governed by the _popolani grassi_ or rich merchants. + + + Battle of Campaldino (1289). + + Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293). + +The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power of the +Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini were +completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a battle made +famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. War against the Pisans, +who had been defeated by the Genoese in the naval battle of La Meloria +in 1284, was carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was +made. But the _grandi_, who had largely contributed to the victory of +Campaldino, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were +becoming more powerful, and Charles had increased their number by +creating a great many knights; but their attempts to interfere with the +administration of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were +passed to reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the +abolition of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in +the number of _arti_, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 _maggiori_ and 14 +_minori_) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for the +Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing power and +arrogance of the _grandi_, who in spite of their exclusion from many +offices were still influential and constituted independent clans within +the state. The law obliged each member of the clan (_consorteria_) to +_sodare_ for all the other members, i.e. to give a pecuniary guarantee +to ensure payment of fines for offences committed by any one of their +number, a provision made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted +collectively. But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe +ones were enacted. These were the famous _Ordinamenti della Giustizia_ +of 1293, by which all who were not of the _arti_ were definitely +excluded from the signory. The _priori_ were to remain in office two +months and elected the _gonfaloniere_, also for two months; there were +the _capitudini_ or councils of the gilds, and two _savi_ for each +_sestiere_, with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the +_grandi_ families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters +concerning the _Ordinamenti_ was delivered in a summary fashion without +appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano della Bella, a noble +who by engaging in trade had become a _popolano_; the _grandi_ now tried +to make him unpopular with the _popolani grassi_, hoping that without +him the _Ordinamenti_ would not be executed, and opened negotiations +with Pope Boniface VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his +authority in Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he +was driven into exile in 1295. The _grandi_ regained some of their power +by corrupting the _podesta_ and by the favour of the _popolo minuto_ or +unorganized populace; but their quarrels among themselves prevented them +from completely succeeding, while the _arti_ were solid. + + + The Bianchi and the Neri. + +In 1295 a signory favourable to the _grandi_ enacted a law attenuating +the _Ordinamenti_, but now the _grandi_ split into two factions, one +headed by the Donati, which hoped to abolish the _Ordinamenti_, and the +other by the Cerchi, which had given up all hope of their abolition; +afterwards these parties came to be called _Neri_ (Blacks) and _Bianchi_ +(Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their influence over +Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having been discovered (May +1300), serious riots broke out between the Neri and the Bianchi. The +pope's attempt to unite the _grandi_ having failed, he summoned Charles +of Valois to come to his assistance, promising him the imperial crown; +in 1301 Charles entered Italy, and was created by the pope _paciaro_ or +peacemaker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and the +_popolo_ and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles reached +Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted Corso Donati +and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new _podesta_, Cante dei +Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, punished many of that +faction; among those whom he exiled was the poet Dante (1302). Corso +Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made +himself many enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the +_popolo grasso_, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in +which he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg was +elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he came to Italy +in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines of Italy regarded +him as a saviour and regenerator of the country, while the Guelphs of +Florence on the contrary opposed both him and the pope as dangerous to +their own liberties and accepted the protection of King Robert of +Naples, disregarding Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was +crowned emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal +ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances +into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate free Italian +communes. He besieged Florence without success, and died of disease in +1313. + + + Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani. + +The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that Henry was +dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della Fagginola, imperial +vicar in Genoa. A brave general and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca +and defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini +in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to +fly from Tuscany. A new danger now threatened Florence in the person of +Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.v.), who made himself lord +of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, and other +Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he harried the +Florentines and defeated them several times, captured Pistoia, +devastated their territory up to the walls of the city in spite of +assistance from Naples under Raymundo de Cardona and the duke of +Calabria (King Robert's son); never before had Florence been so +humiliated, but while Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he +died in 1328. Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been +appointed protector of the city in 1325, died, and further +constitutional reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by +the _consiglio del popolo_, consisting of 300 _popolani_ and presided +over by the _capitano_, and the _consiglio del comune_ of 250 members, +half of them nobles and half _popolani_, presided over by the _podesta_. +The _priori_ and other officers were drawn by lot from among the Guelphs +over thirty years old who were declared fit for public office by a +special board of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first, +but abuses soon crept in, and many persons were unjustly excluded from +office; trouble being expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was +created. But the first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, +used his dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of +office no successor was chosen. + + + Attempt to capture Lucca. + + The duke of Athens (1342-43). + +The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they might have +acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's death for 80,000 +florins, but failed to do so owing to differences of opinion in the +signory; Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in +1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not then very +flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make war on him. They +were successful at first, but Venice made a truce with the Scala +independently of the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they only +obtained a part of Lucchese territory. At the same time they purchased +from the Tarlati the protectorate over Arezzo for ten years. But +misfortunes fell on the city: Edward III. of England repudiated the +heavy debts contracted for his wars in France with the Florentine +banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to +their failure and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine +credit all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums from +the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions by accusing them +of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought terrible havoc in Florence, +and riots again broke out between the _grandi_ and the _popolo_, partly +on account of the late unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of +the finances. To put an end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke +of Athens, was elected "conservator" and captain of the guard in 1342. +An astute, dissolute and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine, +he began his government by a policy of conciliation and impartial +justice which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought the +ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed by the +populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of September was +carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. The _podesta_ and the +_capitano_ assenting to this treachery, he dismissed the +_gonfaloniere_, reduced the _priori_ to a position of impotence, +disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted the lordship of +Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his +bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, who behaved with the greatest +licence and brutality; by his oppressive taxes, and his ferocious +cruelty towards all who opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he +concluded with Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The +_grandi_ were disappointed because he had not crushed the _popolo_, and +the latter because he had destroyed their liberties and interfered with +the organization of the _arti_. Many unsuccessful plots against him were +hatched, and having discovered one that was conducted by Antonio degli +Adimari, the duke summoned the latter to the palace and detained him a +prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of +wishing to consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On +the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the duke's +abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came to the Florentines +from neighbouring cities, the _podesta_ was expelled, and a _balia_ or +provisional government of 14 was elected. The duke was forced to set +Adimari and his other prisoners free, and several of his men-at-arms +were killed by the populace; three of his chief henchmen, whom he was +obliged to surrender, were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the +1st of August he had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence +under a strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all +his enactments. + + + New constitution. + +The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several measures to +humble the _grandi_ still further, while the _popolo minuto_ or artisans +began to show signs of discontent at the rule of the merchants, and the +populace destroyed the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was +restored a _balia_ was appointed to reform the government, in which task +it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian ambassadors and by Simone da +Battifolle. The _priori_ were reduced to 8 (2 _popolani grassi_, 3 +_mediani_ and 3 _artifici minuti_), while the _gonfaloniere_ was to be +chosen in turn from each of those classes; the _grandi_ were excluded +from the administration, but they were still admitted to the _consiglio +del comune_, the _cinque di mercanzia_, and other offices pertaining to +the commune; the _Ordinamenti_ were maintained but in a somewhat +attenuated form, and certain _grandi_ as a favour were declared to be of +the _popolo_. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial +republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by commercial +considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an ambition to gain +secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism was the outcome of its +determination to secure the bank-business of the papacy; and its desire +to extend its territory in Tuscany to the necessity for keeping open the +land trade routes. Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the +walls of the city, for no one of the _contado_ nor any citizen of the +subject towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the +inhabitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them. + + + Statistics. + +Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 inhabitants, of +whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 churches, 39 religious +houses; the shops of the _arte della lana_ numbered over 200, producing +cloth worth 1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were +found all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the +service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, derived +chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 florins, whereas +its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military matters and public +buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already a centre of art and +letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that +the _grandi_ were suppressed politically, the lowest classes came into +prominence, "adventurers without sense or virtue and of no authority for +the most part, who had usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest +practices" (Matteo Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny. + + + The Great Plague (1348). + + War with Milan (1351). + +In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed the next year +by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, which carried off +three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Yet in spite of +these disasters the republic was by no means crushed; it soon regained +the suzerainty of many cities which had broken off all connexion with it +after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, and purchased the +overlordship of Prato from Queen Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it +from the duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and +archbishop of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with +sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to dominating Florence, +the city made war on him, and in violation of its Guelph traditions +placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for +his lifetime. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled the +_grandi_, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still dominated +the _parte Guelfa_, to reassert themselves. They had in 1347 succeeded +in enacting a very stringent law against all who were in any way tainted +with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves being above suspicion in that +connexion, enabled them to drive from office many members of the _popolo +minuto_. In 1358 the _parte Guelfa_ made these enactments still more +stringent, punishing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines +held office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming +condemnations might be passed for this offence without hearing the +accused; even a non-proved charge or an _ammonizione_ (warning not to +accept office) might entail disfranchisement. Thus the _parte_, +represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, came to exercise a +veritable reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation might fall +on him. The leader of the _parte_ was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief +rivals were the Ricci family. + + + The condottieri. + +Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers of fortune. +The first of these bands with whom Florence came into contact was the +Great Company, commanded by the count of Lando, which twice entered +Tuscany but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops +(1358-1359). + +In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of commercial +differences, and because the former had acquired the lordship of +Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa enlisted Sir John +Hawkwood's English company; the latter won several battles, but were at +last defeated at Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side +having gained much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in +1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban V., Queen +Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots to humble the +Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should join the league. This +they refused to do and armed themselves for defence, but eventually +satisfied the emperor with a money payment. + + + The parte Guelfa. + +The tyranny of the _parte Guelfa_ still continued unabated, and the +_capitani_ carried an enactment by which no measure affecting the +_parte_ should be even discussed by the signory unless previously +approved of by them. This infamous law, however, aroused so much +opposition that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in +secret to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and +the Ricci having weakened the _parte_, a _balia_ of 56 was agreed upon. +Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from office for five +years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was created to defend the +laws and protect the weak against the strong. The _parte Guelfa_ and the +Albizzi still remained very influential and the attempts to abolish +admonitions failed. + + + War with the church (1375-78). + +In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed how the old party +divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The papal legate at Bologna, +Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet (d. 1394), although the church was then +allied to Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to the +Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines for grain from +Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although +a large part of the people disliked the idea of a conflict with the +church, an alliance with Florence's old enemy Bernabo Visconti was made, +war declared, and a _balia_ of 8, the _Otto della guerra_ (afterwards +called the "Eight Saints" on account of their good management) was +created to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and +Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, including +Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. placed Florence +under an interdict, ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from +foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious company of Bretons to invade +the republic's territory. The Eight levied heavy toll on church property +and ordered the priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the +tables on the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by +order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope Clement +VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, their captains were +bribed by the republic not to molest its territory. By 1378 peace was +made, partly through the mediation of St Catherine of Siena, and the +interdict was removed in consideration of the republic's paying a fine +of 200,000 florins to the pope. + + + Salvestro de' Medici. + + The riot of the ciompi (1378). + +During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the city, but +now the _parte Guelfa_, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio and Piero degli +Albizzi, attempted to reassert itself by illicit interference in the +elections and by a liberal use of "admonitions" (_ammonizioni_). +Salvestro de' Medici, who had always opposed the _parte_, having been +elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for the +abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed (June 18, +1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired to break the power +of the _parte_ for good. Rioting occurred on the 21st of June, and the +houses of the Albizzi and other nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile +created a _balia_ of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the +_parte_, and partly enfranchised the _ammoniti_. The people were still +unsatisfied, the _arti minori_ demanded further privileges, and the +workmen insisted that their grievances against the _arti maggiori_, +especially the wool trade by whom they were employed, be redressed. A +large body of _ciompi_ (wool carders) gathered outside the city and +conspired to subvert the signory and establish a popular government. +Although the plot, in which Salvestro does not seem to have played a +part, was revealed, a good deal of mob violence occurred, and on the +21st of July the populace seized the _podesta's_ palace, which they made +their headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for the +_popolo minuto_, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso Strozzi, as +spokesman of the _ciompi_, obliged the signory to resign their powers to +the Eight. Once the people were in possession of the palace, a _ciompo_ +named Michele di Lando took the lead and put a stop to disorder and +pillage. He remained master of Florence for one day, during which he +reformed the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de' +Medici. Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three +from the _arti maggiori_, three from the _minori_, and three from the +new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose the +_gonfaloniere_ of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele di +Lando. This did not satisfy the _ciompi_, and the disorders provoked by +them resulted in a new government which reformed the two councils so as +to exclude the lower orders. But to satisfy the people several of the +_grandi_, including Piero degli Albizzi, were put to death, on charges +of conspiracy, and many others were exiled. There was perpetual rioting +and anarchy, and interference in the affairs of the government by the +working men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased +owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last in +1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gild companies. +Again a new constitution was decreed by which the _gonfaloniere_ and +half the _priori_ were to be chosen from the _arti maggiori_ and the +other half from the _minori_; on several other boards the former were to +be in the majority, and the three new gilds were abolished. The +demagogues were executed or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with +great ingratitude was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the +_ciompi_, largely of an economic character, were put down, and the +Guelph families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which +they availed themselves to exile their opponents and revive the odious +system of _ammonizioni_. + + + Attempts to acquire Pisa (1402-6). + +Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained its position, and +in 1383 it regained Arezzo by purchase from the lieutenant of Charles of +Durazzo. In 1390 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, having made himself master of a +large part of northern Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and +Siena. Florence, alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an +army of 7000 men more than held his own against the powerful lord of +Milan, and in 1392 a peace was concluded which the republic strengthened +by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian states. In 1393 Maso +degli Albizzi was made _gonfaloniere_, and for many years remained +almost master of Florence owing to his influential position in the _Arte +della Lana_. A severe persecution was initiated against the Alberti and +other families, who were disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and +conspiracies against the merchant oligarchy continued, and although they +were unsuccessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles +caused the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign +states. In 1397-1398 Florence had two more wars with Gian Galeazzo +Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany, acquired the +lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood being dead, Florence +purchased aid from the emperor Rupert. The Imperialists were beaten; but +just as the Milanese were about to march on Florence, Visconti died. His +territories were then divided between his sons and his _condottieri_, +and Florence, ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria +Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface IX., who wished to regain +Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and the allies were +successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his ends he made peace, +leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In 1404 their attempt to capture +Pisa single-handed failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the +protection of the French king. The Florentines then made overtures to +France, who had supported the anti-popes all through the great schism, +and suggested that they too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict +XIII., in exchange for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1405 +the city was sold to Florence for 260,000 florins; and Gino Capponi,[1] +the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel, but a few +days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured it from the +mercenaries. There was great consternation in Florence at the news, and +every man in the city "determined that he would go naked rather than not +conquer Pisa" (G. Capponi). The next year that city, then ruled by +Giovanni Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the +mouth of the Arno. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered on terms +(9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked, many of the +citizens were exiled and others forced to live in Florence, a +depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence now acquired a +great seaport and was at last able to develop a direct maritime trade. + + + The council of Pisa (1408). + +Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic had taken no +definite side in the great schism which had divided the church since +1378, but in 1408 she appealed both to Pope Gregory XII. and the +anti-pope Benedict XIII. as well as to various foreign governments in +favour of a settlement, and suggested a council within her own +territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a committee of +theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council promoted by +Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates met at Pisa. This nearly +led to war with King Ladislas of Naples, because he had seized Rome, +which he could only hold so long as the church was divided. The council +deposed both popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of +June). But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence, +alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with Siena, +Bologna and Louis of Anjou who laid claim to the Neapolitan throne, to +drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvieto, Viterbo and other cities +were recovered for Alexander, and in January 1410 Rome itself was +captured by the Florentines under Malatesta dei Malatesti. Alexander +having died in May before entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was +elected as John XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with +Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased Cortona of the +pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal states once more, driving John +from Rome, and threatened Florence; but like Henry VII., Gian Galeazzo +Visconti, and other enemies of the republic, he too died most +opportunely (6th of August 1414). John having lost all authority after +leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put an end to +the schism in 1417 with the election of Martin V. The new pope came to +Florence in 1419 as he had not yet regained Rome, which was held by +Francesco Sforza for Queen Joanna II. of Naples, and remained there +until the following year. + +No important changes in the constitution took place during this period +except the appointment of two new councils in 1411 to decide on +questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction headed by Maso +degli Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had remained predominant, +and at Maso's death in 1417 he was succeeded in the leadership of the +party by Niccolo da Uzzano. In 1421 Giovanni de' Medici was elected +_gonfaloniere_ of justice, an event which marks the beginning of that +wealthy family's power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn +from the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of "Consuls +of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Although 11,000,000 florins +had been spent on recent wars Florence continued prosperous and its +trade increased. + + + New war with the Visconti (1421-27). + +In 1421 Filippo Maria Visconti, who had succeeded in reconquering most +of Lombardy, seized Forli; this induced the Florentines to declare war +on him, as they regarded his approach as a menace to their territory in +spite of the opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de' Medici. +The campaign was anything but successful, and the Florentines were +defeated several times, with the result that their credit was shaken and +several important firms failed. The pope too was against them, but when +they induced the Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and +Visconti was finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous +terms (1427). + + + Fiscal reforms (1427). + +The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded to the needs +of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various loans made to the +state were consolidated into one national debt (_monte_). Subsequently +all extraordinary expenditure was met by forced loans (_prestanze_), but +the method of distribution aroused discontent among the lower classes, +and in 1427 a general _catasto_ or assessment of all the wealth of the +citizens was formed, and measures were devised to distribute the +obligations according to each man's capacity, so as to avoid pressing +too hardly on the poor. The _catasto_ was largely the work of Giovanni +de' Medici, who greatly increased his popularity thereby. He died in +1429. + + + Exile and return of Cosimo de' Medici (1433-34). + +An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with Venice, into +another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The mismanagement of the +campaign brought about a quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by +Rinaldo degli Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni de' +Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both had agreed to the war +before it began. Rinaldo was determined to break the Medici party, and +succeeded in getting Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen +their position by conferring exceptional powers on the _capitano del +popolo_ and by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had +a great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a _coup d'etat_ met +with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent the +election of a pro-Medici signory in 1434. He and other leaders of the +party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of plotting against +the state, to which he replied by collecting 800 armed followers. A +revolution was only averted through the intervention of Pope Eugenius +IV., who was then in Florence. A _parlamento_ was summoned, and the +_balia_ appointed decreed the return of Cosimo and the exile of Rinaldo +degli Albizzi, Rodolfo Peruzzi, Niccolo Barbadori, and others, in spite +of the feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of October +1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next three centuries the +history of the city is identified with that of the house of Medici.[2] + + + Cosimo's rule. + +Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining nominally a +private citizen. He exiled those who opposed him, and governed by means +of the _balie_, which, re-elected every five years, appointed all the +magistrates and acted according to his orders. In 1437 Florence and +Venice were again at war with the Visconti, whose chief captain, Niccolo +Piccinino (q.v.), on entering Tuscany with many Florentine exiles in his +train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the Florentines under +Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the following year. The system +of the _catasto_, which led to abuses, was abolished, and a progressive +income-tax (_decima scalata_) was introduced with the object of +lightening the burdens of the poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the +expense of the rich; but as it was frequently increased the whole +community came to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his +own authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza to +become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the war against +Venice (1452-1454). In 1452 the emperor Frederick III. passed through +Florence on his way to be crowned in Rome, and was received as a friend. +During the last years of Cosimo's life, affairs were less under his +control, and the _gonfaloniere_ Luca Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, +introduced many changes, such as the abasement of the authority of the +_podesta_ and of the _capitano_, which Cosimo desired but was glad to +attribute to others. + + + Piero de' Medici (the Gouty). + + Lorenzo the Magnificent. + +In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some opposition, by +his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty. Various plots against him +were hatched, the anti-Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio +party because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill, while +the Mediceans were called the Del Piano party because Piero's house was +in the town below; the other opposition leaders were Dietisalvi Neroni +and Agnolo Acciaiuoli. But Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes +of his enemies. The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of +Milan, and the Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded +Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements, in 1468, +through the intervention of Pope Paul II. Piero died in 1469, leaving +two sons, Lorenzo (1449-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The former at +once assumed the reins of government and became ruler of Florence in a +way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted; he established his +domination by means of _balie_ consisting of the signory, the +_accoppiatori_, and 240 other members, all Mediceans, to be renewed +every five years (1471). In 1472 a quarrel having arisen with Volterra +on account of a dispute concerning the alum mines, Lorenzo sent an +expedition against the city, which was sacked and many of the +inhabitants massacred. Owing to a variety of causes an enmity arose +between Lorenzo and Pope Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an +accomplice, at all events had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against +the Medici (1478). The result of the plot was that, although Giuliano +was murdered, Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or +exiled numbers of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus, who, +together with King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against him; no great +successes were registered on either side at first, but eventually the +Florentines were defeated at Poggio Imperiale (near Poggibonsi) and the +city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's position was critical, but by his +boldness in going to Naples he succeeded in concluding a peace with the +king, which led to a reconciliation with the pope (1479-1480). He was +received with enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute +master of the situation. In April 1480 a _balia_ was formed, and its +most important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the Council +of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it became permanent, +and all its members were Lorenzo's friends. From that time until his +death the city was free from party strife under a _de facto_ despotism, +but after the Rinuccini conspiracy of that year the Council of Seventy +passed a law declaring attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason. +Owing to his political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business +interests of his firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he +seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy, which was +magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced loans necessary, and +he also laid hands on the Monte delle Doti, an insurance institution to +provide dowries for girls. + + + Savonarola. + +An attempt by the Venetians to seize Ferrara led to a general Italian +war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile to Venice, and +when peace was made in 1484 the republic gained some advantages. The +following year a revolt of the Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand +broke out, actively supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained +neutral at first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of +power and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended by +giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in Florence. +Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms in 1486, and in +1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa had taken from Florence nine +years previously. The general disorders and ceaseless intrigues all over +Italy required Lorenzo's constant attention, and he succeeded in making +Florence "the needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this time the +Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.) was in Florence and aroused the +whole city by his denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of +that of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government as the source +of the immorality of the people, and to some extent influenced public +opinion against him. Ill-health now gained on Lorenzo, and Savonarola, +whom he had summoned to his bedside, refused to give absolution to the +destroyer of Florentine liberties. Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence +had become one of the greatest centres of art and literature in Europe, +died in 1492. + + + Piero de' Medici. + + Expulsion of the Medici (1494). + + Charles VIII. in Florence. + + Piero Capponi. + +He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's capacity +and made a number of political blunders. When Charles VIII. of France +came to Italy to conquer Naples Piero decided to assist the latter +kingdom, although the traditional sympathies of the people were for the +French king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured +Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for opposing him. The +king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and other towns, which Piero +granted, but on returning to Florence on the 8th of November 1494 he +found the opposition greatly strengthened and his popularity forfeited, +especially when the news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became +known. He was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to +shout "Popolo e liberta!" in opposition to the Medicean cry of "Palle, +Palle!" (from the Medici arms). With a small escort he fled from the +city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni. That same day Pisa +rose in revolt against the Florentines, and was occupied by Charles. The +expulsion of the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi (q.v.) +and other prominent citizens succeeded in keeping the peace. +Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola, were sent to treat with the +French king, but no agreement was arrived at until Charles entered +Florence on the 17th of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of +their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at the seizure of +Sarzana, and while they gave the king a splendid welcome, they did not +like his attitude of conqueror. Charles was impressed with the wealth +and refinement of the citizens, and above all with the solid +fortress-like appearance of their palaces. The signory appointed Piero +Capponi, a man of great ability and patriotism, and experienced in +diplomacy, the _gonfaloniere_ Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio +Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenico Bonsi, syndics +to conduct the negotiations with the French king. Charles's demands by +no means pleased the citizens, and the arrogance and violence of his +soldiers led to riots in which they were assailed with stones in the +narrow streets. When the king began to hint at the recall of Piero de' +Medici, whose envoys had gained his ear, the signory ordered the +citizens to be ready to fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but +Charles demanded an immense sum of money before he would leave the city; +long discussions followed, and when at last he presented an insolent +ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in a +threatening tone, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," whereupon Capponi +tore up the document in his face and replied, "And we shall ring our +bells." The king, realizing what street fighting in Florence would mean, +at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000 florins, +agreeing to assume the title of "Protector and Restorer of the liberty +of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had taken within two +years, unless his expedition to Naples should be concluded sooner; the +Medici were to remain banished, but the price on their heads was +withdrawn. But Charles would not depart, a fact which caused perpetual +disturbance in the city, and it was not until the 28th of November, +after an exhortation by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he +left Florence. + + + The revived republic. + + Savonarola as a statesman. + +It was now intended to re-establish the government on the basis of the +old republican institutions, but it was found that sixty years of Medici +rule had reduced them to mere shadows, and the condition of the +government, largely controlled by a _balia_ of 20 _accoppiatori_ and +frequently disturbed by the summoning of the _parlamento_, was utterly +chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of changing the +constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer an upper class +accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class was thoroughly +demoralized. Many proposals were made, none of them of practical value, +until Savonarola, who had already made a reputation as a moral reformer, +began his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing confusion +the people turned to him as their only hope, and gradually a new +government was evolved, each law being enacted as the result of his +exhortations. A Greater Council empowered to appoint magistrates and pass +laws was formed, to which all citizens _netti di specchio_ (who had paid +their taxes) and _beneficiati_ (i.e. who had sat in one of the higher +magistracies or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had +done so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200 such +citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months. The Greater +Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens over forty years old, +also to be changed every six months; this body, which the signory must +consult once a week, together with the colleges and the signory itself, +was to appoint ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other +confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished and a 10% +tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a law of amnesty for +political offenders enacted. Savonarola also proposed a court of appeal +for criminal and political crimes tried by the _Otto di guardia e balia_; +this too was agreed to, but the right of appeal was to be, not to a court +as Savonarola suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to +grave abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions. The +_parlamenti_ were abolished and a _monte di pieta_ to advance money at +reasonable interest was created. But in spite of Savonarola's popularity +there was a party called the _Bigi_ (greys) who intrigued secretly in +favour of the return of the Medici, while the men of wealth, called the +_Arrabbiati_, although they hated the Medici, were even more openly +opposed to the actual regime and desired to set up an aristocratic +oligarchy. The adherents of Savonarola were called the _Piagnoni_, or +snivellers, while the _Neutrali_ changed sides frequently. + + + League against Charles VIII. + + Alexander VI. against Florence. + + Trial and execution of Savonarola (1498). + +A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain having been +made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced to return to France. +On his way back he passed through Florence, and; although the republic +had refused to join the league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero +de' Medici was in the king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the +French camp, and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have +had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time Charles violated his +promise by giving aid to the Pisans in their revolt against Florence, +and did not restore the other fortresses. After the French had abandoned +Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a number of +mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the citizens, fired by +Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and prepared for an energetic +resistance; owing to Piero's incapacity and the exhaustion of his funds +the expedition came to nothing. At the same time the conditions of the +city were not prosperous; its resources were strained by the sums paid +to Charles and by the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed, +famine and plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was +proceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of one of +its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi. The league +now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI. hated Savonarola and was +determined to destroy the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici +temporarily and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians and +Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was great misery in Florence. +All this decreased Savonarola's popularity to some extent, but the enemy +having been beaten at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the +point of breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party +was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were held, +Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed to have +temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival of 1497 remained +famous for the burning of the "vanities" (i.e. indecent books and +pictures and carnival masks and costumes). The friar's sermons against +ecclesiastical corruption, and especially against the pope, resulted in +his excommunication by the latter, in consequence of which he lost much +of his influence and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero +made another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medici plots having +been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent citizens were +tried and put to death; but the party hostile to Savonarola gained +ground and had the support of the Franciscans, who were hostile to the +Dominican order. Pulpit warfare was waged between Savonarola and his +opponents, and the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in +a proposed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope +again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him, but +without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against the +city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of Arrabbiati having +been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's opponents attacked the +convent of St Mark where he resided, and he himself was arrested and +imprisoned. The commission appointed to try him on charges of heresy and +treason was composed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had +previously attempted to murder him; many irregularities were committed +during the three trials, and the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The +outgoing signory secured the election of another which was of their way +of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola was condemned to +death and executed the following day. + + + Piero Soderini. + +The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence was less +critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was renewed, and in 1499 +the city might have been taken but for the dilatory tactics of the +Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli, who was consequently arrested on a +charge of treason and put to death. Louis XII. of France, who now sent +an army into Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the +Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in Romagna, +suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici in Florence, and the +danger was only warded off by appointing him captain-general of the +Florentine forces at a large salary (1501). The weakness of the +government becoming every day more apparent, several constitutional +changes were made, and many old institutions, such as that of the +_podesta_ and _capitano del popolo_, were abolished; finally in 1502, in +order to give more stability to the government, the office of +_gonfaloniere_, with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was +made a life appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini +(1448-1522), an honest public-spirited man of no particular party, but +lacking in strength of character. One useful measure which he took was +the institution of a national militia at the suggestion of Niccolo +Machiavelli (1505). In the meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without +much headway being made. In 1503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI. +had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who was at war +with France over the partition of Naples, helped the Pisans as the +enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504), but when the war was +over the Florentines were able to lay siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509 +the city was driven by famine to surrender and became a dependency of +Florence once more. + + + Schismatic council of Pisa (1510). + + Return of the Medici (1512). + + Second expulsion of the Medici (1527). + + The siege of Florence. + + Surrender of Florence (1530). + +Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai with France +and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510, and raised the cry of +"Fuori i Barbari" (out with the barbarians), with a view to expelling +the French from Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical +council so as to create a schism in the Church, and demanded that it be +held in Florentine territory. After some hesitation the republic agreed +to the demand, and the council was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope +immediately placed Florence under an interdict. At the request of the +Florentines the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them +from the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo de Cardona and +accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother Giuliano +entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000 florins, the +dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the Medici. Soderini +offered to resign, but the Greater Council supported him and +preparations for defence were made. In August the Spaniards took Prato +by storm and committed hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence +was in a panic, a group of the _Ottimati_, or nobles, forced Soderini to +resign and leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz. +the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins, and an +alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 1512 Giuliano and Giovanni +de' Medici, and their nephew Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish +troops; a _parlamento_ was summoned, and a packed _balia_ formed which +abolished the Greater Council and created a constitution similar to that +of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano became _de facto_ head of the +government, but he did not pursue the usual vindictive policy of his +house, although he resorted to the Laurentian method of amusing the +citizens with splendid festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., +Giovanni de' Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly +enhanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano died, and +was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke of Urbino. At his +death in 1519 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son of the Giuliano murdered +in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge of the government; he met with some +opposition and had to play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he +did not rule badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of +freedom. In 1523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his +relatives Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence +under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was styled +the _Magnifico_ and destined to be ruler of the republic, but Cardinal +Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the city was soon +seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and Passerini showed himself +quite unequal to coping with the situation. The Ottimati were mostly +anti-Medicean, and by 1527 the position was untenable. When Filippo +Strozzi, and above all his wife, threw their influence in the scales +against the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their expulsion +from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro left Florence (17th of +May 1527). A _Consiglio degli Scelti_ was summoned, and a constitution +similar to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater +Council was revived and Niccolo Capponi created _gonfaloniere_ for a +year. But Florence was torn by factions--the Ottimati who desired an +oligarchy, the Palleschi or Mediceans who generally supported them, the +Adirati who opposed Capponi for his moderation, the Arrabbiati who were +strongly anti-Medicean, and the Popolani who opposed the Ottimati. "It +is almost impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as +Florence then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by +chance any such should arise they would be hated and persecuted, their +dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they would be hunted +from their country or die of grief" (Benedette Varchi). Capponi did his +best to reform the city and save the situation, and while adopting +Savonarola's tone in internal affairs, he saw the dangers in the foreign +situation, realizing that a reconciliation between the pope and the +emperor Charles V. would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement +would certainly seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power. +Having been re-elected _gonfaloniere_ in spite of much opposition in +1528, Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspondence +with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high treason, +and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave the city for +six months. Francesco Carducci was elected _gonfaloniere_ in his place, +and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and the emperor concluded a treaty +by which the latter agreed to re-establish the Medici in Florence. +Carducci made preparations for a siege, but a large part of the people +were against him, either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the +Frateschi, as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported +him strongly. A body called the _Nove della Milizia_, of whom +Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the defence of +the city, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended the +strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate choice for the +chief command of the army was the appointment of Malatesta Baglioni. In +August an imperial army under Philibert, prince of Orange, advanced on +the city. In September Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other cities +fell before the Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the +pope were unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. Although +alone against papacy and empire, the citizens showed the greatest spirit +and devotion, and were successful in many sorties. The finest figure +produced by these events was that of Francesco Ferruccio (q.v.); by his +defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and was +appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid marches and +counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the enemy unexpectedly, +and harassing them continually. But Malatesta was a traitor at heart and +hindered the defence of the city in every way. Ferruccio, who had +recaptured Volterra, marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the +Imperialists in the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of +August, but in spite of Ferruccio's heroism he was defeated and killed; +the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement. Malatesta +contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous attack by the +besieged. The sufferings from famine within the city were now very +great, and an increasingly large part of the people favoured surrender. +The signory, at last realizing that Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed +him; but it was too late, and he now behaved as though he were governor +of Florence; when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he +turned his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that all +hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Ferrante Gonzaga, +the new imperial commander. On the 12th the capitulation was signed: +Florence was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medici were to +be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new government, "it being +understood that liberty is to be preserved." Baccio Valori, a Medicean +who had been in the imperialist camp, now took charge, and the city was +occupied by foreign troops. A _parlamento_ was summoned, the usual +packed _balia_ created, and all opposition silenced. The city was given +over to Pope Clement, who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, +had Carducci and Girolami (the last _gonfaloniere_) hanged, and +established Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of +Urbino, as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year +the signory was abolished, Alessandro created _gonfaloniere_ for life, +and his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial patent. Thus +Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital of the duchy +(afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see TUSCANY). + + + The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. + +The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian Gastone in +1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis, duke of Lorraine. +But it was governed by a regency until 1753, when it was conferred by +the empress Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the +Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine was +driven from the throne, and Tuscany was annexed to the French empire in +1808. In 1809 Florence was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but +after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in +1833, and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal +revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a constitution. +But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-duke returned under +an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the Franco-Italian victories over the +Austrians in Lombardy, by a bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was +expelled and Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom. + +In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy, but after +the occupation of Rome in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war, the +capital was transferred to the Eternal City (1871). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best complete history of Florence is Gino Capponi's + _Storia della Repubblica di Firenze_ (2 vols., Florence, 1875), which + although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard work + based on original authorities; also F.T. Perrens, _Histoire de + Florence_ (9 vols., Paris, 1877-1890). For the early period see + Pasquale Villari's _I Primi Due Secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Eng. + ed., London, 1894), and R. Davidsohn's _Geschichte der Stadt Florenz_ + (Berlin, 1896); P. Villari's _Savonarola_ (English ed., London, 1896) + is invaluable for the period during which the friar's personality + dominated Florence, and his _Machiavelli_ (English ed., London, 1892) + must be also consulted, especially for the development of political + theories. Among the English histories of Florence, Napier's + _Florentine History_ (6 vols., London, 1846-1847) and A. Trollope's + _History of the Commonwealth of Florence_ (4 vols., London, 1865) are + not without value although out of date. Francis Hyett's _Florence_ + (London, 1903) is more recent and compendious; the author is somewhat + Medicean in his views, and frequently inaccurate. For the later + history, A. von Reumont's _Geschichte von Toscana_ (Gotha, 1876-1877) + is one of the best works. There is a large number of small treatises + and compendia of Florentine history of the guide-book description. See + also the bibliographies in MEDICI, MACHIAVELLI, SAVONAROLA, TUSCANY, + &c. (L. V.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian and + statesman of the same name (q.v.). + + [2] The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in + greater detail in the article MEDICI, save for the periods from 1494 + to 1512 and from 1527 to 1530, during which the republic was + restored. For the period from 1530 to 1860 see also under TUSCANY. + + + + +FLORES, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, and +forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 8137; area, 57 sq. +m. Flores and the adjacent island of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.) +constitute the westernmost group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly +to belong to the archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely +severed. They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to +those who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good +shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry is excellent; and the cattle +are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the abundance of the +flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its capital is Santa Cruz +das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the station of the English fleet +before the famous sea fight between Sir R. Grenville's ship "Revenge" +and a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels. See AZORES. + + + + +FLORES, an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of the chain +extending east of Java. Its length is 224 m., its greatest breadth 37 +m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate, chalk, and +sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights stretching west and +east, indicates a similar structure to that of the other islands of the +chain. Several volcanoes are active. Among the loftier summits are, on +the south coast, Gunong Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the +lesser but constantly active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the +south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior is little +explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive rounded gulfs, where +are situated the principal villages (_kampongs_). On the north coast are +Bari, Reo, Maumer and Geliting; on the east, Larantuka; and on the +south, Sikka and Endeh. The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to +be unnavigable. The mean temperature is 77 deg. to 80 deg. F., and the +yearly rainfall 43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is +divided into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government of +Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and dependencies), +attached to the residency of Timor. The population is estimated at +250,000. The people live by trade, fishing, salt-making, shipbuilding, +and the cultivation of rice, maize, and palms in the plain, but there is +little industry or commerce. Some edible birds' nests, rice, sandalwood +and cinnamon are exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of +the coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines, who +occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall and well-built, +with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly. They are pure savages; +their only religion is a kind of nature-worship. They consider the earth +holy and inviolable; thus in severe droughts they only dig the +river-beds for water as a last resource. Portugal claimed certain +portions of the island until 1859. + + + + +FLOREZ, ENRIQUE (1701-1773), Spanish historian, was born at Valladolid +on the 14th of February 1701. In his fifteenth year he entered the order +of St Augustine, was afterwards professor of theology at the university +of Alcala, and published a _Cursus theologiae_ in five volumes +(1732-1738). He afterwards devoted himself to historical studies. Of +these the first-fruit was his _Clave Historial_, a work of the same +class as the French _Art de verifier les dates_, and preceding it by +several years. It appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In +1747 was published the first volume of _Espana Sagrada, teatro +geografico-historico de la Iglesia de Espana_, a vast compilation of +Spanish ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation, and +of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author's lifetime. It was +continued after his death by Manuel Risco and others, and further +additions have been made at the expense of the Spanish government. The +whole work in fifty-one volumes was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its +value is considerably increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles +and documents not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good +numismatist, and published _Medallas de las Colonias_ in 2 vols. +(1757-1758), of which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was +the _Memorias de las reynas Catolicas_, 2 vols. (1770). Florez led a +retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid on the 20th +of August 1773. + + See F. Mendez, _Noticia de la vida y escritos de Henrique Florez_ + (Madrid, 1780). + + + + +FLORIAN, SAINT, a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In the 8th century +Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb, and on the site was built +the celebrated monastery of canons regular, St Florian, which still +exists. His _Acta_ are of considerable antiquity, but devoid of +historical value. Their substance is borrowed from the _Acta_ of St +Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult of St Florian was introduced into Poland, +together with the relics of the saint, which were brought thither in +1183 by Giles, bishop of Modena. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a +church at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially +as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours out +flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His day in the +calendar is the 4th of May. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_, May, i. 461-467; B. Krusch, _Scriptores rerum + Merovingicarum_, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, _Caracteristiques des saints_, + p. 490 (Paris, 1867). (H. De.) + + + + +FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DE (1755-1794), French poet and romance +writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at the chateau of Florian, +near Sauve, in the department of Gard. His mother, a Spanish lady named +Gilette de Salgues, died when he was quite a child. His uncle and +guardian, the marquis of Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire, +introduced him at Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the +household of the duke of Penthievre, who remained his friend throughout +his life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at +Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain's commission in a dragoon +regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed a boisterous +behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle, meditative character of his +works. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he retired to Sceaux, +but he was soon discovered and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment +was short he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th +of September 1794. + +Florian's first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle +_Voltaire et le serf du Mont Jura_ and an eclogue _Ruth_ were crowned by +the French Academy in 1782 and 1784 respectively. In 1782 also he +produced a one-act prose comedy, _Le Bon Menage_, and in the next year +_Galatee_, a romantic tale in imitation of the _Galatea_ of Cervantes. +Other short tales and comedies followed, and in 1786 appeared _Numa +Pompilius_, an undisguised imitation of Fenelon's _Telemaque_. In 1788 +he became a member of the French Academy, and published _Estelle_, a +pastoral of the same class as _Galatee_. Another romance, _Gonzalve de +Cordoue_, preceded by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in +1791, and his famous collection of _Fables_ in 1792. Among his +posthumous works are _La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Memoires d'un jeune +Espagnol_ (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of _Don Quixote_, which, +though far from being a correct representation of the original, had +great and merited success. + +Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his style has +all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the Gessnerian school. +Perhaps the nearest example of the class in English literature is +afforded by John Wilson's (Christopher North's) _Lights and Shadows of +Scottish Life_. Among the best of his fables are reckoned "The Monkey +showing the Magic Lantern," "The Blind Man and the Paralytic," and "The +Monkeys and the Leopard." + + The best edition of Florian's _Oeuvres completes_ appeared in Paris in + 16 volumes, 1820; his _Oeuvres inedites_ in 4 volumes, 1824. + + See "Vie de Florian," by L.F. Jauffret, prefixed to his _Oeuvres + posthumes_ (1802); A.J.N. de Rosny, _Vie de Florian_ (Paris, An V.); + Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; A. de Montvaillant, + _Florian, sa vie, ses oeuvres_ (1879); and _Lettres de Florian a Mme + de la Briche_, published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in + _Melanges_ published (1903) by the Societe des bibliophiles francais. + + + + +FLORIANOPOLIS (formerly _Desterro_, _Nossa Senhora do Desterro_ and +_Santa Catharina_, and still popularly known under the last +designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of +Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore of a large island of the +same name, 485 m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, in 27 deg. 30' S., 48 deg. +30' W. Pop. (1890) 11,400, including many Germans; (1902, estimate) +16,000; of the municipality, including a large rural district and +several villages (1890), 30,687. The harbour is formed by the widening +of the strait separating the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 +m. wide at this point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. +and S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous and +wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly storms. The +surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical in character, but the +town itself is poorly built and unattractive. Its public buildings +include the president's official residence, arsenal, lyceum, hospital +and some old churches. The climate is warm for the latitude, but the +higher elevations of the vicinity are noted for their mild climate and +healthfulness. There are some German colonies farther up the coast whose +products find a market here, and a number of small settlements along the +mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The more distant +inland towns are partly supplied from this point, but difficult mountain +roads tend to restrict the trade greatly. There is a considerable trade +in market produce with Rio de Janeiro, but the exports are +inconsiderable. Santa Catharina was formerly one of the well-known +whaling stations of the South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military +and naval station. + +The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the Spanish; +Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched hence across country to +Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish failed to establish a permanent colony, +however, and the Portuguese took possession. The island was captured by +a Spanish expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty +of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa Catharina fell +into the possession of revolutionists against the government of +President Floriano Peixoto. With the collapse of the revolution the city +was occupied by the government forces, and its name was then changed to +Florianopolis in honour of the president of the republic. + + + + +FLORIDA, the most southern of the United States of America, situated +between 24 deg. 30' and 31 deg. N. lat. and 79 deg. 48' and 87 deg. 38' +W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the Atlantic +Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it from Cuba, and by +the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a +chain of islands extending in a general south-westerly direction from +Biscayne Bay, are included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key +West, on an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe +county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which 3805 sq. +m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that of any other +state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m. on the Gulf Coast. + +The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of "Peninsula State." +The average elevation of the surface of the state above the sea-level is +less than that of any other state except Louisiana, but there is not the +monotony of unbroken level which descriptions and maps often suggest. +The N.W. portion of the state is, topographically, similar to +south-eastern Alabama, being a rolling, hilly country; the eastern +section is a part of the Atlantic coastal plain; the western coast line +is less regular than the eastern, being indented by a number of bays and +harbours, the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and +Pensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along nearly the +whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand reefs and narrow +islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies of water, such as Indian +river and Lake Worth--called rivers, lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours. +In the central part of the state there is a ridge, extending N. and S. +and forming a divide, separating the streams of the east coast from +those of the west. Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300 +ft. The central region is remarkable for its large number of lakes, +approximately 30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake +Okeechobee. They are due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused by +solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes are connected +by subterranean channels, and a change in the surface of one lake is +often accompanied by a change in the surface of another. By far the +largest of these lakes, nearly all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee, +a body of water about 1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow, +its depth seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing +into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal outlet. +Among the other lakes are Orange, Crescent, George, Weir, Harris, +Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekaliga, Kissimmee and Istokpoga. The chief feature +of the southern portion of the state is the Everglades (q.v.), the term +"Everglade State" being popularly applied to Florida. Within the state +there are many swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in +the S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp, +extending from Georgia into the N.E. part of the state. + + A peculiar feature of the drainage of the state is the large number of + subterranean streams and of springs, always found to a greater or less + extent in limestone regions. Some of them are of great size. Silver + Spring and Blue Spring in Marion county, Blue Spring and Orange City + Mineral Spring in Volusia county, Chipola Spring near Marianna in + Jackson county, Espiritu Santo Spring near Tampa in Hillsboro county, + Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee Springs in Suwanee county, + White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton county, the Wekiva Springs in Orange + county, and Wakulla Spring, Newport Sulphur Spring and Panacea Mineral + Spring in Wakulla county are the most noteworthy. Many of the springs + have curative properties, one of them, the Green Cove Spring in Clay + county, discharging about 3000 gallons of sulphuretted water per + minute. Not far from St Augustine a spring bursts through the sea + itself with such force that the ocean breakers roll back from it as + from a sunken reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake + systems are usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George being the + principal source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee, + while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one of + the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers. + +[Illustration: Map of Florida.] + +Of the rivers the most important are the St Johns, which flows N. from +about the middle of the peninsula, empties into the Atlantic a short +distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable for about 250 m. from its +mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing in a general north-westerly direction +from its source in the N.E. part of Polk county, and forming near its +entrance into the Gulf of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus +counties, and four rivers, the Escambia, the Choctawatchee, the +Apalachicola, and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and +traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of its sand +reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the west coast. The +most important harbours are at Fernandina, St Augustine, and Miami on +the E. coast, and at Tampa, Key West and Pensacola on the W. coast. + + The soils of Florida have sand as a common ingredient.[1] They may be + divided into three classes: the pine lands, which often have a surface + of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam resting on a + substratum of clay, marl or limestone--areas of such soil are found + throughout the state; the "hammocks," which have soil of similar + ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands--large areas of + this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando, Pasco, Gadsden, + Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties; and the alluvial swamp + lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest class, which require + drainage to fit them for cultivation. + +As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more or less +distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through Cedar Keys and +Fernandina the climate is distinctly "southern," similar to that of the +Gulf states; from this line to another extending from the mouth of the +Caloosahatchee to Indian river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and +is well suited to the cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is +sub-tropical, well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the +semi-tropical and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the Gulf +Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their temperatures are more +uniform than those of the zones of southern climate; indeed, the +extremes of heat (103 deg. F.) and cold (13 deg. F.) are felt in the +region of southern climate. The mean annual temperature of the state is +70.8 deg. F., greater in the sub-tropical than in the other climate +zones, and the Atlantic coast is in general warmer than the Gulf Coast. +The rainfall averages 52.09 in. per annum. On account of its warm +climate, Florida has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are +especially popular in the season from January to April; the more +important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach, Miami, Tampa, +White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington Springs and Orange Springs. + + No metals have ever been discovered in Florida. The principal minerals + are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and river pebble + phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the "west coast" + about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to Lake Okeechobee. + The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in Marion county, and pebble + phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk, De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and + Hernando counties. Although the economic value of the phosphate + deposits was first realized about 1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida + produced, each year, more than half of all the phosphate rock produced + in the whole United States, the yield of Florida (1,357,365 long tons) + in 1907 being valued at $6,577,757; that of the whole country at + $10,653,558. Florida is also the principal source in the United States + for fuller's earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first + discovered in 1893; and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some + extent. Other minerals that have been discovered but have not been + industrially developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack + of a thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery of + other minerals--certainly it is responsible for a late recognition of + the economic value of the known mineral resources. + + The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North + America; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation + of North America and that of South America and the West Indies, for + out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187 are + common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The forests cover + approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern part of the + state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine being + predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress, found + throughout the state, particularly abounds. About half of the + varieties of forest trees in the United States are found, and among + the peculiar species are the red bay or "Florida Mahogany," satinwood + and cachibou, and the Florida yew and savin, both almost extinct. The + lumber industry is important: in 1905 the total factory product of + lumber and timber was valued at $10,901,650, and lumber and planing + mill products were valued at $1,690,455. In 1900 this was the most + valuable industry in the state; in 1905 it was second to the + manufacture of tobacco. The fauna is similar in general to that of the + southern United States. Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea + cow), alligator and crocodile, but the number of these has been + greatly diminished by hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wild + cats (lynx) are found, but in decreasing numbers. + + The fisheries are very valuable; the total number of species of fish + in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on one coast + are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are hunted for + sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano, trout, sheepshead and + Spanish mackerel are of great economic value. The sponge and oyster + fisheries are also important. The total product of the fisheries in + 1902 was valued at about $2,000,000. + +_Industry and Commerce._--The principal occupation is agriculture, in +which 44% of the labouring population was engaged in 1900, but only +12.6% of the total land surface was enclosed in farms, of which only +34.6% was improved, and the total agricultural product for 1899 was +valued at $18,309,104. As the number of farms increased faster than the +cultivated area from 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined +from 444 acres in 1860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106.9 in 1900, the largest +class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to 50 acres. +Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were cultivated by their +owners, but the cash tenantry system showed an increase of 100% since +1890, being most extensively used in the cotton counties. One-third of +the farms were operated by negroes, but one-half of these farms were +rented, and the value of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of +the entire farm property of the state. According to the state census of +1905 only 1,621,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farms, 31,233 were +worked by whites. + +Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for 1907-8 of +the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons, limes, +grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes, figs, pecans, &c.) +was $6,160,299, according to the report of the State Department of +Agriculture. The discovery of Florida's adaptability to the culture of +oranges about 1875 may be taken as the beginning of the state's modern +industrial development. But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887, +1894 and 1899 (the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures +for this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of the +orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-raising, and to +various agricultural products. Orange culture has recovered much of its +importance, but it is carried on in the more southern counties of the +state. The cultivation of pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is +proving successful, the product far surpassing that of California, the +only other state in the Union in which pineapples are grown. +Grape-fruit, guavas and lemons are also successfully produced in this +part of the state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables +(cabbage, cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers, +water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard fruits, +especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved successful. In +1907-8, according to the State Department of Agriculture, the total +value of vegetable and garden products was $3,928,657. In 1903, +according to the statistics of the United States Department of +Agriculture, Indian corn ranked next to fruits (as given in the state +reports), but its product as compared with that of various other states +is unimportant--in 1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is +the only other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889, +but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the +Carolinas, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product of rice in +Florida (69,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas, Louisiana, South +Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally. Tobacco culture, which +declined after 1860 on account of the competition of Cuba and Sumatra, +has revived since 1885 through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran +seed; the product of 1907 (6,937,500 lb.) was more than six times that +of 1899, the product in 1899 (1,125,600 lb.) being more than twice that +of 1889 (470,443 lb.), which in turn was more than twenty times that for +1880 (21,182 lb.)--the smallest production recorded for many decades. In +1907 the average farm price of tobacco was 45 cents per lb. higher than +that of any other state. In 1899, 84% of the product was raised in +Gadsden county. The sweet potato and pea-nut crops have also become very +valuable; on the other hand the Census of 1900 showed a decline in +acreage and production of cotton. In 1907 the acreage (265,000 acres) +was less than in any cotton-growing state except Missouri and Virginia; +the crop for 1907-1908 was 49,794 bales. Sea-island cotton of very high +grade is grown in Alachua county. The production of sugar, begun by the +early Spanish settlers, declined, but that of syrup increased. Pecan +nuts are a promising crop, and many groves were planted after 1905. In +1900 there were more than 1,900,000 acres of land in the state +unoccupied. The low lands of the South are being drained partly by the +state and partly by private companies. Irrigation, introduced in 1888 by +the orange growers, has been adopted by other farmers, especially the +tobacco-growers of Gadsden county, and so the evil effects of the +droughts, so common from February to June, are avoided. The value of +farm property in the southern counties, which have been developed very +recently, shows a steady increase, that of Hillsboro county surpassing +the other counties of the state. In 1907-8, according to the state +Department of Agriculture, the total value of all field crops (cotton, +cereals, sugar-cane, hay and forage, sweet potatoes, &c.) was +$11,856,340, and the total value of all farm products (including live +stock, $20,817,804, poultry and products, $1,688,433, and dairy +products, $1,728,642) was $46,371,320. + + The manufactures of Florida, as compared with those of other states, + are unimportant. Their product in 1900 was more than twice the product + in 1890, and the product in 1905 (from establishments under the + factory system only) was $50,298,290, i.e. 47.1% greater than in 1900. + The most important industries were those that depended upon the + forests, their product amounting to nearly 45% of the entire + manufactured product of the state. The lumber and timber products were + valued in 1905 at $10,901,650, almost twice their valuation in 1890, + and an increase of 1.2% over the product of 1900. The manufacture of + turpentine and rosin, material for which is obtained from the pine + forests, had increased greatly in importance between 1890 and 1900, + the product in 1890 being valued at only $191,859, that of 1900 at + $6,469,605, and from the latter sum it increased in 1905 to + $9,901,905, an increase of more than one-half. In 1900 the state + ranked second and in 1905 first of all the states of the country in + the value of this product; in 1905 the state's product amounted to + 41.4% of that of the entire country. The manufacture of cigars and + cigarettes (almost entirely of cigars, few cigarettes being + manufactured), carried on chiefly by Cubans at Key West and Tampa, + also increased in importance between 1890 and 1900, the products in + the latter year being valued at $10,735,826, or more than one-quarter + more than in 1890, and in 1905 there was a further increase of 56.2%, + the gross value being $16,764,276, or nearly one-third of the total + factory product of the state. In 1900 Florida ranked fourth in the + manufacture of tobacco among the states of the Union, being surpassed + by New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; in 1905 it ranked third (after New + York and Pennsylvania). Most of the tobacco used is imported from + Cuba, though, as has been indicated, the production of the state has + greatly increased since 1880. In the manufacture of fertilizers, the + raw material for which is derived from the phosphate beds, Florida's + aggregate product in 1900 was valued at $500,239, and in 1905 at + $1,590,371, an increase of 217.9% in five years. + +Florida's industrial progress has been mainly since the Civil War, for +before that conflict a large part of the state was practically +undeveloped. An important influence has been the railways. In 1880 the +total railway mileage was 518 m.; in 1890 it was 2489 m.; in 1900, 3255 +m., and in January 1909, 4,004.92 m. The largest system is the Atlantic +Coast Line, the lines of which in Florida were built or consolidated by +H.B. Plant (1819-1899) and once formed a part of the so-called "Plant +System" of railways. The Florida East Coast Railway is also the product +of one man's faith in the country, that of Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830). +The Seaboard Air Line, the Louisville & Nashville, and the Georgia +Southern & Florida are the other important railways. The Southern +railway penetrates the state as far as Jacksonville, over the tracks of +the Atlantic Coast Line. A state railway commission, whose members are +elected by the people, has power to enforce its schedule of freight +rates except when such rates would not pay the operating expenses of the +railway. In 1882 the Florida East Coast Line Canal and Transportation +Co. was organized to develop a waterway from Jacksonville to Biscayne +Bay by connecting with canals the St Johns, Matanzas, and Halifax +rivers, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian river, Lake Worth, Hillsboro river, New +river, and Snake Creek; in 1908 this vast undertaking was completed. The +development of marine commerce has been retarded by unimproved harbours, +but Fernandina and Pensacola harbours have always been good. Since 1890 +much has been done by the national Government, aided in many cases by +the local authorities and by private enterprise, to improve the harbours +and to extend the limits of river navigation. With the increase of trade +between the United States and the West Indies following the +Spanish-American War (1898), the business of the principal ports, +notably of Fernandina, Tampa and Pensacola, greatly increased. + +_Population._--The population of Florida in 1880 was 269,493; in 1890, +391,422, an increase of 45.2%; and in 1900, 528,542, or a further +increase of 35%; and in 1905, by a state census, 614,845; and in 1910, +752,619. In 1900, 95.5% were native born, 43.7% were coloured (including +479 Chinese, Japanese and Indians), and in 1905 the percentages were +little altered. The Seminole Indians, whose number is not definitely +known, live in and near the Everglades. The urban population on the +basis of places having a population of 4000 or more was 16.6% of the +total in 1900 and 22.7% in 1905, the percentage for Florida, as for +other Southern States, being small as compared with the percentage for +most of the other states of the Union. In 1900 there were 92, and, in +1905, 125 incorporated cities, towns and villages; but only 14 (in 1905, +22) of these had a population of over 2000, and only 4 (in 1905, 8) a +population of more than 5000. The four in 1900 were: Jacksonville +(28,429); Pensacola (17,747); Key West (17,114); and Tampa (15,839). The +eight in 1905 were Jacksonville (35,301), Tampa (22,823), Pensacola +(21,505), Key West (20,498), Live Oak (7200), Lake City (6409), +Gainesville (5413), and St Augustine (5121). Tallahassee is the capital +of the state. In 1906 the Baptists were the strongest religious +denomination; the Methodists ranked second, while the Roman Catholic, +Presbyterian and Protestant Episcopal churches were of relatively minor +importance. + +_Government._--The present constitution was framed in 1885 and was +ratified by the people in 1886. Its most important feature, when +compared with the previous constitution of 1868, is its provision for +the choice of state officials other than the governor (who was +previously chosen by election) by elections instead of by the governor's +appointment, but the governor, who serves for four years and is not +eligible for the next succeeding term, still appoints the circuit +judges, the state attorneys for each judicial circuit and the county +commissioners; he may fill certain vacancies and may suspend, and with +the Senate remove officers not liable to impeachment. The governor is a +member of the Board of Pardons, the other members being the +attorney-general, the secretary of state, the comptroller and the +commissioner of agriculture; he and the secretary of state, +attorney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of public +instruction, and commissioner of agriculture comprise a Board of +Commissioners of State Institutions; he is also a member of the Board of +Education. The office of lieutenant-governor was abolished by the +present constitution. The legislature meets biennially, the senators +being chosen for four, the representatives for two years. By an +amendment of 1896 the Senate consists of not more than 32, and the House +of Representatives of not more than 68 members; by a two-thirds vote of +members present the legislature may pass a bill over the governor's +veto. The three judges of the Supreme Court and the seven of the circuit +court serve for six years, those of the county courts for four years, +and justices of the peace (one for each justice district, of which the +county commissioners must form at least two in each county) hold office +for four years. The constitutional qualifications for suffrage are: the +age of twenty-one years, citizenship in the United States or +presentation of naturalization certificates at registration centres, +residence in the state one year and in the county six months, and +registration. To these requirements the payment of a poll-tax has been +added by legislative enactment, such an enactment having been authorized +by the constitution. Insane persons and persons under guardianship are +excluded by the constitution, and "all persons convicted of bribery, +perjury, larceny or of infamous crime, or who shall make or become +directly or indirectly interested in any bet or wager the result of +which shall depend upon any election," or who shall participate as +principal, second or challenger in any duel, are excluded by legislative +enactment. + +Amendments to the constitution may be made by a three-fifths vote of +each house of the legislature, ratified by a majority vote of the +people. A revision of the Constitution may be made upon a two-thirds +vote of all members of both Houses of the legislature, if ratified by a +majority vote of the people; a Constitutional Convention is then to be +provided for by the legislature, such convention to meet within six +months of the passage of the law therefor, and to consist of a number +equal to the membership of the House of Representatives, apportioned +among the counties, as are the members of this House. + +A homestead of 160 acres, or of one-half of an acre in an incorporated +town or city, owned by the head of a family residing in the state, with +personal property to the value of $1000 and the improvements on the real +estate, is exempt from enforced sale except for delinquent taxes, +purchase money, mortgage or improvements on the property. The wife holds +in her own name property acquired before or after marriage; the +intermarriage of whites and negroes (or persons of negro descent to the +fourth generation) is prohibited. All these are constitutional +provisions. By legislative enactment whites and blacks living in +adultery are to be punished by imprisonment or fine; divorces may be +secured only after two years' residence in the state and on the ground +of physical incapacity, adultery, extreme cruelty, habitual indulgence +in violent temper, habitual drunkenness, desertion for one year, +previous marriage still existing, or such relationship of the parties as +is within the degrees for which marriage is prohibited by law. +Legitimacy of natural children can be established by subsequent marriage +of the parents, and the age of consent is sixteen years. + + The bonded debt was incurred during the Reconstruction Period + (1865-1875). In 1871 7% 30 year bonds to the extent of $350,000 were + issued and in 1873 another issue of 6% 30 year bonds to the value of + $925,000 was made. Most of these were held by the Educational Fund at + the time of their maturity. By 1901 all but $267,700 of the issue of + 1871 had been retired and this amount was then refunded with 3% 50 + year bonds which were taken by the Educational Fund. In 1903 $616,800 + of the 1873 issue was held by the Educational Fund and $148,000 by + individuals. The first part of this claim was refunded by a new bond + issue, also taken by the Educational Fund, the second was paid from an + Indian war claim of $692,946, received from the United States + government in 1902, when $132,000 bonds of 1857, held by the United + States government, were also extinguished. The bonded debt was thus + reduced to $884,500; and on the 1st of January 1909 the debt, + consisting of refunding bonds held as educational funds, amounted to + $601,567. + +_Penal System._--There is no penitentiary; the convicts are hired to the +one highest bidder who contracts for their labour, and who undertakes, +moreover, to lease all other persons convicted during the term of the +lease, and sub-leases the prisoners. In 1889 the convicts were placed +under the care of a supervisor of convicts, and in 1905 the law was +amended so that one or more supervisors could be appointed at the will +of the governors. In 1908 there were four supervisors and one state +prison physician, and there are special laws designed to prevent abuses +in the system. In 1908 the state received $208,148 from the lease of +convicts. Decrepit prisoners were formerly leased, but in 1906 the lease +excluded such as were thought unfit by the state prison physician. Women +convicts were still leased with the men in 1908; of the 446 convicts +committed in that year, there were 15 negro females, 356 negro males and +75 white males. In the same year 54 escaped, and 27 were recaptured. The +leased convicts are employed in the turpentine and lumber industries and +in the phosphate works. The 1232 convicts "on hand" at the close of +1908 were held in 38 camps, 4 being the minimum, and 160 the maximum +number, at a camp. In 1908 two central hospitals for the prisoners were +maintained by the lessee company. County prison camps are under the +supervision of the governor and the supervisors of convicts. The state +supervisors must inspect each state prison camp and each county prison +camp every thirty days. + +_Education._--As early as 1831 an unsuccessful attempt was made to form +an adequate public school fund; the first real effort to establish a +common school system for the territory was made after 1835; in 1840 +there were altogether 18 academies and 51 common schools, and in 1849 +the state legislature made an appropriation in the interest of the +public instruction of white pupils, and this was supplemented by the +proceeds of land granted by the United States government for the same +purpose. In 1852 Tallahassee established a public school; and in 1860 +there were, according to a report of the United States census, 2032 +pupils in the public schools of the state, and 4486 in "academies and +other schools." The Civil War, however, interrupted the early progress, +and the present system of common schools dates from the constitution of +1868 and the school law of 1869. The school revenue derived from the +interest of a permanent school fund, special state and county taxes, and +a poll-tax, in 1907-1908 amounted to $1,716,161; the per capita cost for +each child of school age was $6.11 (white, $9.08; negro, $2.24), and the +average school term was 108 days (112 for whites, 99 for negroes). The +state constitution prescribes that "white and colored children shall not +be taught in the same school, but impartial provision shall be made for +both." The percentage of enrolment in 1907-1908 was 60 (whites, 66; +negroes, 52). The percentage of attendance to enrolment was 70%,--68% +for white and 74% for negro schools. Before 1905 the state provided for +higher education by the Florida State College, at Tallahassee, formerly +the West Florida Seminary (founded in 1857); the University of Florida, +at Lake City, which was organized in 1903 by enlarging the work of the +Florida Agricultural College (founded in 1884); the East Florida +Seminary, at Gainesville (founded 1848 at Ocala); the normal school (for +whites) at De Funiak Springs; and the South Florida Military Institute +at Bartow; but in 1905 the legislature passed the Buckman bill +abolishing all these state institutions for higher education and +establishing in their place the university of the state of Florida and a +state Agricultural Experiment Station, both now at Gainesville, and the +Florida Female College at Tallahassee, which has the same standards for +entrance and for graduation as the state university for men. Private +educational institutions in Florida are John B. Stetson University at De +Land (Baptist); Rollins College (1885) at Winter Park (non-sectarian), +with a collegiate department, an academy, a school of music, a school of +expression, a school of fine arts, a school of domestic and industrial +arts, and a business school; Southern College (1901), at Sutherland +(Methodist Episcopal, South); the Presbyterian College of Florida +(1905), at Eustis; Jasper Normal Institute (1890), at Jasper, and the +Florida Normal Institute at Madison. The negroes have facilities for +advanced instruction in the Florida Baptist Academy, and Cookman +Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South), both at Jacksonville, and in the +Normal and Manual Training School (Congregational), at Orange Park. +There are a school for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb (1885) at St. +Augustine, a hospital for the insane at Chattahoochee and a reform +school at Marianna, all wholly supported by the state, and a Confederate +soldiers' and sailors' home at Tallahassee, which is partially supported +by the state. + +_History._--The earliest explorations and attempts at colonization of +Florida by Europeans were made by the Spanish. The Council of the Indies +claimed that since 1510 fleets and ships had gone to Florida, and +Florida is shown on the Cantino map of 1502. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon +(c. 1460-1521), who had been with Christopher Columbus on his second +voyage and had later been governor of Porto Rico, obtained a royal grant +authorizing him to discover and settle "Bimini,"--a fabulous island +believed to contain a marvellous fountain or spring whose waters would +restore to old men their youth or at least had wonderful curative +powers. Soon after Easter Day he came in sight of the coast of Florida, +probably near the mouth of the St Johns river. From the name of the day +in the calendar, _Pascua Florida_, or from the fact that many flowers +were found on the coast, the country was named Florida. De Leon seems to +have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the peninsula, +and to have turned homeward fully convinced that he had discovered an +immense island. He returned to Spain in 1514, and obtained from the king +a grant to colonize "the island of Bimini and the island of Florida," of +which he was appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another +expedition, this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems +to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account of the +large number of turtles found there, and to have landed at several +places, but many of his men succumbed to disease and he himself was +wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in +1516, another Spaniard, Diego Miruelo, seems to have sailed for some +distance along the west coast of the peninsula. The next important +exploration of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaez. In 1527 he sailed +from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400), landed +(early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola, and for six +months remained in the country, he and his men suffering terribly from +exposure, hunger and fierce Indian attacks. In September, his ships +being lost and his force greatly reduced in number, he hastily +constructed a crazy fleet, re-embarked probably at Apalachee Bay, and +lost his life in a storm probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his +men, including Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of +Indian captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their way +to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially explored by +Ferdinando de Soto (q.v.) in 1539-1540. In the summer of 1559 another +attempt at colonization was made by Tristan de Luna, who sailed from +Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola Bay, and explored a part of Florida and +(possibly) Southern Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make +a permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his followers +and gave up his attempt in 1561. + +In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band of French +Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then at the mouth of the +St Johns river, which he called the river of May, and on behalf of +France claimed the country, which he described as "the fairest, +fruitfullest and pleasantest of all the world"; but he made his +settlement on an island near what is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In +1564 Rene de Laudonniere (? -c. 1586), with another party of Huguenots, +established Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony +did not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonniere was about to return to France +when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by Ribaut and about 300 +men from France. On the same day that Ribaut landed, a Spanish +expedition arrived in the bay of St Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro +Menendez de Aviles (1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the +Huguenot settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire +garrison at Fort Caroline "not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans," on the +20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon afterwards wrecked +near Matanzas Inlet; he and most of his followers surrendered to +Menendez and were executed. Menendez then turned his attention to the +founding of a settlement which he named St Augustine (q.v.); he also +explored the Atlantic coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and +established forts at San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St +Helena. In 1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony. + +The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution of +Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at the French +court; but Dominique de Gourgues (c. 1530-1593), a friend of Ribaut but +probably a Catholic, organized an expedition of vengeance, not informing +his men of his destination until his three ships were near the Florida +coast. With the co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba +he captured Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where +the garrison of Fort Caroline had been executed, he hanged his Spanish +prisoners, inscribing on a tablet of pine the words, "I do this not as +unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robbers and murderers." Feeling +unable to attack St Augustine, de Gourgues returned to France. + +The Spanish settlements experienced many vicissitudes. The Indians were +hostile and the missionary efforts among them failed. In 1586 St +Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir Francis Drake and it also suffered +severely by an attack of Captain John Davis in 1665. Not until the last +decade of the 17th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend +the settlements beyond the east coast. Then, jealous of the French +explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their attention to +the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When the English colonies +of the Carolinas and Georgia were founded, there was constant friction +with Florida. The Spanish were accused of inciting the Indians to make +depredations on the English settlements and of interfering with English +commerce and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of +the British. In 1702, when Great Britain and Spain were contending in +Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish Succession, a force +from South Carolina captured St Augustine and laid siege to the fort, +but being unable to reduce it for lack of necessary artillery, burned +the town and withdrew at the approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706 +a Spanish and French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, +failed, and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in +1708 and again in 1722. In 1740 General James Edward Oglethorpe, +governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made an unsuccessful +attack upon St Augustine; two years later a Spanish expedition against +Savannah by way of St Simon's Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe +again appeared before the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of +Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the +other centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied +(1719-1723) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful history. + +By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England in return +for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and West Florida were now +formed, the boundaries of West Florida being 31 deg. N. lat. (when civil +government was organized in 1767, the N. line was made 32 deg. 28'), the +Chattahoochee, and the Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico, +Mississippi Sound, Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the +Mississippi river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of +military government was instituted; immigration began; and Andrew +Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of about 1500 Minorcans +(1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation of indigo at New Smyrna. +Roads were laid out, some of which yet remain; and in the last three +years of English occupation the government spent $580,000 on the two +provinces. Consequently, the people of Florida were for the most part +loyal to Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In 1776, +the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the indigo +plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine, where they were +protected by the authorities. Several plans were made to invade South +Carolina and Georgia, but none matured until 1778, when an expedition +was organized which co-operated with British forces from New York in the +siege of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having declared +war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Galvez (1756-1794), the +Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most of the English forts in +West Florida, and in 1781 captured Pensacola. + +By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and, no +religious liberty being promised, many of the English inhabitants left +East and West Florida. A dispute with the United States concerning the +northern boundary was settled by the treaty of 1795, the line 31 deg. N. +lat. being established. + +The westward expansion of the United States made necessary American +ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisition of West +Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the aims of the +negotiations which resulted in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. After the +cession of Louisiana to the United States, the people of West Florida +feared that that province would be seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore, +through a convention at Buhler's Plains (July 17, 1810), formulated +plans for a more effective government. When it was found that the +Spanish governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another +convention was held on the 26th of September which declared West Florida +to be an independent state, organized a government and petitioned for +admission to the American Union. On the 27th of October President James +Madison, acting on a theory of Robert R. Livingston that West Florida +was ceded by Spain to France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was +therefore included by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United +States in 1803, declared West Florida to be under the jurisdiction of +the United States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the +portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi rivers to +Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of Louisiana), and that +between the Pearl and the Perdido to the Mississippi Territory. + +In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United States was +imminent. The American government asked the Spanish authorities of East +Florida to permit an American occupation of the country in order that it +might not be seized by Great Britain and made a base of military +operations. When the request was refused, American forces seized +Fernandina in the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the +American government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized +in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to organize a +government at St Mary's was made by American sympathizers, and a petty +civil war began between the Americans, who called themselves "Patriots," +and the Indians, who were encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British +troops landed at Pensacola to begin operations against the United +States. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but in +a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then built a fort on the +Apalachicola river, and there directed expeditions of Indians and +runaway negroes against the American settlements, which continued long +after peace was concluded in 1814. In 1818 General Jackson, believing +that the Spanish were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to +attack the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of 1819 +Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United States; the +treaty was ratified in 1821, when the United States took formal +possession, but civil government was not established until 1822. + +Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the new Territory +of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have reached a stage of +civilization somewhat similar to that of the Aztecs, were conquered and +exterminated or absorbed by Creeks about the middle of the 18th century. +There was a strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known +as Seminoles, and by treaties at Payne's Landing in 1832 and Fort Gibson +in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their Florida lands for +equal territory in the western part of the United States. But a strong +sentiment against removal suddenly developed, and the efforts of the +United States to enforce the treaty brought on the Seminole War +(1836-42), which resulted in the removal of all but a few hundred +Seminoles whose descendants still live in southern Florida. + +In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On the 10th of +January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which declared Florida to be a +"sovereign and independent nation," was adopted by a state convention, +and Florida became one of the Confederate States of America. The +important coast towns were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina, +Pensacola and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an +invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being repulsed +in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864). In 1865 a +provisional governor was appointed by President Andrew Johnson, and a +new state government was organized. The legislature of 1866 rejected the +Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards +Florida was made a part of the Third Military District, according to the +Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as voters by the +military authorities, and another Constitutional Convention met in +January and February 1868. A factional strife in the dominant party, the +Republican, now began; fifteen delegates withdrew from the convention; +the others framed a constitution, and then resolved themselves into a +political convention. The seceding members with nine others then +returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by General +George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and was ratified by the +electors, and Florida passed from under a quasi-military to a full civil +government on the 4th of July 1868. + +The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a number of +efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison Reed (1813-1899). The +decisive year of the Reconstruction Period was 1876. The Canvassing +Board, which published the election returns, cast out some votes, did +not wait for the returns from Dade county, and declared the Republican +ticket elected. George F. Drew (1827-1900), the Democratic candidate for +governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court restraining the +board from going behind the face of the election returns; this was not +obeyed and a similar mandamus was therefore obtained from the supreme +court of Florida, which declared that the board had no right to +determine the legality of a particular vote. According to the new count +thus ordered, the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar +process the board's decision in favour of the election of Republican +presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors were +declared the successful candidates; but the electoral commission, +appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See ELECTORAL +COMMISSION.) + +Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics. + + American Governors of Florida. + + Territorial Governors. + + Andrew Jackson 1821-1822 + William P. Duval 1822-1834 + John H. Eaton 1834-1835 + Richard K. Call 1835-1840 + Robert R. Reid 1840-1841 + Richard K. Call 1841-1844 + John Branch 1844-1845 + + State Governors. + + William D. Moseley 1845-1849 Democrat + Thomas Brown 1849-1853 Whig + James E. Broome 1853-1857 Democrat + Madison S. Perry 1857-1861 " + John Milton 1861-1865 " + William Marvin 1865 Provisional + David S. Walker 1865-1868 Democrat + Harrison Reed 1868-1872 Republican + Ossian B. Hart 1873-1874 " + Marcellus L. Stearns 1874-1877 " + George F. Drew 1877-1881 Democrat + William D. Bloxham 1881-1885 " + Edward A. Perry 1885-1889 " + Francis P. Fleming 1889-1893 " + Henry L. Mitchell 1893-1897 " + William D. Bloxham 1897-1901 " + William S. Jennings 1901-1905 " + Napoleon B. Broward 1905-1909 " + Albert W. Gilchrist 1909- " + + Bibliography.--Physical and economic conditions are discussed in a + pamphlet (591 pp.) published by the State Department of Agriculture, + _Florida, a Pamphlet Descriptive of its History, Topography, Climate, + Soil, &c._ (Tallahassee, 1904); in _Climate, Soil and Resources of + Florida_ (United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1882); + _A Preliminary Report on the Soils of Florida_ (United States + Department of Agriculture, Division of Soils, Bulletin 13, 1898); C.L. + Norton's _Handbook of Florida_ (2nd edition, New York, 1892); the + volumes of the Twelfth Census of the United States (for 1900) which + treat of Agriculture and Manufactures, and the Special Report on Mines + and Quarries for 1902. J.N. MacGonigle's "Geography of Florida" + (_National Geographic Magazine_, vol. 7), T.D.A. Cockerell's "West + Indian Fauna in Florida" (_Nature_, vol. 46), L.F. Pourtales's "Flora + and Fauna of the Florida Keys" (_American Naturalist_, vol. 11), and + C.F. Millspaugh's _Flora of the Sand Keys of Florida_ (Chicago, 1907), + a Field Columbian Museum publication, are of value. To sportsmen, C.B. + Cory's _Hunting and Fishing in Florida_ (Boston, 1896) and A.W. and + J.A. Dimock's _Florida Enchantments_ (New York, 1908) are of + interest. For administration, see Wilbur F. Yocum's _Civil Government + of Florida_ (De Land, Florida, 1904); and the _Revised Statutes of + Florida_ (1892). The standard history is that by G.R. Fairbanks, + _History of Florida_ (Philadelphia, 1871). This should be supplemented + by D.G. Brinton's _Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its Literary + History, Indian Tribes and Antiquities_ (Philadelphia, 1859), which + has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early explorations; + Woodbury Lowery, _The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of + the United States_ (New York, vol. i., 1901; vol. ii., sub-title + _Florida_, 1905); R.L. Campbell's Historical Sketches of Colonial + Florida (Cleveland, 1892), which treats at length of the history of + Pensacola; H.E. Chambers's _West Florida and its Relation to the + Historical Cartography of the United States_ (Johns Hopkins Studies in + Historical and Political Science, Series 16, No. 5); and Herbert B. + Fuller's The _Purchase of Florida; its History and Diplomacy_ + (Cleveland, O., 1906). The only published collections of documents + relating to the state are Buckingham Smith's _Colleccion de varios + documentos para la historia de la Florida y tierras adyacentes_ + (London, 1857), and Benjamin F. French's _Historical Collections of + Louisiana_ (New York, 1846-1875). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous + sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried + the whole length of the Florida coast by marine action. + + + + +FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSE MONINO Y REDONDO, COUNT OF (1728-1808), Spanish +statesman, was born at Murcia in 1728. He was the son of a retired army +officer, and received a good education, which he completed at the +university of Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of +law. For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired +a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him by the marquis +of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who sent him ambassador to +Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his mission, he was soon after appointed +by Charles III. successor to his patron, and his administration was one +of the most brilliant Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of +Madrid, reformed many abuses, projected canals, established many +societies of agriculture and economy and many philanthropical +institutions, and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine +arts. Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing +disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were settled. +He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with Portugal by a double +marriage between the members of the royal houses, designing by this +arrangement to place ultimately a Spanish prince on the throne of +Portugal. But in this he failed. Floridablanca was the right-hand man of +King Charles III. in his policy of domestic reform, and was much under +the influence of French _philosophes_ and economic writers. Like other +reformers of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal +authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism. The French +Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he advocated the support of +the first coalition against France. He retained his office for three +years under Charles IV.; but in 1792, through the influence of the +favourite Godoy, he was dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of +Pampeluna. Here he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of +his brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates, and +remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He was then +called by his countrymen to take the presidency of the central junta. +But his strength failed him, and he died at Seville on the 20th of +November of the same year. He left several short treatises on +jurisprudence. + + See _Obras originales del Conde de Floridablanca_, edited, with + biographical introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the _Biblioteca de + Rivadeneyra_, vol. lix. + + + + +FLORIDOR [JOSIAS DE SOULAS, Sieur de Prinefosse] (d. c. 1671), French +actor, was born in Brie early in the 17th century, the son of a +gentleman of German family who had moved to France, married there, and +become a Roman Catholic. The son entered the French army, but after +being promoted ensign, quitted the army for the theatre, where he took +the name of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three +years later he was called to the company at the Hotel de Bourgogne, +where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and comedy and became +the head of his profession. He was a man of superb physique and +excellent carriage, with a flexible and sonorous voice, and manners of +rare distinction and elegance. He was much liked at court, and Louis +XIV. held him in particular esteem. He died in 1671 or 1672. + + + + +FLORIN, the name applied to several coins of the continent of Europe and +to two coins struck in England at different times. The word comes +through the Fr. _florin_ from the Ital. _fiorino_, flower, Lat. _flos_, +_florem_. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold coin issued at Florence +in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains. This coin bore on the obverse +a lily, from which it took its name of "the flower," on the reverse the +Latin name of the city _Florentia_, from which it was also known as a +"florence." "Florin" and "florence" seem to have been used in English +indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin was +held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and similar coins +were struck in Germany, other parts of Italy, France, &c. The English +gold florin was introduced by Edward III. in 1343, half and quarter +florins being struck at the same time. This gold florin weighed 108 +grains and was to be current for six shillings. It was found, however, +to be overvalued in proportion to the silver currency and was +demonetized the following year. The florin did not again appear in the +English coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having a +nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were struck. When +first issued the "Dei gratia" was omitted from the inscription, and they +were frequently referred to as the "Godless" or "graceless" florins. The +D.G. was added in 1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece +was issued, but its coinage was discontinued in 1890. The total value of +double florins issued during these years amounted to L533,125. (See also +NUMISMATICS.) + + + + +FLORIO, GIOVANNI (1553?-1625), English writer, was born in London about +1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents being Waldenses who had fled +from persecution in the Valtelline and taken refuge in England. His +father, Michael Angelo Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant +congregation in London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir +William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He dedicated a +book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert, and may have been a tutor +in the family of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. Anthony a Wood says +that the Florios left England on the accession of Queen Mary, but +returned after her death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was +appointed, about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of +Durham, then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published a +work entitled _First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry +Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings_ (4to). This was +accompanied by _A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English Tongues_. +The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester. Three years later +Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen College, and became a teacher +of French and Italian in the university. In 1591 appeared his _Second +Fruits, to be gathered of Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes +to the Tongues of Italian and English men_; to which was annexed the +_Garden of Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs_ (4to). +These manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of +dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer +extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio had +many patrons; he says that he "lived some years" with the earl of +Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also befriended him. His Italian +and English dictionary, entitled _A World of Words_, was published in +folio in 1598. After the accession of James I., Florio was named French +and Italian tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of +the privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he also +instructed in languages. His _magnum opus_ is the admirable translation +of the _Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo. +Michaell de Montaigne_, published in folio in 1603 in three books, each +dedicated to two noble ladies. A second edition in 1613 was dedicated to +the queen. Special interest attaches to the first edition from the +circumstance that of the several copies in the British Museum library +one bears the autograph of Shakespeare--long received as genuine but now +supposed to be by an 18th-century hand--and another that of Ben Jonson. +It was suggested by Warburton that Florio is satirized by Shakespeare +under the character of Holofernes, the pompous pedant of _Love's +Labour's Lost_, but it is much more likely, especially as he was one of +the earl of Southampton's proteges, that he was among the personal +friends of the dramatist, who may well have gained his knowledge of +Italian and French from him. He had married the sister of the poet +Daniel, and had friendly relations with many writers of his day. Ben +Jonson sent him a copy of _Volpone_ with the inscription, "To his loving +father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson seals this +testimony of his friendship and love." He is characterized by Wood, in +_Athenae Oxonienses_, as a very useful man in his profession, zealous +for his religion, and deeply attached to his adopted country. He died at +Fulham, London, in the autumn of 1625. + + + + +FLORIS, FRANS, or more correctly FRANS DE VRIENDT, called FLORIS +(1520-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large family trained to the +study of art in Flanders. Son of a stonecutter, Cornelis de Vriendt, who +died at Antwerp in 1538, he began life as a student of sculpture, but +afterwards gave up carving for painting. At the age of twenty he went to +Liege and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse, whose +travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish into that of a +mongrel Leonardesque. Following in the footsteps of Mabuse, Lambert +Lombard had visited Florence, and caught the manner of Salviati and +other pupils of Michelangelo and Del Sarto. It was about the time when +Schoreel, Coxcie and Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating +the masterpieces of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute +Dutch-Italian works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula +itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua. Fired by +these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across the Alps, and +appropriated without assimilation the various mannerisms of the schools +of Lombardy, Florence and Rome. Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how +easy it would be to earn a livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for +engravers and painting on a large scale after the fashion of Vasari. He +came home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a +school from which 120 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris +painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish +nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians. He is known to have +illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions, and the liberal +arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of Antwerp, and adorned +the duke of Arschot's palace of Beaumont with fourteen colossal panels. +Comparatively few of his works have descended to us, partly because they +came to be contemned for their inherent defects, and so were suffered to +perish, partly because they were soon judged by a different standard +from that of the Flemings of the 16th century. The earliest extant +canvas by Floris is the "Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan" in the +Berlin Museum (1547), the latest a "Last Judgment" (1566) in the +Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate works at +Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence, Leau, Madrid, St +Petersburg and Vienna display any charm of originality in composition or +in form. Whatever boldness and force they may possess, or whatever +principles they may embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian +models spoiled in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution +reveals a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and +Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which his works +were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and Theodore de Galle. Whilst +Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of +equal size, for the grand prior of Spain, he was seized with illness, +and died on the 1st of October 1570 at Antwerp. + + + + +FLORUS, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. +He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch of the history of Rome +from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by +Augustus (25 B.C.). The work, which is called _Epitome de T. Livio +Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo_, is written in a bombastic and +rhetorical style, and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, +whose life is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood +and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological +details; but, in spite of its faults, the book was much used in the +middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius Florus, +Lucius Anneus Florus, or simply Annaeus Florus. From certain +similarities of style he has been identified with Publius Annius Florus, +poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author of a dialogue on the +question whether Virgil was an orator or poet, of which the introduction +has been preserved. + + The best editions are by O. Jahn (1852), C. Halm (1854), which contain + the fragments of the Virgilian dialogue. There is an English + translation in Bohn's _Classical Library_. + + + + +FLORUS, JULIUS, poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan age. His name +has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated to him two of his +_Epistles_ (i. 3; ii. 2), from which it would appear that he composed +lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The statement of Porphyrion, the old +commentator on Horace, that Florus himself wrote satires, is probably +erroneous, but he may have edited selections from the earlier satirists +(Ennius, Lucilius, Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his +personality, except that he was one of the young men who accompanied +Tiberius on his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been +variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and +uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian (_Instit_. x. +3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus, +_Ann_. iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace (_Odes_, ii. 14) and even +with the historian Florus. + + + + +FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS, Roman poet and rhetorician, identified by some +authorities with the historian Florus (q.v.). The introduction to a +dialogue called _Virgilius orator an poeta_ is extant, in which the +author (whose name is given as Publius Annius Florus) states that he was +born in Africa, and at an early age took part in the literary contests +on the Capitol instituted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing +to the prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust, +and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher of +rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to return to Rome, +for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the +well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius +Spartianus (_Hadrian_ 16). Twenty-six trochaic tetrameters, _De +qualitate vitae_, and five graceful hexameters, _De rosis_, are also +attributed to him. Florus is important as being the first in order of a +number of 2nd-century African writers who exercised a considerable +influence on Latin literature, and also the first of the _poetae +neoterici_ or _novelli_ (new-fashioned poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose +special characteristic was the use of lighter and graceful metres +(anapaestic and iambic dimeters), which had hitherto found little +favour. + + The little poems will be found in E. Bahrens, _Poetae Latini minores_ + (1879-1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author + of the _Pervigilium Veneris_ (q.v.) see E.H.O. Muller, _De P. Annio + Floro poeta et de Pervigilio Veneris_ (1855), and, for the poet's + relations with Hadrian, F. Eyssenhardt, _Hadrian und Florus_ (1882); + see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, i. pt. 2 + (1894). + + + + +FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON, FREIHERR (1812-1883), German +composer, was born on his father's estate at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg, +on the 27th of April 1812. Destined originally for the diplomatic +profession, his passion for music induced his father to send him to +Paris to study under Reicha. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830 +caused his return home, where he busied himself writing chamber-music +and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There he produced +_Pierre et Catherine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise_, but made his first +real success with Le _Naufrage de la Meduse_ at the Renaissance Theatre +in 1838. Greater, however, was the success which attended _Stradella_ +(1844) and _Martha_ (1847), which made the tour of the world. In 1848 +Flotow was again driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a +few years he produced _Die Grossfurstin_ (1850), _Indra_ (1853), +_Rubezahl_ (1854), _Hilda_ (1855) and _Albin_ (1856). From 1856 to 1863 +he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the latter +year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 he produced _L'Ombre_. From +that time to the date of his death he lived in Paris or on his estate +near Vienna. He died on the 24th of January 1883. Of his concert-music +only the _Jubelouverture_ is now ever heard. His strength lay in the +facility of his melodies. + + + + +FLOTSAM, JETSAM and LIGAN, in English law, goods lost at sea, as +distinguished from goods which come to land, which are technically +designated _wreck_. Jetsam (the same word as _jettison_, from Lat. +_jactare_, to throw) is when goods are cast into the sea, and there sink +and remain under water; flotsam (_floatson_, from _float_, Lat. +_flottare_) is where they continue floating on the surface of the waves; +ligan (or _lagan_, from _lay_ or _lie_) is where they are sunk in the +sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to be found again. Flotsam, +jetsam and ligan belong to the sovereign in the absence only of the true +owner. Wreck, on the other hand (i.e. goods cast on shore), was by the +common law adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by +the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original owner. +This singular distinction which treated goods washed ashore as lost, and +goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt to be explained by the +primitive practice of plundering wrecked ships. (See WRECK.) + + + + +FLOUNDER, a common term for flat-fish. The name is also more specially +given to certain varieties, according to local usage. Thus the +_Pleuronectes flesus_ is the common flounder of English terminology, +found along the coasts of northern Europe from the Bristol Channel to +Iceland. It is particularly partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine +as far as Cologne. It rarely exceeds a length of 12 in. or a weight of +1-1/2 lb. In American terminology the principal fish of the name are the +"summer flounders" or "deep-sea flounders," also known in America as +"plaice" (_Paralichthys dentatus_), as long as 3 ft. and as heavy as 15 +lb.; the "four-spotted flounders" (_Paralichthys oblongus_); the +"common" or "winter" flounder (_Pseudopleuronectes americanus_); the +"diamond flounder" (_Hysopsetta guttulata_); and the "pole flounder" +(_Glyptocephalus cynoglossus_). + + + + +FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The term "flour" (Fr. _fleur_, flower, i.e. +the best part) is usually applied to the triturated farinaceous +constituents of the wheat berry (see WHEAT); it is, however, also used +of other cereals and even of leguminoids when ground into a fine powder, +and of many other substances in a pulverulent state, though in these +cases it is usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c. The flour +obtained from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten +flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17th centuries as meal, and up +to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps later, the term mealing +trade was not infrequently used of the milling trade. + + + Primitive grinding. + +The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone about the +size of a man's fist, with which grain or nuts were pounded and crushed +into a rude meal. These stones are generally of hard sandstone and were +evidently used against another stone, which by dint of continual +hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher was used on the +surface of rocks. St Bridget's stone, on the shore of Lough Macnean, is +supposed to have been a primitive Irish mill; there are many depressions +in the face of the table-like rock, and it is probable that round this +stone several women (for in early civilization the preparation of flour +was peculiarly the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather +pound, meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in +Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetlands, and it +is on record that some of these stones have been used for flour-making +within historic times. Richard Bennett in his _History of Corn Milling_ +remarks that the Seneca Indians to this day boil maize and crush it into +a paste between loose stones. In the same way the Omahas pound this +cereal in holes in the rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound +the capsules of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by +Herodotus in his account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the +Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between a round +stone or "muller," and a cuplike hollow in the surface of a rock. +Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging from the primitive +ball-like implement to an elongated shape resembling the pestle of a +mortar. Mullers of the latter type are not infrequent among prehistoric +remains in America, while Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of +the globular form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also +among the ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived +in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are now +altogether extinct. + + + Saddle-stone. + +The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive pounder, +or muller, and the quern, which was itself the direct ancestor of the +millstones still used to some extent in the manufacture of flour. The +saddle-stone, the first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone +with a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and in +and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into coarse meal. +Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand caves of Italy, among the +lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the dolmens of France, in the pit +dwellings of the British Isles, and among the remains of primitive folk +all the world over. The Romans of the classical period seem to have +distinguished the saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the +_mola trusatilis_, which may be translated "the thrusting mill"; this +would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The _mola +versatilis_ evidently referred to the revolving millstone or quern. In +primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not yet extinct, as for +instance in Mexico. It is known as the _metata_, and is used both for +grinding maize and for making the maize cakes known as tortillas. The +same implement is apparently still in use in some parts of South +America, notably in Chile. + + + Quern. + +According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete milling +machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability not older than +the 2nd century B.C. This is, however, a controverted point. Querns are +still used in most primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have +altogether disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland. +Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milling. The rotary +motion of millstones became the essential principle of the trituration +of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the roller mill. The early +quern appears to have differed from its descendants in that it was +somewhat globular in shape, the lower stone being made conical, possibly +with the idea that the ground flour should be provided with a downward +flow to enable it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however, +persist. Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the two +stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone was a species +of funnel, through which the grain passed as through a hopper, making +its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the space between the +running and the bed stone. The ground meal was discharged at the +periphery. The runner, or upper stone, was provided with a wooden handle +by which the stone was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan +age may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have been a +public _pistrinum_ or mill, were found four pairs of millstones. The +circular base of these mills is 5 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. high, and +upon it was fastened the _meta_, a blunt cone about 2 ft. high, on which +fitted the upper millstone or _catillus_, also conical. These mills were +evidently rotated by slave labour, as there was no room for the +perambulation of a horse or donkey, while the side-lugs in which the +handle-bars were inserted are plainly visible. Slave labour was +generally used up to the introduction of Christianity, but was finally +abolished by the emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills +continued to be driven by criminals. + + + Use of power. + +The Romans are credited by some authorities with having first applied +power to the driving of millstones, which they connected with +water-wheels by a horizontal spindle through the intervention of bevel +gearing. But long after millstones had been harnessed to water power +slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The watermill of +the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period into Britain. +Domesday Book shows that England was covered by mills of a kind at the +time of the Norman conquest, and mentions some 500 mills in the +counties of Norfolk and Suffolk alone. No doubt the _mola_ of Domesday +Book consisted of one pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a +water-wheel. Windmills are said to have been introduced by the +Crusaders, who brought them from the East. Steam power is believed to +have been first used in a British flour mill towards the close of the +18th century, when Boulton & Watt installed a steam engine in the Albion +Flour Mills in London, erected under the care of John Rennie. Another +great engineer, Sir William Fairbairn, in the early days of the 19th +century, left the impress of his genius on the mill and all its +accessories. He was followed by other clever engineers, and in the days +immediately preceding the roller period many improvements were +introduced as regards the balancing and driving of millstones. The +introduction of the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a +great step in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen +or linen bolting cloth, about the middle of the 19th century, marked +another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before the +introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to 4-1/2 ft. in diameter by +some 12 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous stone, +known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry of La +Ferte-sous-Jouarre, in France. + + + Roller milling. + +Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the flour +consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is, mills in +which the wheat is broken and floured by means of rollers, some grooved +in varying degrees of fineness, some smooth, their work being preceded +and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. All roller mills +worthy of the name are completely automatic, that is to say, from the +time the raw material enters the mill warehouse till it is sacked, +either in the shape of finished flour or of offals, it is touched by no +human hand. + +The history of roller milling extends back to the first half of the 19th +century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines fitted with rolls set +either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely, for the grinding of +corn, are said to have been used as far back as the 17th century, but if +this be so it is certain that they were only used in a tentative manner. +Towards the middle of the 19th century the firm of E.R. & F. Turner, of +Ipswich, began to build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary +to the conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls +were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges, which +must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments of the berry. +These mills were built to the design of a German engineer, of the name +of G.A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at the London exhibition of 1862, +but they never came into general use. It has also been stated that as +early as 1823 a French engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a +roller mill, while five years later a certain Malar took out another +French patent, the specification of which speaks of grooves and +differential speeds. But the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the +present day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th +century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus was rather +cumbrous, and the chilled iron rolls with which it was fitted consumed a +large amount of power relatively to the work effected. But the Pester +Walz-Muhle, founded in 1839 by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman, +which took its name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by +Sulzberger, was for many years a great success; some of its roller mills +are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty years, and one +at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest. + + + Hungarian practice. + +It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and well adapted +for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction, as now understood, +was more or less practised in Hungary, even before the introduction of +roller milling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used, yet the +wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical low or flat +grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive operations. In +the first break the stones would be placed just wide enough apart to +"end" the wheat, and in each succeeding operation the stones were +brought closer together. But Hungarian milling was not then automatic in +the sense in which British millers understand the word. For a long time +a great deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of +Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to another for +further treatment. This practice may have been partly due to the cheap +labour available, but it was also the deliberate policy of Hungarian +millers to handle in this way the middlings and fine "dunst," because it +was maintained that only thus could certain products be delivered to the +machine by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition. +The results were good so far as the finished products were concerned, +but in the light of modern automatic milling the system appears +uneconomical. Not only did it postulate an inordinately large staff, but +it further increased the labour bill by the demand it made on the number +of sub-foremen who were occupied in classifying, largely by touch, the +various products, and directing the labourers under them. Hungarian +milling still differs widely from milling as practised in Great Britain +in being a longer system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of +products, a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour +and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate varieties +of middlings and "dunst" for which no corresponding terms are available +in an English miller's vocabulary. + + + Semolina, middlings, dunst. + +It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of three terms +constantly used by millers, namely, _semolina_, _middlings_ and _dunst_. +These three products of roller mills are practically identical in +composition, but represent different stages in the process of reducing +the endosperm of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered by several +layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury kernel or +endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to tear and break up. +The largest of these more or less cubical particles are known as +semolina, whilst the medium-sized are called middlings and the smallest +sized termed dunst. The last is a German word, with several meanings, +but is used in this particular sense by German and Austrian millers, +from whom it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in +England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour beside a +sample of small dunst the two would be easy to distinguish, but place a +magnifying glass over the flour and it would look very like the dunst. +If we were to repeat this experiment on dunst and fine middlings, the +former would under the glass present a strong resemblance to the +middlings. The same effect would be produced by the putting side by side +of large middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of +semolina, middlings and dunst. Semolina and middlings are more apt to +vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter is the product of the +later stages of the milling process and represents small particles of +the floury kernel tolerably free from such impurities as bran or fluff. +The flour producing middlings must not be confounded with the variety of +wheat offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings. +This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with a +certain proportion of floury particles adherent. It is only fit for +feeding beasts. + + + Porcelain rolls. + +The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was undoubtedly +accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls, by Friedrich Wegmann, a +Swiss miller, which were brought into general use in the seventh decade +of the 19th century, and are still widely employed. They are admirably +fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and dunst into flour; +and for reducing pure middlings, that is, middlings containing no bran +or wheat husk, there is perhaps nothing that quite equals them. They +were introduced into Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were +used for several years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from +British mills. This was partly due to the fact that as made at that date +they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep the rolls +perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their inadaptability to +over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and perhaps still more the +American, miller is frequently obliged to resort. However, since the +beginning of the 20th century some of the most advanced flour mills in +England have again taken to using porcelain rolls for some part of +their reduction process. + + + Roller milling in England. + +The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to date from +1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer, erected a set of +roller mills in the Tradeston Mills, in Glasgow. This was long before +the introduction of automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the +millstone system were not seriously disturbed till 1877, when a party of +leading British and Irish millers visited Vienna and Budapest with the +object of studying roller milling in its native home. In 1878 J.H. +Carter installed in the mill of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably +the first complete automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom, +and in 1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, +London, showed the automatic roller system in complete operation. From +that time the roller system made great progress. By 1885 many of the +leading British millers had installed full roller plants, and in the +succeeding ten years small roller plants were installed in many country +mills. For a time there was a transition stage in which there was in +operation a number of so-called "combined" plants, that is to say, mills +in which the wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the +middlings were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out +of being. + +Well-found British flour mills at the present time are probably the best +fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear from comparison +with their American competitors. It is true that American millers were +rather quicker to copy Hungarian milling methods so far as gradual +reduction was concerned. But from about 1880 the British miller was +quite awake to his position and was straining every nerve to provide +himself with a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has +often been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world. This is +true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always command the exact +kind of wheat he requires at the price required to meet foreign +competition. Therein he is at a disadvantage. But engineers have done +their best to meet this weak point, and by their assistance he is able +to compete under almost all conditions with the millers of the whole +world. + +_Processes of Milling._--Fully to appreciate the various processes of +modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the wheat as +delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and even more +objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many light grains and +seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient for the miller to +be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most approved principles; he +must also have at command the means of freeing it from foreign +substances, and further of "conditioning" it, should it be damp or over +dry and harsh. Again, his operations must be conducted with reference to +the structure of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a +seed, the actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body +which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with the +plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in roller milling +easily separated from the rest of the berry, being flattened instead of +crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted from the stock. The germ +contains a good deal of fatty matter, which, if allowed to remain, would +not increase the keeping qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish +five skins on the berry--epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and +embryous membrane--but for practical purposes the number of integuments +may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the outer and +second skins together, which are largely composed of woody fibre; it +contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but although these are made up +of a certain proportion of proteids, on account of the discolouring and +diastasic action of the cerealin in flour they are best eliminated. The +endosperm, or floury kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of +starch granules which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a +net. This network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes +are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are usually finer +and more dense near the husk than in the interior of the kernel. This +glutinous portion is of great importance to the baker because on its +quantity and quality depends the "strength" or rising power of the +flour, and the aim of modern roller milling is to retain it as +completely as possible, a matter of some difficulty owing to its close +adherence to the husk, especially in the richest wheats. Another organ +of the wheat berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the +miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the berry +with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the food which +the plant sucks up from the ground; it passes up the crease of the +berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being protected on the outer +side by the first and having the third or inner skin on its other side. +A good deal of the matters filtered by the placenta are mineral in their +nature, and such portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This +is the matter which millers call "crease dirt." It is highly +discolouring to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuzzy end +of the berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs +are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture. They +have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See also WHEAT.) + + In the old "flat" or "low" milling the object was to grind as + perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the + grain, constituting the flour, and to separate it from the embryo and + outer skins constituting the bran. In "high" milling, on the other + hand, the grinding is effected in a series of operations, the aim + being to get as much semolina and middlings as possible from the + wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or + "breaking" part of the process. It is impossible altogether to avoid + the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and worked + break-rolls will make as little as 15% of "break-flour," which is of + less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and also because it + is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells which adhere more + readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, sometimes called Graham + flour, consists of the entire grain ground up to a uniform mass. + + + Dry cleaning. + + Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good + milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning department of the + mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery almost equal in + range and variety to that in the mill itself. The wheat, drawn by an + elevator from the barge, or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a + machine known as a warehouse separator. This apparatus accomplishes + its work by means of flat sieves, some of which will be of much + coarser mesh than others, and of air currents, the adjustment of which + is a more delicate task than might appear. The warehouse separator + serves to free dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth, + stones, straws and sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize, + oats and barley. Great care has to be exercised in all operations of + the screen house lest wheat should pass away with the screenings. + Besides the warehouse separator, which is made in different types and + sizes, grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle and + barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders + are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch seeds + which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or oats, + which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be followed by + machines known as scourers, the function of which is to free the wheat + from adherent impurities. These machines are of different types, but + all depend on percussive action. A vertical scourer consists of a + number of steel or iron beaters attached to a vertical spindle which + revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated casing, the whole being + fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourers with horizontal spindles + are also in great favour. Not every wheat is suitable for scouring, + but some wheats are so mingled with impurities that a severe action + between the beaters and the perforated case is absolutely necessary. + The most efficient scourer is that which frees the wheat from the + greatest amount of impurity with a minimum of abrasion. The beaters + should be adjustable to suit different kinds of wheat. Scourers are + followed by brush machines which are similar to the last and are of + three distinct types: solid, divided and cone brushes. In the solid + variety the brush surface is continuous around the circumference of a + revolving cylinder; in divided brushes there is often a set of beaters + or bars covered with brush but leaving intermediate spaces; while the + cone brush consists of beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones + around a vertical spindle. The object of all these brushes, the + cylinder containing them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to + polish the wheat and remove adhering impurities which the percussive + action of the scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the + beard or fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the + miller must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and + unnecessarily abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his + flour, the triturated bran breaking under the rolls and producing + powder which will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic + fragments as nails, pieces of wire, &c., magnets are used. These may + either be of horseshoe shape, in which case they are usually set at + the head of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of magnetized plates + set at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to + place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they + should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might + otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves, + and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must also be made + of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling value of + the wheat. In principle these machines are all the same, though + details of construction may vary. Each weigher is set for a given + weight of grain. As soon as the receiving hopper has poured through a + valve into the recipient or skip, which is hung at one end of a beam + scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the weight hung at the + other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is automatically cut off and + the skip is discharged, automatically returning to take another + charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded on a dial. In this way + a record can be kept of the gross weight of the uncleaned wheat + entering the warehouse and of the net weight of the cleaned wheat. The + difference between the two weighings will, of course, represent the + loss by cleaning. The percentage of flour obtained from a given wheat + can be ascertained in the mill itself. In practice the second weigher + is placed just before the first break. + + + Wet cleaning and conditioning. + + The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the close + of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of England + some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said that certain wheats + are washed to free them from extraneous matters such as adherent earth + and similar impurities which could not be removed by dry cleaning + without undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and hard + Russians, and these require not only washing but also conditioning, by + which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With another + class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians, spring + Americans and Canadians, hard American winters, Californians and the + harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by heat is also + desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the moisture + penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the kernel. In a + third and distinct class fall soft wheats, such as many kinds of + Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. It is generally admitted that + while wheat of the first two divisions will benefit from the + application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class must + be washed with great circumspection. The object of washing machines is + to agitate the wheat in water till the adherent foreign matters are + washed off and any dirt balls broken up and drained off in the waste + water. To this end some washers are fitted with Archimedean worm + conveyors set either at an inclined angle or horizontally or + vertically; or the washer may consist of a barrel revolving in a tank + partly filled with water. Another function of washing machines is to + separate stones of the same size which are found in several varieties + of wheat. This separation is effected by utilizing a current of water + as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not strong enough to + carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity than wheat. This + current may be led up an inclined worm or may flow horizontally over a + revolving tray. The washer is followed by a whizzer, which is an + apparatus intended to free the berry by purely mechanical means from + superfluous moisture. The typical whizzer is a vertical column fed at + the bottom and delivering at the top. The wet wheat ascends by + centrifugal force in a spiral direction round the column to the top, + and by the time it is discharged from the spout at the top it has + thrown off from its outer skin almost all its moisture, the water + escaping through the perforated cover of the machine. But there still + remains a certain amount of water which has penetrated the integuments + more or less deeply, and to condition the berry it is treated by a + combination of hot and cold air. The wheat is passed between + perforated metal plates and subjected to a draught first of hot and + then of cold air. The perforated plates are usually built in the shape + of a column, or leg as it is often called, and this is provided with + two air chambers, an upper one serving as a reservoir for hot, and the + lower for cold air. The air from both chambers is discharged by + pressure through the descending layers of wheat, which should not be + more than an inch thick; the air is drawn in by a steel-plate fan, + which is often provided with a divided casing, one side being used for + cold, and the other for hot air. Coupled with the hot air side is a + heater consisting of a series of circulating steam-heated pipes. The + temperature of the heated air can be regulated by the supply of steam + to the heater. This process of washing and conditioning, one of the + most important in a flour mill, is characteristically British; millers + have to deal with wheats of the most varied nature, and one object of + conditioning is to bring hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as + nearly as possible to a common standard of condition before being + milled. Wheat is sometimes washed to toughen the bran, an end which + can also be attained by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes + along an inclined worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass + wheat through a heated cylinder, while again another process known as + steaming consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a + metal hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to + warm and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but + these processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and + conditioning plant. Hard wheats will not be injured by a fairly long + immersion in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and + drying are efficiently carried out. The second class of semi-hard + wheats already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer + and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this + necessary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the + softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds is + desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately + and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters + the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing. It is + claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are + positively improved in flavour by conditioning, and this is probably + true; certain it is that English country millers, in seasons when + native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant and + cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be an + excellent substitute. + + + Effect of damp. + + Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during harvest + do not necessarily yield unsound flour; the matter is a question of + the amount of moisture absorbed. But it must be remembered that it is + not so much the water itself which degrades the constituents of the + wheat (starch and gluten) as the chemical changes which the dampness + produces. Hence perhaps the best remedy which can be found for damp + wheat is to dry it as soon as it has been harvested, either by kiln or + steam drier at a heat not exceeding 120 deg. F., until the moisture + has been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from wheat + so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound. The practice + of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before the roller + milling period it was found that only flour which had been dried (in a + kiln) could safely be taken on long sea voyages, especially when the + vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted that in the + days of millstone milling it was far more difficult to produce good + keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up and triturated in one + operation, the flour necessarily contained a large proportion of + branny particles in which cerealin, an active diastasic constituent, + was present in very sensible proportions. Again, the elimination of + the germ by the roller process is favourable to the production of a + sounder flour, because the germ contains a large amount of oleaginous + matter and has a strong diastasic action on imperfectly matured + starches. The tendency of flours containing germ to become rancid is + well marked. During the South African War of 1899-1902 the British + army supply department had a practical proof of the diastasic action + of branny particles in flour. Soldiers' bread is not usually of white + colour, and the military authorities not unnaturally believed that + comparatively low-grade flour, if sound, was eminently suitable for + use in the field bakeries. But in the climate of South Africa flour of + this description soon developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the + supply department gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and + it is understood that the most suitable flour proved to be certain + patents milled in Minneapolis, U.S.A., from hard spring wheat. Not + only did they contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but + they were also the driest that could be found. + + + Break-rolls. + + After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into + increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or "breaks." In the earlier + years of roller milling it was usual to employ more breaks than is now + the case. The first pair of break-rolls used to be called the + splitting rolls, because their function was supposed to be to split + the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as to give the miller an + opportunity of removing the dirt between the two lobes of the berry by + means of a brush machine. The dirt was in many cases no more than the + placenta already described, which shrivelling up took, like all + vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat split along the crease was not, + however, achieved in more than 10% of the berries so treated. Where + such rolls are still in use they are really serving as a sort of + adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system. Four or five breaks are now + thought sufficient, but three breaks are not recommended, except in + very short systems for small country mills. Rolls are now used up to + 60 in. in length, though in one of the most approved systems they + never exceed 40 in.; they are made of chilled iron, and for the + breaking of wheat are provided with grooving cut at a slight twist, + the spiral averaging 1/4 in. to the foot length, though for the last + set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran, the spiral is sometimes + increased to 1/2 in. per foot. The grooves should have sharp edges + because they do better work than when blunt, giving larger semolina + and middlings, with bran adherent in big flakes; small middlings, that + is, little pieces of the endosperm torn away by blunt grooves, and + comminuted bran, make the production of good class flour almost + impossible; cut bran, moreover, brings less money. The break-rolls + should never work by pressure, but nip the material fed between them + at a given point; to cut or shear, not to flatten and crush, is their + function. Rolls may be set either horizontally or vertically; an + oblique setting has also come into favour. The feed is of the utmost + importance to the correct working of a roller mill. The material + should be fed in an even stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of + the roll uncovered. The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal + speeds, 2-1/2 to 1 being the usual ratio on the three first breaks, + while the last break is often speeded at 3 to 1 or 3-1/2 to 1; in one + of the oblique mills the difference is obtained by making the diameter + of one roll 13 and of the other 10 in. and running them at equal + speed. For break-rolls up to 36 in. in length 9 in. is the usual + diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the standard. To do good work + rolls must run in perfect parallelism; otherwise some parts of the + material will pass untouched, while others will be treated too + severely. + + + Scalpers. + + The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known as + scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products for + further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving reels or flat + sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of scalper on account of its + gentle action. Scalping requires a separating and sifting, not a + scouring action. The break products are usually separated on a sieve + covered with wire or perforated zinc plates. Generally speaking, two + sieves are in one frame and are run at a slight incline. The throughs + of the top sieve fall on the sieve below, while the rejections or + overtails of the first sieve are fed to the next break. The + "throughs," or what has passed this sieve, are graded by the next + sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the throughs may be + freed from what flour adheres to them by a centrifugal dressing + machine and then treated by another purifier. A form of scalper which + has come into general use on the continent of Europe, and to a lesser + extent in Great Britain and America, is known as the plansifter. This + machine, of Hungarian origin, is simply a collection of superimposed + flat sieves in one box, and will scalp or sort out any kind of break + stock very efficiently. A system of grading the tailings, that is, the + rejections of the scalpers, introduced by James Harrison Carter + (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known as pneumatic sorting. Its object was + to supplement the work of the scalpers by classifying the tailings by + means of air-currents. To this end each scalper was followed by a + machine arranged somewhat like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a + current of air drawn through the casing of the sorter allowed the + heaviest and best material to drop down straight, while the lighter + stuff was deposited in one or other of further compartments formed by + obliquely placed adjustable cant boards. So searching was this + grading, that from the first sorter of a four-break plant four + separations would be obtained, the first going to the second break, + the second joining the first separation from the second sorter and + being fed to the third break, while the third went with the best + separation of the third sorter to the fourth break, and the last + separation from all the sorters went straight into the bran sack. The + work of the break-rolls was greatly simplified and reduced by this + sorting process, as each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that + pair of break-rollers for which it was suitable, instead of all the + material being run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and + thereby being cut up with the necessary result of increasing the + production of small bran. + + + Purifiers. + + The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers have + lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the semolina and + middlings as much impure matter as possible, that those products may + be pure, as millers say, for reduction to flour by the smooth rolls. + The purifiers used in British mills take advantage of the fact that + the more valuable portions of the wheat berry are heavier than the + less valuable particles, such as bran and fibrous bodies, and a + current of air is employed to weigh these fragments of the wheat berry + as in a balance and to separate them while they pass over a + silk-covered sieve. To this end the semolina or middlings are fed on a + sieve vibrated by an eccentric and set at a slight downward angle. + This sieve is installed in an air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber + with glass windows on either side, through which the process of + purifying can be watched. Upwards through this sieve a fan constantly + draws a current of air, which, raising the stock upwards, allows the + heavier and better material to remain below while the lighter + particles are lifted off and fall on side platforms or channels, + whence they are carried forward and delivered separately. The good + material drops through the meshes of the silk, and is collected by a + worm. It is usual to clothe the sieve in sections with several + different meshes of silk so that stock of almost identical value, but + differing size, may be treated with uniform accuracy. In good + purifiers the strength of the current can be regulated at will in each + section. The tailings of a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of + the feed. The clothing of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to + the clothing of the preceding machines. Repurification and even + tertiary purification may be necessary under certain conditions. In + Hungary and other parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use. + Here the material is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle, + while an air-current is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve + may be arranged a series of inclined boards, the position of which can + be varied as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist + the current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried + off to further divisions. + + + Smooth rolls. + + From the purifier all the stock except the tailings, which may require + other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made into + flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise great care and + discretion. Many of the remarks already made in regard to break-rolls + apply to smooth rolls, notably in respect of parallelism. But instead + of a cutting action, the smooth rolls press the material fed to them + into flour. This pressure, however, must be applied with great + discrimination, large semolina with impurities attached requiring + quite different treatment from that called for by small pure + middlings. The pressure on the stock must be just sufficient and no + more. Reduction rolls are usually run at a differential speed of about + 2 to 3. The feed must be carefully graded, because to pass stock of + varying size through a pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good + work. Scratch rolls very finely grooved are used for cracking impure + semolina or for reducing the tailings of purifiers. The latter often + hold fragments of bran, which are best detached by rolls grooved about + 36 to the inch and run at a differential of 3 to 1. The reduction + requires even more roll surface than the break system. To do + first-class work a mill should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the + breaks and 50 in. on the reduction for each sack of 280 lb. of flour + per hour. Many engineers consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch + and smooth rolls not too much. + + + Dressing. + + The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth rolls + is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which consist of a + slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal shaft on which are + keyed a number of iron beaters that run at a speed of about 200 + revolutions a minute, and fling the feed against the silk clothing of + the cylinder. What goes through the silk is collected by a worm + conveyor at the bottom of the machine. Most centrifugals have + so-called "cut-off" sheets, with internal divisions in the tail end; + these are intended to separate some intermediate products, which, + having been freed from floury particles, are treated on some other + machine, such as a pair of rolls either direct or after a purifier. + The centrifugal is undoubtedly an efficient flour separator, but the + plansifters already mentioned are also good flour-dressers, especially + in dry climates. A plansifter mill will have no centrifugals, except + one or two at the tail end where the material gets more sticky and + requires more severe treatment. + + The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to + 73% of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very + small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into various + grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have been + found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In millstone milling + the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, but a certain + proportion of this was little more than offal. The length of the flour + yield taken by British millers varies in different parts of the + kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-class patents may + be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight grade, i.e. a + flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance as can be won + from the wheat berry. In one district there is a sale for rich offals, + that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another there may be + no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general principles of + roller milling as given above hold good all over the country, yet in + practice the work of each mill is varied more or less to suit the + peculiarities of the local trade. + + + Bleaching of flour. + + Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J.J.E. Poutet, discovered + that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on some fluid and + semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow tinge and converting + a considerable portion of their substance into a white solid. The + importance of this discovery, when the physical constitution of wheat + is considered, is obvious, but it was years before any attempt was + made to bleach flour. The first attempts at bleaching seem to have + been made on the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a + process was patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and + about 1891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of + electrolysed sea-water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating + grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was proposed + to subject both grain and flour to the influence of electric currents. + In 1893 a patent was granted for the purification of flour by means of + fresh air or oxygen, and three years later another inventor proposed + to employ the Rontgen rays for the same purpose. In 1898 Emile Frichot + took out a patent for using ozone and ozonized air for + flour-bleaching. The patent (No. 1661 of 1901) taken out by J. & S. + Andrews of Belfast recited that flour is known to improve greatly if + kept for some time after grinding, and the purpose of the invention it + covered was to bring about this improvement or conditioning not only + immediately after grinding, but also to a greater extent than can be + effected by keeping. The process consisted in subjecting the flour to + the action of a suitable gaseous oxidizing medium; the inventors + preferred air carrying a minute quantity of nitric acid or peroxide of + nitrogen, but they did not confine themselves to those compounds, + having found that chlorine, bromine and other substances capable of + liberating oxygen were also more or less efficacious. They claimed + that while exercising no deleterious action their treatment made the + flour whiter, improved its baking qualities, and rendered it less + liable to be attacked by mites or other organisms. Under the patent, + No. 14006 of 1903, granted to J.N. Alsop of Kentucky the flour was + treated with atmospheric air which had been subjected to the action of + an arc or flaming discharge of electricity, with the purpose of + purifying it and improving its nutritious properties. The Andrews and + Alsop patents became the objects of extended litigation in the English + courts, and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsop was + substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, though produced + electrically instead of chemically, and therefore that the Alsop + process was an infringement of the Andrews patent. Various other + patents for more or less similar processes have also been taken out. + (G. F. Z.) + + + + +FLOURENS, GUSTAVE (1838-1871), French revolutionist and writer, a son of +J.P. Flourens (1794-1867), the physiologist, was born at Paris on the +4th of August 1838. In 1863 he undertook for his father a course of +lectures at the College de France, the subject of which was the history +of mankind. His theories as to the manifold origin of the human race, +however, gave offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from +delivering a second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published +his lectures under the title of _Histoire de l'homme_ (1863); he next +visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan insurrection +of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article of his in the +_Popolo d'Italia_ caused his arrest and imprisonment, and finally, +having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a duel with Paul de +Cassagnac, editor of the _Pays_. In Paris he devoted his pen to the +cause of republicanism, and at length, having failed in an attempt to +organize a revolution at Belleville on the 7th of February 1870, found +himself compelled to flee from France. Returning to Paris on the +downfall of Napoleon, he soon placed himself at the head of a body of +500 tirailleurs. On account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was +taken prisoner at Creteil, near Vincennes, by the provisional +government, and confined at Mazas on the 7th of December 1870, but was +released by his men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of March +he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of the commune by the +20th arrondissement, and was named colonel. He was one of the most +active leaders of the insurrection, and in a sortie against the +Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd of April was killed in a +hand-to-hand conflict at Rueil, near Malmaison. Besides his _Science de +l'homme_ (Paris, 1869), Gustave Flourens was the author of numerous +fugitive pamphlets. + + See C. Proles, _Les Hommes de la revolution de 1871_ (Paris, 1898). + + + + +FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE (1794-1867), French physiologist, was born +at Maureilhan, near Beziers, in the department of Herault, on the 15th +of April 1794. At the age of fifteen he began the study of medicine at +Montpellier, where in 1823 he received the degree of doctor. In the +following year he repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from +A.P. de Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvier, who received him +kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens engaged +in physiological research, occasionally contributing to literary +publications; and in 1821, at the Athenee there, he gave a course of +lectures on the physiological theory of the sensations, which attracted +much attention amongst men of science. His paper entitled _Recherches +experimentales sur les proprietes et les fonctions du systeme nerveux +dans les animaux vertebres_, in which he, from experimental evidence, +sought to assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora +quadrigemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory +report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences in 1822. He +was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a course of lectures on +natural history at the College de France, and in the same year became, +in succession to L.A.G. Bosc, a member of the Institute, in the division +"Economie rurale." In 1830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on +human anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the post +of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship of +comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the Jardin the same +year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the dying request of Cuvier, +was appointed a perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences; and in +1838 he was returned as a deputy for the arrondissement of Beziers. In +1840 he was elected, in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J.F. +Michaud at the French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of +the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France. In March +1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy of Sciences to the +anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals. On the revolution of 1848 +he withdrew completely from political life; and in 1855 he accepted the +professorship of natural history at the College de France. He died at +Montgeron, near Paris, on the 6th of December 1867. + + Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens + published--_Essai sur quelques points de la doctrine de la revulsion + et de la derivation_ (Montpellier, 1813); _Experiences sur le systeme + nerveux_ (Paris, 1825); _Cours sur la generation, l'ovologie, et + l'embryologie_ (1836); _Analyse raisonnee des travaux de G. Cuvier_ + (1841); _Recherches sur le developpement des os et des dents_ (1842); + _Anatomie generale de la peau et des membranes muqueuses_ (1843); + _Buffon, histoire de ses travaux et de ses idees_ (1844); _Fontenelle, + ou de la philosophie moderne relativement aux sciences physiques_ + (1847); _Theorie experimentale de la formation des os_ (1847); + _Oeuvres completes de Buffon_ (1853); _De la longevite humaine et de + la quantite de vie sur le globe_ (1854), numerous editions; _Histoire + de la decouverte de la circulation du sang_ (1854); _Cours de + physiologie comparee_ (1856); _Recueil des eloges historiques_ (1856); + _De la vie et de l'intelligence_ (1858); _De la raison, du genie, et + de la folie_ (1861); _Ontologie naturelle_ (1861); _Examen du livre de + M. Darwin sur l'Origine des Especes_ (1864). For a list of his papers + see the Royal Society's _Catalogue of Scientific Papers_. + + + + +FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-1899), English biologist, was born at +Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November 1831. Choosing medicine as his +profession, he began his studies at University College, London, where he +showed special aptitude for physiology and comparative anatomy and took +his M.B. degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and +went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal with +four clasps. On his return to England he became a member of the surgical +staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in 1861 succeeded J.T. +Quekett as curator of the Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of +Surgeons of England. In 1870 he also became Hunterian professor, and in +1884, on the death of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the +directorship of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died +in London on the 1st of July 1899. He made valuable contributions to +structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete and accurate +measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls, and as a comparative +anatomist he ranked high, devoting himself especially to the study of +the mammalia. He was also a leading authority on the arrangement of +museums. The greater part of his life was spent in their administration, +and in consequence he held very decided views as to the principles upon +which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the importance +of distinguishing between collections intended for the use of +specialists and those designed for the instruction of the general +public, pointing out that it was as futile to present to the former a +number of merely typical forms as to provide the latter with a long +series of specimens differing only in the most minute details. His +ideas, which were largely and successfully applied to the museums of +which he had charge, gained wide approval, and their influence entitles +him to be looked upon as a reformer who did much to improve the methods +of museum arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original +papers, he was the author of _An Introduction to the Osteology of the +Mammalia_ (1870); _Fashion in Deformity_ (1881); _The Horse: a Study in +Natural History_ (1890); _Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living +and Extinct_ (1891); _Essays on Museums and other Subjects_ (1898). He +also wrote many articles for the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_. + + + + +FLOWER (Lat. _flos_, _floris_; Fr. _fleur_), a term popularly used for +the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the fairest, +choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various technical +senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical interest. It is +impossible to give a rigid botanical definition of the term "flower." +The flower is a characteristic feature of the highest group of the plant +kingdom--the flowering plants (Phanerogams)--and is the name given to +the association of organs, more or less leaf-like in form, which are +concerned with the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical +works the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta). As +the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized by the +pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are two, viz. the +pollen-bearer or _stamen_ and the ovule-bearer or _carpel_. These are +with few exceptions foliar structures, known in comparative morphology +as sporophylls, because they bear the spores, namely, the microspores or +pollen-grains which are developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, +and the megaspore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium. + +In Gymnosperms (q.v.), which represent the more primitive type of +seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally associated, +often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which the term "flower" +has been applied. But there is considerable difference of opinion as to +the relation between these cones and the more definite and elaborate +structure known as the flower in the higher group of seed-plants--the +Angiosperms (q.v.)--and it is to this more definite structure that we +generally refer in using the term "flower." + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Proliferous Rose. + + s, Sepals transformed into leaves. + + p, Petals multiplied at the expense of the stamens, which are reduced + in number. + + c, Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels. + + a, Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex.] + +Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots arise from +leaf-buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance to each other as +regards the arrangement and the development of their parts; and it +sometimes happens, from injury and other causes, that the part of the +axis which, in ordinary cases, would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to +a flower-bud. A flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power +of extension by the continuous development of its apex. In this respect +it differs from a leaf-bud. In some cases, however, of monstrosity, +especially seen in the rose (fig. 1), the central part is prolonged, and +bears leaves or flowers. In such cases the flowers, so far as their +functional capabilities are concerned, are usually abortive. This +phenomenon is known as proliferation of the floral axis. + +Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil of leaves, which +are called _bracts_. + + + Bracts. + +The term _bract_ is properly applied to the leaf from which the primary +floral axis, whether simple or branched, arises, while the leaves which +arise on the axis between the bract and the outer envelope of the flower +are _bracteoles_ or _bractlets_. Bracts sometimes do not differ from the +ordinary leaves, as in _Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca_, _Anagallis_ and +_Ajuga_. In general as regards their form and appearance they differ +from ordinary leaves, the difference being greater in the upper than in +the lower branches of an inflorescence. They are distinguished by their +position at the base of the flower or flower-stalk. Their arrangement is +similar to that of the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are +often applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with it, +as in the order Malvaceae and species of _Dianthus_ and winter aconite +(_Eranthis_), where they have received the name of _epicalyx_ or +_calyculus_. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present, due to the +formation of stipulary structures by the sepals. In many cases bracts +act as protective organs, within or beneath which the young flowers are +concealed in their earliest stage of growth. + +When bracts become coloured, as in _Amherstia nobilis_, _Euphorbia +splendens_, _Erica elegans_ and _Salvia splendens_, they may be mistaken +for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes mere scales or threads, and +at other times are undeveloped, giving rise to the _ebracteate_ +inflorescence of Cruciferae and some Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are +empty, no flower-buds being produced in their axil. A series of empty +coloured bracts terminates the inflorescence of _Salvia Horminum_. The +smaller bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a +branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus +anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasionally +persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the peduncles, but +more usually they are deciduous, falling off early by an articulation. +In some instances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorporated +with other organs. Thus, the cones of firs and the stroboli of the hop +are composed of a series of spirally arranged bracts covering fertile +flowers; and the scales on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same +nature. At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl +of bracts often exists, called a _general involucre_, and at the base of +the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl called +an _involucel_ or _partial involucre_. In some instances, as in +fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an involucel; +while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15), neither involucre +nor involucel is developed. In Compositae the name involucre is applied +to the bracts surrounding the head of flowers (fig. 2, i), as in +marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke. This involucre is frequently +composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or of +different forms and lengths, and often lie over each other in an +imbricated manner. The leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and +in teazel (_Dipsacus_), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or +verticillate bracts generally remain separate (_polyphyllous_), but may +be united by cohesion (_gamophyllous_), as in many species of +_Bupleurum_ and in _Lavatera_. In Compositae besides the involucre there +are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each flower, and +in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each flower. These structures +are of the nature of an epicalyx. In the acorn the _cupule_ or cup (fig. +3) is formed by a growing upwards of the flower-stalk immediately +beneath the flower, upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it +is of the nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of +the hazel-nut. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head (capitulum) of Marigold (_Calendula_), +showing a congeries of flowers, enclosed by rows of bracts, i, at the +base, which are collectively called an involucre.] + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 3.--Cupule of _Quercus Aegilops_. cp, Cupule; gl, fruit. (After +Duchartre.)] + +When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several rows, it +often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, that is, are +empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbricated scales or bracts +are in this condition, and it is from the membranous white scales or +bracts (_paleae_) forming the choke attached to the edible receptacle +that the flowers are produced. The sterile bracts of the daisy +occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to the hen-and-chickens +daisy. In place of developing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain +circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous plants, produce +leaf-buds. + +A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called a _spathe_. +It is common among Monocotyledons, as _Narcissus_ (fig. 4), snow-flake, +_Arum_ and palms. In some palms it is 20 ft. long, and encloses 200,000 +flowers. It is often associated with that form of inflorescence termed +the _spadix_, and may be coloured, as in _Anthurium_, or white, as in +arum lily (_Richardia aethiopica_). When the spadix is compound or +branching, as in palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate +parts of the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their +young state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down +in a withered form, as in some palms, _Typha_ and _Pothos_. In grasses +the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile bracts (fig. 5, +gl); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs of reproduction. Bracts +are frequently changed into complete leaves. This change is called +_phyllody_ of bracts, and is seen in species of _Plantago_, especially +in the variety of _Plantago media_, called the rose-plantain in gardens, +where the bracts become leafy and form a rosette round the flowering +axis. Similar changes occur in _Plantago major_, _P. lanceolata_, _Ajuga +reptans_, dandelion, daisy, dahlia and in umbelliferous plants. The +conversion of bracts into stamens (_staminody_ of bracts) has been +observed in the case of _Abies excelsa_. A lengthening of the axis of +the female strobilus of Coniferae is not of infrequent occurrence in +_Cryptomeria japonica_, larch (_Larix europaea_), &c., and this is +usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and +sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of +the scales. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Flowers of Narcissus (_Narcissus Tazetta_) +bursting from a sheathing bract b.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of Oat (_Avena sativa_) laid open, +showing the sterile bracts gl, gl, or empty glumes; g, the fertile or +floral glume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; fs, an abortive flower.] + +The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of the +floral axis, is called the _inflorescence_. The primary axis of the +inflorescence is sometimes called the _rachis_; its branches, whether +terminal or lateral, which form the stalks supporting flowers or +clusters of flowers, are _peduncles_, and if small branches are given +off by it, they are called _pedicels_. A flower having a stalk is called +_pedunculate_ or _pedicellate_; one having no stalk is _sessile_. In +describing a branching inflorescence, it is common to speak of the +rachis as the _primary_ floral axis, its branches as the _secondary_ +floral axes, their divisions as the _tertiary_ floral axes, and so on; +thus avoiding any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms +_rachis_, _peduncle_ and _pedicel_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Peduncle of Fig (_Ficus Carica_), ending in a +hollow receptacle, enclosing numerous male and female flowers.] + +The _peduncle_ is simple, bearing a single flower, as in primrose; or +branched, as in London-pride. It is sometimes succulent, as in the +cashew, in which it forms the large coloured expansion supporting the +nut; spiral, as in _Cyclamen_ and _Vallisneria_; or spiny, as in +_Alyssum spinosum_. When the peduncle proceeds from radical leaves, that +is, from an axis which is so shortened as to bring the leaves close +together in the form of a cluster, as in the primrose, auricula or +hyacinth, it is termed a _scape_. The floral axis may be shortened, +assuming a flattened, convex or concave form, and bearing numerous +flowers, as in the artichoke, daisy and fig (fig. 6). The floral axis +sometimes appears as if formed by several peduncles united together, +constituting a fasciated axis, as in the cockscomb, in which the flowers +form a peculiar crest at the apex of the flattened peduncles. Adhesions +occasionally take place between the peduncle and the bracts or leaves of +the plant, as in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The adhesion of the peduncles +to the stem accounts for the extra-axillary position of flowers, as in +many Solanaceae. When this union extends for a considerable length along +the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where the +peduncle becomes free and the leaf whence it originated, and it may be +difficult to trace the connexion. The peduncle occasionally becomes +abortive, and in place of bearing a flower, is transformed into a +tendril; at other times it is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently to +form the lower part of the outer whorl of floral leaves as in +_Eschscholtzia_. The termination of the peduncle, or the part on which +the whorls of the flower are arranged, is called the _thalamus_, _torus_ +or _receptacle_. + +[Illustration: (From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by +permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.) + +FIG. 7.--Inflorescence of the Lime (_Tilia platyphyllos_) (nat. size). + + a, Branch. + + b, Petiole with axillary bud. Attached to the peduncle is the bract + (h). + + k, Calyx. + + c, Corolla. + + s, Stamens. + + f, Ovary. + + kn, Flower-bud.] + +[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.) + +FIG. 8.--Raceme of _Linaria striata_. d, bract.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Head of flowers (capitulum) of _Scabiosa +atropurpurea_. The inflorescence is simple and indeterminate, and the +expansion of the flowers centripetal, those at the circumference opening +first.] + + + Inflorescence. + +There are two distinct types of inflorescence--one in which the flowers +arise as lateral shoots from a primary axis, which goes on elongating, +and the lateral shoots never exceed in their development the length of +the primary axis beyond their point of origin. The flowers are thus +always _axillary_. Exceptions, such as in cruciferous plants, are due to +the non-appearance of the bracts. In the other type the primary axis +terminates in a single flower, but lateral axes are given off from the +axils of the bracts, which again repeat the primary axis; the +development of each lateral axis is stronger than that of the primary +axis beyond its point of origin. The flowers produced in this +inflorescence are thus _terminal_. The first kind of inflorescence is +_indeterminate_, _indefinite_ or _axillary_. Here the axis is either +elongated, producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first +(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers expand +first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus _centripetal_, that +is, from base to apex, or from circumference to centre. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Plant of _Ranunculus bulbosus_, showing +determinate inflorescence.] + +The second kind of inflorescence is _determinate_, _definite_ or +_terminal_. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary +flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are +produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the +axis is shortened and flattened, producing a number of separate floral +axes, the central one expanding first, while the others are developed in +succession farther from the centre. The expansion of the flowers is in +this case _centrifugal_, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to +circumference. It is illustrated in fig. 10, _Ranunculus bulbosus_; a' +is the primary axis swollen at the base in a bulb-like manner b, and +with roots proceeding from it. From the leaves which are radical +proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal flower f'. About the +middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from which a secondary +floral axis a" is produced, ending in a single flower f", less advanced +than the flower f'. This secondary axis bears a leaf also, from which a +tertiary floral axis a"' is produced, bearing an unexpanded solitary +flower f"'. From this tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of +formation. Here f' is the termination of the primary axis, and this +flower expands first, while the other flowers are developed +centrifugally on separate axes. + +A third series of inflorescences, termed _mixed_, may be recognized. In +them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging to the opposite type +from that of the branches, or vice versa. According to the mode and +degree of development of the lateral shoots and also of the bracts, +various forms of both inflorescences result. + +Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral shoot +produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant ends in +a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, as in +_Veronica hederifolia_, _Vinca minor_ and _Lysimachia nemorum_. The +flower in this case is _solitary_, and the ordinary leaves become bracts +by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their number, like that +of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, varying with the vigour +of the plant. Usually, however, the floral axis, arising from a more or +less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending in a solitary flower, is +prolonged, and bears numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles +are produced, and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar +way. Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very +complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary peduncle or +floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off pedicels, ending +in single flowers, a _raceme_ is produced, as in currant, hyacinth and +barberry. If the secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the +raceme is branching, and forms a _panicle_, as in _Yucca gloriosa_. If +in a raceme the lower flower-stalks are developed more strongly than the +upper, and thus all the flowers are nearly on a level, a _corymb_ is +formed, which may be simple, as in fig. 11, where the primary axis a' +gives off secondary axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or +branching, where the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are +very short or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a _spike_ is +produced, as in _Plantago_ and vervain (_Verbena officinalis_) (fig. +12). If the spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hazel (fig. +13), it is an _amentum_ or _catkin_, hence such trees are called +_amentiferous_; at other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous +flowers, surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it +constitutes a _spadix_, which may be simple, as in _Arum maculatum_ +(fig. 14), or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers +only, and covered with scales, is a _strobilus_, as in the hop. In +grasses there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small +spikes, called _locustae_ or _spikelets_, which are either set closely +along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by the +branching of the central one; to the latter form the term panicle is +applied. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 11.--Corymb of _Cerasus Mahaleb_, terminating an abortive branch, +at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of scales, e. a', +Primary axis; a", secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract in the axils +of which the secondary axes arise. + +FIG. 12.--Spike of Vervain (_Verbena officinalis_), showing sessile +flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of the spike +have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full bloom, and +those at the top are only in bud. + +FIG. 13.--Amentum or catkin of Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), consisting of +an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales, each of +which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting +beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating from the +branch by an articulation.] + +[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.) + +FIG. 14.--Spadix of _Arum maculatum_. (After Wossidlo.) a, Female +flowers; b, male flowers; c, hairs representing sterile flowers.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Compound umbel of Common Dill (_Anethum +graveolens_), having a primary umbel a, and secondary umbels b, without +either involucre or involucel.] + +If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, it +gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the axis is +so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common point, and +spread out as _radii_ of nearly equal length, each ending in a single +flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, an _umbel_ is +produced, as in fig. 15. From the primary floral axis a the secondary +axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like manner, and end in small +umbels b, which are called _partial umbels_ or _umbellules_. This +inflorescence is seen in hemlock and other allied plants, which are +hence called umbelliferous. If there are numerous flowers on a +flattened, convex or slightly concave receptacle, having either very +short pedicels or none, a _capitulum_ (head) is formed, as in +dandelion, daisy and other composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious +(fig. 9) and teazel. In the American button-bush the heads are globular, +in some species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite +plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold, they +are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly hollowed, or +convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle be developed upwards, +the centre not developing, a concave receptacle is formed, which may +partially or completely enclose a number of flowers that are generally +unisexual. This gives rise to the peculiar inflorescence of _Dorstenia_, +or to that of the fig (fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the +inner surface of the hollow receptacle, and are provided with +bracteoles. This inflorescence has been called a _hypanthodium_. + +Lastly, we have what are called _compound indefinite_ inflorescences. In +these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally upon the primary +axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which floral shoots arise which may +have a centripetal arrangement similar to that on the mother shoot, or +it may be different. Thus we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a +racemose manner on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or +compound raceme, as in _Astilbe_. In the same way we may have compound +umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. 15), a compound spike, +as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound +capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens daisy. Again, there may be a +raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a racemose +manner, as in _Petasites_, a raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all +the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition. In +_Eryngium_ the shortening of the pedicels changes an umbel into a +capitulum. + +The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is seen in +_Anemone nemorosa_ and in gentianella (_Gentiana acaulis_), where the +axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers being produced upon +the plant. This is a _solitary terminal_ inflorescence. If other flowers +were produced, they would arise as lateral shoots from the bracts below +the first-formed flower. The general name of _cyme_ is applied to the +arrangement of a group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A +_cymose_ inflorescence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis +before terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral +axes which repeat the process--the development being only limited by the +vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus centrifugally developed. +The cyme, according to its development, has been characterized as +_biparous_ or _uniparous_. In fig. 16 the biparous cyme is represented +in the flowering branch of _Cerastium_. Here the primary axis t ends in +a flower, which has passed into the state of fruit. At its base two +leaves are produced, in each of which arise secondary axes t' t', ending +in single flowers, and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite +leaves is produced, giving rise to tertiary axes t" t", ending in single +flowers, and so on. The term _dichasium_ has also been applied to this +form of cyme. + +In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial form of +inflorescence is very general. In some members of the order, as +_Dianthus barbatus_, _D. carthusianorum_, &c., in which the peduncles +are short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal +expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a contracted dichasium, and +receives the name of _fascicle_. When the axes become very much +shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the +nature of the inflorescence can only be recognized by the order of +opening of the flowers. In Labiate plants, as the dead-nettle +(_Lamium_), the flowers are produced in the axil of each of the foliage +leaves of the plant, and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of +flowers. But on examination it is found that there is a central flower +expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring bearing +solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal. The inflorescence +is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers being sessile, or +nearly so, and the clusters are called _verticillasters_ (fig. 17). +Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a dichasium, owing to the +exhaustion of the growing power of the plant, only one of the bracts +gives origin to a new axis, the other remaining empty; thus the +inflorescence becomes unilateral, and further development is arrested. +In addition to the dichasial form there are others where more than two +lateral axes are produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in +turn produces numerous axes. To this form the terms _trichasial_ and +_polychasial cyme_ have been applied; but these are now usually +designated _cymose umbels_. They are well seen in some species of +_Euphorbia_. Another term, _anthela_, has been used to distinguish such +forms as occur in several species of _Luzula_ and _Juncus_, where +numerous lateral axes arising from the primary axis grow very strongly +and develop in an irregular manner. + +[Illustration: (From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer.) + +FIG. 16.--Cymose inflorescence (dichasium) of _Cerastium collinum_; +t-t"", successive axes. (After Duchartre.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle +(_Lamium album_). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, +and produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called +verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a +centrifugal manner.] + +In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively developed +one from the other, but the axis of each successive generation, instead +of producing a pair of bracts, produces only one. The basal portion of +the consecutive axes may become much thickened and arranged more or less +in a straight line, and thus collectively form an apparent or false +axis or _sympodium_, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In +the true raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in +succession a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as +lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the floral +axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but in the +uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal portions of +which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the opposite side of +the axis to the bract from which it apparently arises (fig. 18). The +bract is not, however, the one from which the axis terminating in the +flower arises, but is a bract produced upon it, and gives origin in its +axil to a new axis, the basal portion of which, constituting the next +part of the false axis, occupies the angle between this bract and its +parent axis--the bract from which the axis really does arise being +situated lower down upon the same side of the axis with itself. The +uniparous cyme presents two forms, the _scorpioid_ or _cicinal_ and the +_helicoid_ or _bostrychoid_. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 18.--Helicoid cyme of a species of _Alstroemeria_. a1, a2, a3, a4, +&c., separate axes successively developed in the axils of the +corresponding bracts b2, b3, b4, &c., and ending in a flower f2, f3, f4, +&c. The whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the +internodes. + +FIG. 19.--Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (_Myosotis +palustris_). + +FIG. 20.--Diagram of definite floral axes a, b, c, d, e, &c. + +FIG. 21.--Flowering stalk of Ragwort (_Senecio_). The flowers are in +heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an +indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other hand, +taken collectively, expand centrifugally--the central one a first.] + +In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a double +row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts when +developed forming a second double row on the opposite side; the whole +inflorescence usually curves on itself like a scorpion's tail, hence its +name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagrammatic sketch of this arrangement. The +false axis, a b c d, is formed by successive generations of unifloral +axes, the flowers being arranged along one side alternately and in a +double row; had the bracts been developed they would have formed a +similar double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole +inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence in +the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid cymes. + +In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal +portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in a double +row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix round the false +axis. In _Alstroemeria_, as represented in fig. 18, the axis a1 ends in +a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. From the axil of this +leaf, that is, between it and the primary axis a1 arises a secondary +axis a2, ending in a flower f2, and producing a leaf about the middle. +From the axil of this leaf a tertiary floral axis a3, ending in a flower +f3, takes origin. In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows +along one side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, +so as to form an elongated spiral round it. + +Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, but in +_Streptocarpus polyanthus_ and in several calceolarias we probably have +examples. Here there are _scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers_, each +pair consisting of an older and a younger flower. + + + Mixed inflorescence. + +Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite and indefinite +types are represented--_mixed_ inflorescences. Thus in Composite plants, +such as hawk weeds (_Hieracia_) and ragworts (_Senecio_, fig. 21), the +_heads_ of flowers, taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the +terminal head first, while the _florets_, or small flowers on the +receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference first. So +also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (_Lamium_), the different whorls +of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while the florets of the +verticillaster are centrifugal. This mixed character presents +difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where the leaves, in place of +retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and thus might lead to the +supposition of the whole series of flowers being one inflorescence. In +such cases the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, +according to circumstances. In _Saxifraga umbrosa_ (London-pride) and in +the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; in +sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a +glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of dichasial cymes; a +scorpioid cyme of capitula in _Vernonia scorpioides_. The so-called +catkins of the birch are, in reality, spikes of contracted dichasial +cymes. In the bell-flower (_Campanula_) there is a racemose uniparous +cyme. In the privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_) there are numerous racemes of +dichasia arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole +inflorescence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and +has been called a _thyrsus_. + + TABULAR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCES + + A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence. + I. Flowers solitary, axillary. _Vinca_, _Veronica hederifolia_. + II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate. + 1. Elongated form (Raceme), _Hyacinth_, _Laburnum_, _Currant_. + (Corymb), _Ornithogalum_. + 2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), _Cowslip_, + _Astrantia_. + III. Flowers in groups, sessile. + 1. Elongated form (Spike), _Plantago_. + (Spikelet), _Grasses_. + (Amentum, Catkin), _Willow_, _Hazel_. + (Spadix) _Arum_, some _Palms_. + (Strobilus), _Hop_. + 2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), _Daisy_, + _Dandelion_, _Scabious_. + IV. Compound Indefinite Inflorescence. + a. Compound Spike, _Rye-grass_. + b. Compound Spadix, _Palms_. + c. Compound Raceme, _Astilbe_. + d. Compound Umbel, _Hemlock_ and most _Umbelliferae_. + e. Raceme of Capitula, _Petasites_. + f. Raceme of Umbels, _Ivy_. + B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence. + I. Flowers solitary, terminal. _Gentianella_, _Tulip_. + II. Flowers in Cymes. + 1. Uniparous Cyme. + a. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral). + Elongated form, _Alstromeria_. + Contracted form, _Witsenia corymbosa_. + + b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows). + Elongated form, _Forget-me-not_, _Symphytum_, + _Henbane_. + Contracted form, _Erodium_, _Alchemilla arvensis_. + 2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5 chotomous + Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Anthela). + a. Elongated form, _Cerastium_, _Stellaria_. + b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), _Dead-nettle_, + _Pelargonium_. + 3. Compound Definite Inflorescence. _Streptocarpus + polyanthus_, many _Calceolarias_. + C. Mixed Inflorescence. + Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, _Horse-chestnut_. + Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, _Vernonia scorpioides_. + Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, _Laurustinus_. + Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus), + _Sea-pink_. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 22.--Flower of _Sedum rubens_. s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c, +carpels. + +FIG. 23.--Diagram of a completely symmetrical flower, consisting of four +whorls, each of five parts, s, Sepals; p, petals; a, stamens; c, +carpels. + +FIG. 24.--Monochlamydeous (apetalous) flower of Goosefoot +(_Chenopodium_), consisting of a single perianth (calyx) of five parts, +enclosing five stamens, which are opposite the divisions of the +perianth, owing to the absence of the petals. + +FIG. 25.--Stamen, consisting of a filament (stalk) f and an anther a, +containing the pollen p, which is discharged through slits in the two +lobes of the anther. + +FIG. 26.--The pistil of Tobacco (_Nicotiana Tabacum_), consisting of the +ovary o, containing ovules, the style s, and the capitate stigma g. The +pistil is placed on the receptacle r, at the extremity of the peduncle.] + + + The flower. + +The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylls (stamens +and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes. The axis is +usually very much contracted, no internodes being developed, and the +portion bearing the floral leaves, termed the _thalamus_ or _torus_, +frequently expands into a conical, flattened or hollowed expansion; at +other times, though rarely, the internodes are developed and it is +elongated. Upon this torus the parts of the flower are arranged in a +crowded manner, usually forming a series of verticils, the parts of +which alternate; but they are sometimes arranged spirally especially if +the floral axis be elongated. In a typical flower, as in fig. 22, we +recognize four distinct whorls of leaves: an outer whorl, the _calyx_ of +_sepals_; within it, another whorl, the parts alternating with those of +the outer whorl, the _corolla_ of _petals_; next a whorl of parts +alternating with the parts of the corolla, the _androecium_ of +_stamens_; and in the centre the _gynoecium_ of _carpels_. Fig. 23 is a +diagrammatic representation of the arrangement of the parts of such a +flower; it is known as a _floral diagram_. The flower is supposed to be +cut transversely, and the parts of each whorl are distinguished by a +different symbol. Of these whorls the two internal, forming the +sporophylls, constitute the _essential_ organs of reproduction; the two +outer whorls are the protective coverings or floral _envelopes_. The +sepals are generally of a greenish colour; their function is mainly +protective, shielding the more delicate internal organs before the +flower opens. The petals are usually showy, and normally alternate with +the sepals. Sometimes, as usually in monocotyledons, the calyx and +corolla are similar; in such cases the term _perianth_, or _perigone_, +is applied. Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily, hyacinth, we speak of the +parts of the perianth, in place of calyx and corolla, although in these +plants there is an outer whorl (calyx), of three parts, and an inner +(corolla), of a similar number, alternating with them. When the parts of +the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be _petaloid_, +as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the appearance of sepals, +then they are _sepaloid_, as in Juncaceae. In plants, as _Nymphaea +alba_, where a spiral arrangement of the floral leaves occurs, it is not +easy to say where the calyx ends and the corolla begins, as these two +whorls pass insensibly into each other. When both calyx and corolla are +present, the plants are _dichlamydeous_; when one only is present, the +flower is termed _monochlamydeous_ or _apetalous_, having no petals +(fig. 24). Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is _achlamydeous_, +or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential organs, +collectively termed the _androecium_, is composed of the +microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or _stamens_. In their +most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the _filament_ (fig. +25, f), supporting at its summit the anther (a), consisting of the +pollen-sacs which contain the powdery _pollen_ (p), the microspores, +which is ultimately discharged therefrom. The _gynoecium_ or _pistil_ is +the central portion of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It +consists of one or more _carpels_ (megasporophylls), either separate +(fig. 22, c) or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the +pistil are the _ovary_ (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion +enclosing the _ovules_ destined to become seeds, and the _stigma_ (g), a +portion of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the +pollen is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary, +as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion called +the _style_ (s). The androecium and gynoecium are not present in all +flowers. When both are present the flower is hermaphrodite; and in +descriptive botany such a flower is indicated by the symbol +[female/male]. When only one of those organs is present the flower is +_unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and is either male (_staminate_), [male] or +female (_pistillate_), [female]. A flower then normally consists of the +four series of leaves--calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium--and +when these are all present the flower is _complete_. These are usually +densely crowded upon the thalamus, but in some instances, after apical +growth has ceased in the axis, an elongation of portions of the +receptacle by intercalary growth occurs, by which changes in the +position of the parts may be brought about. Thus in _Lychnis_ an +elongation of the axis betwixt the calyx and the corolla takes place, +and in this way they are separated by an interval. Again, in the +passion-flower (_Passiflora_) the stamens are separated from the corolla +by an elongated portion of the axis, which has consequently been termed +the _androphore_, and in _Passiflora_ also, fraxinella (fig. 27), +Capparidaceae, and some other plants, the ovary is raised upon a +distinct stalk termed the _gynophore_; it is thus separated from the +stamens, and is said to be _stipitate_. Usually the successive whorls of +the flower, disposed from below upwards or from without inwards upon the +floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or are a multiple of the +same number of parts, those of one whorl alternating with those of the +whorls next it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Calyx and pistil of Fraxinella (_Dictamnus +Fraxinella_). The pistil consists of several carpels, which are elevated +on a stalk or _gynophore_ prolonged from the receptacle.] + +In the more primitive types of flowers the torus is more or less convex, +and the series of organs follow in regular succession, culminating in +the carpels, in the formation of which the growth of the axis is closed +(fig. 28). This arrangement is known as hypogynous, the other series +(calyx, corolla and stamens) being beneath (_hypo-_) the gynoecium. In +other cases, the apex of the growing point ceases to develop, and the +parts below form a cup around it, from the rim of which the outer +members of the flower are developed around (_peri-_) the carpels, which +are formed from the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. +This arrangement is known as _perigynous_ (fig. 29). In many cases this +is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over by the +carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring from the edge of +the receptacle which is immediately above the ovary (epigynous), hence +the term epigyny (fig. 30). + +[Illustration: FIGS. 28, 29 and 30.--Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, +perigyny and epigyny of the flower. a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals; +s, sepals.] + + + Symmetry of the flower. + +When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said to be +_cyclic_, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts and are +alternate it is _eucyclic_ (figs. 22, 23). In contrast to the cyclic +flowers are those, as in Magnoliaceae, where the parts are in spirals +(_acyclic_). Flowers which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at +another, as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed _hemicyclic_. In spiral +flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually +there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to staminal +parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs. 31, 32), +although in some plants there is no such distinction, the parts being +all petaloid, as in _Trollius_. Normally, the parts of successive whorls +alternate; but in some cases we find the parts of one whorl opposite or +_superposed_ to those of the next whorl. In some cases, as in the +vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems to be the ordinary mode of +development, but the superposition of the stamens on the sepals in many +plants, as in the pink family, Caryophyllaceae, is due to the +suppression or abortion of the whorl of petals, and this idea is borne +out by the development, in some plants of the order, of the suppressed +whorl. As a rule, whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on +those of another we may suspect some abnormality. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission +of Macmillan & Co., Ltd. + +FIGS. 31 and 32.--White Water Lily. Fig. 31, flower; fig. 32, successive +stages, a-f, in the transition from petals to stamens. (After +Wossidlo.)] + +A flower is said to be _symmetrical_ when each of its whorls consists of +an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any one whorl are +multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a symmetrical flower may have five +sepals, five petals, five stamens and five carpels, or the number of any +of these parts may be ten, twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a +diagram of a symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, +alternating with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical +flower of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten +stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the staminal +whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case the additional +five parts form a second row alternating with the others. In the +staminal whorl especially it is common to find additional rows. Fig. 34 +shows a symmetrical flower, with five parts in the three outer rows, and +ten divisions in the inner. In this case it is the gynoecium which has +an additional number of parts. Fig. 35 shows a flower of heath, with +four divisions of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and +four divisions of the pistil. In fig. 36 there are three parts in each +whorl; and in fig. 37 there are three divisions of the calyx, corolla +and pistil, and six stamens in two rows. In all these cases the flower +is symmetrical. In Monocotyledons it is usual for the staminal whorl to +be double, it rarely having more than two rows, whilst amongst +dicotyledons there are often very numerous rows of stamens. The floral +envelopes are rarely multiplied. Flowers in which the number of parts in +each whorl is the same, are _isomerous_ (of equal number); when the +number in some of the whorls is different, the flower is _anisomerous_ +(of unequal number). The pistillate whorl is very liable to changes. It +frequently happens that when it is fully formed, the number of its parts +is not in conformity with that of the other whorls. In such +circumstances, however, a flower has been called symmetrical, provided +the parts of the other whorls are normal,--the permanent state of the +pistil not being taken into account in determining symmetry. Thus fig. +38 shows a pentamerous symmetrical flower, with dimerous pistil. +Symmetry, then, in botanical language, has reference to a certain +definite numerical relation of parts. A flower in which the parts are +arranged in twos is called _dimerous_; when the parts of the whorls are +three, four or five, the flower is _trimerous_, _tetramerous_ or +_pentamerous_, respectively. The symmetry which is most commonly met +with is trimerous and pentamerous--the former occurring generally among +monocotyledons, the latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous +symmetry occur also among dicotyledons. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 33.--Diagrammatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of +Stone-crop (_Sedum_), consisting of five sepals (s), five petals (p) +alternating with the sepals, ten stamens (a) in two rows, and five +carpels (c) containing ovules. The dark lines (d) on the outside of the +carpels are glands. + +FIG. 34.--Diagram of the flower of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five +sepals (s), five petals (p), five stamens (a), and five carpels (c), +each of which is partially divided into two. The dots represent a whorl +of stamens which has disappeared. It is pentamerous, complete, +symmetrical and regular. + +FIG. 35.--Diagram of the flower of Heath (_Erica_), a regular +tetramerous flower. + +FIG. 36.--Diagram of the trimerous symmetrical flower of Iris. + +FIG. 37.--Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary +(_Fritillaria_). + +FIG. 38.--Diagram of the flower of Saxifrage (_Saxifraga +tridactylites_). The calyx and corolla consist of five parts, the +stamens are ten in two rows, while the pistil has only two parts +developed.] + +The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation to the +axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one sepal is next +the axis, and is called _superior_ or _posterior_; another is next the +bract, and is _inferior_ or _anterior_, and the other two are _lateral_; +and certain terms are used to indicate that position. A plane passing +through the anterior and posterior sepal and through the floral axis is +termed the _median plane_ of the flower; a plane cutting it at right +angles, and passing through the lateral sepals, is the _lateral plane_; +whilst the planes which bisect the angles formed by the lateral and +median planes are the _diagonal planes_, and in these flowers the petals +which alternate with the sepals are cut by the diagonal planes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Diagram of flower of Sweet-pea (_Lathyrus_), +showing five sepals (s), two superior, one inferior, and two lateral; +five petals (p), one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; ten +stamens in two rows (a); and one carpel (c). + +FIG. 40.--Flower of Pea (_Pisum sativum_), showing a papilionaceous +corolla, with one petal superior (st) called the standard (vexillum), +two inferior (car) called the keel (carina), and two lateral (a) called +wings (alae). The calyx is marked c.] + +In a pentamerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the calyx of +Rosaceae and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in the calyx of +Leguminosae (fig. 39)--the reverse, by the law of alternation, being the +case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom of the pea (figs. 39, 40), +the odd petal (vexillum) st is superior, while the odd sepal is +inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae one of the two carpels is +posterior and the other anterior, whilst in Convolvulaceae the carpels +are arranged laterally. Sometimes the twisting of a part makes a change +in the position of other parts, as in Orchids, where the twisting of the +ovary changes the position of the labellum. + +When the different members of each whorl are like in size and shape, the +flower is said to be _regular_; while differences in the size and shape +of the parts of a whorl make the flower _irregular_, as in the +papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a flower can be +divided by a single plane into two exactly similar parts; then it is +said to be _zygomorphic_. Such flowers as Papilionaceae, Labiatae, are +examples. In contrast with this are _polysymmetrical_ or actinomorphic +flowers, which have a radial symmetry and can be divided by several +planes into several exactly similar portions; such are all regular, +symmetrical flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to or +some multiple of the others, then the flower is _asymmetrical_. This +want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways. Alteration in the +symmetrical arrangement as well as in the completeness and regularity of +flowers has been traced to _suppression_ or the _non-development_ of +parts, _degeneration_ or imperfect formation, _cohesion_ or union of +parts of the same whorl, _adhesion_ or union of the parts of different +whorls, _multiplication_ of parts, and _deduplication_ (sometimes called +_chorisis_) or splitting of parts. + +By _suppression_ or non-appearance of a part at the place where it ought +to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry or completeness of +the flower is disturbed. This suppression when confined to the parts of +certain verticils makes the flower asymmetrical. Thus, in many +Caryophyllaceae, as _Polycarpon_ and _Holosteum_, while the calyx and +corolla are pentamerous, there are only three or four stamens and three +carpels; in _Impatiens Noli-me-tangere_ the calyx is composed of three +parts, while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are +five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and in +_Tropaeolum pentaphyllum_ there are five sepals, two petals, eight +stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of symmetry is +traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the last-mentioned plant +the normal number is five, hence it is said that there are three petals +suppressed, as shown by the position of the two remaining ones; there +are two rows of stamens, in each of which one is wanting; and there are +two carpels suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards +suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasionally +some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower. By the +suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the carpels, flowers +become _unisexual_ or _diclinous_, and by the suppression of one or both +of the floral envelopes, monochlamydeous and achlamydeous flowers are +produced. The suppression of parts of the flower may be carried so far +that at last a flower consists of only one part of one whorl. In the +Euphorbiaceae we have an excellent example of the gradual suppression of +parts, where from an apetalous, trimerous, staminal flower we pass to +one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms where two +of them are wanting. We next have flowers in which the calyx is +suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or three bracts (so that +the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), and only one or two +stamens are produced. And finally, we find flowers consisting of a +single stamen with a bract. There is thus traced a _degradation_, as it +is called, from a flower with three stamens and three divisions of the +calyx, to one with a single bract and a single stamen. + +_Degeneration_, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise either +to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in form. In unisexual +flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges of the undeveloped stamens +in the form of filiform bodies or scales. In double flowers +transformations of the stamens and pistils take place, so that they +appear as petals. In _Canna_, what are called petals are in reality +metamorphosed stamens. In the capitula of Compositae we sometimes find +the florets converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may +appear as a rim, as in some Umbelliferae; or as pappus, in Compositae +and _Valeriana_. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears as a +scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in _Pentstemon_, it +assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place of an +anther. + +_Cohesion_, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and _adhesion_, or +the growing together of parts of different whorls, are causes of change +both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in _Cucurbita_ the stamens are +originally five in number, but subsequently some cohere, so that three +stamens only are seen in the mature flower. Adhesion is well seen in the +_gynostemium_ of orchids, where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In +Capparidaceae the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the +axis is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, to which the stamens are +united. + +_Multiplication_, or an increase of the number of parts, gives rise to +changes. We have already alluded to the interposition of new members in +a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the staminal whorl, but usually the +additional parts produced form a symmetrical whorl with the others. In +some instances, however, this is not the case. Thus in the +horse-chestnut there is an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven +stamens are formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical. + +Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of _deduplication_, +or _chorisis_, i.e. the splitting of a part so that two or more parts +are formed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruciferous plants +the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens and two short ones +(_tetradynamous_). The symmetry in the flower is evidently dimerous, and +the abnormality in the androecium, where the four long stamens are +opposite the posterior sepals, takes place by a splitting, at a very +early stage of development, of a single outgrowth into two. Many cases +of what was considered chorisis are in reality due to the development of +stipules from the staminal leaf. Thus in _Dicentra_ and _Corydalis_ +there are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle +alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther, and +are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching of stamens +also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus, in the so-called +polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there are really only five stamens +which give off numerous branches, but the basal portion remaining short, +the branches have the appearance of separate stamens, and the flower +thus seems asymmetrical. + +_Cultivation_ has a great effect in causing changes in the various parts +of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and adhesion of parts +are due to the art of the horticulturist. The changes in the colour and +forms of flowers thus produced are endless. In the dahlia the florets +are rendered quilled, and are made to assume many glowing colours. In +pelargonium the flowers have been rendered larger and more showy; and +such is also the case with the _Ranunculus_, the auricula and the +carnation. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state, as +columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and others, as +_Linaria_, in which one petal only is usually spurred, are altered so as +to have all the petals spurred, and to present what are called +_pelorian_ varieties. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 41.--Tetramerous monochlamydeous male flower of the Nettle +(_Urtica_). + +FIG. 42.--Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in +which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding. + +FIG. 43.--Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicate +aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned +inwards at the edges.] + +As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the parts of the +flower, _floral formulae_ have been devised. Several modes of expression +are employed. The following is a very simple mode which has been +proposed:--The several whorls are represented by the letters S (sepals), +P (petals), St (stamens), C (carpels), and a figure marked after each +indicates the number of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula S5P5St5C5 +means that the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the +whorls being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would +be represented by the formula S5P5St_(5+5)C5, where St_(5+5) indicates +that the staminal whorl consists of two rows of five parts each. A +flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be +expressed S4P0St4C0. When no other mark is appended the whorls are +supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark the position of +the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus, to express the +superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is drawn between them, +e.g. the symbol S5P5 | St5C5 is the formula of the flower of +Primulaceae. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 44.--Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate +aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned +outwards at the edges. + +FIG. 45.--Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in +which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, and +are twisted on their axis. + +FIG. 46.--Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in which +the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that 1 and 2 +are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly external and +partly overlapped by 1.] + +The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud with +respect to each other before opening is the _aestivation_ or +_praefloration_. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud in the +same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive names have +been given to the different arrangements exhibited, both by the leaves +individually and in their relations to each other. As regards each leaf +of the flower, it is either spread out, as the sepals in the bud of the +lime-tree, or folded upon itself (conduplicate), as in the petals of +some species of _Lysimachia_, or slightly folded inwards or outwards at +the edges, as in the calyx of some species of clematis and of some +herbaceous plants, or rolled up at the edges (involute or revolute), or +folded transversely, becoming _crumpled_ or _corrugated_, as in the +poppy. When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are +applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping or being +folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel, the aestivation is +_valvate_ (fig. 42). The edges of each of the parts may be turned either +inwards or outwards; in the former case the aestivation is _induplicate_ +(fig. 43), in the latter case _reduplicate_ (fig. 44). When the parts of +a single whorl are placed in a circle, each of them exhibiting a torsion +of its axis, so that by one of its sides it overlaps its neighbour, +whilst its side is overlapped in like manner by that standing next to +it, the aestivation is _twisted_ or _contorted_ (fig. 45). This +arrangement is characteristic of the flower-buds of Malvaceae and +Apocynaceae, and it is also seen in Convolvulaceae and Caryophyllaceae. +When the flower expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but +sometimes, as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivation +are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under +_circular_ aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different +arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of _Camellia japonica_ cover +each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation is +_imbricate_. At other times, as in the petals of _Camellia_, the parts +envelop each other completely, so as to become _convolute_. This is also +seen in a transverse section of the calyx of _Magnolia grandiflora_, +where each of the three leaves embraces that within it. When the parts +of a whorl are five, as occurs in many dicotyledons, and the imbrication +is such that there are two parts external, two internal, and a fifth +which partially covers one of the internal parts by its margin, and is +in its turn partially covered by one of the external parts, the +aestivation is _quincuncial_ (fig. 46). This quincunx is common in the +corolla of Rosaceae. In fig. 47 a section is given of the bud of +_Antirrhinum majus_, showing the imbricate spiral arrangement. In this +case it will be seen that the part marked 5 has, by a slight change in +position, become overlapped by 1. This variety of imbricate aestivation +has been termed _cochlear_. In flowers such as those of the pea (fig. +40), one of the parts, the vexillum, is often large and folded over the +others, giving rise to _vexillary_ aestivation (fig. 48), or the carina +may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is _carinal_, as +in the Judas-tree (_Cercis Siliquastrum_). The parts of the several +verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation. Thus, in Malvaceae +the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate, or reduplicate; in St +John's-wort the calyx is imbricate, and the corolla contorted. In +Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is twisted, and has its parts arranged +in a circle, the calyx is imbricate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement. +In _Guazuma_ the calyx is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The +circular aestivation is generally associated with a regular calyx and +corolla, while the spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as +well as with regular forms. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 47.--Diagram to illustrate imbricated aestivation, in which the +parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, following the order indicated by +the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. + +FIG. 48.--Diagram of a papilionaceous flower, showing vexillary +aestivation. + + 1 and 2, The alae or wings. + + 3, A part of the carina or keel. + + 4, The vexillum or standard, which, in place of being internal, as + marked by the dotted line, becomes external. + + 5, The remaining part of the keel. + + The order of the cycle is indicated by the figures.] + + + Calyx. + +The _sepals_ are sometimes _free_ or separate from each other, at other +times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the former case, +the calyx is _polysepalous_, in the latter _gamosepalous_ or +_monosepalous_. The divisions of the calyx present usually the +characters of leaves, and in some cases of monstrosity they are +converted into leaf-like organs, as not infrequently happens in +primulas. They are usually entire, but occasionally they are cut in +various ways, as in the rose; they are rarely stalked. Sepals are +generally of a more or less oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their +apices either blunt or acute. In their direction they are erect or +reflexed (with their apices downwards), spreading outwards (_divergent_ +or _patulous_), or arched inwards (_connivent_). They are usually of a +greenish colour (_herbaceous_); but sometimes they are coloured or +_petaloid_, as in the fuchsia, tropaeolum, globe-flower and pomegranate. +Whatever be its colour, the external envelope of the flower is +considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles sometimes form a prominent +rib, which indicates the middle of the sepal; at other times they form +several ribs. The venation is useful as pointing out the number of +leaves which constitute a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx +the number of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus, a +calyx which has three sepals is _trisepalous_; one with five sepals is +_pentasepalous_. The sepals occasionally are of different forms and +sizes. In Aconite one of them is shaped like a helmet (_galeate_). In a +gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in various ways, sometimes very +slightly, and their number is marked by the divisions at the apex. These +divisions either are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse +teeth (fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about +half-way, the calyx being _trifid_ (three-cleft), _quinquefid_ +(five-cleft), &c., according to their number; or they reach to near the +base in the form of partitions, the calyx being _tripartite_, +_quadripartite_, _quinquepartite_, &c. The union of the parts may be +complete, and the calyx may be quite entire or _truncate_, as in some +Correas, the venation being the chief indication of the different parts. +The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a greater +extent than others; thus a two-lipped or _labiate_ calyx is formed. The +upper lip is often composed of three parts, which are thus posterior or +next the axis, while the lower has two, which are anterior. The part +formed by the union of the sepals is called the _tube_ of the calyx; the +portion where the sepals are free is the _limb_. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 49.--Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (_Lychnis_). + +FIG. 50.--Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (_Rubia_) adherent to the pistil, +in the form of a rim. + +FIG. 51.--Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel (_Senecio +vulgaris_). + +FIG. 52.--Caducous calyx (c) of Poppy. There are two sepals which fall +off before the petals expand. + +FIG. 53.--Fruit of Physalis Alkekengi, consisting of the persistent +calyx (s), surrounding the berry (fr), derived from the ovary. (After +Duchartre.)] + +Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked enlargement. In +the violet the calycine segments are prolonged downwards beyond their +insertions, and in the Indian cress (_Tropaeolum_) this prolongation is +in the form of a spur (_calcar_), formed by three sepals; in Delphinium +it is formed by one. In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is +adherent to the flower-stalk. In _Potentilla_ and allied genera an +_epicalyx_ is formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, +which form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with +the true sepals. In Malvaceae an epicalyx is formed by the bracteoles. +Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it becomes dry, scaly and +glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), as in the rushes (Juncaceae); +hairy, as in Compositae; or a mere rim, as in some Umbelliferae and +Acanthaceae, and in Madder (_Rubia tinctorum_, fig. 50), when it is +called _obsolete_ or _marginate_. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and +Valerianaceae the calyx is attached to the pistil, and its limb is +developed in the form of hairs called _pappus_ (fig. 51). This pappus is +either simple (_pilose_) or feathery (_plumose_). In _Valeriana_ the +superior calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it +is shown to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft +the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower expands, as +in poppies, and is _caducous_ (fig. 52); or along with the corolla, as +in _Ranunculus_, and is _deciduous_; or it remains after flowering +(_persistent_) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, and Boraginaceae; or +its base only is persistent, as in _Datura Stramonium_. In +_Eschscholtzia_ and _Eucalyptus_ the sepals remain united at the upper +part, and become disarticulated at the base or middle, so as to come off +in the form of a lid or funnel. Such a calyx is _operculate_ or +_calyptrate_. The existence or non-existence of an articulation +determines the deciduous or persistent nature of the calyx. + +The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the pistil, and +enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the apple, pear, &c. +In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at the apex. Sometimes a +persistent calyx increases much after flowering, and encloses the fruit +without being incorporated with it, becoming _accrescent_, as in various +species of _Physalis_ (fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered +or _marcescent_ form, as in _Erica_; sometimes it becomes _inflated_ or +_vesicular_, as in sea campion (_Silene maritima_). + + + Corolla. + +The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral +envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present in the +greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ more from ordinary leaves +than sepals do, and are much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. +In some cases, however, they are transformed into leaves, like the +calyx, and occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil They are +seldom green, although occasionally that colour is met with, as in some +species of _Cobaea_, _Hoya viridiflora_, _Gonolobus viridiflorus_ and +_Pentatropis spiralis_. As a rule they are highly coloured, the +colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue or red +flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts), as generally in yellow flowers, +or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish flowers. The +attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or in part to surface +markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a pelargonium, when viewed +with a 1/2 or 1/4-in. object-glass, shows beautiful hexagons, the +boundaries of which are ornamented with several inflected loops in the +sides of the cells. + +Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some instances, hairs +are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs, though sparse and +scattered, present occasionally the same arrangement as those which +occur on the leaves; thus, in Bombaceae they are stellate. Coloured +hairs are seen on the petals of _Menyanthes_, and on the segments of the +perianth of _Iris_. They serve various purposes in the economy of the +flower, often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower +to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of +pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate in their +texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy, as in _Stapelia_ and +_Rafflesia_; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and stiff, as in _Xylopia_. A +petal often consists of two portions--the lower narrow, resembling the +petiole of a leaf, and called the _unguis_ or _claw_; the upper broader, +like the blade of a leaf, and called the _lamina_ or _limb_. These parts +are seen in the petals of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often +wanting, as in the crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are +then _sessile_. According to the development of veins and the growth of +cellular tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. +Thus the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These +teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the petal +becomes _fimbriated_, as in the pink; or _laciniated_, as in _Lychnis +Flos-cuculi_; or _crested_, as in _Polygala_. Sometimes the petal +becomes pinnatifid, as in _Schizopetalum_. The median vein is +occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in the form of a +long process, as in _Strophanthus hispidus_, where it extends for 7 in.; +or the prolonged extremity is folded downwards or inflexed, as in +Umbelliferae, so that the apex approaches the base. The limb of the +petal may be flat or concave, or hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the +petals become folded in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in +aconite (fig. 58) some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, +supported on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57), +snapdragon and _Centranthus_, one or all of them are prolonged in the +form of a spur, and are _calcarate_. In _Valeriana_, _Antirrhinum_ and +_Corydalis_, the spur is very short, and the corolla or petal is said to +be _gibbous_, or _saccate_, at the base. These spurs, tubes and sacs +serve as receptacles for the secretion or containing of nectar. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 54.--Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus +Cheiri_). c, The claw or unguis; l, the blade or lamina. + +FIG. 55.--Petal of Crowfoot (_Ranunculus_), without a claw, and thus +resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous +scale is seen. + +FIG. 56.--Tubular petal of Hellebore (_Helleborus_). + +FIG. 57.--Pansy (_Viola tricolor_). Longitudinal section of flower; v, +bracteole on the peduncle; l, sepals; ls, appendage of sepal; c, petals; +cs, spur of the lower petals; fs, glandular appendage of the lower +stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.) + +(From Vines' Students' _Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan +Sonnenschein & Co.) + +FIG. 58.--Part of the flower of Aconite (_Aconitum Napellus_), showing +two irregular horn-like petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o). +These serve as nectaries, s, the whorl of stamens inserted on the +thalamus and surrounding the pistil.] + +A corolla is _dipetalous_, _tripetalous_, _tetrapetalous_ or +_pentapetalous_ according as it has two, three, four or five separate +petals. The general name of _polypetalous_ is given to corollas having +separate petals, while _monopetalous_, _gamopetalous_ or _sympetalous_ +is applied to those in which the petals are united. This union generally +takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the apex; in +_Phyteuma_ the petals are united at their apices also. In some +polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are separate at +the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals are equal as regards +their development and size, the corolla is _regular_; when unequal, it +is _irregular_. When a corolla is gamopetalous it usually happens that +the lower portion forms a tube, while the upper parts are either free or +partially united, so as to form a common limb, the point of union of the +two portions being the _throat_, which often exhibits a distinct +constriction or dilatation. The number of parts forming such a corolla +can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth, +crenations, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the +corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal among the +parts, or some may unite more than others. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Rosaceous corolla (c) of the Strawberry +(_Fragaria vesca_), composed of five petals without claws.] + +Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the _rosaceous_ +corolla (fig. 59), in which there are five spreading petals, having no +claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry and _Potentilla_; the +_caryophyllaceous_ corolla, in which there are five petals with long, +narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the pink tribe; the _cruciform_, +having four petals, often unguiculate, placed opposite in the form of a +cross, as seen in wallflower, and in other plants called _cruciferous_. +Of irregular polypetalous corollas the most marked is the +_papilionaceous_ (fig. 40), in which there are five petals:--one +superior (posterior), st, placed next to the axis, usually larger than +the rest, called the _vexillum_ or _standard_; two lateral, a, the +_alae_ or wings; two inferior (anterior), partially or completely +covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their lower margins, +so as to form a single keel-like piece, _car_, called _carina_, or keel, +which embraces the essential organs. This form of corolla is +characteristic of British leguminous plants. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 60.--Flower of _Campanula medium_; d, bract; v, bracteoles.] + +Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes _campanulate_ or +_bell-shaped_, as in (_Campanula_) (fig. 60); _infundibuliform_ or +_funnel-shaped_, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the limb +becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; _hypocrateriform_ or +_salver-shaped_, when there is a straight tube surmounted by a flat +spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61); _tubular_, having a long +cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the limb, as in _Spigelia_ +and comfrey; _rotate_ or _wheel-shaped_, when the tube is very short, +and the limb flat and spreading, as in forget-me-not, _Myosotis_ (when +the divisions of the rotate corolla are very acute, as in _Galium_, it +is sometimes called _stellate_ or _star-like_); _urceolate_ or +_urn-shaped_, when there is scarcely any limb, and the tube is narrow at +both ends, and expanded in the middle, as in bell-heath (_Erica +cinerea_). Some of these forms may become irregular in consequence of +certain parts being more developed than others. Thus, in _Veronica_, the +rotate corolla has one division much smaller than the rest, and in +foxglove (_Digitalis_) there is a slightly irregular companulate +corolla. Of irregular gamopetalous corollas there may be mentioned the +_labiate_ or _lipped_ (fig. 62), having two divisions of the limb in the +form of lips (the upper one, u, composed usually of two united petals, +and the lower, l, of three), separated by a gap. In such cases the tube +varies in length, and the parts in their union follow the reverse order +of what occurs in the calyx, where two sepals are united in the lower +lip and three in the upper. When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is +much arched, and the lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called +_ringent_ (fig. 62). The labiate corolla characterizes the natural order +Labiatae. When the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to +leave only a chink between them, the corolla is said to be _personate_, +as in snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaceae. In some corollas the +two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in calceolaria, +assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what occurs in the +labellum of some orchids, as _Cypripedium_. When a tubular corolla is +split in such a way as to form a strap-like process on one side with +several tooth-like projections at its apex, it becomes _ligulate_ or +_strap-shaped_ (fig. 63). This corolla occurs in many composite plants, +as in the florets of dandelion, daisy and chicory. The number of +divisions at the apex indicates the number of united petals, some of +which, however, may be abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become +more united than others, and then the corolla assumes a _bilabiate_ or +_two-lipped_ form, as seen in the division of Compositae called +Labiatiflorae. + +Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole corolla is +absent. In _Amorpha_ and _Afzelia_ the corolla is reduced to a single +petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely wanting. In +the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such as _Ranunculus_, +globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and corolla, while others, such +as clematis, anemone and _Caltha_, have only a coloured calyx. Flowers +become double by the multiplication of the parts of the corolline whorl; +this arises in general from a metamorphosis of the stamens. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 61.--Flower of cowslip (_Primula veris_) cut vertically. s, Sepals +joined to form a gamosepalous calyx; c, corolla consisting of tube and +spreading limb; a, stamens springing from the mouth of the tube; p, +pistil. + +FIG. 62.--Irregular gamopetalous labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle +(_Lamium album_). The upper lip u is composed of two petals united, the +lower lip (l) of three. Between the two lips there is a gap. The throat +is the part where the tube and the labiate limb join. From the arching +of the upper lip this corolla is called ringent. + +FIG. 63.--Irregular gamopetalous ligulate flower of Ragwort (_Senecio_). +It is a tubular floret, split down on one side, with the united petals +forming a straplike projection. The lines on the flat portion indicate +the divisions of the five petals. From the tubular portion below, the +bifid style projects slightly.] + +Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which received +in former days the name of _nectaries_. The term nectary was very +vaguely applied by Linnaeus to any part of the flower which presented an +unusual aspect, as the crown (_corona_) of narcissus, the fringes of the +Passion-flower, &c. If the name is retained it ought properly to include +only those parts which secrete a honey-like substance, as the glandular +depression at the base of the perianth of the fritillary, or on the +petal of _Ranunculus_ (fig. 55), or on the stamens of Rutaceae. The +honey secreted by flowers attracts insects, which, by conveying the +pollen to the stigma, effect fertilization. The horn-like nectaries +under the galeate sepal of aconite (fig. 58) are modified petals, so +also are the tubular nectaries of hellebore (fig. 56). Other +modifications of some part of the flower, especially of the corolla and +stamens, are produced either by degeneration or outgrowth, or by +_chorisis_, or _deduplication_. Of this nature are the scales on the +petals in _Lychnis_, _Silene_ and _Cynoglossum_, which are formed in the +same way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus, the +scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered stamens. +In _Narcissus_ the appendages are united to form a crown, consisting of +a membrane similar to that which unites the stamens in _Pancratium_. It +is sometimes difficult to say whether these structures are to be +referred to the corolline or to the staminal row. + +Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base. When this +attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals fall off either +immediately after expansion (_caducous_) or after fertilization +(_deciduous_). A corolla which is continuous with the axis and not +articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths, may be persistent, and +remain in a withered or marcescent state while the fruit is ripening. A +gamopetalous corolla falls off in one piece; but sometimes the base of +the corolla remains persistent, as in _Rhinanthus_ and _Orobanche_. + +The _stamens_ and the _pistil_ are sometimes spoken of as the essential +organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required in order that +perfect seed may be produced. As with few exceptions the stamen +represents a leaf which has been specially developed to bear the pollen +or microspores, it is spoken of in comparative morphology as a +microsporophyll; similarly the carpels which make up the pistil are the +megasporophylls (see ANGIOSPERMS). _Hermaphrodite_ or _bisexual_ flowers +are those in which both these organs are found; _unisexual_ or +_diclinous_ are those in which only one of these organs appears,--those +bearing stamens only, being _staminiferous_ or "male"; those having the +pistil only, _pistilliferous_ or "female." But even in plants with +hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilization is often provided against by +the structure of the parts or by the period of ripening of the organs. +For instance, in _Primula_ and _Linum_ some flowers have long stamens +and a pistil with a short style, the others having short stamens and a +pistil with a long style. The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed +primroses (fig. 61), the latter in the "pin-eyed." Such plants are +called _dimorphic_. Other plants are _trimorphic_, as species of +_Lythrum_, and proper fertilization is only effected by combination of +parts of equal length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before +the pistil; these are called _proterandrous_, as in _Ranunculus repens_, +_Silene maritima_, _Zea Mays_. In other plants, but more rarely, the +pistil is perfected before the stamens, as in _Potentilla argentea_, +_Plantago major_, _Coix Lachryma_, and they are termed _proterogynous_. +Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs are called +_dichogamous_. When in the same plant there are unisexual flowers, both +male and female, the plant is said to be _monoecious_, as in the hazel +and castor-oil plant. When the male and female flowers of a species are +found on separate plants, the term _dioecious_ is applied, as in +_Mercurialis_ and hemp; and when a species has male, female and +hermaphrodite flowers on the same or different plants, as in +_Parietaria_, it is _polygamous_. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 64.--Flower of _Paeonia peregrina_, in longitudinal section. k, +Sepal; c, petal; a, stamens; g, pistil. (1/2 nat. size.)] + + + Stamens. + +The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the petals, with +which they generally alternate, forming one or more whorls, which +collectively constitute the _androecium_. Their normal position is below +the pistil, and when they are so placed (fig. 64, a) upon the thalamus +they are hypogynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or +are _epipetalous_, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar, +so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent of the +calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous or epigynous +(fig. 65). Numerous intermediate forms occur, especially amongst +Saxifragaceae, where the parts are _half superior_ or _half inferior_. +Where the stamens become adherent to the pistil so as to form a column, +the flowers are said to be _gynandrous_, as in _Aristolochia_ (fig. 66). +These arrangements of parts are of great importance in classification. +The stamens vary in number from one to many hundreds. In acyclic flowers +there is often a gradual transition from petals to stamens, as in the +white water-lily (fig. 31). When flowers become double by cultivation, +the stamens are converted into petals, as in the paeony, camellia, rose, +&c. When there is only one whorl the stamens are usually equal in number +to the sepals or petals, and are arranged opposite to the former, and +alternate with the latter. The flower is then _isostemonous_. When the +stamens are not equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is +_anisostemonous_. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the +parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl +preceding it. The staminal row is more liable to multiplication of parts +than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of stamens is +_haplostemonous_. If the stamens are double the sepals or petals as +regards number, the flower is _diplostemonous_; if more than double, +_polystemonous_. The additional rows of stamens may be developed in the +usual centripetal (acropetal) order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be +interposed between the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e. +develop centrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the +flower is said to be _obdiplostemonous_. When the stamens are fewer than +twenty they are said to be _definite_; when above twenty they are +_indefinite_, and are represented by the symbol [infinity]. The number +of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the term +_androus_; thus a flower with one stamen is _monandrous_, with two, +three, four, five, six or many stamens, di-, tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex- or +polyandrous, respectively. + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Flower of Aralia in vertical section. c, Calyx; +p, petal; e, stamen; s, stigmas. The calyx, petals and stamens spring +from above the ovary (o) in which two chambers are shown each with a +pendulous ovule; d, disc between the stamens and stigmas.] + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 66.--Flowers of _Aristolochia Clematitis_ cut through +longitudinally. I. Young flower in which the stigma (N) is receptive and +the stamens (S) have not yet opened; II. Older flower with the stamens +(S) opened, the stigma withered, and the hairs on the corolla dried up.] + +The function of the stamen is the development and distribution of the +pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a contracted portion, +often thread-like, termed the _filament_ (fig. 25 f), and a broader +portion, usually of two lobes, termed the _anther_ (a), containing the +powdery _pollen_ (p), and supported upon the end of the filament. That +portion of the filament in contact with the anther-lobes is termed the +_connective_. If the anther is absent the stamen is abortive, and cannot +perform its functions. The anther is developed before the filament, and +when the latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in the +mistletoe. + +The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-like, +and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit. It is often, +however, thickened, compressed and flattened in various ways, becoming +_petaloid_ in _Canna_, _Marania_, water-lily (fig. 32); _subulate_ or +slightly broadened at the base and drawn out into a point like an awl, +as in _Butomus umbellatus_; or clavate, that is, narrow below and broad +above, as in _Thalictrum_. In some instances, as in _Tamarix gallica_, +_Peganum Harmala_, and _Campanula_, the base of the filament is much +dilated, and ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these +cases the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in _Allium_ +and _Alyssum calycinum_. The filament varies much in length and in +firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that of the pistil, +and to the position of the flower, whether erect or drooping. The +filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support the anther in an +erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses, and other wind-pollinated +flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like, so that the anther is +pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is generally continuous from one end +to the other, but in some cases it is bent or jointed, becoming +_geniculate_; at other times, as in the pellitory, it is spiral. It is +colourless, or of different colours. Thus in fuchsia and _Poinciana_, it +is red; in _Adamia_ and _Tradescantia virginica_, blue; in _Oenothera_ +and _Ranunculus acris_, yellow. + +Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds are sometimes +times developed on the filament. In spiderwort (_Tradescantia +virginica_) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or +necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation of the +protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the thalamus or torus, +and the stamens fall off after fertilization; but in _Campanula_ and +some other plants they are continuous with the torus, and the stamens +remain persistent, although in a withered state. Changes are produced in +the whorl of stamens by cohesion of the filaments to a greater or less +extent, while the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the +androecium may unite, forming a tube round the pistil, or a central +bundle when the pistil is abortive, the stamens becoming _monadelphous_, +as occurs in plants of the Mallow tribe; or they may be arranged in two +bundles, the stamens being _diadelphous_, as in _Polygala_, _Fumaria_ +and Pea; in this case the bundles may be equal or unequal. It frequently +happens, especially in Papilionaceous flowers, that out of ten stamens +nine are united by their filaments, while one (the posterior one) is +free (fig. 68). When there are three or more bundles the stamens are +_triadelphous_, as in _Hypericum aegyptiacum_, or _polyadelphous_, as in +_Ricinus communis_ (castor-oil). In some cases, as in papilionaceous +flowers, the stamens cohere, having been originally separate, but in +most cases each bundle is produced by the branching of a single stamen. +When there are three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral +ones as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect stamens, +each having at the base of the filament two abortive stamens or +staminodes, which may be analogous to stipules. Filaments sometimes are +adherent to the pistil, forming a column (_gynostemium_), as in +_Stylidium_, Asclepiadaceae, _Rafflesia_, and Aristolochiaceae (fig. +66); the flowers are then termed _gynandrous_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened +out. a, b, Barren glumes; c, fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower +with its pale, d; the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bears long silky hairs.] + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 68.--Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_). The stamens are +diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments (f), while one +of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx. + +FIG. 69.--Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus_). ce, +Exothecium; cf, endothecium; highly magnified. + +FIG. 70.--Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering Rush +(_Butomus umbellatus_). The anther entire (a) with its filament; section +of anther (b) showing the four loculi.] + + + The anther. + +The _anther_ consists of lobes containing the minute powdery pollen +grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure or opening of +some sort. There is a double covering of the anther--the outer, or +_exothecium_, resembles the epidermis, and often presents stomata and +projections of different kinds (fig. 69); the inner, or _endothecium_, +is formed by a layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the +cells of which have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the +wall. The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner +towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears entirely. +The walls of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that when the anther +attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and these by their +elasticity assist in discharging the pollen. The anther is developed +before the filament, and is always sessile in the first instance, and +sometimes continues so. It appears at first as a simple cellular papilla +of meristem, upon which an indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon +these projections the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, +usually four in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation +takes place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer +of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells. Those +central cells are the mother-cells of the pollen, whilst the +small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endothecium, +the exothecium being formed from the epidermal layer. + +In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for each +anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete it is a +_quadrilocular_ or _tetrathecal_ anther (fig. 70). Sometimes, however, +only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of the sacs in each +lobe, in which case the anther is said to be _bilocular_ or _dithecal_. +Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and becomes _unilocular_, or +_monothecal_, or _dimidiate_, either by the disappearance of the +partition between the two lobes, or by the abortion of one of its lobes, +as in _Styphelia laeta_ and _Althaea officinalis_ (hollyhock). +Occasionally there are numerous cavities in the anther, as in _Viscum_ +and _Rafflesia_. The form of the anther-lobes varies. They are generally +of a more or less oval or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as +in _Mercurialis annua_; at other times linear or clavate: curved, +flexuose, or sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of +union of the lobes and the unequal development of different parts of +their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced. That part of the +anther to which the filament is attached is the _back_, the opposite +being the _face_. The division between the lobes is marked on the face +of the anther by a groove or _furrow_, and there is usually on the face +a _suture_, indicating the line of dehiscence. The suture is often +towards one side in consequence of the valves being unequal. The stamens +may cohere by their anthers, and become _syngenesious_, as in composite +flowers, and in lobelia, jasione, &c. + + + The connective. + +The anther-lobes are united to the _connective_, which is either +continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the filament +is continuous with the connective, and is prolonged so that the +anther-lobes appear to be united to it throughout their whole length, +and lie in apposition to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said +to be _adnate_ or _adherent_; when the filament ends at the base of the +anther, then the latter is _innate_ or _erect_. In these cases the +anther is to a greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the +attachment is very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are +movable (_versatile_) and are easily turned by the wind, as in +_Tritonia_, grasses (fig. 105), &c., where the filament is attached only +to the middle of the connective. The connective may unite the +anther-lobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short +and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or free. +At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes, assuming +various forms, as in _Acalypha_ and oleander; or it is extended +backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71), forming a +nectar-secreting spur. In _Salvia officinalis_ the connective is +attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as to separate the +two anther-lobes (fig. 72), one only of which contains pollen, the other +being imperfectly developed and sterile. The connective is joined to the +filament by a movable joint forming a lever which plays an important +part in the pollination-mechanism. In _Stachys_ the connective is +expanded laterally, so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and +bring them into a horizontal line. + + + Antherdehiscence. + +The opening or _dehiscence_ of the anthers to discharge their contents +takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores. When the +anther-lobes are erect, the cleft is lengthwise along the line of the +suture--_longitudinal dehiscence_ (fig. 25). At other times the slit is +horizontal, from the connective to the side, as in _Alchemilla arvensis_ +(fig. 73) and in _Lemna_; the dehiscence is then _transverse_. When the +anther-lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the +connective, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear to be +transverse. The cleft does not always proceed the whole length of the +anther-lobe at once, but often for a time it extends only partially. In +other instances the opening is confined to the base or apex, each +loculament opening by a single pore, as in _Pyrola_, _Tetratheca +juncea_, Rhododendron, _Vaccinium_ and _Solanum_ (fig. 74), where there +are two, and _Poranthera_, where there are four; whilst in the mistletoe +the anther has numerous pores for the discharge of the pollen. Another +mode of dehiscence is the valvular, as in the barberry (fig. 75), where +each lobe opens by a valve on the outer side of the suture, separately +rolling up from base to apex; in some of the laurel tribe there are two +such valves for each lobe, or four in all. In some Guttiferae, as +_Hebradendron cambogioides_ (the Ceylon gamboge plant), the anther opens +by a lid separating from the apex (_circumscissile_ dehiscence). + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 71.--Two stamens of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), with their two +anther-lobes and the connectives (p) extending beyond them. One of the +stamens has been deprived of its spur, the other shows its spur c. + +FIG. 72.--Anther of _Salvia officinalis_. lf, fertile lobe full of +pollen; ls, barren lobe without pollen; e, connective; f, filament. + +FIG. 73.--Stamen of Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla_), with the anther +opening transversely. + +FIG. 74.--Stamen of a species of Nightshade (_Solanum_), showing the +divergence of the anther-lobes at the base, and the dehiscence by pores +at the apex. + +FIG. 75.--The stamen of the Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), showing one +of the valves of the anther (v) curved upwards, bearing the pollen on +its inner surface.] + +The anthers dehisce at different periods during the process of +flowering; sometimes in the bud, but more commonly when the pistil is +fully developed and the flower is expanded. They either dehisce +simultaneously or in succession. In the latter case individual stamens +may move in succession towards the pistil and discharge their contents, +as in _Parnassia palustris_, or the outer or the inner stamens may first +dehisce, following thus a centripetal or centrifugal order. These +variations are intimately connected with the arrangements for +transference of pollen. The anthers are called _introrse_ when they +dehisce by the surface next to the centre of the flower; they are +_extrorse_ when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they dehisce by +the sides, as in _Iris_ and some grasses, they are _laterally_ +dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature, anthers originally +introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower and _Oxalis_. + +The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great variety +in this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in the poppy and +tulip, orange in _Eschscholtzia_, &c. The colour and appearance of the +anthers often change after they have discharged their functions. + +Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or +non-development of the anthers, when they are known as _staminodia_, or +rudimentary stamens. In _Scrophularia_ the fifth stamen appears in the +form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons it is reduced to a filament +with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at the apex. In other cases, as in +double flowers, the stamens are converted into petals; this is also +probably the case with such plants as _Mesembryanthemum_, where there +is a multiplication of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in _Canna_, +one of the anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is +produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. Some are +enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in _Cinchona_ (_included_); +others are _exserted_, or extend beyond the flower, as in _Littorella_ +or _Plantago_. Sometimes the stamens in the early state of the flower +project beyond the petals, and in the progress of growth become +included, as in _Geranium striatum_. Stamens also vary in their relative +lengths. When there is more than one row or whorl in a flower, those on +the outside are sometimes longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times +those in the interior are longest, as in _Luhea_. When the stamens are +in two rows, those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those +which alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single +stamen is longer than all the rest. A definite relation, as regards +number, sometimes exists between the long and the short stamens. Thus, +in some flowers the stamens are _didynamous_, having only four out of +five stamens developed, and the two corresponding to the upper part of +the flower longer than the two lateral ones. This occurs in Labiatae and +Scrophulariaceae (fig. 76). Again, in other cases there are six stamens, +whereof four long ones are arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and +alternate with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to +_tetradynamous_ flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their +direction, may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In +the last-mentioned case they are called _declinate_, as in amaryllis, +horse-chestnut and fraxinella. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Corolla of foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), cut +in order to show the didynamous stamens (two long and two short) which +are attached to it.] + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 77.--Tetradynamous stamens (four long and two short) of wallflower +(_Cheiranthus Cheiri_).] + +The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther consist of +small cells, which are developed in the large thick-walled mother-cells +formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (microsporangia) of the young +anther. These mother-cells are either separated from one another and +float in the granular fluid which fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, +or are not so isolated. A division takes place, by which four cells are +formed in each, the exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and +monocotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase in size +and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into an outer +cuticular layer, or _extine_, and an inner layer, or _intine_. Then the +walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-grains float +freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually disappears, and +the mature grains form a powdery mass within the anther. They then +either remain united in fours, or multiples of four, as in some acacias, +_Periploca graeca_ and _Inga anomala_, or separate into individual +grains, which by degrees become mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane +of the mother-cell is not completely absorbed, and traces of it are +detected in a viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in +Onagraceae. In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into +masses, or _pollinia_ (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids +each of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk (_caudicle_) which +adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (_rostellum_) by +means of a viscid gland (_retinaculum_) which is either naked or +covered. The term _clinandrium_ is sometimes applied to the part of the +column in orchids where the stamens are situated. In some orchids, as +_Cypripedium_, the pollen has its ordinary character of separate grains. +The number of pollinia varies; thus, in _Orchis_ there are usually two, +in _Cattleya_ four, and in _Laelia_ eight. The two pollinia in _Orchis +Morio_ contain each about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small +masses, when bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In +Asclepiadaceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), +belonging to two contiguous anther-lobes--each pollen-mass having a +caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of which they +are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia are also provided +with an appendicular staminal covering (fig. 80). The exine is a firm +membrane, which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour +to it. It is either smooth, or covered with numerous projections (fig. +81), granules, points or crested reticulations. The colour is generally +yellow, and the surface is often covered with a viscid or oily matter. +The intine is uniform in different kinds of pollen, thin and +transparent, and possesses great power of extension. In some aquatics, +as _Zostera_, _Zannichellia_, _Naias_, &c., only one covering exists. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 78.--Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacula (g) or +viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (p) are +supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily detached +by the agency of insects. Much enlarged. + +FIG. 79.--Pistil of _Asclepias_ (a) with pollen-masses (p) adhering to +the stigma (s). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, united by a +gland-like body. Enlarged. + +FIG. 80.--Stamen of _Asclepias_, showing filament f, anther a, and +appendages p. Enlarged.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Pollen of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_), highly +magnified.] + +[Illustration: _From Vines' Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by +permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co. + +FIG. 82.--Germinating pollen-grain of Epilobium (highly mag.) bearing a +pollen-tube s; e, exine; i, intine; abc, the three spots where the exine +is thicker in anticipation of the formation of the pollen-tube developed +in this case at a.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Male flower of Pellitory (_Parietaria +officinalis_), having four stamens with in-curved elastic filaments, and +an abortive pistil in the centre. When the perianth (p) expands, the +filaments are thrown out with force as at a, so as to scatter the +pollen.] + +Pollen-grains vary from 1/300 to 1/700 of an inch or less in diameter. +Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is ellipsoidal, +more or less narrow at the extremities, which are called its _poles_, in +contradistinction to a line equidistant from the extremities, which is +its equator. Pollen-grains are also spherical; cylindrical and curved, +as in _Tradescantia virginica_; polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and +Compositae; nearly triangular in section in Proteaceae and Onagraceae +(fig. 82). The surface of the pollen-grain is either uniform and +homogeneous, or it is marked by folds formed by thinnings of the +membrane. There are also rounded portions of the membrane or pores +visible in the pollen-grain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and +through one or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination +of the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only one, +while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards; when numerous, the +pores are either scattered irregularly, or in a regular order, +frequently forming a circle round the equatorial surface. Sometimes at +the place where they exist, the outer membrane, in place of being thin +and transparent, is separated in the form of a lid, thus becoming +_operculate_, as in the passion-flower and gourd. Within the +pollen-grain is the granular protoplasm with some oily particles, and +occasionally starch. Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes +place in the pollen-grain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which +the tube is developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides +to form the male cells (see ANGIOSPERMS and GYMNOSPERMS). + + + Pollination. + +When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the pollen is +shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the pollen must be +conveyed to the stigma of the pistil. This process, termed _pollination_ +(see POLLINATION), is promoted in various ways,--the whole form and +structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some plants, +as _Kalmia_ and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity of the +filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants pollination is +effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees, grasses, &c., and +in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are produced. These plants +are _anemophilous_. But the common agents for pollination are insects. +To allure and attract them to visit the flower the odoriferous +secretions and gay colours are developed, and the position and +complicated structure of the parts of the flower are adapted to the +perfect performance of the process. It is comparatively rare in +hermaphrodite flowers for self-fertilization to occur, and the various +forms of dichogamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent +this. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Flower of Tree Paeony (_Paeonia Moutan_), +deprived of its corolla, and showing the disk in the form of a fleshy +expansion (d) covering the ovary.] + + + Disk. + +Under the term _disk_ is included every structure intervening between +the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures that the name of +_nectary_ was applied by old authors. It presents great varieties of +form, such as a ring, scales, glands, hairs, petaloid appendages, &c., +and in the progress of growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus +becoming truly nectariferous. The disk is frequently formed by +degeneration or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of +processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens, and thus +representing an abortive whorl; or its parts may be opposite to the +stamens. In some flowers, as _Jatropha Curcas_, in which the stamens are +not developed, their place is occupied by glandular bodies forming the +disk. In Gesneraceae and Cruciferae the disk consists of tooth-like +scales at the base of the stamens. The parts composing the disk +sometimes unite and form a glandular ring, as in the orange; or they +form a dark-red lamina covering the pistil, as in _Paeonia Moutan_ (fig. +84); or a waxy lining of the hollow receptacle, as in the rose; or a +swelling at the top of the ovary, as in Umbelliferae, in which the disk +is said to be epigynous. The enlarged torus covering the ovary in +_Nymphaea_ (_Castalia_) and _Nelumbium_ may be regarded as a form of +disk. + + + The pistil. + +The pistil or _gynoecium_ occupies the centre or apex of the flower, and +is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes when these are +present. It constitutes the innermost whorl, which after flowering is +changed into the fruit and contains the seeds. It consists essentially +of two parts, a basal portion forming a chamber, the _ovary_, containing +the ovules attached to a part called the _placenta_, and an upper +receptive portion, the _stigma_, which is either seated on the ovary +(_sessile_), as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called +the _style_, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil +consists of one or more modified leaves, the _carpels_ (or +_megasporophylls_). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is +_simple_ or monocarpellary (fig. 85). When it is composed of several +carpels, more or less united, it is _compound_ or _polycarpellary_ (fig. +86). In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are +synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when present), and +stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded leaf, the upper +surface of which is turned inwards towards the axis, and the lower +outwards, while from its margins are developed one or more _ovules_. +This comparison is borne out by an examination of the flower of the +double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit is produced, and the pistil +consists merely of sessile leaves, the limb of each being green and +folded, with a narrow prolongation upwards, as if from the midrib, and +ending in a thickened portion. In _Cycas_ the carpels are ordinary +leaves, with ovules upon their margin. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 85.--Pistil of Broom (_Cytisus_) consisting of ovary o, style s, +and stigma t. It is formed by a single carpel. + +FIG. 86.--Vertical section of the flower of Black Hellebore (_Helleborus +niger_). The pistil is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct +carpels, each with ovary, style and stigma. The stamens are indefinite, +and are inserted below the pistil (hypogynous). + +FIG. 87.--Fruit of the Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), consisting of an +enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry +seed-like fruits (achenes). + +FIG. 88.--Fruit of _Rosa alba_, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis +s', the persistent sepals s, and the carpels fr. The stamens (c) have +withered. (After Duchartre.) + +FIG. 89.--Pistil of _Ranunculus_. x, Receptacle with the points of +insertion of the stamens a, most of which have been removed. + +FIG. 90.--Syncarpous Pistil of Flax (_Linum_), consisting of five +carpels, united by their ovaries, while their styles and stigmas are +separate.] + +A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels may be +arranged either at the same or nearly the same height in a verticil, or +at different heights in a spiral cycle. When they remain separate and +distinct, thus showing at once the composition of the pistil, as in +_Caltha, Ranunculus_, hellebore (fig. 86), and _Spiraea_, the term +_apocarpous_ is applied. Thus, in Sedum (fig. 22) the pistil consists of +five verticillate carpels o, alternating with the stamens e. In magnolia +and _Ranunculus_ (fig. 89) the separate carpels are numerous and are +arranged in a spiral cycle upon an elongated axis or receptacle. In the +raspberry the carpels are on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on +a swollen succulent one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a +hollow one. When the carpels are united, as in the pear, arbutus and +chickweed, the pistil becomes _syncarpous_. The number of carpels in a +pistil is indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple pistil +is monogynous; with two carpels, digynous; with three carpels, +trigynous, &c. + +The union in a syncarpous pistil is not always complete; it may take +place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and stigmas remain free +(fig. 90), and in this case, when the ovaries form apparently a single +body, the organ receives the name of _compound_ ovary; or the union may +take place by the ovaries and styles while the stigmas are disunited; or +by the stigmas and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate +states exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where +they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as in +Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base; but in +Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and in +Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae the stigmas only. When the union is +incomplete, the number of the parts of a compound pistil may be +determined by the number of styles and stigmas; when complete, the +external venation, the grooves on the surface, and the internal +divisions of the ovary indicate the number. + + + The placenta. + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Pistil of Pea after fertilization of the +ovules, developing to form the fruit. f, Funicle or stalk of ovule (ov); +pl, placenta; s, withered style and stigma; c, persistent calyx.] + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 92.--Trilocular ovary of the Lily (_Lilium_), cut transversely. s, +Septum; o, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle of each +chamber. Enlarged. + +FIG. 93.--Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, composed of +five carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet in the +centre forming the septa, s. The ovules (o) are attached to a central +placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures. Dorsal +suture, l. + +FIG. 94.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which the +edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules o, are not folded +inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules appear sessile on +the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular.] + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 95.--Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in which +the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the +placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the +placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, l. + +FIG. 96.--Pistil of Pansy (_Viola tricolor_), enlarged. 1, Vertical; +2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p, +placenta; s, stigma. + +FIG. 97.--Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (_Cucumis +Melo_), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The three +carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From the centre, +processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas bearing the +ovules. + +FIG. 98.--Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary, in +which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (o) are +attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with the +walls of the ovary.] + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 99.--Pistil of _Cerastium hirsutum_ cut vertically. o, Ovary; p, +free central placenta; g, ovules; s, styles. + +FIG. 100.--The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as +to show the interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central +placenta p, covered with ovules g.] + +The ovules are attached to the _placenta_, which consists of a mass of +cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels pass to the ovule. +The placenta is usually formed on the edges of the carpellary leaf (fig. +91)--_marginal_. In many cases, however, the placentas are formations +from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary leaves. +In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing the placenta is +the _inner_ or _ventral suture_, corresponding to the margin of the +folded carpellary leaf, while the _outer_ or _dorsal suture_ corresponds +to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. As the placenta is formed on each +margin of the carpel it is essentially double. This is seen in cases +where the margins of the carpel do not unite, but remain separate, and +consequently two placentas are formed in place of one. When the pistil +is formed by one carpel the inner margins unite and form usually a +common marginal placenta, which may extend along the whole margin of the +ovary as far as the base of the style (fig. 91), or may be confined to +the base or apex only. When the pistil consists of several separate +carpels, or is apocarpous, there are generally separate placentas at +each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistil, on the other hand, the +carpels are so united that the edges of each of the contiguous ones, by +their union, form a _septum_ or _dissepiment_, and the number of these +septa consequently indicates the number of carpels in the compound +pistil (fig. 92). When the dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, +the ovary is divided into cavities or _cells_, and it may be +_bilocular_, _triloculur_ (fig. 92), _quadrilocular_, _quinquelocular_, +or _multilocular_, according as it is formed by two, three, four, five +or many carpels, each carpel corresponding to a single cell. In these +cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so as to form a +single _central_ one (figs. 92, 93), and the ovules appear in the +central angle of the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do +not fold inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the +walls of the ovary, then the ovary is _unilocular_ (fig. 95) and the +placentas are _parietal_, as in _Viola_ (fig. 96). In these instances +the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united contiguous +leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be united, each +developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of the carpels, which fold +in to the centre, split there into two lamellae, each of which is curved +outwards and projects into the loculament, dilating at the end into a +placenta. This is well seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97), _Pyrola_, &c. +The carpellary leaves may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be +applied in a valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the +placentas then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or +thickenings along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the +placentas are not connected with the walls of the ovary, and form what +is called a _free central placenta_ (fig. 98). This is seen in many of +the Caryophyllaceae and Primulaceae (figs. 99, 100). In Caryophyllaceae, +however, while the placenta is free in the centre, there are often +traces found at the base of the ovary of the remains of septa, as if +rupture had taken place, and, in rare instances, ovules are found on the +margins of the carpels. But in Primulaceae no vestiges of septa or +marginal ovules can be perceived at any period of growth; the placenta +is always free, and rises in the centre of the ovary. Free central +placentation, therefore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by +supposing that the placentas in the early state were formed on the +margins of carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development +these leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas and ovules free +in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are not _marginal_ but +_axile_ formations, produced by an elongation of the axis, and the +carpels verticillate leaves, united together around the axis. The first +of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae, the second to Primulaceae. + +Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not formed by +the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called _spurious +dissepiments_. They are often horizontal, as in _Cathartocarpus +Fistula_, where they consist of transverse cellular prolongations from +the walls of the ovary, only developed after fertilization, and +therefore more properly noticed under fruit. At other times they are +vertical, as in _Datura_, where the ovary, in place of being two-celled, +becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae, where the prolongation of the +placentas forms a vertical partition; in _Astragalus_ and _Thespesia_, +where the dorsal suture is folded inwards; and in _Oxytropis_, where the +ventral suture is folded inwards. + +The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form, +sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times hairy and +grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions between the carpels +and correspond to the dissepiments. The dorsal suture may be marked by a +slight projection or by a superficial groove. When the ovary is situated +on the centre of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its +base is above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed _superior_, as +in _Lychnis_, _Primula_ (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. +28). When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying +with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion of +the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary leaves +alone closing in the apex, the ovary is _inferior_, as in pomegranate, +aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see fig. 30). In some plants, +as many Saxifragaceae, there are intermediate forms, in which the term +_half-inferior_ is applied to the ovary, whilst the floral whorls are +_half-superior_. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 101.--Carpel of Lady's-mantle (_Alchemilla_) with lateral style s; +o, ovary, _st_, stigma. Enlarged. + +FIG. 102.--Pistil of Primrose (_Primula_) composed of five carpels which +are completely united; o, ovary; s, style; st, stigma. Enlarged. + +FIG. 103.--Gynoecium of the Flower-de-Luce (_Iris_), consisting of an +inferior ovary (o) and a style which divides into three petaloid +segments (s), each bearing a stigma (st). + +FIG. 104.--Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores (p), under the radiating +peltate stigma (s).] + + + The style. + +The _style_ proceeds from the summit of the carpel (fig. 102), and is +traversed by a narrow canal, in which there are some loose projecting +cells, a continuation of the placenta, constituting what is called +conducting tissue, which ends in the stigma. This is particularly +abundant when the pistil is ready for fertilization. In some cases, +owing to more rapid growth of the dorsal side of the ovary, the style +becomes _lateral_ (fig. 101); this may so increase that the style +appears to arise from near the base, as in the strawberry, or from the +base, as in _Chrysobalanus Icaco_, when it is called _basilar_. In all +these cases the style still indicates the organic apex of the ovary, +although it may not be the apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the +style of each carpel is thus displaced, it appears as if the ovary were +depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depression in the +midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus. Such a style is +_gynobasic_, and is well seen in Boraginaceae. The form of the style is +usually cylindrical, more or less filiform and simple; sometimes it is +grooved on one side, at other times it is flat, thick, angular, +compressed and even petaloid, as in _Iris_ (fig. 103) and _Canna_. In +Goodeniaceae it ends in a cuplike expansion, enclosing the stigma. It +sometimes bears hairs, which aid in the application of the pollen to the +stigma, and are called _collecting hairs_, as in _Campanula_, and also +in _Aster_ and other Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth +of the style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and +carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the +mature stigma of other flowers. In _Vicia_ and _Lobelia_ the hairs +frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syncarpous +pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they alternate with +the septa; when united completely, the style is said to be _simple_ +(fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of each carpel of a +compound pistil, may also be divided. Each division of the tricarpellary +ovary of _Jatropha Curcas_ has a _bifurcate_ or forked style, and the +ovary of _Emblica officinalis_ has three styles, each of which is twice +forked. The length of the style is determined by the relation which +should subsist between the position of the stigma and that of the +anthers, so as to allow the proper application of the pollen. The style +is deciduous or persists after fertilization. + + + The stigma. + +The _stigma_ is the termination of the conducting tissue of the style, +and is usually in direct communication with the placenta. It consists of +loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter which detains the +pollen, and causes it to germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly +speaking, the true stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the +divisions of the style on which the stigmatic apparatus is situated. The +stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous pistil, or, in +other words, corresponds with the back of the loculaments; but in some +cases it would appear that half the stigma of one carpel unites with +half that of the contiguous carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the +dissepiments, that is, alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Flower of a grass with glumes removed, showing +three stamens and two feathery styles. p, Pale; l, lodicules. Enlarged.] + +The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which compose the +pistil. Thus in _Campanula_ a five-cleft stigma indicates five carpels; +in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae, the two-lobed or +bilamellar stigma indicates a bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in +Gramineae, the stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be +terminal or lateral. In _Iris_ it is situated on a cleft on the back of +the petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as those +of _Mimulus_, present sensitive flattened laminae, which close when +touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may be globular, as in +_Mirabilis Jalapa_; orbicular, as in _Arbutus Andrachne_; umbrella-like, +as in _Sarracenia_, where, however, the proper stigmatic surface is +beneath the angles of the large expansion of the apex of the style; +ovoid, as in fuchsia; hemispherical; polyhedral; radiating, as in the +poppy (fig. 104), where the true stigmatic rays are attached to a sort +of _peltate_ or shield-like body, which may represent depressed or +flattened styles; _cucullate_, i.e. covered by a hood, in calabar bean. +The lobes of a stigma are flat and pointed as in _Mimulus_ and +_Bignonia_, fleshy and blunt, smooth or granular, or they are feathery, +as in many grasses (fig. 105) and other wind-pollinated flowers. In +Orchidaceae the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column +beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are united to the face +of the anthers, and along with them form a solid mass. + + + The ovule. + +The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become the seed. +Ovules are most usually produced on the margins of the carpellary +leaves, but are also formed over the whole surface of the leaf, as in +_Butomus_. In other instances they rise from the floral axis itself, +either terminal, as in Polygonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in +Primulaceae and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary, +and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed +_angiospermous_; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no proper +ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being denominated +_gymnospermous_. In _Cycas_ the altered leaf, upon the margin of which +the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales, from which they are +pendulous in _Zamia_, are regarded by all botanists as carpellary +leaves. As for the Coniferae great discussion has arisen regarding the +morphology of parts in many genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes +united in such a way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, +so that the ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In _Leontice +thalictroides_ (Blue Cohosh), species of _Ophiopogon_, _Peliosanthes_ +and _Stateria_, the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the +ovules are exposed; and in species of _Cuphea_ the placenta ultimately +bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing the +exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either directly, +when it is _sessile_, or by means of a prolongation _funicle_ (fig. 110, +f). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after fertilization. The +part by which the ovule is attached to the placenta or cord is its +_base_ or _hilum_, the opposite extremity being its _apex_. The latter +is frequently turned round in such a way as to approach the base. The +ovule is sometimes embedded in the placenta, as in _Hydnora_. + +[Illustration: + +FIGS. 106 and 107.--Successive stages in the development of an ovule. n, +Nucellus; i, inner; o, outer integument in section; m, micropyle. + +FIG. 108.--Orthotropous ovule of _Polygonum_ in section, showing the +embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular coverings, the +base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with its +micropyle m. + +FIG. 109.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine (_Pinus +austriaca_), showing the nucellus a, consisting of delicate cellular +tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b. The micropyle m +is very wide.] + +The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from the +placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or less enlarged +ovate form constituting what has been called the _nucellus_ (fig. 106, +n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This nucellus may remain +naked, and alone form the ovule, as in some orders of parasitic plants +such as Balanophoraceae, Santalaceae, &c.; but in most plants it becomes +surrounded by certain coverings or integuments during its development. +These appear first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the +nucellus, which gradually spread over its surface (figs. 106, 107). In +some cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamopetalous +dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also in walnut, &c. But +usually besides the single covering another is developed subsequently +(fig. 106, o), which gradually extends over that first formed, and +ultimately covers it completely, except at the apex. There are thus two +integuments to the nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do +not completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed +the _micropyle_ is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex of the +ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to form the +_embryo-sac_ or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac increases in +size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the nucellus until it +is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it may actually extend at +the apex beyond it, as in _Phaseolus_ and _Alsine media_; or it may pass +into the micropyle, as in _Santalum_. In Gymnosperms it usually remains +deep in the nucellus and surrounded by a thick mass of cellular tissue +(fig. 109). For an account of the further development of the megaspore, +and the formation of the egg-cell, from which after fertilization is +formed the embryo, see GYMNOSPERMS and ANGIOSPERMS. + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 110.--Campylotropous ovule of wall-flower (_Cheiranthus_), showing +the funicle f, which attaches the ovule to the placenta; p, the outer, +s, the inner coat, n, the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The ovule is curved +upon itself, so that the micropyle is near the funicle. + +FIG. 111.--Anatropous ovule of Dandelion (_Taraxacum_), n, nucellus, +which is inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is removed from the base or +hilum h, while the micropyle f is near the base. The connexion between +the base of the ovule and the base of the nucellus is kept up by means +of the raphe r.] + +The point where the integuments are united to the base of the nucellus +is called the _chalaza_ (figs. 111, 112). This is often coloured, is of +a denser texture than the surrounding tissue, and is traversed by +fibro-vascular bundles, which pass from the placenta to nourish the +ovule. + +When the ovule is so developed that the chalaza is at the hilum (next +the placenta), and the micropyle is at the opposite extremity, there +being a short funicle, the ovule is _orthotropous_. This form is well +seen in Polygonaceae (fig. 112), Cistaceae, and most gymnosperms. In +such an ovule a straight line drawn from the hilum to the micropyle +passes along the axis of the ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one +side than on the other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is +curved upon itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and +ultimately is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the +ovule is _campylotropous_ (fig. 110). Curved ovules are found in +Cruciferae, and Caryophyllaceae. The inverted or _anatropous_ ovule +(fig. 111) is the commonest form amongst angiosperms. In this ovule the +apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attachment of the +funicle to the placenta, the chalaza being situated at the opposite +extremity; and the funicle, which runs along the side usually next the +placenta, coalesces with the ovule and constitutes the _raphe_ (r), +which often forms a ridge. The anatropous ovule arises from the placenta +as a straight or only slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, +gradually becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the +integuments (cf. figs. 106, 107). As the first integument grows round +it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funicle becomes adherent +to the side of the nucellus. Then if a second integument be formed it +covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not form on the side to +which the raphe is adherent. These may be taken as the three types of +ovule; but there are various intermediate forms, such as +_semi-anatropous_ and others. + +The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When there is a +single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached to the placenta +at the base of the ovary (_basal placenta_), and is then _erect_, as in +Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be inserted a little above the +base, on a parietal placenta, with its apex upwards, and then is +_ascending_, as in _Parietaria_. It may hang from an apicilar placenta +at the summit of the ovary, its apex being directed downwards, and is +_inverted_ or _pendulous_, as in _Hippuris vulgaris_; or from a parietal +placenta near the summit, and then is _suspended_, as in _Daphne +Mezereum_, Polygalaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funicle +arises from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and there +bending over suspends the ovule, as in _Armeria_ (sea-pink); at other +times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the ovule becomes +_horizontal_. When there are two ovules in the same cell, they may be +either _collateral_, that is, placed side by side (fig. 92), or the one +may be erect and the other inverted, as in some species of _Spiraea_ and +_Aesculus_; or they may be placed one above another, each directed +similarly, as is the case in ovaries containing a moderate or definite +number of ovules. Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. 91), the +ovules, o, are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the +other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each margin of +the carpel. When the ovules are _definite_ (i.e. are uniform, and can be +counted), it is usual to find their attachment so constant as to afford +good characters for classification. When the ovules are very numerous +(_indefinite_), while at the same time the placenta is not much +developed, their position exhibits great variation, some being directed +upwards, others downwards, others transversely; and their form is +altered by pressure into various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it +frequently happens that some of the ovules are arrested in their +development and become abortive. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 112.--Ovary of _Polygonum Convolvulus_ in longitudinal section +during fertilization. (X 48.) + + fs, Stalk-like base of ovary, + fu, Funicle. + cha, Chalaza. + nu, Nucellus. + mi, Micropyle. + ii, inner, ie, outer integument, + e, Embryo-sac. + ek, Nucleus of embryo-sac. + ei, Egg-apparatus. + an, Antipodal cells. + g, Style. + n, Stigma. + p, Pollen-grains. + ps, Pollen-tubes.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Vertical section of the ovule of the Scotch +Fir (_Pinus sylvestris_) in May of the second year, showing the enlarged +embryo-sac b, full of endosperm cells, and pollen-tubes c, penetrating +the summit of the nucellus after the pollen has entered the large +micropyle.] + + + Fertilization. + +When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes ready +for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and the +pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angiosperms, or the summit of +the nucellus in gymnosperms, it is detained there, and the viscid +secretion from the glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the +nucellus in the latter, induce the protrusion of the intine as a +pollen-tube through the pores of the grain. The pollen-tube or tubes +pass down the canal (fig. 112), through the conducting tissue of the +style when present, and reach the interior of the ovary in angiosperms, +and then pass to the micropyle of the ovule, one pollen-tube going to +each ovule. Sometimes the micropyle lies close to the base of the style, +and then the pollen-tube enters it at once, but frequently it has to +pass some distance into the ovary, being guided in its direction by +various contrivances, as hairs, grooves, &c. In gymnosperms the +pollen-grain resting on the apex of the nucellus sends out its +pollen-tubes, which at once penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113). In +angiosperms when the pollen-tube reaches the micropyle it passes down +into the canal, and this portion of it increases considerably in size. +Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in contact with the tip of the +embryo-sac and perforates it. The male cells in the end of the +pollen-tube are then transmitted to the embryo-sac and fertilization is +effected. Consequent upon this, after a longer or shorter period, those +changes commence in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the +embryo plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into +the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of nutriment +for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilization confined to the +ovule; they extend to other parts of the plant. The ovary enlarges, and, +with the seeds enclosed, constitutes the fruit, frequently incorporated +with which are other parts of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c. In +gymnosperms the pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down +the tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer +or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are discussed +in a separate article--FRUIT. (A. B. R.) + + + + +FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Imitations of natural flowers are sometimes made +for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass flowers at Harvard +University, which illustrates the flora of the United States), but more +often as articles of decoration and ornament. A large variety of +materials have been used in their manufacture by different peoples at +different times--painted linen and shavings of stained horn by the +Egyptians, gold and silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese, +silkworm cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South +America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the 18th +century the French, who originally learnt the art from the Italians, +made great advances in the accuracy of their reproductions, and towards +the end of that century the Paris manufacturers enjoyed a world-wide +reputation. About the same time the art was introduced into England by +French refugees, and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The +industry is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of +operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes may be +distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various fabrics and +materials employed into shapes suitable for forming the leaves, petals, +&c.; this may be done by scissors, but more often stamps are employed +which will cut through a dozen or more thicknesses at one blow. The +veins of the leaves are next impressed by means of a die, and the petals +are given their natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various +shapes. The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the +flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the fourth is to +mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron wire wrapped round +with suitably coloured material, and to fasten on the leaves required to +complete the spray. + + + + +FLOYD, JOHN (1572-1649), English Jesuit, was born in Cambridgeshire in +1572. He entered the Society of Jesus when at Rome in 1592 and is also +known as Daniel a Jesu, Hermannus Loemelius, and George White, the names +under which he published a score of controversial treatises. He had +considerable fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently +arrested in England. His last years were spent at Louvain and he died at +St Omer on the 15th of September 1649. His brother Edward Floyd was +impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 1621 for speaking +disparagingly of the elector palatine. + + + + +FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (1807-1863), American politician, was born at +Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He was the son of John +Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in Congress from 1817 to 1829 and +governor of Virginia from 1830 to 1834. After graduating at South +Carolina College in 1826, the son practised law in his native state and +at Helena, Arkansas, and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia, +which in 1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state +legislature. Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governor of Virginia, +in which position he recommended to the legislature the enactment of a +law laying an import tax on the products of such states as refused to +surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters. In March 1857 he +became secretary of war in President Buchanan's cabinet, where his lack +of administrative ability was soon apparent. In December 1860, on +ascertaining that Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government +contractors in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested +his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for malversation +in office, but the indictment was overruled on technical grounds. There +is no proof that he profited by these irregular transactions; in fact he +went out of the office financially embarrassed. Though he had openly +opposed secession before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that +event, especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion, +and he was accused of having sent large stores of government arms to +Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In the last days of +his term he apparently had such an intention, but during the year 1860 +the Southern States actually received less than their full quota of +arms. After the secession of Virginia he was commissioned a +brigadier-general in the Confederate service. He was first employed in +some unsuccessful operations in western Virginia, and in February 1862 +became commander of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which +he fled with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the +night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to surrender to +General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis relieved him of his +command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 26th of August 1863. + + + + +FLOYER, SIR JOHN (1649-1734), English physician and author, was born at +Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated at Oxford. He practised in +Lichfield, and it was by his advice that Dr Johnson, when a child, was +taken by his mother to be touched by Queen Anne for the king's evil on +the 30th of March 1714. He died on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was +an advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the +rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the pathological +changes in the lungs associated with emphysema. + + His writings include:--[Greek: Pharmako-Basanos]: _or the Touchstone + of Medicines, discovering the virtues of Vegetables, Minerals and + Animals, by their Tastes and Smells_ (2 vols., 1687); _The + praeternatural State of animal Humours described by their sensible + Qualities_ (1696); _An Enquiry into the right Use and Abuses of the + hot, cold and temperate Baths in England_ (1697); _A Treatise of the + Asthma_ (1st ed., 1698); _The ancient_ [Greek: Psychrolousia] + _revived, or an Essay to prove cold Bathing both safe and useful_ + (London, 1702; several editions 8vo; abridged, Manchester, 1844, + 12mo); _The Physician's Pulse-watch_ (1707-1710); _The Sibylline + Oracles, translated from the best Greek copies, and compared with the + sacred Prophecies_ (1st ed., 1713); _Two Essays: the first Essay + concerning the Creation, Aetherial Bodies, and Offices of good and bad + Angels; the second Essay concerning the Mosaic System of the World_ + (Nottingham, 1717); _An Exposition of the Revelations_ (1719); _An + Essay to restore the Dipping of Infants in their Baptism_ (1722); + _Medicina Gerocomica, or the Galenic Art of preserving old Men's + Healths_ (1st ed., 1724); _A Comment on forty-two Histories described + by Hippocrates_ (1726). + + + + +FLUDD, or FLUD, ROBERT [ROBERTUS DE FLUCTIBUS] (1574-1637), English +physician and mystical philosopher, the son of Sir Thomas Fludd, +treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in France and the Low Countries, was +born at Milgate, Kent. After studying at St John's College, Oxford, he +travelled in Europe for six years, and became acquainted with the +writings of Paracelsus. He subsequently returned to Oxford, became a +member of Christ Church, took his medical degrees, and ultimately became +a fellow of the College of Physicians. He practised in London with +success, though it is said that he combined with purely medical +treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Following Paracelsus, he +endeavoured to form a system of philosophy founded on the identity of +physical and spiritual truth. The universe and all created things +proceed from God, who is the beginning, the end and the sum of all +things, and to him they will return. The act of creation is the +separation of the active principle (light) from the passive (darkness) +in the bosom of the divine unity (God). The universe consists of three +worlds; the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm +(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both +sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is possible for +man (and even for the mineral and the plant) to undergo transformation +and to win immortality. Fludd's system may be described as a +materialistic pantheism, which, allegorically interpreted, he put +forward as containing the real meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam +by God himself, handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs, +and revealed a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the +honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne. Though rapt in +mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied attainments. He did not +disdain scientific experiments, and is thought by some to be the +original inventor of the barometer. He was an ardent defender of the +Rosicrucians, and De Quincey considers him to have been the immediate, +as J.V. Andrea was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the +8th of September 1637. + + See J.B. Craven, _Robert Fludd, the English Rosicrucian_ (1902), where + a list of his works is given; A.E. Waite, _The Real History of the + Rosicrucians_ (1887); De Quincey, _The Rosicrucians and Freemasons_; + J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (1870), i. 240 seq. His works + were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638. + + + + +FLUGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT (1802-1870), German orientalist, was born at +Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802. He received his early education at +the gymnasium of his native town, and studied theology and philology at +Leipzig. Gradually he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental +languages, which he studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became +professor at the _Furstenschule_ of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health +compelled him to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to +Vienna, where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and +Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden on the 5th +of July 1870. + + Flugel's chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and + encyclopaedic lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vols., + London and Leipzig, 1835-1858). He also brought out an edition of the + Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed _Concordantiae + Corani arabicae_ (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898); _Mani, seine Lehren + und seine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1862); _Die grammatischen Schulen der + Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862); and _Ibn Kutlubugas Krone der + Lebensbeschreibungen_ (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of + _Kitab-al-Fihrist_, prepared by him, was published after his death. + + + + +FLUGEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1788-1855), German lexicographer, was born at +Barby near Magdeburg, on the 22nd of November 1788. He was originally a +merchant's clerk, but emigrating to the United States in 1810, he made a +special study of the English language, and returning to Germany in 1819, +was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the university +of Leipzig. In 1838 he became American consul, and subsequently +representative and correspondent of the Smithsonian Institution at +Washington and several other leading American literary and scientific +institutions. He died at Leipzig on the 24th of June 1855. + + The fame of Flugel rests chiefly on the _Vollstandige + englisch-deutsche und deutsch-englische Worterbuch_, first published + in 2 vols. (Leipzig) in 1830, which has had an extensive circulation + not only in Germany but in England and America. In this work he was + assisted by J. Sporschil, and a new and enlarged edition, edited by + his son Felix Flugel (1820-1904), was published at Brunswick + (1890-1892). Another edition, in two volumes, edited by Prof. Immanuel + Schmidt and S. Tanger appeared (Brunswick, London & New York) in 1906. + Among his other works are--_Vollstandige engl. Sprachlehre_ + (1824-1826); _Triglotte, oder kaufmannisches Worterbuch in drei + Sprachen, Deutsch, Englisch und Franzosisch_ (1836-1840); _Kleines + Kaufmannisches Handworterbuch in drei Sprachen_ (1840); and + _Praktisches Handbuch der engl. Handelscorrespondenz_ (1827, 9th ed. + 1873). All these have passed through several editions. In addition, + Flugel also published in the English language: _A series of Commercial + Letters_ (Leipzig, 1822), a 9th edition of which appeared in 1874 + under the title _Practical Mercantile Correspondence_ and a _Practical + Dictionary of the English and German Languages_ (2 vols., Hamburg and + Leipzig, 1847-1852; 15th ed., Leipzig, 1891). The last was continued + and re-edited by his son Felix. + + + + +FLUKE (probably connected with the Ger. _flach_, flat), a name given to +several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the common flounder; +also the name of a trematoid worm, resembling a flounder in shape, which +as a parasite infects the liver and neighbouring organs of certain +animals, especially sheep, and causes liver-rot. The most common is the +_Fasciola hepatica_ (see TREMATODES). It is also the name of a species +of kidney potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish, +"fluke" is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular in shape, at +the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular extremities of +the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang expression for a +lucky accident appears to have been first applied in billiards to an +unintentional scoring shot. + + + + +FLUME (through an O. Fr. word _flum_, from the Lat. _flumen_, a river), +a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly for the tail of a +mill-race. It is used in America for a very narrow gorge running between +precipitous rocks, with a stream at the bottom, but more frequently is +applied to an artificial channel of wood or other material for the +diversion of a stream of water from a river for purposes of irrigation, +for running a sawmill, or for various processes in the hydraulic method +of gold-mining (see AQUEDUCT). + + + + +FLUMINI MAGGIORE, a town of the province of Cagliari, Sardinia, 10 m. by +road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast. Pop. (1901) town 3908; +commune 9647. It is the centre of a considerable lead and zinc mining +district. Three miles to the S. are the ruins of a temple erected +probably in the time of Commodus (_Corpus inscr. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, +No. 7539). They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on +the coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining +district in Roman times. At Flumini Maggiore itself were found two +ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian's name. + + + + +FLUORANTHENE, C15H10, also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon occurring with +phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl, and other substances in "Stupp" fat (the +fat obtained in working up the mercury ores in Idria), and also in the +higher boiling fractions of the coal tar distillate. It was discovered +by R. Fittig in 1878, who, with Gebhard and H. Liepmann, elucidated its +constitution (see _Ann._, 1879, 200, p. 1). The hydrocarbons are +separated from the "Stupp" by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on +distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene and +fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be fractionally +precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated from most of the +pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial vacuum. In either case +the two hydrocarbons are finally separated by fractional crystallization +of their picrates, which are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene +crystallizes in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at +109-110 deg. C. and boiling at 250-251 deg. C. (60 mm.). It is easily +soluble in hot alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. On oxidation with +chromic acid it forms a quinone, C15H8O2, and an [alpha]-diphenylene +ketocarboxylic acid + + C6H4 \ + . > CO + C6H3 / -- CO2H. + +The picrate melts at 182-183 deg. C. + + + + +FLUORENE ([alpha]-diphenylene methane), C13H10 or (C6H4)2CH2, a +hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher boiling +fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene, by fractional +distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340 deg. C. being taken. +The fluorene is separated from this by placing it in a freezing mixture, +and is then redistilled or crystallized from glacial acetic acid, or +purified by means of its picrate. It may be prepared by distilling +diphenylene ketone over zinc dust, or by heating it with hydriodic acid +and phosphorus to 150-160 deg. C.; and also by passing the vapour of +diphenyl methane through a red hot tube. It crystallizes in colourless +plates, possessing a violet fluorescence, melting at 112-113 deg. and +boiling at 293-295 deg. C. By oxidation with chromic acid in glacial +acetic acid solution, it is converted into diphenylene ketone +(C6H4)2.CO; whilst on heating with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to +250-260 deg. C. it gives a hydro derivative of composition C18H22. + + + + +FLUORESCEIN, or RESORCIN-PHTHALEIN, C20H12O5, in chemistry, a compound +discovered in 1876 by A. v. Baeyer by the condensation of phthalic +anhydride with resorcin at 195-200 deg. C. (_Ann._, 1876, 183, p. 1). The +two reacting substances are either heated alone or with zinc chloride for +some hours, and the melt obtained is boiled out with water, washed by +dilute alcohol, extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so +obtained is precipitated by an acid. The precipitate is well washed with +water and then dried. By repeating this process two or three times, the +fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure condition. It forms a yellow +amorphous powder, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, and +crystallizing from the alcoholic solution in small dark red nodules. It +is readily soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, the solution +being of a dark red colour and showing (especially when largely diluted +with water) a brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of +this last character. By brominating fluorescein in glacial acetic acid +solution, _eosin_ (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same compound +being formed by heating 3.5-dibrom-2.4-dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid above its +melting point (R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1576). It crystallizes +from alcohol in yellowish red needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted +cotton a fine pink colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields +dibromresorcin and dibrommonoresorcin-phthalein. The corresponding iodo +compound is known as _erythrosin_. Fluorescein is readily nitrated, +yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to conditions. The +entrance of the negative nitro group into the molecule weakens the +central pyrone ring in the fluorescein nucleus and the di-and tetra-nitro +compounds readily yield hydrates (see J.T. Hewitt and B.W. Perkins, +_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines +the di-nitro fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F. +Reverdin, _Ber_., 1897, 30, p. 332). Other dyestuffs obtained from +fluorescein are safrosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluorescein) and +rose Bengal (tetraiodotetrachlorfluorescein). + + On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorcin, C6H4(OH)2, + and monoresorcin phthalein (dioxybenzoylbenzoic acid), (HO)2C6H3.CO.C + H4.COOH. With zinc dust and caustic soda it yields fluorescin. By + warming fluorescein with excess of phosphorus pentachloride it yields + fluorescein chloride, C20H10O3Cl2 (A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from + alcohol in small prisms, melting at 252 deg. C. When heated with + aniline and aniline hydrochloride, fluorescein yields a colourless + anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ber_., 1893, 26, p. 2236), which is + readily methylated by methyl iodide and potash to a + fluoresceinanilidedimethyl ether, which when heated for six hours to + 150 deg. C. with acetic and hydrochloric acids, is hydrolysed and + yields a colourless fluoresceindimethyl ether, which melts at 198 deg. + C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic potash, + methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow) dimethyl ether, + melting at 208 deg. C. is obtained (Fischer and Hepp). By heating the + coloured dimethyl ether with caustic soda, the monomethyl ether is + obtained (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 397); this + crystallizes in triclinic tables, and melts at 262 deg. C. It is to be + noted that the colourless monomethyl ether fluoresces strongly in + alkaline solution, the dimethyl ether of melting point 208 deg. + fluoresces only in neutral solution (e.g., in alcoholic solution), and + the dimethyl ether of melting point 198 deg. C. only in concentrated + hydrochloric or sulphuric acid solution (Fischer and Hepp). + Considerable discussion has taken place as to the position held by the + hydroxyl groups in the fluorescein molecule, C. Graebe (_Ber_., 1895, + 28, p. 28) asserting that they were in the ortho position to the + linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue. G. Heller + (_Ber_., 1895, 28, p. 312), however, showed that + monoresorcin-phthalein when brominated in glacial acetic acid gives a + dibrom derivative which, with fuming sulphuric acid, yields + dibromxanthopurpurin (1.3-dioxy-2.4-dibromanthraquinone), a reaction + which is only possible if the fluorescein (from which the + monoresorcin-phthalein is derived) contains free hydroxyl groups in + the para position to the linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride + residue. + + + + +FLUORESCENCE. In a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in +1833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable phenomenon he had +discovered to which he gave the name of "internal dispersion." On +admitting a beam of sunlight, condensed by a lens, into a solution of +chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of leaves (see fig. 1), he was +surprised to find that the path of the rays within the fluid was marked +by a bright light of a blood-red colour, strangely contrasting with the +beautiful green of the fluid when seen in moderate thickness. Brewster +afterwards observed the same phenomenon in various vegetable solutions +and essential oils, and in some solids, amongst which was fluor-spar. He +believed this effect to be due to coloured particles held in suspension. +A few years later, Sir John Herschel independently discovered that if a +solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted light, +appears colourless and transparent like water, were illuminated by a +beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue colour was seen in a thin +stratum of the fluid adjacent to the surface by which the light entered. +The blue light was unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of +the fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the stratum +from which the blue light came, was not sensibly enfeebled or coloured, +but yet it had lost the power of producing the characteristic blue +colour when admitted into a second solution of quinine sulphate. A beam +of light modified in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel +"epipolized." Brewster showed that epipolic was merely a particular case +of internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays +capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken up by Sir G.G. +Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present knowledge of the subject +is due. Stokes's first paper "On the Change of the Refrangibility of +Light" appeared in 1852. He repeated the experiments of Brewster and +Herschel, and considerably extended them. These experiments soon led him +to the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had +imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but that +the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibility from the light +which excited it. He therefore termed it "true internal dispersion" to +distinguish it from the scattering of light, which he called "false +internal dispersion." As this name, however, is apt to suggest +Brewster's view of the phenomenon, he afterwards abandoned it as +unsatisfactory, and substituted the word "fluorescence." This term, +derived from fluor-spar after the analogy of opalescence from opal, does +not presuppose any theory. To examine the nature of the fluorescence +produced by quinine, Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun's rays in +the usual manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine +sulphate, was placed just outside the red end of the spectrum and then +gradually moved along the spectrum to the other extremity. No +fluorescence was observed as long as the tube remained in the more +luminous portion, but as soon as the violet was reached, a ghost-like +gleam of blue light shot right across the tube. On continuing to move +the tube, the blue light at first increased in intensity and afterwards +died away, but not until the tube had been moved a considerable distance +into the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first +appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before disappearing +it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side at which the exciting +rays entered. Stokes varied this experiment by placing a vessel filled +with the dilute solution in a spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The +appearance is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. 2. The greater part +of the light passed freely as if through water, but from about half-way +between the Fraunhofer lines G and H to far beyond the extreme violet, +the incident rays gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour, which +emanated in all directions from the portion of the fluid (represented +white in fig. 2) which was under the influence of the incident rays. The +anterior surface of the blue space coincided, of course, with the inner +surface of the glass vessel. The posterior surface marked the distance +to which the incident rays were able to penetrate before they were +absorbed. This distance was at first considerable, greater than the +diameter of the vessel, but decreased with great rapidity as the +refrangibility of the incident light increased, so that from a little +beyond the extreme violet to the end, the blue space was reduced to an +excessively thin stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to +the ultra-violet rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part +of the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather planes, +intersecting the blue region. Stokes found that the fluorescent light is +not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident rays to a narrow band of +homogeneous light, and examining the dispersed beam through a prism, he +found that the blue light consisted of rays extending over a wide range +of refrangibility, but not into the ultra-violet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in examining +different substances for fluorescence, was as follows. Two coloured +media were prepared, one of which transmitted the upper portion of the +spectrum and was opaque to the lower portion, while the second was +opaque to the upper and transparent to the lower part of the spectrum. +These were called by Stokes "complementary absorbents." No pair could be +found which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition was +approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses or +solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-blue solution of +ammioniacal copper sulphate and a yellow glass coloured with silver. The +two media together were almost opaque. The light of the sun being +admitted through a hole in the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet +was laid on a shelf fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel +containing the blue solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the +tablet was viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered +the eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid on +the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pairs of +complementary absorbents were required according to the colour of the +fluorescent light. This experiment shows clearly that the light which +passed through the first absorbent and which would have been stopped by +the second gave rise in the fluorescent substance to rays of a different +wave-length which were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered +light, with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was +eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second absorbent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Spectrum of Chlorophyll.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Spectrum of Aesculin.] + +Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton's method of crossed +prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent light. A spectrum +was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit being horizontal +instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow spectrum was projected on +a white paper moistened with a fluorescent solution, and viewed through +a second prism with its refracting edge perpendicular to that of the +first prism. In addition to the sloping spectrum seen under ordinary +circumstances, another spectrum due to the fluorescent light alone, made +its appearance, as seen in figs. 3 and 4. In this spectrum the colours +do not run from left to right, but in horizontal lines. Thus the dark +lines of the solar spectrum lie across the colours. The spectra in figs. +3 and 4 were obtained by V. Pierre with an improved arrangement of +Stokes's method. It will be seen that, in the case of chlorophyll, the +whole spectrum, far into the ultra-violet, gives rise to a short range +of red fluorescent light, while the effective part of the exciting light +in the case of aesculin (a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark) +begins a little above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers +a wide range extending from orange to blue. + +Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number of vegetable +extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly fluorescent. Stokes +found that most organic substances show signs of fluorescence. Green +fluor-spar from Alston Moor exhibits a violet, uranium glass a +yellowish-green fluorescence. Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a +greenish light, and the extract of seeds of _Datura stramonium_ a pale +green light. Ordinary paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium +platinocyanide, which is much used in the fluorescent screens employed +in work with the Rontgen rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with +ordinary light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the +remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light, the +colour and plane of polarization depending on the position of the +crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarized light is +used, on the plane of polarization of the latter. + +_Stokes's Law._--In all the substances examined by Stokes, the +fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refrangibility than the light +which excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this lowering of +the refrangibility of the light was a general law which held for all +substances. This is known as Stokes's law. It has been shown, however, +by E. Lommel and others, that this law does not hold generally. Lommel +distinguishes two kinds of fluorescence. The bodies which exhibit the +first kind are those which possess strong absorption bands, of which +only one remains appreciable after great dilution. These bodies are +always strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids) +surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the +fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the maximum of absorption. Stokes's +law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be produced by means +of homogeneous light of lower refrangibility than a great part of the +fluorescent light. The second kind of fluorescence is the most common, +and is exhibited by bodies which show absorption only in the upper part +of the spectrum, i.e. they are usually yellow or brown or (if the +absorption is in the ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also +are different from those of substances of the first kind, for they +readily disappear on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by +those substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence. + +_Nature of Fluorescence._--No complete theory of fluorescence has yet +been given, though various attempts have been made to explain the +phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to phosphorescence (q.v.), +the difference consisting in the duration of the effect after the +exciting cause is removed. Liquids which fluoresce only do so while the +exciting light is falling on them, ceasing immediately the exciting +light is cut off. In the case of solids, on the other hand, such as +fluor-spar or uranium glass, the effect, though very brief, does not die +away quite instantaneously, so that it is really a very brief +phosphorescence. The property of phosphorescence has been generally +attributed to some molecular change taking place in the bodies +possessing it. That some such change takes place during fluorescence is +rendered probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state +of the sensitive substance; some bodies, such as barium platinocyanide, +fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while others, such +as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluorescence is always +associated with absorption, but many bodies are absorbent without +showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory would have to account for +these facts as well as for the production of waves of one period by +those of another, and the non-homogeneous character of the fluorescent +light. Quite recently W. Voigt has sought to give a theory of +fluorescence depending on the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory +assumes that the electrons which constitute the molecule of the +sensitive body can exist in two or more different configurations +simultaneously, and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the +molecule in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different +periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would +happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with that of +the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter, and if they +then underwent a transformation into a different configuration with a +different period, this absorbed energy would be given out in waves of a +period corresponding to that of the new configuration. + +_Applications of Fluorescence._--The phenomenon of fluorescence can be +utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of reflection and +refraction in lecture experiments since the path of a ray of light +through a very dilute solution of a sensitive substance is rendered +visible. The existence of the dark lines in the ultra-violet portion of +the solar spectrum can also be demonstrated in a simple manner. In +addition to the foregoing applications, Stokes made use of this property +for studying the character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different +sources of illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property +would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a small +quantity of a sensitive substance in an organic mixture. Fluorescent +screens are largely used in work with Rontgen rays. There appears to be +some prospect of light being thrown on the question of molecular +structure by experiments on the fluorescence of vapours. Some very +interesting experiments in this direction have been performed by R.W. +Wood on the fluorescence of sodium vapour. + + REFERENCES.--Sir G.G. Stokes, _Mathematical and Physical Papers_, + vols. iii. and iv.; Muller-Pouillet, _Lehrbuch der Physik_, Bd. ii. + (1897); A. Wullner, _Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik_, Bd. iv. (1899); + A.A. Winkelmann, _Handbuch der Physik_, Bd. vi. (1906); R.W. Wood, + _Physical Optics_ (1905). (J. R. C.) + + + + +FLUORINE (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element of the halogen +group. It is never found in the uncombined condition, but in combination +with calcium as fluor-spar CaF2 it is widely distributed; it is also +found in cryolite Na3AlF6, in fluor-apatite, CaF2.3Ca3P2O8, and in +minute traces in sea-water, in some mineral springs, and as a +constituent of the enamel of the teeth. It was first isolated by H. +Moissan in 1886 by the electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric acid +containing dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic +vessel and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium, the +limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar, and +fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases evolved. +Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus is kept at a +constant temperature of -23 deg. C. by means of liquid methyl chloride. +The fluorine, which is liberated as a gas at the anode, is passed +through a well cooled platinum vessel, in order to free it from any acid +fumes that may be carried over, and finally through two platinum tubes +containing sodium fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric +acid; it is then collected in a platinum tube closed with fluor-spar +plates. B. Brauner (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained +fluorine by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KF.HF.PbF4. At 200 deg. C. +this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between 230-250 +deg. C. fluorine is liberated. + +Fluorine is a pale greenish-yellow gas with a very sharp smell; its +specific gravity is 1.265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied, the +liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at -187 deg. C. It is +the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact with hydrogen +combination takes place between the two gases with explosive violence, +even in the dark, and at as low a temperature as -210 deg. C; finely +divided carbon burns in the gas, forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is +decomposed even at ordinary temperatures, with the formation of +hydrofluoric acid and "ozonised" oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus +melt and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides, +and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides; it does +not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds are rapidly +attacked by the gas. + +Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine is known, namely +_hydrofluoric acid_, HF or H2F2, which was first obtained by C. Scheele +in 1771 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated sulphuric acid, a +method still used for the commercial preparation of the aqueous solution +of the acid, the mixture being distilled from leaden retorts and the +acid stored in leaden or gutta-percha bottles. The perfectly anhydrous +acid is a very volatile colourless liquid and is best obtained, +according to G. Gore (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the +double fluoride of hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum +retort fitted with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing +mixture, and having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be +prepared in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen +over dry silver fluoride. The pure acid thus obtained is a most +dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly diluted with +air having an exceedingly injurious action on the respiratory organs, +whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is followed by death. The anhydrous +acid boils at 19.5 deg. C. (H. Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid +mass at -102.5 deg. C, which melts at -92.3 deg. C. (K. Olszewski, +_Monats. fur Chemie_, 1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily +dissolve in the anhydrous acid with evolution of hydrogen and formation +of fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and +dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is that it +rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass to form +gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for etching. T.E. +Thorpe (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1889, 55, p. 163) determined the vapour +density of hydrofluoric acid at different temperatures, and showed that +there is no approach to a definite value below about 88 deg. C. where it +reaches the value 10.29 corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at +temperatures below 88 deg. C. the value increases rapidly, showing that +the molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see J.N. +Friend, _The Theory of Valency_ (1909), p. 111.) The aqueous solution +behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen acids; E. +Deussen (_Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408; 1906, 49, p. 297) +found the solution of constant boiling point to contain 43.2% HF and to +boil at 110 deg. (750 mm.). + + The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as _fluorides_ and are easily + obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides, + hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of + silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those of + the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of the + alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of + hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative + elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other + metallic halides. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power of + etching glass when warmed with sulphuric acid; or by warming them in a + glass tube with concentrated sulphuric acid and holding a moistened + glass rod in the mouth of the tube, the water apparently gelatinizes + owing to the decomposition of the silicon fluoride formed. The atomic + weight of fluorine has been determined by the conversion of calcium, + sodium and potassium fluorides into the corresponding sulphates. J. + Berzelius, by converting silver fluoride into silver chloride, + obtained the value 19.44, and by analysing calcium fluoride the value + 19.16; the more recent work of H. Moissan gives the value 19.05. + + See H. Moissan, _Le Fluor et ses composes_ (Paris, 1900). + + + + +FLUOR-SPAR, native calcium fluoride (CaF2), known also as FLUORITE or +simply FLUOR. In France it is called fluorine, whilst the term fluor is +applied to the element (F). All these terms, from the Lat. _fluere_, "to +flow," recall the fact that the spar is useful as a flux in certain +metallurgical operations. (Cf. its Ger. name _Flussspat_ or _Fluss_.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in cubes, either +alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, four-faced +cube, &c. The four-faced cube has been called the fluoroid. In fig. 1, a +is the cube (100), d the rhombic dodecahedron (110), and f the +four-faced cube (310). Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of +interpenetrant cubes. The crystals are sometimes polysynthetic, a large +octahedron, e.g., being built up of small cubes. The faces are often +etched or corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the +octahedron. + +Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife, +though not so readily as calcite. Its specific gravity is about 3.2. The +colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral is too +soft for personal decoration, though it forms a handsome material for +vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed in bands, regularly +following the contour of the crystal. As the colour is usually expelled, +or much altered, by heat, it is believed to be due to an organic +pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons has been detected in many +specimens by G. Wyrouboff, and other observers. H.W. Morse (_Proc. Amer. +Acad._, 1906, p. 587) obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen +and nitrogen and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by +heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decomposition of an +organic colouring matter, which has, however, no connexion with the +fluorescence or thermo-luminescence of the mineral. Certain crystals +from Cumberland are beautifully fluorescent, appearing purple with a +bluish internal haziness by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted +light. Fluor-spar, though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double +refraction, probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar +are thermo-luminescent, i.e. they glow on exposure to a moderate heat, +and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety which exhibits a +green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces under the Rontgen rays. +Cavities containing liquid occasionally occur in crystals of fluor-spar, +notably in the greasy green cubes of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet +fluor-spar from Wolsendorf in Bavaria, evolves an odour of ozone when +struck, and has been called antozonite. Ozone is also emitted by a +violet fluor-spar from Quincie, dep. Rhone, France. In both cases the +spar evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air. + +Fluor-spar is largely employed by the metallurgist, especially in +lead-smelting, and in the production of ferro-silicon and +ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries, and has +been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and in the reduction +of aluminium. It is used as a source of hydrofluoric acid, which it +evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The mineral is also used in the +production of opal glass and enamel ware. In consequence of its low +refractive and dispersive power, colourless pellucid fluor-spar is +valuable in the construction of apochromatic lenses, but this variety is +rare. The dark violet fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as "Blue +John," is prized for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively +at Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the +workmen "bull beef," may be changed, by heat, to a rich amethystine +tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather difficult to work on the +lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin. F. Corsi, the eminent +Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was the material of the famous +murrhine vases. + +Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the finest +crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous Limestone series +in the north of England, especially at Weardale, Allendale and Alston +Moor. It is also found in the lead and copper-mines of Cornwall and S. +Devon, notably near Liskeard, where fine crystals have been found, with +faces of the six-faced octahedron replacing the corners of the cube. In +Cornwall fluor-spar is known to the miners as "cann." Fine yellow +fluor-spar occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red +octahedra are found in the Alps, near Goschenen. Many localities in the +United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked commercially in a few +places, notably at Rosiclare in southern Illinois. + + + + +FLUSHING, formerly a township and a village of Queens county, New York, +U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing Bay, since the 1st of +January 1898 a part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Flushing is +served by the Long Island railroad and by electric lines. It was settled +in 1644 by a company of English non-conformists who had probably been +residents of Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its +name. Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in 1672 +George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the War of +Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich New Yorkers and +colonial officials. + + + + +FLUSHING (Dutch _Vlissingen_), a fortified seaport in the province of +Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of Walcheren, at the +mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt, 4 m. by rail S. by W. of +Middelburg, with which it is also connected by steam tramway and by a +ship canal. There is a steam ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuzen on the +coast of Zeeland-Flandres. Pop. (1900) 18,893. An important naval +station and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the +care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial port. In 1872 +the railway was opened which, in conjunction with the regular day and +night service of steamers to Queenborough in the county of Kent, forms +one of the main routes between England and the east of Europe. In 1873 +the great harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the +navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or Antwerp, +the tonnage being in 1899 about 7.9% of that of the kingdom. As a summer +resort, however, Flushing has acquired considerable popularity, +sea-baths and a large modern hotel being situated on the fine beach +about three-quarters of a mile north-west of the town. It possesses a +town hall, containing a collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an +exchange, an academy of sciences and a school of navigation. The +Jakobskerk, or Jacob's church, founded in 1328, contains monuments to +Admiral de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1757-1786), +who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town are +connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery, the state +railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron and steel works' +depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture. The chief imports are +colonial produce and wine, wood and coal. The exports include +agricultural produce (wheat and beans), shrimps and meat. + + + + +FLUTE, a word adapted from O. Fr. _fleute_, modern _flute_; from O. Fr. +have come the Span. _flauta_, Ital. _flauto_ and Ger. _Flote_. The _New +English Dictionary_ dismisses the derivations suggested from Lat. +_flatuare_ or _flavitare_; ultimately the word must be referred to the +root seen in "blow," Lat. _flare_, Ger. _blasen_, &c. + +1. In music "flute" is a general term applied to wood-wind instruments +consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and blown directly +through the mouthpiece without the intervention of a reed. The flute +family is classified according to the mouthpiece used to set in +vibration the column of air within the tube: i.e. (1) the simple lateral +mouth-hole or embouchure which necessitates holding the instrument in a +transverse position; (2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows +the performer to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There +is a third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no +mouthpiece of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration +by blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the ancient +Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (q.v.). The transverse flute +has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which has survived only in +the so-called penny whistle, in the "flute-work" of the organ (q.v.), +and in the French flageolet. + +_The Transverse Flute_ or _German Flute_ (Fr. _flute traversiere_, +_flute allemande_: Ger. _Flote_, _Querflote_, _Zwerchpfeiff_, +_Schweitzerpfeiff_; Ital. _flauto traverso_) includes the _concert +flute_ known both as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (q.v.) or +octave flute, and the fife (q.v.). The modern flute consists of a tube +open at one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug or +cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one giving the +consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a stretched string. +The primitive flute was made in one piece, but the modern instrument is +composed of three adjustable joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the +upper end and containing at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole +or embouchure. This embouchure, always open when the instrument is being +played, converts the closed tube into an open one, in an acoustical +sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys necessary to produce +the scale which gave the flute its original designation of D flute, the +head and body together, when the holes are closed, giving the +fundamental note D. Before the invention of keys, this fundamental note +and the notes obtained by the successive opening of the six holes +produced the diatonic scale of D major. All other semitones were +obtained by what is known as cross fingering (Fr. _doigte fourchu_; Ger. +_Gabelgriffe_). It became usual to consider this the typical fingering +nomenclature, whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute, and +to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the six lateral +holes are covered by the fingers. The result is that the tonality is +always a tone lower than the name of the instrument indicates. Thus the +D flute is really in C, the F flute is E[flat], &c. (3) The foot-joint +or tail-joint containing the two additional keys for C[sharp] and C +which extend the compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C +in the fundamental octave. + +The compass of the modern flute is three octaves with chromatic +semitones from [notes] to [notes]. The sound is produced by holding the +flute transversely with the embouchure turned slightly outwards, the +lower lip resting on the nearer edge of the embouchure, and blowing +obliquely across, not into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the +lips, known as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the +embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces in the +stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsations or +vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rarefaction of the +air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional to the length of the +stationary column, which is practically somewhat longer than the length +of the tube.[1] The length of this column is varied by opening the +lateral finger-holes. The current or air-reed thus acts upon the air +column within the flute, without passing through the tube, as a plectrum +upon a string, setting it in vibration. The air column of the flute is +the sound-producer, whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the +vibrating reed is more properly the sound-producer, while the air +column, acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed +by vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle[2] at which the current +of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure be made less +acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same time increased, the +frequency of the alternate pulses of compression and rarefaction within +the tube will be increased two, three or fourfold, forming a +corresponding number of nodes and loops which results in harmonics or +upper partials, respectively the octave, the twelfth, the double octave. +By this means sounds of higher pitch are produced without actually +shortening the length of the column of air by means of lateral holes. +The acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which +there is great diversity of opinion. The subject is too vast to be +treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult the works of +Rockstro,[3] Helmholtz,[4] and others.[5] The effect of boring lateral +holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of the air column, +which may be regarded as being effective only between the hole in +question and the mouthpiece. In order to obtain this result the diameter +of the hole should be equal to that of the bore; as long as the holes +were covered by the fingers, this was obviously impossible. The holes, +therefore, being smaller than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be +placed proportionally nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening +the pitch and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by +wind-instrument makers of classic Greece (see AULOS and CLARINET), and +has been explained by Chladni[6] and Gottfried Weber.[7] + +The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably +cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century a +modification took place, the head joint alone remaining cylindrical +while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone having its +smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The conoidal bore +greatly improved the quality of tone and the production of the higher +harmonics of the third octave. Once the conical bore had been adopted, +the term flute was exclusively applied to the new instruments, the +smaller flutes, then cylindrical, used in the army being designated fife +(q.v.). At the present day in England, France and America, the favourite +mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm, and known as +the "cylinder flute with the parabolic head," of which more will be said +further on. The successive opening of the holes and keys on the flute +produces the chromatic scale of the first or fundamental octave. By +increasing the pressure of the breath and slightly altering the position +of the lips over the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes +of the fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave of +the compass is obtained by the production of the higher harmonics (Fr. +_sons harmoniques_; Ger. _Flageolettone_), of the fundamental scale, +facilitated by the opening of certain of the finger-holes as "vent +holes." The quality of tone depends somewhat on the material of which +the flute is made; silver and gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite +delicacy suitable for solo music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow +tone of considerable power suitable for orchestral music. The tone +differs further in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough, +the medium sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The +proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air chamber +situated between it and the embouchure are mainly influential in giving +the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre, due to the paucity of the +upper partials of which according to Helmholtz[8] only the octave and +twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley[9] states, however, that when the +fundamental D is played, he can discern the seventh partial. The +technical capabilities of the flute are practically unlimited to a good +player who can obtain sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic +and chromatic scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps, +turns, shakes, &c. By the articulation with the tongue of the syllables +_te-ke_ or _ti-ke_ repeated quickly for groups of double notes, or of +_te-ke-ti_ for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced, known +respectively as _double_ or _triple tonguing_, a device understood early +in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin Agricola,[10] who gives the +syllables as _de_ for sustained notes, di-ri for shorter notes, and +_tel-lel-lel_ for staccato passages in quick tempo.[11] + +[Illustration: From Captain Day's _Catalogue, &c._, by permission of +Messrs. Eyre & Spottiswoode. + +FIG. 1.--Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.] + +[Illustration: Messrs. Rudall, Carte & Co. + +FIG. 2.--Boehm Cylinder Flute. Rockstro Model.] + + Musical instruments, such as flutes, in which a column of air is set + in vibration by regular pulsations derived from a current of air + directed by the lips of the executant against the side of the orifice + serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The + Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used these modes of blowing + from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians had a long pipe held + obliquely and blown across the end of the pipe itself at its upper + extremity; it was known as _Saib-it_[12] and was frequently figured on + the monuments. The same instrument, called "nay," is still used in + Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the Greeks, + plagiaulos,[13] was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at first blown + from the end as described above,[14] since we know that the Greeks + were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx or pan-pipe. + The instruments preserved at the British Museum[15] having lateral + embouchures show, however, that they were also acquainted--probably + through the Hindus--with the transverse flute, although in the case of + these specimens a reed must have been inserted into the mouth-hole or + no sound would have been obtained. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Transverse Flute. 1st or 2nd century A.D. From + the Tope at Amarabati, British Museum.] + + The high antiquity of a lateral embouchure in Europe is generally + admitted; the flute evidently penetrated from the East at some period + not yet determined. A transverse flute is seen on Indian sculptures of + the Gandhara school showing Greek influence, and dating from the + beginning of our era (fig. 3). But although the transverse flute was + evidently known to the Greeks and Romans, it did not find the same + favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have no evidence of + the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the Roman + empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources during the + early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on a group of + caskets[16] of Italo-Byzantine work of the 9th or 10th century, while + of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greek + MSS.[17] preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere. + There is moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev[18] an + orchestra depicted on frescoes said to date from the 11th century; + among the musicians is a flautist. + + The first essentially western European trace of the transverse flute + occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated _Hortus + deliciarum_ of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg.[19] Fol. 221 shows a + syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad explains in a + legend as _tibia_; in the vocabulary the latter is translated swegel. + In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of the fifty-one + musicians in the beautiful MS. _Las Cantigas de Santa Maria_ in the + Escorial, Madrid.[20] Eustache Deschamps, a French poet of the 14th + century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the "flute + traversaine," and we are justified in supposing that he refers to the + transverse flute. It had certainly acquired some vogue in the 15th + century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Virdung's + celebrated work,[21] where it is called "Zwerchpfeiff," and, with the + drums, it already constituted the principal element of the military + music. Agricola (op. cit.) alludes to it as the "Querchpfeiff" or + "Schweizerpfeiff," the latter designation dating, it is said, from the + battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops used it for the first + time in war. + + From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family, said + to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass--[notes] or + [notes] respectively. Praetorius[22] designates the transverse flute + as "Flauta traversa' Querpfeiff" and "Querflot," and gives the pitch + of the bass in [notes] the tenor and alto in [notes] and the discant + in [notes] as varieties then in use. A flute concert at that time + included two discants, four altos or tenors, and two basses. The same + author distinguishes between the "Traversa" and the "Schweizerpfeiff" + or fife (which he also calls "Feldpfeiff," i.e. military flute), + although the construction was the same. There were two kinds of + "Feldpfeiff," in [notes] and [notes] respectively; they were employed + exclusively with the military drum. + + Mersenne's[23] account of the transverse flute, then designated "flute + d'Allemagne" or "flute allemande" in France, and an "Air de Cour" for + four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in use + in France the soprano flute in [notes] the tenor or alto flute in + [notes] and the bass flute descending to [notes]. The museum of the + Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses specimens of all these + varieties except the last. All of them are laterally pierced with six + finger-holes; they have a cylindrical bore, and are fashioned out of a + single piece of wood. Their compass consists of two octaves and a + fifth. Mersenne's tablature for fingering the flute differs but little + from those of Hotteterre-le-Romain[24] and Eisel[25] for the diatonic + scale; he does not give the chromatic semitones and the flute had as + yet no keys. + + The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum is in [notes] at the + French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per second. It measures + 0.95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to the lower extremity of + the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes is such that it is + impossible to cover them with the fingers if the flute is held in the + ordinary way. The instrument must be placed against the mouth in an + almost vertical direction, inclining the extremity of the tube either + to the right or the left. This inconvenient position makes it + necessary that the instrument should be divided into two parts, + enabling the player to turn the head joint that the embouchure may be + most commodiously approached by the lips, which is not at all easy. + The first and fourth of the six lateral holes are double in order to + accommodate both right- and left-handed players, the holes not in use + being stopped up with wax. The bass flute shown in fig. 4 is the + facsimile of an instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona. The + original, unfortunately no longer fit for use, is nevertheless + sufficiently well preserved to allow of all its proportionate + measurements being given. The lowest note, E[flat], is obtained with a + remarkable amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very prevalent opinion + that it is impossible to produce by lateral insufflation sounds which + go a little lower than the ordinary limit downwards of the modern + orchestral flute.[26] + + [Illustration: + + FIG. 4.--Bass Flute. From Museo Civico, Verona (facsimile). + + FIG. 5.--Bass Flute. Brussels Museum.] + + The bass flute cited by Mersenne should not differ much from that of + the Museo Civico at Verona. We suppose it to have been in [notes], and + that it was furnished with an open key like that which was applied to + the recorders (_flutes douces_) of the same epoch, the function of the + key being to augment by another note the compass of the instrument in + the lower part. A bass flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5 is + figured and described in Diderot and D'Alembert's encyclopaedia [27] + (1751). According to Quantz,[28] it was in France and about the middle + of the 17th century that the first modifications were introduced in + the manufacture of the flute. The improvements at this period + consisted of the abandonment of the cylindrical bore in favour of a + conical one, with the base of the cone forming the head of the + instrument. At the same time the flute was made of three separate + pieces called head, body, and tail or foot, which were ultimately + further subdivided. The body or middle joint was divided into two + pieces, so that the instrument could be tuned to the different pitches + then in use by a replacement with longer or shorter pieces. It was + probably about 1677, when Lully introduced the German flute into the + opera, that recourse was had for the first time to keys, and that the + key of D# was applied to the lower part of the instrument.[29] The + engraving of B. Picart, dated 1707, given in Hotteterre's book, + represents the flute as having reached the stage of improvement of + which we have just spoken. In 1726 Quantz,[30] finding himself in + Paris, had a second key applied to the flute, placed nearly at the + same height as the first, that of the [notes], intended to + differentiate the D# and the E[flat].[31] This innovation was + generally well received in Germany, but does not appear to have met + with corresponding success in other countries. In France and England + manufacturers adopted it but rarely; in Italy it was declared + useless.[32] About the same time flutes were constructed with the + lower extremity lengthened sufficiently to produce the fundamental C, + and furnished with a supplementary key to produce the C[sharp]. This + innovation, spoken of by Quantz,[33] did not meet with a very + favourable reception, and was shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing + mention may be made of the drawing of a flute with a C key in the + _Music-Saal_ of J.F.B. Majer (Nuremberg, 1741), p. 45. + + The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected by + changes in the length, and notably by substituting a longer or shorter + upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences in the + pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion of it + were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the different + parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications in the + length, it was conceived that the just relation could be + re-established by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key. + These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was + asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened + proportionately to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus + improved took the name of "flutes a registre." The register system + was, about 1752, applied by Quantz to the head joint[34] and, the + embouchure section being thus capable of elongation, it was allowable + to the performer, according to the opinion of this professor, to lower + the pitch of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other + lengthening pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation. + + The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice, is + closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork + depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is + in its right place when the accompanying octaves [notes] are true. + Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions the use of a nut-screw + to give the required position to the cork.[35] He does not name the + inventor of this appliance, but, according to Tromlitz,[36] the + improvement was due to Quantz himself. The invention goes back to + 1726. + + When the _Method_ of Quantz appeared there were still in use, besides + the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the low + fourth flute in A, and the flute d'amour a note higher; in France they + had, moreover, the little octave flute in D (octave). A bass flute in + D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When Ribock published his + _Bemerkungen uber die Flote_[37] the flute had already the five keys + here shown. [notes] This author states that the inventor of these new + keys is not known to him, but that either Kusder, a musical + instrument-maker in London, or Johann Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was + the originator, since he has not been able to trace those keys on the + flutes of any other maker. Although Tromlitz does not claim for + himself the invention of the keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], he + states that "he had occupied himself for several years in applying + these keys so as not to augment the difficulty of playing, but on the + contrary to render the handling of them as easy as possible."[38] In + the later work published in 1800,[39] however, he seems to attribute + the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of London; he says that + he has never yet been fortunate enough to come across a good flute by + that maker--"the flute has certainly gained by the addition of the + keys for F, G[sharp] and B[flat], but this is not everything, for on + such a flute much must perforce be left unattempted.... Only a flute + with eight keys according to my invention is capable of everything." + It would seem, moreover, from circumstantial evidence stated clearly + and on good authority by Rockstro[40] that the keys for F, G[sharp] + and B[flat] must have been used first in England and made by Richard + Potter before 1774. The higher key of C adopted from 1786 by Tromlitz, + we believe to have been first recommended by Ribock (1782).[41] + Tromlitz in _Uber Floten_ describes at length what may be termed the + first systematic effort to overcome the difficulties created by the + combination of open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the + question by determining the positions of the holes according to the + exigencies of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more + arbitrary theories connected with the musical scale. + + In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz's slide applied to the head + joint as well as to the register of the foot by a double system of + tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document[42] + describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the + holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the + keys. Potter's patent conical valves were an adaptation of the + contrivance first invented by J.F. Boie or Boye of Gottingen,[43] who + used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The keys + mentioned in the patent were four--D[sharp], F, G[sharp], A[sharp]. + The idea of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up + again about the same time by two players of the flute in London named + Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition of the keys C and C#, + and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. In Dr + Arnold's _New Instructions for the German Flute_ occurs a tablature, + the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century, and + bears the following title, "A Complete Drawing and Concise Scale and + Description of Tacet and Florio's new invented German Flute, with all + the additional keys explained." It explains the use of six keys--C, + C#, D#, F, G#, A#--that are not always figured, because the employment + of so many keys was at once admitted. Tromlitz himself, who, however, + made flutes with nine keys--adding E[flat], another F, and C[natural], + declared that he was not in favour of so great a complication, and + that he preferred the flute with only two keys, D[sharp] and E[flat], + with a register foot joint and a cork nut-screw at the head joint. + This instrument met all requirements. He was always much opposed to + the use of the old keys for C[natural] and C[sharp], because they + altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When + Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become + modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D, the flute + d'amour a minor third lower, a "third" flute a minor third higher, + and, finally, the little octave flute. + + While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of augmenting + the compass of the flute downwards by employing open keys for + C[natural] and C[sharp], an Italian, Giovanni Batista Orazi,[44] + increased the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of + five new keys, viz. B, B[flat], A, A[flat], and G. At the same time + that he produced this invention [45] he conceived the plugging of the + lateral holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. But + it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral + holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there + were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of + Orazi proved a failure. + + In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan,[46] of Stratford, near London, + conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring, + permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key was + being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the embryo + of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the system of + the flute. Two years later Macgregor,[47] a musical-instrument maker + in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower than the ordinary + flute. The idea was not new, as is proved by the existence of the bass + flute mentioned above. The difference between the two instruments lies + in the mechanism of the keys. That employed by Macgregor consisted of + a double lever, a contrivance dating from before the middle of the + 18th century, of which the application is seen in an oboe of large + dimensions preserved in the National Museum at Munich.[48] + + In 1811 Johann Nepomuk Capeller invented the extra D[natural] hole and + key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modern + construction.[49] + + About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more keys, + those of F[sharp] and C[sharp], and a key, called "de cadence," to + facilitate the accompanying shakes. + + To increase the number of keys, to improve their system of plugging, + and to extend the [notes] scale of the instrument in the lower + region,--these had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in + the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to whose labours + we have called attention, had as yet devoted his attention to the + rational division of the column of air by means of the lateral holes. + In 1831 Theobald Boehm, a Bavarian, happening to be in London, was + struck with the power of tone the celebrated English performer Charles + Nicholson drew from his instrument. Boehm learned, and not without + astonishment, that his English colleague obtained this result by + giving the lateral holes a much greater diameter than was then usually + admitted. About the same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an + amateur player named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements; he + had bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a + key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These + innovations set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the + instrument.[50] He went resolutely to work, and during the year 1832 + he produced the new flute which bears his name. This instrument is + distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger holes + disposed along the tube in geometrical progression. + + Boehm's system had preserved the key of G[sharp] open; Coche,[51] a + professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet the + younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified Boehm's + flute by closing the G[sharp] with a key, wishing thus to render the + new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a key, + facilitating the shake upon C[sharp] with D[sharp], and brought about + some other changes in the instrument of less importance. + + Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had been + conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however, he made + further experiments, and the results obtained were put in practice by + the construction of a new instrument, of which the body was given a + cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the head was modified at the + embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic (see fig. 2). The + inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality in the tones of the lower + octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect accuracy of intonation, + by establishing the more exact proportions which a column of air of + cylindrical form permitted. + + The priority of Boehm's invention was long contested, his detractors + maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the flute was due + to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindicates the claim of the + former to the invention of the large lateral holes.[52] His greatest + title to fame is the invention of the mechanism which allows the + production of the eleven chromatic semitones intermediate between the + fundamental note and its first harmonic by means of eleven holes so + disposed that in opening them successively they shorten the column of + air in exact proportional quantities.[53] Boehm (_Essays_, &c.) + published a diagram or scheme to be adopted in determining the + position of the note-holes of wind instruments for every given pitch. + This diagram gives the position of the intermediate holes which he had + been enabled to establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of + the lengths of strings. + + The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection it has + reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there are players + who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering required for + some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derangement of the + mechanism, have something to do with this. In England especially, the + ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to the improvements + introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in 1845 (Patent No. + 10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A lower, and covered them + with open keys. He added some keys, and made a better disposition of + the other lateral holes, of which he increased the diameter, producing + thus a sonorousness almost equal to that of the Boehm flute, while yet + preserving the old fingering for the notes of the first two octaves. + But in spite of these improvements the old flute will not bear an + impartial comparison with that of Boehm. + + A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signor Carlo Tommaso + Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of the instrument + on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal features of this + flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper extremity of the + tube instead of at the side, which allows the instrument to be held in + a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is required. There are eleven + holes mathematically placed in the tube which give the semitones of + the scale; there are no keys. The eleven holes are fingered by the + fingers and thumbs, the C[sharp] hole being closed by the side of the + left fore-finger. All the notes are obtained by means of simple + fingering as far as G[sharp] of the third octave, the remaining notes + of which are produced by cross-fingering. For the convenience of + players with short fingers keys can be added, and the head of the + Georgi flute can be used with any cylinder flute. The compass of the + Georgi flute [notes] is almost the same as that of the concert flute; + viz. If the lower C and C[sharp] are required, extra holes and keys + can be added. Everything that is possible on the Boehm flute is + possible on the Georgi and more, owing to the simplicity of the + fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform, all trills are + equally easy. The tone is the true flute tone, brilliant and + sympathetic.[54] + + The old English _fipple flute_, or _flute a bec_, is described under + the headings RECORDER and FLAGEOLET. (V. M.; K. S.) + +2. In architecture the name "flute" is given to the vertical channels +(segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal section) employed +on the shafts of columns in the classic styles. The flutes are separated +one from the other by an "arris" in the Doric order and by a "fillet" in +the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The earliest fluted columns are those +in Egypt, at first with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at +Karnac (1400 B.C.) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about +one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one of the +"beehive" tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and are the earliest +Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric temples at Metapontum and +Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the flutes are also segmental, but in later +examples in order to emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs +and are known as "false ellipses," and this applies to nearly all the +fluting in Greek examples whether belonging to the Doric, Ionic or +Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52 in the +archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52 flutes in the +Persian columns according to the diameter of the column. In the Greek +Doric column 20 is the usual number, but there are 16 only in the +temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and the temple of Apollo at Syracuse; +18 in one of the temples of Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse, +and 24 in the temple of Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also +varies; in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of +the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius of the +central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the smaller +arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar accentuation +is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where the flutes are +separated by fillets, and their section is always elliptical in Greek +work, the depth of the flute, however, being always greater than in the +Doric order. Thus, in the temple of Ilissus and the Ionic column in the +cella of the temple at Bassae, the depth is about one-quarter of the +width, in the Propylaea at Priene it is about one-third, and in the +Erechtheum and other examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more +than one-half. The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one +quarter of the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek +Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, the +flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth being about one +third of the width in the Doric column, and in all Ionic, Corinthian and +Composite columns half the width of the flute. The fillet also is much +broader in Roman examples, being about one-third of the width of the +flute. In Roman columns sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the +shaft, about one-third of the height, are partly filled with a convex +moulding, "cabling" being the usual term applied to this treatment. The +French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this decorative +feature much farther, and in the Tuileries and the Louvre carved a +series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian buildings, instead of +the fluting of the column being vertical, it twines round the column and +is known as spiral fluting; a fine example is found in the Bevilacqua +palace at Verona by San Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into +capitals, as in the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at +Cnidos, the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara. In one of +the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which are +sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many of the Roman +temples were carved with flutes. In medieval buildings, fluting was +occasionally introduced in imitation of Roman work, as in the churches +of central Syria and of Autun and Langres in France, but in the south of +Italy and Sicily it would seem to have been brought in as a variety of +treatment, in the decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of +cloisters, as at Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and +St Paul-outside-the-Walls at Rome. (R. P. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See E.F.F. Chladni, _Die Akustik_ (Leipzig, 1802), p. 87. + + [2] See Sonreck, "Uber die Schwingungserregung und die Bewegung der + Luftsaule in offenen und gedeckten Rohren," _Pogg. Ann._, 1876, vol. + 158. + + [3] _The Flute_ (London, 1890), S 90-105, pp. 34-40. + + [4] _Theorie der Luftschwingungen in Rohren mit offenen Enden_ + (Berlin, 1896). Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No. + 80. + + [5] V.C. Mahillon, _Experimental Studies on the Resonance of + Trunco-Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns_, translated by F.A. Mahan + (London, 1901); D.J. Blaikley, _Acoustics in Relation to Wind + Instruments_ (London, 1890); Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und die + musikalischen Instrumente, &c._ (Giessen, 1855); _idem._ "Sur le + mouvement vibratoire de l'air dans les tuyaux," _Comptes rendus_, + 1855, vol. 41, &c. + + [6] _Op. cit._, S 73, pp. 87-88, note 1. + + [7] "Akustik der Blasinstrumente," _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig, + 1816), Bd. xviii. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, _Zur + Geschichte der Blasinstrumente im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert_. Inaugural + Dissertation, Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitat. (Berlin, 15th of March + 1899), p. 9. + + [8] _Lehre von der Tonempfindung_ (Braunschweig, 1877). + + [9] See additions by D. J. B. to article "Flute" in Grove's + _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ (London, 1904). + + [10] _Musica instrumentalis deutsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528). + + [11] See also L'Artusi, _Delle imperfettioni della musica moderna_ + (Venice, 1600), p. 4; Gottfried Weber in Cacilia, Bd. ix. p. 99. + + [12] See "Les Anciennes Flutes egyptiennes," by Victor Loret in + _Journal asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv. p. 133 et seq., two + careful articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still + extant. See also Lauth, "Uber die agyptische Instrumente," _Sitzungs. + der philos., philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Akad. zu + Munchen_ (1873). + + [13] See Albert A. Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, + iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17. + + [14] Representations of flutes blown as here described have been + found in Europe. See _Comptes rendus de la commission imperiale + archeologique_ (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the same + date, pl. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, _Wandgemalde_, No. + 7607; Zahn, vol. iii. pl. 31; Museo Borbonnico, pl. xv. No. 18; + Clarac, pl. 130, 131, 139; Heuzey, _Les Figurines_, p. 136. + + [15] There are two flutes at the British Museum (Catal. No. 84, 4-9 + and 5 and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of wood + encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting of the head of + a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the main tube. This + hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed. The pipe is + stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as in the modern flute. + There are six holes. See also the plagiaulos from Halicarnassus in + the British Museum described by C.T. Newton in _History of + Discoveries at Halicarnassus_ (London), vol. ii. p. 339. The Louvre + has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghese) representing satyrs + playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these marbles have been + restored, especially in the details affecting our present subject, + and are therefore examples of no value to us. Another statue + representing a flute-player occurs in the British Museum. The + instrument has been supposed to be a transverse flute, but + erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against which + the instrumentalist presses his lips, could not, without the + intervention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the column + of air. + + [16] Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Firenze, + _Catalogo_ (1898), p. 205, No. 26 (description only). Illustration in + _Gallerie nazionali italiane_, A. Venturi, vol. iii. (1897), p. 263, + L'Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 24, Hans Graeven, "Antike Vorlagen + byzantinischer Elfenbeinreliefs," in _Jahrb. d. K. Preuss. + Kunst-Sammlungen_ (Berlin, 1897), Bd. xviii. p. 11; Hans Graeven, + "Ein Reliquienkastchen aus Pirano," id., 1899, Bd. xx. fig. 2 and pl. + iii. + + [17] Greek MS. 510, Gregoir de Nazance 10th century, Bibliotheque + Nationale, Paris; illustration in Gustave L. Schlumberger, _L'Epopee + byzantine a la fin du dizieme siecle_ (Paris, 1896 and 1900), vol. i. + p. 503. British Museum, Greek Psalter, add. MS. 19352, fol. 189b. + written and illuminated cir. 1066 by Theodorus of Caesarea. A + cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right, the left hand being + uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Evaggelike Schole B. 18, fol. 72a, + A.D. 1100, illustration by Strzygowski, "Der Bilderkreis des + griechischen Physiologus," in _Byzantinisches Archiv_ (Leipzig, + 1899), Heft 2, Taf. xi.; N.P. Kondakoff, _Histoire de l'art byzantin_ + (Paris, 1886 and 1891), pl. xii. 5; "Kuseyr' Amra," issued by _K. + Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1907), vol. ii. pl. xxxiv. + + [18] A fine volume containing coloured drawings of these frescoes has + been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library catalogue, + sect. "Academies," St Petersburg, 1874-1887, vol. iv. Tab. 1325a). + + [19] This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century, + was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt + during the bombardment of the city. See the fine reproduction in + facsimile published by the _Soc. pour la conservation des monuments + historiques d'Alsace_. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller + (Strassburg, 1901), pl. lvii., also C.M. Engelhardt, _Herrad von + Landsperg und ihr Werk_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1818), twelve + plates. + + [20] MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in _Critical and Bibliographical Notes + on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887), p. 119. + + [21] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511). + + [22] _Organographia_ (Wolfenbuttel. 1618), pp. 24, 25, 40. + + [23] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), _Livre_ v. p. 241. + + [24] Principes de la flute traversiere ou flute d'Allemagne, de la + flute a bec et du hautbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38. + + [25] _Musicus [Greek: autodidaktos] oder der sich selbst informirende + Musicus_ (Erfurt, 1738), p. 85. + + [26] Fetis, _Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique a + l'Exposition Universelle de Paris, en 1855_. + + [27] See _Recueil de planches_, vol. iv., and article "Basse de flute + traversiere," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also _The Flute_, by R.S. + Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 238, where the wood cut is reproduced + together with a translation of the article. The Museum of the + Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted + French maker Delusse. + + [28] _Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen_ + (Berlin, 1752). + + [29] Unless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in + describing the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute + in D, which is considered to be typical of the family. + + [30] "Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst + entworfen," in the _Historisch-Kritische Beytrage zur Aufnahme der + Musik_, by Marpurg (Berlin, 1754), p. 239. Quantz was professor of + the flute to Frederick the Great. + + [31] See Johann Georg Tromlitz, _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher + Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_ (Leipzig, 1791), 1, S 7, and _Uber + Floten mit mehrern Klappen_ (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. S 21. + + [32] Antonio Lorenzoni, _Saggio per ben sonare il flauto traverso_ + (Vicenza, 1779). + + [33] See _Anweisung_, i. S 15. + + [34] See _Lebenslauf_, _loc. cit._ p. 248, where Quantz states that + he invented the adjustable head for the flute. + + [35] See _Anweisung_, i. SS 10-13 and iv. S 26. + + [36] _Ausfuhrlicher und grundlicher Unterricht die Flote zu spielen_ + (Leipzig, 1791), i. cap. S 20. Compare Schilling, _Univ.-Lexikon_ + (Leipzig, 1835). + + [37] Stendal, 1782 (published under his initials only, J. J. H. R., + see p. 2). + + [38] _Kurze Abhandlung von Flotenspielen_ (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27. + + [39] _Uber Floten_, &c., pp. 133 and 134. + + [40] See _The Flute_, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562. + + [41] See op. cit. pp. 51 and 62. + + [42] English patent, No. 1499. + + [43] See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197. + + [44] _Saggio per costruire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonico + che ha i suoni bassi del violino_ (Rome, 1797). + + [45] The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by + Trexler of Vienna, who called it the "panaulon." + + [46] Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a + diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274. + + [47] Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a + diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274. + + [48] Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775, and + called "Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the Paris + Conservatoire. + + [49] See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber in + _Allgem. musikal. Zeit._ (Leipzig, 1811), pp. 377-379, a translation + of which is given by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 279 and 280. + + [50] See _Uber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen + desselben_ (Mainz, 1847); and W.S. Broadwood, _An Essay on the + Construction of Flutes originally written by Theobald Boehm, + published with the addition of Correspondence and other Documents_ + (London, 1882). + + [51] _Examen critique de la flute ordinaire comparee a la flute + Boehm_ (Paris, 1838). + + [52] They existed long before, however, in the Chinese _Ty_ and the + Japanese _Fuye_. + + [53] The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's _History of + the Boehm Flute_ (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relating + to this interesting discussion have been collected with great + impartiality. + + [54] For further details see Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments + of the Orchestra_, part i. pp. 192-194, where an illustration is + given, and Paul Wetzger, _Die Flote_ (Heilbronn, 1906), pp. 23-24, + and Tafel iv. No. 20. + + + + +FLUX (Lat. _fluxus_, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the +English term in medicine, &c.), in metallurgy, a substance introduced in +the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to remove objectionable +impurities in the form of a slag. The substances in commonest use +are:--lime or limestone, to slag off silica and silicates, fluor-spar +for lead, calcium and barium sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica +for removing basic substances such as limestone. Other substances are +also used, but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium and +potassium carbonates are valuable for fluxing off silica; mixed with +potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable oxidizing fusion +mixture; "black flux" is a reducing flux composed of finely divided +carbon and potassium carbonate, and formed by deflagrating a mixture of +argol with 1/4 to 1/2 its weight of nitre. Borax is very frequently +employed; it melts to a clear liquid and dissolves silica and many +metallic oxides. Potassium bisulphate is useful in the preliminary +treatment of refractory aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used +in silver and gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any +metallic oxides present. + + + + +FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teut. _fleugan_, to +fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of many +insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see LEPIDOPTERA), +dragon-fly (q.v.), may-fly (q.v.), caddis-fly (q.v.), &c.; also +specially employed by entomologists to mean any species of the +two-winged flies, or Diptera (q.v.). In ordinary parlance _fly_ is often +used in the sense of the common house-fly (_Musca domestica_); and by +English colonists and sportsmen in South Africa in that of a species of +tsetse-fly (_Glossina_), or a tract of country ("belt") in which these +insects abound (see TSETSE-FLY). + +Apart from the house-fly proper (_Musca domestica_), which in England is +the usual one, several species of flies are commonly found in houses; +e.g. the _Stomoxys calcitrans_, or stable-fly; _Pollenia rudis_, or +cluster-fly; _Muscina stabulans_, another stable-fly; _Calliphora +erythrocephala_, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-fly, with smaller +sorts of blue-bottle, _Phormia terraenovae_ and _Lucilia caesar_; +_Homalomyia canicularis_ and _brevis_, the small house-fly; _Scenopinus +fenestralis_, the black window-fly, &c. But _Musca domestica_ is far the +most numerous, and in many places, especially in hot weather and in hot +climates, is a regular pest. Mr L.O. Howard (Circular 71 of the Bureau +of Entomology U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in +1900 he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different +parts of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,808 +were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is of the +widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-yard filth, so +great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially cholera and +typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent source of danger; +and various sanitary regulations have been made, or precautions +suggested, for getting rid of it. These are discussed by Mr Howard in +the paper referred to, but in brief they all amount to measures of +general hygiene, and the isolation, prompt removal, or proper +sterilization of the animal or human excrement in which these flies +breed. + + + + +FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray, being a translation +of the _Muscicapa_ of older authors, and applied by Pennant to an +extremely common English bird, the _M. grisola_ of Linnaeus. It has +since been used in a general and very vague way for a great many small +birds from all parts of the world, which have the habit of catching +flies on the wing. Ornithologists who have trusted too much to this +characteristic and to certain merely superficial correlations of +structure, especially those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill +and a gape beset by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the +title of _Muscicapidae_ an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of forms +much reduced in number by later systematists. Great advance has been +made in establishing as independent families the _Todidae_ and +_Eurylaemidae_, as well as in excluding from it various members of the +_Ampelidae_, _Cotingidae_, _Tyrannidae_, _Vireonidae_, _Mniotiltidae_, +and perhaps others, which had been placed within its limits. These steps +have left the _Muscicapidae_ a purely Old-World family of the order +_Passeres_, and the chief difficulty now seems to lie in separating it +from the _Campephagidae_ and the _Laniidae_. Only a very few of the +forms of flycatchers (which, after all the deductions above mentioned, +may be reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps 250 +species) can here be even named.[1] + +The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens to be the +type of the Linnaean genus _Muscicapa_--the spotted or grey flycatcher +(_M. grisola_). It is a common summer visitant to nearly the whole of +Europe, and is found throughout Great Britain, though less abundant in +Scotland than in England, as well as in many parts of Ireland, where, +however, it seems to be but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one +of the latest migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands +till the latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured +bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever and +anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap of its bill +some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot it has +quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as before. It +has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-note, uttered from +time to time with a jerking gesture of the wings and tail. It makes a +neat nest, built among the small twigs which sprout from the bole of a +large tree, fixed in the branches of some plant trained against a wall, +or placed in any hole of the wall itself that may be left by the falling +of a brick or stone. The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale +greenish-blue, closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and +inconspicuous as is this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the +closest vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost +everybody. A second British species is the pied flycatcher (_M. +atricapilla_), a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except +in the hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to +Cumberland, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere. It is +not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed in Ireland. More +of a woodland bird than the former, the brightly-contrasted black and +white plumage of the cock, together with his agreeable song, readily +attracts attention where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all +western Europe, but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly +allied species (_M. collaris_) in which the white of the throat and +breast extends like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species +(_M. parva_), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has +also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west of +England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range, which has +received generic recognition under the name of _Erythrosterna_, and it +has several relations in Asia and particularly in India, while the +allies of the pied flycatchers (_Ficedula_ of Brisson) are chiefly of +African origin, and those of the grey or spotted flycatcher (_Muscicapa_ +proper[2]) are common to the two continents. + +One of the most remarkable groups of _Muscicapidae_ is that known as the +paradise flycatchers, forming the genus _Tchitrea_ of Lesson. In nearly +all the species the males are distinguished by the growth of exceedingly +long feathers in their tail, and by their putting on, for some part of +the year at least, a plumage generally white, but almost always quite +different from that worn by the females, which is of a more or less deep +chestnut or bay colour, though in both sexes the crown is of a glossy +steel-blue. They are found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical +Asia to Japan, and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than +the open country. The best-known species is perhaps the Indian _T. +paradisi_; but the Chinese _T. incii_, and the Japanese _T. princeps_, +from being very commonly represented by the artists of those nations on +screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the cock of the last +named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and eyes surrounded by +bare skin of the same colour--though these are characters possessed in +some degree by all the species--seems to be the most beautiful of the +genus. _T. bourbonnensis_, which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius +and Reunion, appears to be the only species in which the outward +difference of the sexes is but slight. In _T. corvina_ of the +Seychelles, the adult male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers +are not only very long but very broad. In _T. mutata_ of Madagascar, +some of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the +elongated median rectrices white, while in others white predominates +over the whole body; but whether this sex is here actually dimorphic, or +whether the one dress is a passing phase of the other, is at present +undetermined. Some of the African species, of which many have been +described, seem always to retain the rufous plumage, but the long +tail-feathers serve to mark the males. + +A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they exhibit, +as _Myiagra azurea_, and others as _Monarcha_ (or _Arses_) _chrysomela_ +by their golden yellow. The Australian forms assigned to the +_Muscicapidae_ are very varied. _Sisura inquieta_ has some of the habits +of a water-wagtail (_Motacilla_), and hence has received the name of +"dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of England on its analogue; and the +many species of _Rhipidura_ or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in +various parts of the Australian Region, have manners still more +singular--turning over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as +they catch their prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority +of the _Muscicapidae_, and especially of the numerous African forms, +hardly anything is known. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainson included in his + _Natural Arrangement and Relations of the Family of Flycatchers_ + (published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the _Muscicapidae_ + at all, and one of them, _Todus_, not even to the order _Passeres_. + It is perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose + substance so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson + wrote it filled with faith in the so-called "Quinary System"--that + fanciful theory, invented by W.S. Macleay, which misled and kept back + so many of the best English zoologists of his generation from the + truth,--and, unconsciously swayed by his bias, his judgment was + warped to fit his hypothesis. + + [2] By some writers this section is distinguished as _Butalis_ of + Boie, but to do so seems contrary to rule. + + + + +FLYGARE-CARLEN, EMILIE (1807-1892), Swedish novelist, was born in +Stromstad on the 8th of August 1807. Her father, Rutger Smith, was a +retired sea-captain who had settled down as a small merchant, and she +often accompanied him on the voyages he made along the coast. She +married in 1827 a doctor named Axel Flygare, and went with him to live +in the province of Smaland. After his death in 1833 she returned to her +old home and published in 1838 her first novel, _Waldemar Klein_. In the +next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, in 1841, the jurist and +poet, Johan Gabriel Carlen (1814-1875). Her house became a meeting-place +for Stockholm men of letters, and for the next twelve years she produced +one or two novels annually. The premature death of her son Edvard +Flygare (1829-1853), who had already published three books, showing +great promise, was followed by six years of silence, after which she +resumed her writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are _Rosen +pa Tistelon_ (1842; Eng. trans. _The Rose of Tistelon_, 1842); +_Enslingen pa Johannesskaret_ (1846; Eng. trans. _The Hermit_, 4 vols., +1853); and _Ett Kopemanshus i skargarden_ (1859; _The Merchant's House +on the Cliffs_). Fru Carlen published in 1878 _Minnen af svenskt +forfattarlif_ 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888 three volumes of _Efterskord +fran en 80- arings forfattarbana_, containing her last tales. She died +at Stockholm on the 5th of February 1892. Her daughter, Rosa Carlen +(1836-1883), was also a popular novelist. + + Emilie Flygare-Carlen's novels were collected in thirty-one volumes + (Stockholm, 1869-1875). + + + + +FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture, the term given to a structural feature +employed to transmit the thrust of a vault across an intervening space, +such as an aisle, chapel or cloister, to a buttress built outside the +latter. This was done by throwing a semi-arch across to the vertical +buttress. Though employed by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it +was generally masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but +in the 12th century it was recognized as rational construction and +emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in the +cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, Reims, &c. Sometimes, +owing to the great height of the vaults, two semi-arches were thrown one +above the other, and there are cases where the thrust was transmitted to +two or even three buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical +buttress, placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to +thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical +buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built outside the +chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical buttresses are, as a +rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to give them greater power of +resistance. + + + + +FLYING COLUMN, in military organization, an independent corps of troops +usually composed of all arms, to which a particular task is assigned. It +is almost always composed in the course of operations, out of the troops +immediately available. Mobility being its _raison d'etre_, a flying +column is when possible composed of picked men and horses accompanied +with the barest minimum of baggage. The term is usually, though not +necessarily, applied to forces under the strength of a brigade. The +"mobile columns" employed by the British in the South African War of +1899-1902, were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a +battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry--almost exactly half +that of a mixed brigade. Flying columns are mostly used in savage or +guerrilla warfare. + + + + +"FLYING DUTCHMAN," a spectre-ship popularly believed to haunt the waters +around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend has several variants, but the +commonest is that which declares that the captain of the vessel, +Vanderdecken, was condemned for his blasphemy to sail round the cape for +ever, unable to "make" a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the +ghost of the Dutch seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the "Flying +Dutchman" is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German +legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that he is +condemned to sail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship without helm +or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with the devil. Sir Walter +Scott says the "Flying Dutchman" was originally a vessel laden with +bullion. A murder was committed on board, and thereafter the plague +broke out among the crew, which closed all ports to the ill-fated craft. +The legend has been used by Wagner in his opera _Der fliegende +Hollander_. + + + + +FLYING-FISH, the name given to two different kinds of fish. The one +(_Dactylopterus_) belongs to the gurnard family (_Triglidae_), and is +more properly called flying gurnard; the other (_Exocoetus_) has been +called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the gar-pike than to +the herring. Some other fishes with long pectoral fins (_Pterois_) have +been stated to be able to fly, but this has been proved to be incorrect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Dactylopterus volitans._] + +The flying gurnards are much less numerous than the _Exocoeti_ with +regard to individuals as well as species, there being only three or four +species known of the former, whilst more than fifty have been described +of the latter, which, besides, are found in numerous shoals of +thousands. The _Dactylopteri_ may be readily distinguished by a large +bony head armed with spines, hard keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c. +The _Exocoeti_ have thin, deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the +ventrals placed far backwards, below the middle of the body; some have +long barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly +prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in many +species of _Exocoetus_ the ventral fins are similarly enlarged, and +evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes. Flying-fishes +are found in the tropical and sub-tropical seas only, and it is a +singular fact that the geographical distribution of the two kinds is +nearly identical. Flying-fish are more frequently observed in rough +weather and in a disturbed sea than during calms; they dart out of the +water when pursued by their enemies or frightened by an approaching +vessel, but frequently also without any apparent cause, as is also +observed in many other fishes; and they rise without regard to the +direction of the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended, +without any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air +whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of the +wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship going 10 +m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not extending +beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer when the fishes fly +against, than with or at an angle to, the wind. Any vertical or +horizontal deviation from a straight line is not caused at the will of +the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they retain a horizontally +straight course when flying with or against the wind, but are carried +towards the right or left whenever the direction of the wind is at an +angle with that of their flight. However, it sometimes happens that the +fish during its flight immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a +stroke of its tail turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line +of their flight is always also vertically straight or rather parabolic, +like the course of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough +sea, when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then +frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it by the pressure of +the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of vessels, but this +never happens during a calm or from the lee side, but during a breeze +only and from the weather side. In day time they avoid a ship, flying +away from it, but during the night when they are unable to see, they +frequently fly against the weather board, where they are caught by the +current of the air, and carried upwards to a height of 20 ft. above the +surface of the water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep +close to it. All these observations point clearly to the fact that any +deflection from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and +not to voluntary action on the part of the fish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Exocoetus callopterus._] + +A little Malacopterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been +discovered in West Africa which has the habits of a fresh-water +flying-fish. It has been named _Pantodon buchholzi_. It has very large +pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached to the inner +ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the Congo region, and +has been caught in its flight above the water in a butterfly-net. + + + + +FLYING-FOX, or, more correctly, FOX-BAT. The first name is applied by +Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the genus _Pteropus_, +which contains more than half the family (_Pteropidae_). This genus is +confined to the tropical regions of the Eastern hemisphere and +Australia. It comprises numerous species, a considerable proportion of +which occur in the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes +are the largest of the bats, the kalong of Java (_Pteropus edulis_) +measuring about a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane +measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal bats, +suspending themselves during the day head-downwards by thousands from +the branches of trees, where with their wings gathered about them, they +bear some resemblance to huge shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of +some peculiar fruit. In Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend +themselves chiefly from the branches of dead trees, where they are +easily caught or knocked down by sticks, the natives carrying them home +in basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices, and "are +really very good eating, something like hare." Towards evening these +bats bestir themselves, and fly off in companies to the village +plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fruit, and so numerous and +voracious are they that no garden crop has much chance of being gathered +which is not specially protected from their attacks. The flying-fox of +India (_Pteropus medius_) is a smaller species, but is found in great +numbers wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula. + + + + +FLYING-SQUIRREL, properly the name of such members of the squirrel-group +of rodent mammals as have a parachute-like expansion of the skin of the +flanks, with attachments to the limbs, by means of which they are able +to take long flying-leaps from tree to tree. The parachute is supported +by a cartilage attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the +lateral membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front +of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third +(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the long tail. +Of the two widely distributed genera, _Pteromys_ includes the larger and +_Sciuropterus_ the smaller species. The two differ in certain details of +dentition, and in the greater development in the former of the +parachute, especially the interfemoral portion, which in the latter is +almost absent. In _Pteromys_ the tail is cylindrical and comparatively +thin, while in _Sciuropterus_ it is broad, flat and laterally expanded, +so as to compensate for the absence of the interfemoral membrane by +acting as a supplementary parachute. + +[Illustration: Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel (_Idiurus zenkeri_).] + +In general appearance flying-squirrels resemble ordinary squirrels, +although they are even more beautifully coloured. Their habits, food, +&c., are also very similar to those of the true squirrels, except that +they are more nocturnal, and are therefore less often seen. The Indian +flying-squirrel (_P. oral_) leaps with its parachute extended from the +higher branches of a tree, and descends first directly and then more and +more obliquely, until the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a +horizontal direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch +or trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these +rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. _Sciuropterus_ +is represented by _S. velucella_ in eastern Europe and northern Asia, +and by a second species in North America, but the other species of this +genus and all those of _Pteromys_ are Indo-Malayan. A third genus, +_Eupetaurus_, typified by a very large, long-haired, dark-grey species +from the mountains to the north-west of Kashmir (_Eu. cinereus_), +differs from all other members of the squirrel-family by its +tall-crowned molar teeth. It has a total length of 37 in., of which 22 +are taken up by the tail. + +In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members of a +very different family of rodents, the _Anomaluridae_, which are provided +with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute is absent in some +members of the family, the most distinctive character is the presence of +a double row of spiny scales on the under surface of the tail, which +apparently aid in climbing. The flying species are also distinguished +from ordinary flying-squirrels by the circumstance that the additional +bone serving for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane +rises from the elbow-joint instead of from the wrist. The family is +represented by two flying genera, _Anomalurus_ and _Idiurus_; the latter +containing only one very minute species (shown in the cut) characterized +by its small ears and elongated tail. Most of the species are West +African. In habits these rodents appear to be very similar to the true +flying-squirrels. The species without a parachute constitutes the genus +_Zenkerella_, and looks very like an ordinary squirrel (see RODENTIA). + +In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied to such +marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals which naturalists +prefer to designate flying-phalangers (see MARSUPIALIA) (R. L.*) + + + + +FLYSCH, in geology, a remarkable formation, composed mainly of +sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending from S.W. +Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone to the Vienna basin, +whence it may be followed round the northern flanks of the Carpathians +into the Balkan peninsula. It is represented in the Pyrenees, the +Apennines, the Caucasus and extends into Asia; similar flysch-like +deposits are related to the Himalayas as the European formations are to +the Alps. The Flysch is not of the same age in every place; thus in the +western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong to the +Eocene period, but the principal development is of Oligocene age; as it +is traced eastward we find in the east Alps that it descends into the +upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna region and the Carpathians it +contains intercalations which clearly indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon +for the lower parts. It appears indeed that this type of formation was in +progress of deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated +above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of fossils from +enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation with other +formations difficult; often the only indications of organisms are the +abundant markings supposed to represent Algae (Chondrites, &c.), which +have given rise to the term "Hieroglyphic-sandstone." The most noteworthy +exceptions are perhaps the Oligocene fish-bed of Glarus, the Eocene +nummulitic beds in Calabria, and the _Aptychus_ beds of Waidhofen. Local +phases of the Flysch have received special names; it is the "Vienna" or +"Carpathian" sandstone of those regions; the "macigno" (a soft sandstone +with calcareous cement) of the Maritime Alps and Apennines; the +"scagliose" (scaly clays) and "alberese" (limestones) of the same places +are portions of this formation. The _gris de Menton_, the _gris d'Annot_ +of the Basses Alps, and the _gris d'Embrun_ of Chaillot appear in +Switzerland as the _gris de Taveyannaz_. At several places the upper +layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Leman and at +the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the "Red-Flysch." +Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, &c., occur in the Flysch in +Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of granite, gneiss and +other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates are found near Vienna, +near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near Lake Thun (Wild Flysch) and at other +points, which have been variously regarded as indications of glaciation +or of coastal conditions. + + + + +FOCA (pronounced _Fawtcha_), a town of Bosnia, situated at the +confluence of the Drina and Cehotina rivers, and encircled by wooded +mountains. Pop. (1895) 4217. The town is the headquarters of a thriving +industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid weapons, for which it was +famous. With its territories enclosed by the frontiers of Montenegro and +Novi Bazar, Foca, then known as _Chocha_, was the scene of almost +incessant border warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this +period are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful +mosques, which are the most ancient in Bosnia. The three adjoining towns +of Foca, Gorazda and Ustikolina were trading-stations of the Ragusans in +the 14th century, if not earlier. In the 16th century, Benedetto +Ramberti, ambassador from Venice to the Porte, described the town, in +his _Libri Tre delle Cose dei Turchi_, as _Cozza_, "a large settlement, +with good houses in Turkish style, and many shops and merchants. Here +dwells the governor of Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the +whole of Servia. Through this place all goods must pass, both going and +returning, between Ragusa and Constantinople." + + + + +FOCHABERS, a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1901) 981. It is delightfully situated on the Spey, about 9 m. E. by S. +of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway connecting at +Orbliston Junction with the main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was +rebuilt in its present situation at the end of the 18th century, when +its earlier site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon +Castle, in which the old town cross still stands. The streets all lead +at right angles to the central square, where fairs and markets are held. +The public buildings include a library and reading-room, the court-house +and the Milne school, named after Alexander Milne, who endowed it with a +legacy of L20,000. Adjoining the town, surrounded by a park containing +many magnificent old trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the +duke of Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The antiquary +George Chalmers (1742-1825) and the composer William Marshall +(1748-1833) were natives of the burgh. + + + + +FOCSHANI (Rumanian _Focsani_, sometimes incorrectly written _Fokshani_ +or _Fokshan_), the capital of the department of Putna, Rumania; on the +river Milcov, which formed the ancient frontier of the former +principalities of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop. (1900) 23,783; of whom +6000 were Jews. The chief buildings are the prefecture, schools, +synagogues, and many churches, including those of the Armenians and +Protestants. Focshani is a commercial centre of some importance, the +chief industries being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large +wine trade is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to +Galatz. The annual fair is held on the 29th of April. Government +explorations in the vicinity of this town show it to be rich in +minerals, such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line +Focshani-Galatz is covered by a very strong line of fortifications, +known as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish +diplomatists was held near the town in 1772. In the neighbourhood the +Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and Russians in 1789. + + + + +FOCUS (Latin for "hearth" or "fireplace"), a point at which converging +rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from which diverging rays +are directed; in the latter case called the virtual focus (see +MICROSCOPE; TELESCOPE; LENS). In geometry the word is used to denote +certain points (see GEOMETRY; CONIC SECTION; and PERSPECTIVE). + + + + +FOG, the name given to any distribution of solid or liquid particles in +the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders surrounding objects +notably indistinct or altogether invisible according to their distance. +In its more intense forms it hinders and delays travellers of all kinds, +by sea or land, by railway, road or river, or by the mountain path. It +is sometimes so thick as to paralyse traffic altogether. According to +the _New English Dictionary_ the word "appears to be" a back formation +from the adjective "foggy," a derivative of "fog" used with its old +meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain, of +"moss." Such a formation would be reasonable, because wreaths of fog in +the atmospheric sense are specially characteristic of meadows and +marshes where fog, in the more ancient sense, grows. + +Two other words, _mist_ and _haze_, are also in common use with +reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface layers of +the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid particles, and in ordinary +literature the three words are used almost according to the fancy of the +writer. It seems possible to draw a distinction between mist and haze +that would be fairly well supported by usage. Mist may be defined as a +cloud of water particles at the surface of land or sea, and would only +occur when the air is nearly or actually saturated, that is, when there +is little or no difference between the readings of the dry and wet +bulbs; the word haze, on the other hand, may be reserved for the +obscuration of the surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry. + +It would not be difficult to quote instances in which even this +distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic code of +the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for mist and +haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had no separate letter +for haze (now indicated by z), though it distinguished between f, fog, +and m, mist. It is possible, however, that these practices may arise, +not from confusion of idea, but from economy of symbols, when the +meaning can be made out from a knowledge of the associated observations. + +As regards the distinction between mist and fog, careful consideration +of a number of examples leads to the conclusion that the word "fog" is +used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological nature of the +obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers whether on land or +sea. It is, generally speaking, "in a fog" that a traveller loses +himself, and indeed the phrase has become proverbial in that sense. A +"fog-bell" or "fog-horn" is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that +the aid of sound is required for navigation. A vessel is "fog-logged" or +"fog-bound" when it is stopped or detained on account of thick +atmosphere. A "fog-signal" is employed on railways when the ordinary +signals are obliterated within working distances. A "fog-bow" is the +accompaniment of conditions when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his +way. + +These words are used quite irrespective of the nature of the cloud which +interferes with effective vision and necessitates the special provision; +the word "mist" is seldom used in similar connexion. We may thus define +a fog as a surface cloud sufficiently thick to cause hindrance to +traffic. It will be a _thick mist_ if the cloud consists of water +particles, a _thick haze_ if it consists of smoke or dust particles +which would be persistent even in a dry atmosphere. + +It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use of the +word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm weather, and +that the obscurity of the atmosphere when it is blowing hard and perhaps +raining hard as well should be indicated by the terms "thick weather" or +"very thick weather" and not by "fog"; but the term "fog" would be quite +correctly used on such occasions from the point of view of cautious +navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or heavy rain cause such obscurity +that passing ships are not visible within working distances the sounding +of a fog-horn becomes a duty. + +The number of occasions upon which fog and mist may be noted as +occurring with winds of different strengths may be exemplified by the +following results of thirty years for St Mary's, Scilly Isles, where the +observations have always been made by men of nautical experience. + + +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+ + | Wind Force. |0 & 1| 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |8-12| All | + | | | | | | | | | | Winds.| + +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+ + |Number of occasions of fog | | | | | | | | | | + | per 1000 observations | 8 | 7 | 9 |14 | 6 | 3 | <1 | <1 | 47 | + |Number of occasions of mist | | | | | | | | | | + | per 1000 observations | 5 | 6 |11 |22 |20 |12 | 6 | 2 | 84 | + +----------------------------+-----+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+-------+ + +The use of the word "fog" in the connexion "high fog," to describe the +almost total darkness in the daytime occasionally noted in London and +other large cities due to the persistent opaque cloud in the upper air +without serious obscuration of the surface layers, is convenient but +incorrect. + +Regarding "fog" as a word used to indicate the state of the atmosphere +as regards transparency considered with reference to its effect upon +traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced for use on land or +at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is indicated by the numbers 1 +to 5 in the table following. At sea or in the country a fog, as a rule, +is white and consists of a cloud of minute water globules, of no great +vertical thickness, which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection +but is fully translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or +coloured fog clouds are produced such as those which are met with in the +Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns the fog +cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and in some cases may be +regarded as due entirely to the smoke. + +_Description of Effects._ + + +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+ + | Name. | No. | On Land. | On Sea. | On River. | + +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+ + | | 1 | Objects indistinct, but | Horizon invisible, but | Objects indistinct, but| + |Slight Fog or Mist| | traffic by rail or road| lights and landmarks | navigation unimpeded | + | | | unimpeded | visible at working | | + | | | | distances | | + | | / 2 | Traffic by rail requires | / Lights, passing vessels | Navigation impeded, | + |Moderate Fog |< | additional caution |< and landmarks generally | additional caution | + | | | 3 | Traffic by rail or road | | indistinct under a mile.| required | + | | \ | impeded | \ Fog signals are sounded | | + | | / 4 | Traffic by rail or road | / Ships' lights and vessels | Navigation suspended | + |Thick Fog |< | impeded |< invisible at 1/4 mile or| | + | | | 5 | Traffic by rail or road | | less | | + | | \ | totally disorganized | \ | | + +------------------+-----+--------------------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+ + +The physical processes which produce fogs of water particles are +complicated and difficult to unravel. We have to account for the +formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth's surface; and the +process of cloud-formation which is probably most usual in nature, +namely, the cooling of air by rarefaction due to the reduction of +pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked, except in the case of the fogs +forming the cloud-caps of hills, which are perhaps not fairly included. +We have to fall back upon the only other process hitherto recognized as +causing cloudy condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the +mixing of masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is +brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and this slow motion is +probably essential to the phenomenon. + + TABLE I.--_Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia, + round by the Azores._ + + +------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + | Successive Temperatures of sea | 68 deg. | 68 deg. | 67 deg. | 59 deg. | 54 deg. F.| + | " " " air | 68 deg. | 70 deg. | 67 deg. | 60 deg. | 56 deg. F.| + | " States of the atmosphere | clear | clear | clear | shower | mist | + +------------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + + TABLE II.--_Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland._ + + +-------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------------+ + |Successive Temperatures of sea | 67 deg. | 63 deg. | 54 deg. F. | + | " " " air | 66 deg. | 64 deg. | 53 deg. F. | + | " State of atmosphere | fair | shower | mist with shower| + +-------------------------------+---------+---------+-----------------+ + +Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a surface +layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The amount of motion of +the air must be sufficient to prevent the condensation taking place at +the sea surface without showing itself as a cloud. In a research on the +Life History of Surface Air Currents the changes incidental to the +movement of the air over the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great +care, and the above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page 72 of the +work referred to are typical of the formation of sea fog by the cooling +of a relatively warm current passing over cold water. + +In conformity with this suggestion we find that fog is most liable to +occur over the open ocean in those regions where, as off the +Newfoundland banks, cold-water currents underlie warm air, and that it +is most frequent at the season of the year when the air temperature is +increasing faster than the water temperature. But it is difficult to +bring this hypothesis always to bear upon actual practice, because the +fog is representative of a temperature difference which has ceased to +exist. One cannot therefore observe under ordinary circumstances both +the temperature difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only +the initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of air which +favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and +consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a fog, the +characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. From the +conditions of its formation it is likely to be less dense at the +mast-head than it is on deck. + +One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm sea surface +would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air and hence cause +cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers rather than surface fog, but +one cannot resist the conclusion that sea fog is sometimes formed by +slow transference of cold air over relatively warm water, giving rise to +what may be called a "steaming-pot" fog. In such a case the actual +surface layer in contact with the warm water would be clear, and the fog +would be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour is +more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in comparison with +the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold current over warm water +were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current of warm air over cold water +appears to be, the geographical distribution of notable fog would be +much more widespread than it actually is, and the seasonal distribution +of fog would also be other than it is. + +The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more complicated +process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases mistiness amounting +to fog arises from the replacement of cold surface air which has chilled +the earth and the objects thereon by a warm current. But this process +can hardly give rise to detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary +land or valley fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the +combination of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of +air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more +particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow (in the +absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower levels following +roughly the course of the natural water drainage of the land, and +thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation from warm moist soil or +from the relatively warm water surface of river or lake. In this way +steaming-pot fog gradually forms and is carried downward by the natural +though slow descent of the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and +banks in the lowest parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled +with a cloud of mist or fog. A case of this kind in the Lake District is +minutely described by J.B. Cohen (_Q.J. Roy. Met. Soc._ vol. 30, p. 211, +1904). + +It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances +favourable for fog formation are (1) a site near the bottom level of the +drainage area, (2) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an evening or night +of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant moisture in the +surface-soil. These conditions define with reasonable accuracy the +circumstances in which fog is actually observed. + +The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable when one +considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however small they may be, +must be continually sinking through the air which holds them, and that +unless some upward motion of the air keeps at least a balance against +this downward fall, the particles of the cloud must reach the earth or +water and to that extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys +it is easy to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and +colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers +displaced from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the result of +the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface cloud gets +thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and persistence of land +fog seems too great to be accounted for by persistent radiation cooling. +For example, in the week before Christmas of 1904 the whole of England +south of the Humber was covered with fog for several days. It is of +course possible that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the +sides of mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the +fog, as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but +without more particulars such a statement seems almost incredible. +Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems capricious and +unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-formation, so that one is +tempted to invoke the aid of electrification of the particles or some +other abnormal condition to account for the persistence of fog. The +observations at Kew observatory show that the electrical potential is +abnormally high during fog, but whether that is the cause or the result +of the presence of the water particles, we are not yet in a position to +say. It must be remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as +being, generally speaking, _in process of formation_ by mixing. +Observations upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show +that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still for +only a short while the fog would settle and leave the air clear. The +apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due to the fact that +mixing is still going on in the persistent ones, but is completed in the +disappearing ones. + +One remarkable characteristic of a persistent fog is the coldness of the +foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun's rays falling +upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable example may be quoted +from the case of London, which was under fog all day on 28th January +1909. The maximum temperature only reached 31 deg. F., whereas at +Warlingham in Surrey from which the fog lifted it was as high as 46 deg. +F. + +_A priori_ we might suppose that the formation of fog would arrest +cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a protection of +plants against frost. The condensation of water evaporated from wet +ground, which affords the material for making fog, does apparently act +as a protection, and heavy watering is sometimes used to protect plants +from frost, but the same cannot be said of fog itself--cooling appears +to go on in spite of the formation of fog. + +A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a cloud from +above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls for remark. In +so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules of clouds and rain +and are therefore independent of surface conditions. + +These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with advantage in +relation to the geographical distribution of fog. Statistics on this +subject are not very satisfactory on account of the uncertainty of the +distinction between fog and mist, but a good deal may be learned from +the distribution of fog over the north Atlantic Ocean and its various +coasts as shown in the Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north +Atlantic issued by the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of +the North Atlantic of the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog, +which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent in +the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most extensive and +frequent in the spring and summer. By June the fog area has extended +from the Great Banks over the ocean to the British Isles, in July it is +most intense, and by August it has notably diminished, while in +November, which is proverbially a foggy month on land, there is hardly +any fog shown over the ocean. + +The various meteorological aspects of fog and its incidence in London +were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council by Captain A. +Carpenter and Mr R.G.K. Lempfert, based upon special observations made +in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1902-1903 in order to examine the +possibility of more precise forecasts of fog. + +The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially important +for large towns in consequence of the economic and hygienic results +which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The fogs of London in +particular have long been a subject of inquiry. It is difficult to get +trustworthy statistics on the subject in consequence of the vagueness of +the practice as regards the classification of fog. For large towns there +is great advantage in using a fog scale such as that given above, in +which one deals only with the practical range of vision irrespective of +the meteorological cause. + +Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog and haze or +mist, but not between the two latter terms, as equivalent to specifying +fog when the thickness amounts to the figure 2 or more on the fog scale, +we are enabled to compare the frequency of fog in London by the +comparison of the results at the London observing stations. The +comparison was made by Mr Brodie in a paper read before the Royal +Meteorological Society (_Quarterly Journal_, vol. 31, p. 15), and it +appears therefrom that in recent years there has been a notable +diminution of fog frequency, as indicated in the following table of the +total number of days of fog in the years from 1871:-- + + +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 1871.| 1872.| 1873.| 1874.| 1875.| 1876.| 1877.| 1878.| 1879.| 1880.| 1881.| 1882.| 1883.| 1884.| 1885.| 1886.| 1887.| 1888.| 1889.| + +-------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 42 | 35 | 75 | 53 | 49 | 40 | 46 | 63 | 69 | 74 | 59 | 69 | 61 | 53 | 69 | 86 | 83 | 62 | 75 | + +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 1890.| 1891.| 1892.| 1893.| 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.| 1900.| 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.| 1907.| 1908.| + +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | 65 | 69 | 68 | 31 | 51 | 48 | 43 | 48 | 47 | 56 | 13 | 45 | 42 | 26 | 44 | 19 | 16 | 37 | 19 | + +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + +But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog it must not +be understood that the atmosphere of London is approaching that of the +surrounding districts as regards transparency. Judged by the autographic +records it is still almost opaque to sunshine strong enough to burn the +card of the recorder during the winter months. + + The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to + fog, mist and haze in the _Bibliography of Meteorology_ (part ii.) of + the U.S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among more + recent authors on the subject, besides those referred to in the text, + may be mentioned:--Koppen, "Bodennebel," _Met. Zeit._ (1885); Trabert, + _Met. Zeit._ (1901), p. 522; Elias in _Ergebnisse des aeronautischen + Observatoriums bei Berlin_, ii. (Berlin, 1904); Scott, _Q.J.R. Met. + Soc._ xix. p. 229; A.G. McAdie, "Fog Studies," _Amer. Inv._ ix. + (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, "Fogs on the Coasts of + Scotland," _Journ. Scot. Met. Soc._ xii. p. 3. (W. N. S.) + + + + +FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842- ), Italian novelist and poet, was born at +Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate Zanella, one of the best of +the modern Italian poets, whose tender, thoughtful and deeply religious +spirit continued to animate his literary productions. He began his +literary career with _Miranda_, a poetical romance (1874), followed in +1876 by _Valsolda_, which, republished in 1886 with considerable +additions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which is +not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducci and D'Annunzio's +impetuous torrent of melody Fogazzaro opposes a Wordsworthian simplicity +and pathos, contributing to modern Italian literature wholesome elements +of which it would otherwise be nearly destitute. His novels, _Malombra_ +(1882), _Daniele Cortis_ (1887), _Misterio del Poeta_ (1888), obtained +considerable literary success upon their first publication, but did not +gain universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by +French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious, and a new +work, _Piccolo Mondo antico_ (1896), which critics far from friendly to +Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas pronounced the best +Italian novel since _I Promessi Sposi_, went through numerous editions. +Even greater sensation was caused by his novel _Il Santo_ (_The Saint_, +1906), on account of its being treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and +Fogazzaro's sympathy with the Liberal Catholic movement--his own +Catholicism being well known--made this novel a centre of discussion in +the Roman Catholic world. + + See the biography by Molmenti (1900). + + + + +FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or BENGT) ERLAND (1786-1854), Swedish sculptor, was +born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August 1786. His father, a +copper-founder, encouraging an early-exhibited taste for design, sent +him in 1801 to Stockholm, where he studied at the school of art. There +he came much under the influence of the sculptor Sergell, who +communicated to him his own enthusiasm for antique art and natural +grace. Fogelberg worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his +instinct for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality +of the art then prevalent in the city. In 1818 the grant of a government +pension enabled him to travel. He studied from one to two years in +Paris, first under Pierre Guerin, and afterwards under the sculptor +Bosio, for the technical practice of sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg +realized a dream of his life in visiting Rome, where the greater part of +his remaining years were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and +the careful study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his +native country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great +enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence of those +remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural beauty to which he +had been so long accustomed. Returning to Italy, he died suddenly of +apoplexy at Trieste on the 22nd of December 1854. The subjects of +Fogelberg's earlier works are mostly taken from classic mythology. Of +these, "Cupid and Psyche," "Venus entering the Bath," "A Bather" (1838), +"Apollo Citharede," "Venus and Cupid" (1839) and "Psyche" (1854) may be +mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian mythology Fogelberg +showed, perhaps for the first time, that he had powers above those of +intelligent assimilation and imitation. His "Odin" (1831), "Thor" +(1842), and "Balder" (1842), though influenced by Greek art, display +considerable power of independent imagination. His portraits and +historical figures, as those of Gustavus Adolphus (1849), of Charles +XII. (1851), of Charles XIII. (1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of +Stockholm (1853), are faithful and dignified works. + + See Casimir Leconte, _L'Oeuvre de Fogelberg_ (Paris, 1856). + + + + +FOGGIA, a town and episcopal see (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy, the +capital of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-level, in +the centre of the great Apulian plain, 201 m. by rail S.E. of Ancona and +123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1901) town, 49,031; commune, 53,134. +The name is probably derived from the pits or cellars (_foveae_) in +which the inhabitants store their grain. The town is the medieval +successor of the ancient Arpi, 3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after +conquering the district from the Eastern empire, gave it its first +importance. The date of the erection of the cathedral is probably about +1179; it retains some traces of Norman architecture, and the facade has +a fine figured cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals +of the 11th (?) century. The whole church was, however, much altered +after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace of the emperor +Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia) is also preserved. Here +died his third wife, Isabella, daughter of King John of England. Charles +of Anjou died here in 1284. After his son's death, it was a prey to +internal dissensions and finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who +converted the pastures of the Apulian plain into a royal domain in 1445, +and made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be paid +and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town are modern. +Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance for the produce of the +surrounding country, and is also a considerable railway centre, being +situated on the main line from Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where +this is joined by the line from Benevento and Caserta. There are also +branches to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, +Potenza, or Gioia del Colle), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera. + + + + +FOHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch _favongn_, _favoign_, from +Lat. _favonius_), a warm dry wind blowing down the valleys of the Alps +from high central regions, most frequently in winter. The Fohn wind +often blows with great violence. It is caused by the indraft of air from +the elevated region to areas of low barometric pressure in the +neighbourhood, and the warmth and dryness are due to dynamical +compression of the air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local +winds occur in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes +of the Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the Fohn wind is +often called sirocco, but its nature and cause are different from the +true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes from the Sahara +dies hard; and still finds expression in some textbooks. + + For a full account of these winds see Hann, _Lehrbuch der + Meteorologie_, p. 594. + + + + +FOHR, a German island in the North Sea, belonging to the province of +Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast. Pop. 4500. It comprises +an area of 32 sq. m., and is reached by a regular steamboat service from +Husum and Dagebull on the mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort +on the E. coast of the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the +Sandwall, a promenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. +Fohr, the most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally +marshland, and comparatively well wooded. There are numerous +pleasantly-situated villages and hamlets scattered over it, of which the +most frequented are Boldixum, Nieblum and Alkersum. The inhabitants are +mainly engaged in the fishing industry, and are known as excellent +sailors. + + + + +FOIL. 1. (Through O. Fr. from Lat. _folium_, a leaf, modern Fr. +_feuille_), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names, such as +the "trefoil" clover; and hence applied to anything resembling a leaf. +In architecture, the word appears for the small leaf-like spaces formed +by the cusps of tracery in windows or panels, and known, according to +the number of such spaces, as "quatrefoil," "cinquefoil," &c. The word +is also found in "counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book, +containing memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the +receiver or drawer as a "counter" or check. "Foil" is particularly used +of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape as much as in +thinness. In thickness foil comes between "leaf" and "sheet" metal. In +jewelry, a foil of silvered sheet copper, sometimes known as Dutch foil, +is used as a backing for paste gems, or stones of inferior lustre or +colour. This is coated with a mixture of isinglass and translucent +colour, varying with the stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is +required, left uncoloured, but highly polished. From this use of "foil," +the word comes to mean, in a figurative sense, something which by +contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attractive +qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The commonest +"foil" is that generally known as "tinfoil." The ordinary commercial +"tinfoil" usually consists chiefly of lead, and is used for the wrapping +of chocolate or other sweetmeats, tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese +variegated foil gives the effect of "damaskeening." A large number of +thin plates of various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with +alloys of different metals are soldered together in a particular order, +a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is hammered +or rolled into a single thin plate, the pattern then appearing in the +order in which the various metals were placed. + +2. (From an O. Fr. _fuler_ or _foler_, modern _fouler_, to tread or +trample, to "full" cloth, Lat. _fullo_, a fuller), an old hunting term, +used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks, to confuse +the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in wrestling, of a +"throw." Thus comes the common use of the word, in a figurative sense, +with reference to both these meanings, of baffling or defeating an +adversary, or of parrying an attack. + +3. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see FOIL-FENCING) the word +is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based on a supposed similar use +of Fr. _fleuret_, literally a "little flower," for the weapon, is that +foil means a leaf, and must be referred in origin to Lat. _folium_. A +second suggestion is that it means "blunted," and is the same as (2). A +third is that it is an adaptation of an expression "at foils," i.e. +"parrying." Of these suggestions, according to the _New English +Dictionary_, the first has nothing to support it, the second is not +supported by any evidence that in sense (2) the word ever meant to +blunt. The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that the +word is an alteration of an old word "foin," meaning a thrust with a +pointed weapon. The origin of this word is probably an O. Fr. _foisne_, +from the Lat. _fuscina_, a three-pronged fork. + + + + +FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-foil. The +word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the English +writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in the sense of a +weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of a real weapon. Blunt +swords for practice in fencing have been used in all ages. For the most +part these were of wood and flat in general form, but when, towards the +close of the 17th century, all cutting action with the small-sword was +discarded (see FENCING), foil-blades were usually made of steel, and +either round, three-cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button +covering the point. The foil is called in French _fleuret_, and in +Italian _fioretto_ (literally "bud") from this button. The classic +small-sword play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the +present time by fencing with the _epee de combat_ (fighting-rapier), +which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a button (see +EPEE-DE-COMBAT), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing is a conventional +art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule that no hits except +those on the body shall be considered good, and not even those unless +they be given in strict accordance with certain standard precepts. In +epee-fencing on the contrary, a touch on any part of the person, however +given, is valid. Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as +practice is concerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, epee or +sabre. + +There are two recognized schools of foil-fencing, the French and the +Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted everywhere +except in Italy, is described in this article, reference being made to +the important differences between the two schools. + +_The Foil._--The foil consists of the "blade" and the "handle." The +blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section, consists of two +parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard to the button, and the +"tongue," which runs through the handle and is joined to the pommel. The +blade proper is divided into the "forte," or thicker half (next the +handle), and the "foible" or thinner half. Some authorities divide the +blade proper into three parts, the "forte," "middle" and "foible." The +handle is comprised of the "guard," the "grip" and the "pommel." The +guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8 (Fr. +_lunettes_, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of the +same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a hollow piece of +wood, usually wound with twine, through which the tongue of the blade +passes. The pommel is a piece of metal, usually pear-shaped, to which +the end of the tongue is joined and which forms the extremity of the +handle. The blade from guard to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), +though a somewhat shorter and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. +The handle is about 8 in. long and slightly curved downwards. + +The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the blade a +trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the handle, which +consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from 4 to 5 in. in +diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining the grip with +the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends slightly on each side. Of +late years many Italian masters use French blades and even discard the +cross-bar, retaining, however, the bell-guard. + +In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex surface of +the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than the top and +bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other three sides. This is +the position of "supination," or thumb-up. "Pronation" is the reverse +position, with the knuckles up. The French lay stress upon holding the +foil lightly, the necessary pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb +and forefinger, the other fingers being used more to guide the direction +of the executed movements. This is in order to give free scope to the +_doigte_ (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil +by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility of +changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, in parrying, the +end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even less, of the +guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near the pommel as +possible, in order to gain additional length. It will be seen that +_doigte_ is impossible with the Italian foil, in holding which the +forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-bar, preventing any +movement of the hand. The lightness of grasp inculcated by the French is +illustrated by the rule of the celebrated master Lafaugere: "Hold your +sword as if you had a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent +its escape, yet not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a +consequence that a disarmament is not considered of any value in the +French school. + +_To Come on Guard._--The position of "on guard" is that in which the +fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence. It is taken from +the position of "attention"; the feet together and at right angles with +each other, head and body erect, facing forward in the same direction as +the right foot, left arm and hand hanging in touch with the body, and +the right arm and foil forming a straight line so that the button is +about 1 yd. in front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this +position the movements to come "on guard" are seven in number:-- + + 1. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary (or + master) in a straight line, the hand being opposite the eye. + + 2. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4 in. from the + floor. + + 3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally + backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open fingers + of the left hand being held, knuckles down, against the guard and + along the blade. + + 4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above + the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept + horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted. + + 5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position, + the hand being opposite the top of the head; at the same time bring + the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from it; + keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed towards + the opponent's eye. + + 6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without moving + the feet. + + 7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the + right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the + height of the fencer). + +In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the right arm +fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder thrown +farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At the present time, +however, many of the best Italian fencers have adopted the guard with +crooked sword-arm, owing to their abandonment of the old long-foil +blade. + +_The Recover_ (at the close of the lesson or assault).--To recover "in +advance": extend the right arm at right angles with the body, drop the +left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the rear foot up to the one +in advance. To recover "to the rear": extend the right arm and drop the +left as before, and straighten the legs by drawing the forward foot back +to that in the rear. + +_The Salute_ always follows the recover, the two really forming one +manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a position just in +front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical with point upwards; +then lower and extend the arm with nails up until the point is 4 in. +from the floor and slightly to the right. + +_To Advance._--Being on guard, take a short step forward with the right +foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same distance, the +position of the body not being changed. However the step, or series of +steps, is made, the right foot should always move first. + +_To Retreat._--This is the reverse of the advance, the left foot always +moving first. + +_The Calls_ (_deux appels_).--Being on guard, tap the floor twice with +the right foot without altering the position of any other part of the +person. The object of the calls is to test the equilibrium of the body, +and they are usually executed as a preliminary to the recover. + +_The Lunge_ is the chief means of attack. It is immediately preceded by +the movement of "extension," in fact the two really form one combined +movement. Extension is executed by quickly extending the right arm, so +that point, hand and shoulder shall have the same elevation; no other +part of the person is moved. The "lunge" is then carried out by +straightening the left leg and throwing forward the right foot, so that +it shall be planted as far forward as possible without losing the +equilibrium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard. The +left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is +advanced, and the left arm is thrown down and back (with hand open and +thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the position of guard is +accomplished by smartly throwing the body back by the exertion of the +right leg, until its weight rests again on the left leg, the right foot +and arms resuming their on-guard positions. The point upon which the +French school lays most stress is, that the movement of extension shall, +if only by a fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the +right foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge, +i.e. the direction of the point. + +_The Gain._--This consists in bringing up the left foot towards the +right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In this +manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lunge can be made +without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a common stratagem of +fencers whose reach is short. + +_Defence._--For the purpose of nomenclature the space on the fencer's +jacket within which hits count is divided into quarters, the two upper +ones being called the "high lines," and the two lower ones the "low +lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upper part of the breast is called +an attack in the high lines. In like manner the parries are named from +the different quarters they are designed to protect. There are four +traditional parries executed with the hand in supination, and four +others, practically identical in execution, made with the hand held in +pronation. Thus the parries defending the upper right-hand quarter of +the jacket are "sixte" (sixth; with the hand in supination) and "tierce" +(third; hand in pronation). Those defending the upper left-hand quarter +are "quarte" (fourth; in supination) and "quinte" (fifth; in pronation). +Those defending the lower right-hand quarter are "octave" (eighth; in +supination) and "seconde" (second; in pronation). Those defending the +lower left-hand quarter are "septime" (seventh; in supination), more +generally called "demicircle," or "half-circle"; and "prime" (first; in +pronation). + +_The Parries._--The tendency of the French school has always been +towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the present day the +parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although recognized and +taught, are seldom if ever used against a strong adversary in +foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost in turning the hand. +The theory of parrying is to turn aside the opponent's foil with the +least possible expenditure of time and exertion, using the arm as little +as possible while letting the hand and wrist do the work, and opposing +the "forte" of the foil to the "foible" of the adversary's. The foil is +kept pointed as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the +parries are made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. +The slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is the +most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, "simple," in which +the attack is warded off by a single movement, and "counter," in which a +narrow circle is described by the point of the foil round that of the +opponent, which is thus enveloped and thrown aside. There are also +complex parries, composed of combinations of two or more parries, which +are used to meet complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into +simple parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles. + +_Simple Parries._--The origin of the numerical nomenclature of the +parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that they +received their names from the positions assumed in the process of +drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position of the hand +and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard on the left side, is +practically that of the first, or "prime," parry. To go from "prime" to +"seconde" it is only necessary to drop the hand and carry it across the +body to the left side; thence to "tierce" is only a matter of raising +the point of the sword, &c. + +_Parry of Prime_ (to ward off attacks on the--usually lower--left-hand +side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite the left eye and +the point directed towards the opponent's knee. This parry is now +regarded more as an elegant evolution than a sound means of defence, and +is little employed. + +_Parry of Seconde_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side). This +is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand downwards and +slightly to the right, knuckles up. + +_Parry of Tierce_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). A +quick, dry beat on the adversary's "foible" is given, forcing it to the +right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the middle of the +right breast. This parry has been practically discarded in favour of +"sixte." + +_Parry of Quarte_ (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side). This +parry, perhaps the most used of all, is executed by forcing the +adversary's blade to the left by a dry beat, the hand being in +supination, opposite the left breast. + +_Parry of Quinte_ (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like +"quarte"). This is practically a low "quarte," and is little used. + +_Parry of Sixte_ (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side). This +parry is, together with "quarte," the most important of all. It is +executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right breast, a +quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's blade to the right. + +_Parry of Septime or Half-Circle_ (against thrusts at the lower +left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the foil a +small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand moving a few +inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up. + +_Parry of Octave_ (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side) is +executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semicircle +downward and towards the right, the hand moving a few inches in the same +direction, but kept thumb up. + +_Counter Parries_ (Fr. _contre_).--Although the simple parries are +theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived by +feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in which the blade +describes narrow circles, following that of the adversary and meeting +and turning it aside; thus the point describes a complete circle while +the hand remains practically stationary. Each simple parry has its +counter, made with the hand in the same position and on the same side as +in the simple parry. The two most important are the "counter of quarte" +and the "counter of sixte," while the counters of "septime" and "octave" +are less used, and the other four at the present time practically never. + +_Counter of Quarte._--Being on guard in quarte (with your adversary's +blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under and thrusts in +sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe a narrow circle +with your point round his blade, downward to the right and then up over +to the left, bringing hand and foil back to their previous positions and +catching and turning aside his blade on the way. The "Counter of Sixte" +is executed in a similar manner, but the circle is described in the +opposite direction, throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The +"Counters of Septime and Octave" are similar to the other two but are +executed in the low lines. + +_Complex or Combined Parries_ are such as are composed of two or more +parries executed in immediate succession, and are made in answer to +feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g. being on guard in +quarte, should the adversary drop his point under and feint at the right +breast but deflect the point again and really thrust on the left, it is +evident that the simple parry of sixte would cover the right breast but +would leave the real point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The +sixte parry is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by +the parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are +numerous and depend upon the attack to be met. + +_Engagement_ is the junction of the blades, the different engagements +being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in the position +of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte. To engage in another +line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from quarte to sixte, the point is +lowered and passed under the adversary's blade, which is pressed +slightly outward, so as to be well covered (called "opposition"). +"Double Engagement" is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in +succession in the high lines, the last with opposition. + +_Attack._--The attack in fencing comprises all movements the object of +which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's breast, +body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space upon which hits +count is called the "target" and differs according to the rules +prevailing in the several countries, but is usually as above stated. In +Great Britain no hits above the collar-bones count, while in America the +target is only the left breast between the median line and a line +running from the armpit to the belt. The reason for this limitation is +to encourage accuracy. + +Attacks are either "primary" or "secondary." _Primary Attacks_ are those +initiated by a fencer before his adversary has made any offensive +movement, and are divided into "Simple," "Feint" and "Force" attacks. + +_Simple Attacks_, the characteristic of which is pace, are those made +with one simple movement only and are four in number, viz. the "Straight +Lunge," the "Disengagement," the "Counter-disengagement" and the +"Cut-over." The Straight-Lunge (_coup droit_), used when the adversary +is not properly covered when on guard, is described above under "Lunge." +The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil under the +opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the other side. It is +often used to take an opponent unawares or when he presses unduly hard +on your blade. The Counter-disengagement is used when the adversary +moves his blade, i.e. changes the line of engagement, upon which you +execute a narrow circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original +line. The Cut-over (_coupe_) is a disengagement executed by passing the +point of the foil over that of the adversary and lunging in the opposite +line. The preliminary movement of raising the point is made by the +action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn back. + +_Feint Attacks_, deceptive in character, are those which are preceded by +one or more feints, or false thrusts made to lure the adversary into +thinking them real ones. A feint is a simple extension, often with a +slight movement of the body, threatening the adversary in a certain +line, for the purpose of inducing him to parry on that side and thus +leave the other open for the real thrust. At the same time any movement +of the blade or any part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in +regard to the nature of the attack about to follow, must also be +considered a species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the +"One-Two," the "One-Two-Three" and the "Double." + +The "One-Two" is a feint in one line, followed (as the adversary +parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement. Thus, being +engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the adversary's blade and +extend your arm as if to thrust at his left breast, but instead of doing +this, the instant he parries you move your point back again and lunge in +quarte, i.e. on the side on which you were originally engaged. In +feinting it is necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so +complete as really to compel the adversary to believe it a part of a +real thrust in that line. + +The "One-Two-Three" consists of two feints, one at each side, followed +by a thrust in the line opposite to that of the original engagement. +Thrusts preceded by three feints are also sometimes used. It is evident +that the above attacks are useless if the adversary parries by a counter +(circular parry), which must be met by a "Double." This is executed by +feinting and, upon perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular +parry, by following the circle described by his point with a similar +circle, deceiving (i.e. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting +home. + +The "Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is a +combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement. + +_Force-Attacks_, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent by +assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones being +the "Beat," the "Press," the "Glide" and the "Bind." The "Beat" is a +quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon the foible of the +adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way for a straight lunge which +follows instantly. The blow is made with the hand only. A "false beat" +is a lighter blow made for the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting +the opponent, and is often followed by a disengagement. The "Press" is +similar in character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse +blade, a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy +to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A "false +press" may be used to entice the adversary into a too heavy responsive +pressure, which may then be taken advantage of by a disengagement. The +"Traverse" (Fr. _froisse_, Ital. _striscio_) is a prolonged press +carried sharply down the adverse blade towards the handle. The "Glide" +("Graze," Fr. _coule_) is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of +the adversary, without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made +inside his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The +"Bind" (_liement_) consists in gaining possession of the adversary's +foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across into the +opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home, the adversary's +blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be also carried out from a +low line into a high one. The bind is less used in the French school +than in the Italian. The "Flanconnade" is a bind made by capturing the +adversary's blade in high quarte, carrying it down and thrusting in the +outside line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by means +of a twist and thrust is the "Cross" (_croise_), which is executed when +the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's point over his wrist +and forcing down both blades into seconde with a full extension of the +arm. The result is to create a sudden and wide opening, and often +disarms the adversary. + +_Secondary Attacks_ are those made (1) just as your adversary himself +starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (3) on the completion of +his attack if it fails. + +1. "Attacks on the Preparation" are a matter of judgment and quickness. +They are usually attempted when the adversary is evidently preparing a +complicated attack, such as the "one-two-three" or some other manoeuvre, +involving one or more preliminary movements. At such a time a quick +thrust will often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for +preparation attacks are often given when the adversary attempts a beat +preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an "absence of the +blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid contact with his by a narrow +movement, and your point thrust home into the space left unguarded by +the force of his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an +"absence" by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades, in the +hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will fly off to +one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are prepared for his +"absence" a straight thrust will score. + +2. The chief "Attacks on the Development," or "Counter Attacks," are the +"Stop Thrust" and the "Time Thrust," both made while the adversary is +carrying out his own attack. The "Stop Thrust" (_coup d'arret_) is one +made after the adversary has actually begun an attack involving two or +more movements, and is only justified when it can be brought off without +your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of the +person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree that +the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this and +attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his opponent while +totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he, however, be touched, +even on the foot or mask, by the adversary, his touch, however good, is +invalid. If both touches are good, that of the original attacker only +counts. Stop thrusts are employed mostly against fencers who attack +wildly or without being properly covered. The "Time Thrust" is delivered +with opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving +several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the original +attack at the same time. It is not valid if the fencer employing it is +touched on any part of the person. + +3. "Attacks on the Completion" (i.e. of the adversary's attack) are +"Ripostes," "Counter-ripostes," "Remises" and "Renewals of Attack." + +The _Riposte_ (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately after +parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm, the body +remaining immovable. The "counter-riposte" is a riposte made after +parrying the adversary's riposte, and generally from the position of the +lunge, or while recovering from it, since one must have attacked with a +full lunge if the adversary has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. +There are three kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a +pause. + +The "direct _riposte_" may be made instantly after parrying the +adversary's thrust by quitting his blade and straightening the arm, so +that the point will touch his body on the nearest and most exposed part; +or by not quitting his blade but running yours quickly down his and at +the same time keeping a strong opposition ("riposte d'opposition"). The +quickest direct riposte is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a +right-hand fencer), and is called by the French the riposte of +"_tac-au-tac_," imitative of the sudden succession of the click of the +parry and the tap of the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's +breast. In making "ripostes with a feint" the point is not jabbed on to +the opponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more +preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as a +disengagement, a cut-over or a double. + +_Ripostes_ with a pause (_a temps perdu_, with lost time) are made after +a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the fencers are too near +for an accurate direct riposte, or to give the adversary time to make a +quick parry, which is then deceived. + +The _remise_ is a thrust made after one's first thrust has been parried +and in the same line; it must be made in such a way that the adversary's +justified riposte is at the same time parried by opposition or +completely avoided. It is really a renewal of the attack in the original +line, while the so-called "renewal of attack" ("_redoublement +d'attaque_") is a second thrust which ignores the adversary's riposte, +but made in a different line. Both the remise and the renewal are valid +only when the adversary's riposte does not hit. + +"False Attacks" are broad movements made for the purpose of drawing the +adversary out or of disconcerting him. They may consist of an advance, +an extension, a change of engagement, an intentional uncovering by +taking a wide guard (called "invitation guard"), or any movement or +combination of movements tending to make the adversary believe that a +real attack is under way. + +"The Assault" is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts in public, +while formal fencing in private is called "loose play" or a "friendly +bout." Bouts between fencers take place on a platform about 24 ft. long +and 6 ft. wide (in the United States 20 X 3 ft.). Formal bouts are +usually for a number of touches, or for a certain number of minutes, the +fencer who touches oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) +are sometimes empowered to score one or more points against a competitor +for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space limits. In the +United States bouts are for four minutes, with a change of places after +two minutes, and the competitors are not interrupted, the winner being +indicated by a vote of the judges, who take into account touches and +style. In all countries contestants are required to wear jackets of a +light colour, so that hits may be easily seen. Audible acknowledgment of +all touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered to +be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great Britain under +the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association, and in the United States +under those of the Amateur Fencers' League of America. + + _Fencing Terms_ (not mentioned above): "_Cavazione_," Ital. for + disengagement. "Contraction, Parries of," those which do not parry in + the simplest manner, but drag the adverse blade into another line, + e.g. to parry a thrust in high sixte by counter of quarte. + "_Controtempo_," Ital. for time-thrust. "Coronation," an attack + preceded by a circular movement from high sixte to high quarte (and + vice versa) made famous by Lafaugere. "_Corps-a-corps_" (body to + body), the position of two fencers who are at such close quarters that + their persons touch: when this occurs the fencers must again come on + guard. "_Coule_," Fr. for glide. "Disarm," to knock the foil out of + the adversary's hand; it is of no value in the French school. "Double + Hit," when both fencers attack and hit at the same time; neither hit + counts. "_Filo_," Ital. for glide (graze). "Flying Cut-over," a + cut-over executed as a continuation of a parry, the hand being drawn + back towards the body. "_Incontro_," Ital. for double attack. "Give + the blade," to allow the adversary easy contact with the foil; it is + often resorted to in order to tempt the adversary into a beat or bind. + "Menace," to threaten the adversary by an extension and forward + movement of the trunk. "_Mur_," see "Salute." "Passage of arms," a + series of attacks and parries, ending in a successful hit. "Phrase of + arms," a series of attacks and parries ending in a hit or + invalidation. "Invalidation," a hit on some part of the person outside + the target, made by the fencer whose right it is at that moment to + attack or riposte; such a hit invalidates one made simultaneously or + subsequently by his opponent, however good. "Rebeat," two beats, + executed as quickly as possible together, one on each side of the + adversary's blade. "_Reprises d'attaque_," Fr. for renewed attacks. + "Salute," the courteous salutation of the public and the adversary + before and after a bout. A more elaborate salute, called by the French + the _Mur_, consists of a series of parries, lunges and other + evolutions carried out by both fencers at the same time. Important + exhibition assaults are usually preceded by the _Mur_, which is called + in English the Grand Salute. "_Septime enveloppee_," a riposte by + means of a twist and thrust after a parry in septime. It envelops and + masters the adverse blade, whence the name. "Secret thrusts," the + French "_bottes secretes_," pretended infallible attacks of which the + user is supposed alone to know the method of execution; they have no + real existence. "_Sforza,_" Ital. for disarmament. "_Scandaglio,_" + Ital for examination, studying the form of an opponent at the + beginning of a bout. "_Toccato!_" Ital. for "Touched!",. Fr. + "_Touche._" + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of foil-fencing is practically identical + with that of the art in general (see FENCING). The following modern + works are among the best. French School: _Fencing_, in the Badminton + library (1897); _Foil and Sabre_, by L. Rondelle (Boston, 1892); + "Fencing," by C. Prevost in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_ (1901); + _Fencing_, by Edward Breck (New York, 1906). Italian school: + _Istruzione per la scherma, &c._, by S. de Frae (Milan, 1885); _La + Scherma italiana di spada e di sciabola_, by F. Masiello (Florence, + 1887). (E. B.) + + + + +FOIX, PAUL DE (1528-1584), French prelate and diplomatist. He studied +Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and jurisprudence at Toulouse, +where shortly after finishing his curriculum he delivered a course of +lectures on civil law, which gained him great reputation. At the age of +nineteen he was named councillor of the parlement of Paris. Having in +this capacity expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild +measures in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, he was +arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained the favour +of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent ambassador to +England, where he remained four years. He was then sent to Venice, and +returned a short time afterwards to England to negotiate a marriage +between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled +several important missions during the reign of Henry III. of France. In +1577 he was made archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed +ambassador to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584. + + _Les Lettres de Messire de Paul de Foix, archevesque de Toloze et + ambassadeur pour le roy aupres du pape Gregoire XIII, au roi Henry + III_, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to their + authenticity. See _Gallia Christiana_ (1715 seq.); M.A. Muret, + _Oraison funebre de Paul de Foix_ (Paris, 1584); "Lettres de Catherine + de Medicis," edited by Hector de la Ferriere (Paris, 1880 seq.) in the + _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de France_. + + + + +FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages capital of the +counts of Foix, and now capital of the department of Ariege, 51 m. S. of +Toulouse, on the Southern railway from that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) +town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is situated between the Ariege and the +Arget at their confluence. The old part of the town, with its ill-paved +winding streets and old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated +rock crowned by the three towers of the castle (12th, 14th and 15th +centuries), while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de +Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusien, a Gothic building of +the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture, a court of +assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycee, training +colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. +Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on. Foix probably owes its +origin to an oratory founded by Charlemagne. This afterwards became an +abbey, in which were laid the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of +Tours in the 5th century. + +The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the modern +department of Ariege, a region watered chiefly by the Ariege and its +affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted of an agglomeration +of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though subordinate to the counts +of Foix, had some voice in the government of the district. Protestantism +obtained an early entrance into the county, and the religious struggles +of the 16th and 17th centuries were carried on with much implacability +therein. The estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th +century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable power and +virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed one of the +thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was incorporated in +the department of Ariege. + +_Counts of Foix._--The counts of Foix were an old and distinguished +French family which flourished from the 11th to the 15th century. They +were at first feudatories of the counts of Toulouse, but chafing under +this yoke they soon succeeded in throwing it off, and during the 13th +and 14th centuries were among the most powerful of the French feudal +nobles. Living on the borders of France, having constant intercourse +with Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they were in +a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of independence, and +acted rather as the equals than as the dependents of the kings of +France. + +The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of Bernard +Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of Carcassonne (d. +1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and the adjoining lands, which +had hitherto formed part of the county of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, +Roger was succeeded by his brother Peter, who died six years later, and +was succeeded in turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in the +crusade of 1095, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II. +for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased the +anger of the church by rich donations, and when he died in 1125 he was +succeeded by his son, Roger III. The death of Roger III. about 1149, and +of his son, Roger Bernard I., in 1188, brought the county to Roger +Bernard's only son, Raymond Roger, who, in 1190, accompanied the French +king, Philip Augustus, to Palestine and distinguished himself at the +capture of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the +Albigenses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to Simon +IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to terms with the church +and recovered his estates before his death in 1223, was a patron of the +Provencal poets, and counted himself among their number. He was +succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted +Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance +to the French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated on +two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who followed, died +in 1265, and was succeeded by his son, Roger Bernard III., who, more +famous as a poet than as a warrior, was taken prisoner both by Philip +III. of France and by Peter III. of Aragon. This count married +Marguerite, daughter and heiress of Gaston VII., viscount of Bearn (d. +1290), and this union led to the outbreak of a long feud between the +houses of Foix and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger +Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count in 1302, +inheriting both Foix and Bearn. Becoming embroiled with the French king, +Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle with the count of Armagnac, +Gaston was imprisoned in Paris; but quickly regaining his freedom he +accompanied King Louis X. on an expedition into Flanders in 1315, and +died on his return to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston +II., was the next count. Having become reconciled with the house of +Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and Spain, +dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his son, Gaston III. +(1331-1391). Gaston III., who was surnamed Phoebus on account of his +beauty, was the most famous member of the old Foix family. Like his +father he assisted France in her struggle against England, being +entrusted with the defence of the frontiers of Gascony; but when the +French king, John II., showed a marked preference for the count of +Armagnac, Gaston left his service and went to fight against the heathen +in Prussia. Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble +ladies from the attacks of the adherents of the _Jacquerie_ at Meaux, +and was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle he +also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in +Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI. he made +peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, continued to fight +against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362, was defeated and compelled +to pay a ransom; and this war lasted until 1377, when peace was made. +Early in 1380 the count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when +Charles VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this +appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the royal command, +and supported by the communes of Languedoc, Gaston fought for about two +years against John, duke of Berry, who had been chosen as his successor, +until, worsted in the combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to +his estates, remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had +married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343), by his +wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he divorced in 1373, +he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have been incited by his +uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison his father, and who met +his death in 1381. It is probable, as Froissart says, that he was killed +by his father. Left without legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded +to bequeath his lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foix and +Bearn when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond of +hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature. Several +beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were executed by his +orders, and he himself wrote _Deduits de la chasse des bestes sauvaiges +et des oiseaulx de proye_. Froissart, who gives a graphic description of +his court and his manner of life, speaks enthusiastically of Gaston, +saying: "I never saw none like him of personage, nor of so fair form, +nor so well made," and again, "in everything he was so perfect that he +cannot be praised too much." + +Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI. granted the +county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castelbon, a descendant of Count +Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398, Matthew's lands were seized by +Archambault, count of Grailly and captal de Buch, the husband of his +sister Isabella (d. 1426), who became count of Foix in 1401. +Archambault's eldest son, John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his +father's lands and titles in 1412, had married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter +of Charles III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in +Guienne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the royal +representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between Foix and +Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle between the Burgundians +and the Armagnacs, he intrigued with both parties, and consequently was +distrusted by the dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the +cause of France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but +when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former +allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc and +Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding bands which were +devastating France; fought for Aragon against Castile; and aided his +brother, the cardinal of Foix, to crush some insurgents in Aragon. +Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of +Grailly, and was made archbishop of Arles in 1450. He took a prominent +part in the struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed +the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's son, Gaston +IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of John, king of Aragon +and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the viscounty of Narbonne, and having +assisted King Charles VII. in Guienne, he was made a peer of France in +1458. In 1455 his father-in-law designated him as his successor in +Navarre, and Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and +Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and Guienne; but +these marks of favour did not prevent him from joining a league against +Louis in 1471. His eldest son, Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a +daughter of Charles VII. of France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. +died two years later, his lands descended to his grandson, Francis +Phoebus (d. 1483), who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded +by his sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516). +Thus the house of Foix-Grailly was merged in that of Albret and +subsequently in that of Bourbon; and when Henry of Navarre became king +of France in 1589 the lands of the counts of Foix-Grailly became part of +the French royal domain. A younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. +1500), who received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and +married Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good +terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death of his nephew +Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom of Navarre against Jean +d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted +until 1497, when John renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix +(1489-1512), the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine, +who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain. In 1507 +Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with King Louis XII. for the +duchy of Nemours, and as duke of Nemours he took command of the French +troops in Italy. Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston +encountered the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and +after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pursuit. From +the younger branch of the house of Foix-Grailly have also sprung the +viscounts of Lautrec and of Meilles, the counts of Benanges and Candale, +and of Gurson and Fleix. + + See D.J. Vaissete, _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, tome iv. (Paris, + 1876); L. Flourac, _Jean I^er, comte de Foix, vicomte souverain de + Bearn_ (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Anselme, _Histoire genealogique_, tome + iii. (Paris, 1726-1733); Castillon, _Histoire du comte de Foix_ + (Toulouse, 1852); Madaune, _Gaston Phoebus, comte de Foix et souverain + de Bearn_ (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce + and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897). + + + + +FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, CHEVALIER DE (1669-1752), French soldier and +military author, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February 1669. His +military ardour was first awakened by reading Caesar's _Commentaries_, +and he ran away from home and joined the army. He soon saw active +service, and, young as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the +manuscript of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal +Belleisle on the author's death. In 1702 he became a captain, and +aide-de-camp to the duke of Vendome, then in command of the French +forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendome's brother, the +Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a gallant feat of +arms, and in the same year he distinguished himself at the battle of +Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was during his tedious +recovery from his wounds that he conceived the tactical theories to the +elucidation of which he devoted most of his life. In 1706 he again +rendered good service in Italy, and in 1708 distinguished himself +greatly in the operations attempted by Vendome and the duke of Burgundy +for the relief of Lille, the failure of which was due in part to the +disagreement of the French commanders; and it is no small testimony to +the ability and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both. +Folard was wounded at Malplaquet in 1709, and in 1711 his services were +rewarded with the governorship of Bourbourg. He saw further active +service in 1714 in Malta, under Charles XII. of Sweden in the north, and +under the duke of Berwick in the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. +he regarded as the first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm +that Folard began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on +Polybius. On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all his +papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh, and in +1724 appeared his _Nouvelles Decouvertes sur la guerre dans une +dissertation de Polybe_, followed (1727-1730) by _Histoire de Polybe +traduite par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire ... de M. de Folard, +Chevalier de l'Ordre de St Louis_. Folard spent the remainder of his +life in answering the criticisms provoked by the novelty of his +theories. He died friendless and in obscurity at Avignon in 1752. + +An analysis of Folard's military writings brings to light not a +connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of independent +ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far more often +extravagant. The central point of his tactics was his proposed column +formation for infantry. Struck by the apparent weakness of the thin line +of battle of the time, and arguing from the [Greek: embolon] or _cuneus_ +of ancient warfare, he desired to substitute the shock of a deep mass of +troops for former methods of attack, and further considered that in +defence a solid column gave an unshakable stability to the line of +battle. Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst some +famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Guido Starhemberg, approved +it and put it in practice, the weight of military opinion throughout +Europe was opposed to it, and eventually history justified this +opposition. Amongst the most discriminating of his critics was Frederick +the Great, who is said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian +king certainly caused a _precis_ to be made by Colonel von Seers, and +wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like others by +Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its publication (Paris, +1760) under the title _Esprit du Chev. Folard_, created a great +impression. "Thus kept within bounds," said the prince de Ligne, +"Folard was the best author of the time." Frederick himself said tersely +that "Folard had buried diamonds in a rubbish-heap." Thus began the +controversy between line and column formations, which long continued and +influenced the development of tactics up to the most modern times. +Folard's principal adherents in the 18th century were Joly de Maizeroy +and Menil Durand. + + See _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard_ + (Paris and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's + works and those of his critics and supporters. Max Jahns, _Geschichte + der Kriegswissenschaften_, vol. ii. pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig, + 1890). + + + + +FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any surface, +whence its particular application in geology with which this article +deals. The verb "to fold" (O. Eng. _fealdan_) meant originally to double +back a piece of cloth or other material so as to form a pleat, whence +has evolved its various senses of to roll up, to enclose, enfold or +embrace as with the arms, to clasp the hands or arms together, &c. The +word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _falten_, Dutch _vouwen_ +(for _vouden_), &c., and the ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. +[Greek: plekein], Lat. _plicare_, _plectere_, to plait, pleat, weave, +and in the suffixes of such words as [Greek: diplasios], _duplex_, +double, _simplex_, &c. Similarly the termination "-fold" is added to +numbers implying "so many," e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. "manifold." +The similar word for an enclosure or pen for animals, especially for +sheep, and hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of +worshippers, or to the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's +flock, must be distinguished. In O. Eng. it is _falaed_, and cognate +forms are found in Dutch _vaalt_, &c. It apparently meant a planked or +boarded enclosure, cf. Dan. _fjael_, Swed. _fjol_, plank. + +In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified rocks of the +earth's crust, whereby they have been made to take up less horizontal +space. The French equivalents are _pli_, _plissement_, _ridement_; in +Germany, _Falte_, _Faltung_, _Sattelung_ are the terms usually employed. +It is comparatively rarely that bedded rocks are observed in the +position in which they were first deposited, a certain amount of +buckling up or sagging down of the crust being continually in progress +in one region or another. In every instance therefore where, in walking +over the surface, we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and +without dislocations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part +of a great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust. + +Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on some +cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or +mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his researches in +the field without discovering that the rocks of the earth's crust have +been almost everywhere thrown into curves, usually so broad and gentle +as to escape observation except when specially looked for. The outcrop +of beds at the surface is commonly the truncation of these curves. The +strata must once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases +may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip, the +intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of the Isle of Wight--a Monoclinal +Curve, a, Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d, +Bagshot series; e, Headon series; f, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.] + +The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or gently +inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and then an +immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping character. The +strata are thus bent up and continue on the other side of the tilt at a +higher level. Such bends are called _monoclines_, _monoclinal folds_ or +_flexures_, because they present only one fold, or one half of a fold, +instead of the two which we see in an arch or trough. The most notable +instance of this structure in Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of +which a section is given in fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south +side of the island rapidly rise in inclination till they become nearly +vertical. The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, +but rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable cases +of the same structure have been brought to light by J.W. Powell in his +survey of the Colorado region. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.] + +It much more frequently happens that the strata have been bent into +arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping under the surface +on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up again on the other +side. Where they dip away from the axis of movement the structure is +termed an _anticline_ or _anticlinal fold_; where they dip towards the +axis, it is a _syncline_ or _synclinal fold_. The diagram in fig. 2 may +be taken to represent a series of strata (1-17) thrown into an anticline +(AA') and syncline (BB'). A section drawn across these folds in the line +CD would show the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the +part of the anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 +forms the crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it. +On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular +succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under the +next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the centre of a +trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on the east side the same +beds rise to the surface which passed beneath it on the west side. The +particular bed marked EF has been entirely removed by denudation from +the top of the anticline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the +syncline. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the +line CD (fig. 2).] + +Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are abruptly +terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig. 2, both the arch +and trough are represented as diminishing, the former towards the north, +the latter towards the south. The observer in passing northwards along +the axis of that anticline finds himself getting into progressively +higher strata as the fold sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing +southwards along the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and +gets into lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this +way it is said to "nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general +inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward dip from +the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline. Hence the anticline +noses out to the north and the syncline to the south. + +_Simple Folds._--In describing rock-folds special terms have been +assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping sides of an +anticline or syncline are known as the "limbs," "slopes," "flanks" or +"members" of the fold; in an anticline, the part X, fig. 3, the angle of +the bend, is the "crest" or "crown" (Ger. _Gewolbebiegung_, Fr. +_charniere anticlinale_), the corresponding part of a syncline being the +"trough-core" or "base," Y, fig. 3 (Ger. _Muldenbiegung_, Fr. _charniere +synclinale_). The portion of an anticline which has been removed by +denudation is the "aerial arch," dotted in fig. 3. The innermost strata +in a fold constitute the "core," arch-core A, fig. 3, or trough-core B, +in the same figure. In the majority of folds the bending of the strata +has taken place about an "axial plane" (often called the "axis"), which +in the examples illustrated in fig. 3 would pass through the points A and +B, perpendicularly to the horizontal line CD. In powerfully folded +regions the axial planes of the folds are no longer upright; they may be +moderately inclined, producing an "inversion," "inverted fold" or +"overfold." When the inclination of the axial plane is great a "recumbent +overfold" is produced (Fr. _pli couche_, Ger, _liegende Falte_). In a +fold of this kind (fig. 4) we have an "arch limb" (a), a middle limb (b) +and a floor or "trough limb" (c). X and Y are the upper and lower bends +respectively. One of the important functions of a fold is its direction; +this of course depends upon the orientation of the axial plane. The +crest-line of an anticline or trough-line of a syncline is rarely +horizontal for any great distance; its departure from horizontality is +designated the "pitch," and the fold is said to pitch (or dip) towards +the north, &c. Most simple folds--with the exception of very shallow +curvatures of wide area,--when considered in their entirety, are seen to +be somewhat canoe-shaped in form. There are three variations of the +simple fold dependent upon the position of the limbs, (1) the limbs may +tend to diverge as they recede from the crest (fig. 3), sometimes styled +an "open anticline"; (2) the limbs may be parallel in "closed" folds +(commonly known as isoclinal folding); (3) the limbs may make an open +angle or widen out towards the crest (fig. 4). This is known as a +fan-shaped fold (Fr. _pli en eventail_, Ger. _Facherfalte_); another +variant of the same form is the mushroom fold (Fr. _pli en champignon_). +The axial plane is not always extended: it may be so abbreviated that the +folding appears to have taken place about a point; anticlines of this +type are variously designated "short-anticlines," "_brachyanticlinaux_" +or "domes"; similarly, there are "short-synclines," "_brachysynclinaux_" +or "cuvettes." The dip in cases of this kind has been described as +"qua-qua versal" or "periclinal." + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +_Complex Folding._--Sometimes a simple fold has been itself subjected +to further folding repeated more than once, it is then termed a +"refolded fold" (Fr. _pli replie_); fine examples may be observed in the +Alps and in other mountain chains. A great regional major fold +containing within itself a number of minor "special" or subsidiary folds +is described as a "geanticline" (Fr. _structure en eventail compose_), +or as a "geosyncline" (Fr. _structure en eventail renverse_). Even folds +of lesser magnitude may be highly complex in regions of extreme crustal +movement, and may contain smaller folds of the first, second, third or +higher order (Fr. _couches gaufrees_ [fig. 5]). In its smaller +manifestation, this class of folding passes into "crumpling" or +"puckering," where quite a large number of folds may be crowded into a +single hand specimen. In "frilling" or "frilled structure" the folds +have still smaller amplitude, and in many highly corrugated rocks minute +folds are observable with the microscope that do not appear to the +unaided eye. When a series of adjacent isoclinal overfolds has passed +into a series of thrusts (see FAULT), the so-called "imbricated" +structure (Fr. _structure imbriquee_, Ger. _Schuppenstruktur_) is +generated. Occasionally crust-blocks resembling "graben" and "horsts" +are circumscribed by folds instead of faults; when this is so they have +been called respectively "infolded graben" or "overfolded horsts." + +The heterogeneous character of great masses of strata has always had a +marked influence on the nature of the folding; some beds have yielded +much more readily than others, certain beds will be found to be faulted, +while those above and below have folded without fracture. In many +examples of apparent plasticity it can be shown that this effect has +been produced by an infinite number of minute slippings within the rock +substance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Curved and Contorted Rocks, near Old Head of +Kinsale. (Du Noyer.)] + +The larger rock folds have produced important economic results. For +example, in many coal regions the deposits have been conserved in some +districts in the synclines or "basins," while they have been removed by +denudation from the uplifted anticlines in others. Near the crest of +anticlines is commonly an enriched portion of the ground in mineralized +districts; and, in the case of water supply, the tilt of the strata +determines the direction of the underground flowage. Again, the most +convenient site for oil wells is the crest of an anticline or "dome," +where an impervious stratum imprisons the gas and oil in a subjacent +saturated layer under pressure. + + For a discussion of the question of the distribution and arrangement + of the great folded regions of the earth's crust, see E. Suess, _Das + Antlitz der Erde_, English translation. _The Face of the Earth_, vols. + i., ii., iii., iv. (Oxford). See also E. de Margerie and A. Heim, _Les + Dislocations de l'ecorce terrestre_ (Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz, + _Geotektonische Probleme_ (Stuttgart, 1894). + + + + +FOLENGO, TEOFILO (1491-1544), otherwise known as Merlino Coccajo or +Cocajo, one of the principal Italian macaronic poets, was born of noble +parentage at Cipada near Mantua on the 8th of November 1491, From his +infancy he showed great vivacity of mind, and a remarkable cleverness in +making verses. At the age of sixteen he entered the monastery of Monte +Casino near Brescia, and eighteen months afterwards he became a +professed member of the Benedictine order. For a few years his life as a +monk seems to have been tolerably regular, and he is said to have +produced a considerable quantity of Latin verse, written, not +unsuccessfully, in the Virgilian style. About the year 1516 he forsook +the monastic life for the society of a well-born young woman named +Girolama Dieda, with whom he wandered about the country for several +years, often suffering great poverty, having no other means of support +than his talent for versification. His first publication was the +_Merlini Cocaii macaronicon_, which relates the adventures of a +fictitious hero named Baldus. The coarse buffoonery of this work is +often relieved by touches of genuine poetry, as well as by graphic +descriptions and acute criticisms of men and manners. Its macaronic +style is rendered peculiarly perplexing to the foreigner by the frequent +introduction of words and phrases from the Mantuan patois. Though +frequently censured for its occasional grossness of idea and expression, +it soon attained a wide popularity, and within a very few years passed +through several editions. Folengo's next production was the _Orlandino_, +an Italian poem of eight cantos, written in rhymed octaves. It appeared +in 1526, and bore on the title-page the new pseudonym of Limerno Pitocco +(Merlin the Beggar) da Mantova. In the same year, wearied with a life of +dissipation, Folengo returned to his ecclesiastical obedience; and +shortly afterwards wrote his _Chaos del tri per uno_, in which, partly +in prose, partly in verse, sometimes in Latin, sometimes in Italian, and +sometimes in macaronic, he gives a veiled account of the vicissitudes of +the life he had lived under his various names, We next find him about +the year 1533 writing in rhymed octaves a life of Christ entitled +_L'Umanita del Figliuolo di Dio_; and he is known to have composed, +still later, another religious poem upon the creation, fall and +restoration of man, besides a few tragedies. These, however, have never +been published. Some of his later years were spent in Sicily under the +patronage of Don Fernando de Gonzaga, the viceroy; he even appears for a +short time to have had charge of a monastery there. In 1543 he retired +to Santa Croce de Campesio, near Bassano; and there he died on the 9th +of December 1544. + + Folengo is frequently quoted and still more frequently copied by + Rabelais. The earlier editions of his _Opus macaronicum_ are now + extremely rare. The often reprinted edition of 1530 exhibits the text + as revised by the author after he had begun to amend his life. + + + + +FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874), Irish sculptor, was born at Dublin on the +24th of May 1818. At thirteen he began to study drawing and modelling at +the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, where he took several +first-class prizes. In 1835 he was admitted a student in the schools of +the Royal Academy, London. He first appeared as an exhibitor in 1839 +with his "Death of Abel and Innocence." "Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in +1840, gave him immediate reputation, and the work itself was afterwards +commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Ellesmere. "Lear and +Cordelia" and "Death of Lear" were exhibited in 1841. "Venus rescuing +Aeneas" and "The Houseless Wanderer" in 1842, "Prospero and Miranda" in +1843. In 1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his +"Youth at a Stream," and was, with Calder Marshall and John Bell, chosen +by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for the decoration of the +Houses of Parliament. Statues of John Hampden and Selden were executed +for this purpose, and received liberal praise for the propriety, dignity +and proportion of their treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to +come rapidly. Fanciful works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental +statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him with a +steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 he was made an associate +and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy. Among his numerous works the +following may be noticed, besides those mentioned above:--"The Mother"; +"Egeria," for the Mansion House; "The Elder Brother in Comus," his +diploma work; "The Muse of Painting," the monument of James Ward, R.A.; +"Caractacus," for the Mansion House; "Helen Faucit"; "Goldsmith" and +"Burke," for Trinity College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry," +for Westminster Palace Yard; "John Stuart Mill," for the Thames +embankment; "O'Connell" and "Cough," for Dublin; "Clyde," for Glasgow; +"Clive," for Shrewsbury; "Hardinge," "Canning" and "Outram," for +Calcutta; "Hon. James Stewart," for Ceylon; the symbolical group "Asia," +as well as the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in +Hyde Park; and "Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va. The statue of Sir +James Outram is probably his masterpiece. Foley's early fanciful works +have some charming qualities; but he will probably always be best +remembered for the workmanlike and manly style of his monumental +portraits. He died at Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the +4th of September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models +to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part of his +property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund. + + See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, _The Works of J.H. Foley_ (1875). + + + + +FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered the navy in +1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a good deal of active +service in the West Indies against American privateers. Promoted +lieutenant in 1778, he served under Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Keppel +and Sir Charles Hardy in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron was +present at the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780, and at +the relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, he went out to +the West Indies, and took his part in the operations which culminated in +the victory of the 12th of April 1782. In the Revolutionary War he was +engaged from the first. As flag-captain to Admiral John Gell, and +afterwards to Sir Hyde Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon +in 1793, the action of Golfe Jouan in 1794, and the two fights off +Toulon on the 13th of April and the 13th of July 1795. At St Vincent he +was flag-captain to the second in command, and in the following year was +sent out in command of the "Goliath" (74), to reinforce Nelson's fleet +in the Mediterranean. The part played by the "Goliath" in the battle of +the Nile was brilliant. She led the squadron round the French van, and +this manoeuvre contributed not a little to the result of the day. +Whether this was done by Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson, +has been a matter of controversy (see _Journal of the Royal United +Service Institution_, 1885, p. 916). His next important service was with +Nelson in the Baltic. The "Elephant" carried Nelson's flag at the battle +of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chief-of-staff. Ill-health +obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the point of +starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain of the +Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded in the Downs and at the peace was +made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be full admiral and G.C.B. He died +while commanding in chief at Portsmouth in 1833. + + See J.B. Herbert, _Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley_ (Cardiff, + 1884). + + + + +FOLI (FOLEY), ALLAN JAMES (1837-1899), Irish bass singer, was born at +Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7th of August 1837; originally a carpenter, he +studied under Bisaccia at Naples, and made his first appearance at +Catania in 1862. From the opera in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for +the season of 1865, and appeared with much success in various parts. He +sang in the first performance of _The Flying Dutchman_ (Daland) in +England in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's _Redemption_ +in 1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his +vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request at +ballad concerts. He died on the 20th of October 1899. + + + + +FOLIGNO (anc. _Fulginiae_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of Umbria, +Italy, 771 ft. above sea-level, in the province of Perugia, from which +it is 25 m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 9532 (town), 26,278 (commune). It +lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a tributary of the Tiber; it is +almost square in shape and is surrounded by walls. It is a picturesque +and interesting town; several of its churches contain paintings by +Umbrian masters, notably works by Niccolo di Liberatore (or Niccolo +Alunno, 1430-1502), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece +(the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S. Niccolo. The cathedral +has a romanesque S. facade of 1133, restored in 1903; the interior was +modernized in the 18th century. To the left of the choir is an octagonal +chapel by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1527). In the same piazza as +the S. facade is the Palazzo del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a +chapel with frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio (1424). S. Maria infra +Portas is said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only +the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's "Madonna di Foligno," now +in the Vatican, was originally painted for the church of S. Anna. The +Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo Deli are two good Renaissance buildings. + +Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the 8th century +A.D. It changed hands often during the wars of the 13th century, and was +destroyed by Perugia in 1281. From 1305 to 1439 it was governed by the +family of the Trinci as deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter +year one of its members went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a +force against Foligno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and +the last of the Trinci, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth Foligno +belonged to the states of the church until 1860. It suffered from a +severe earthquake in 1832. Foligno is a station on the main line from +Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the junction for Perugia. Three miles +to the E. is the abbey of Sassovivo with cloisters of 1229, very like +those of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, with pairs of small columns +supporting arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic ("Cosmatesque" +work). The church has been modernized. + + + + +FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. _folium_, leaf, but also +frequently an adaptation of the Ital. _foglio_), a term in bibliography +and printing, with reference either to the size of paper employed, or of +the book, or to the pagination. In the phrase "in folio" it means a +sheet of paper folded once, and thus a book bound up in sheets thus +folded is a book of the largest size and is known as a "folio" (see +BIBLIOGRAPHY). Similarly, "folio" is one of the sizes of paper adapted +to be thus folded (see PAPER). In book-keeping the word is used for a +page in a ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in +law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document, used for +measurement of the length and for the addition of costs. In Great +Britain, a "folio" is taken to contain 72 words, except in parliamentary +and chancery documents, when the number is 90. In the U.S.A. 100 words +form a "folio." + + + + +FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by Rene +Descartes. Its cartesian equation is x^3 + y^3 = 3axy. The curve is +symmetrical about the line x = y, and consists of two infinite branches +asymptotic to the line x + y + a = o and a loop in the first quadrant. +It may be traced by giving m various values in the equations x = 3am/(1 ++ m^3), y = 3am^2 (1 + m^3), since by eliminating m between these +relations the equation to the curve is obtained. Hence it is _unicursal_ +(see CURVE). The area of the loop, which equals the area between the +curve and its asymptote, is 3a/2. + +[Illustration.] + + + + +FOLKES, MARTIN (1690-1754), English antiquary, was born in London on the +29th of October 1690. He was educated at Saumur University and Clare +College, Cambridge, where he so distinguished himself in mathematics +that when only twenty-three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the +Royal Society. He was elected one of the council in 1716, and in 1723 +Sir Isaac Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the +vice-presidents. On the death of Newton he became a candidate for the +presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom, however, he +succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member of the French Academy; +in 1746 he received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 +he set out on a tour through Italy, in the course of which he composed +his _Dissertations on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins_. Before +the Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to 1754, +he read in 1736 his _Observations on the Trajan and Antonine Pillars at +Rome_ and his _Table of English Gold Coins from the 18th Year of King +Edward III_. In 1745 he printed the latter with another on the history +of silver coinage. He also contributed both to the Society of +Antiquaries and to the Royal Society other papers, chiefly on Roman +antiquities. He married in 1714 Lucretia Bradshaw, an actress who had +appeared at the Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. _Anecdot._ +ii. 578-598). + + For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (_Review of the Works of the + Royal Soc._, 1751), see D'Israeli, _Calamities and Quarrels of + Authors_ (1860), pp. 364-366. + + + + +FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place of Kent, +England, within the parliamentary borough of Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of +London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,905; +(1901) 30,650. This is one of the principal ports in cross-Channel +communications, the steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older +part of Folkestone lies in a small valley which here opens upon the +shore between steep hills. The more modern portions extend up the hills +on either hand. To the north the town is sheltered by hills rising +sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ft., on several of which, such as +Sugarloaf and Castle Hills, are ancient earthworks. Above the cliff west +of the old town is a broad promenade called the Lees, commanding a +notable view of the channel and connected by lifts with the shore below. +On this cliff also stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, +a cruciform building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly +Early English, but the original church, attached to a Benedictine +priory, was founded in 1095 on the site of a convent established by +Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The site of this +foundation, however, became endangered by encroachments of the sea. The +monastery was destroyed at the dissolution of religious houses by Henry +VIII. Folkestone inner harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep +water pier for use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not +only the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried +on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be mentioned the +grammar school, founded in 1674, the public library and museum, and a +number of hospitals and sanatoria. The discontinued Harveian Institution +for young men was named after William Harvey, discoverer of the +circulation of the blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also +commemorated by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a +member of the Cinque Port of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7 +aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of +Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb of +Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091). + +Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl Godwine and was +called upon to supply him with ships when he was exiled from England; at +the time of the Domesday Survey it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. +From early times it was a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to +find one out of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the +royal service. It shared the privileges of the Cinque Ports, whose +liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folkestone by +Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was prescriptive, was +entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Folkestone. The history of +Folkestone is a record of its struggle against the sea, which was +constantly encroaching upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, +impoverished by their losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the +end of the 18th century the town had become prosperous by the increase +of its fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the 19th +century one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast. + + + + +FOLKLAND (_folcland_). This term occurs three times in Anglo-Saxon +documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c. i. 2) it is contrasted with +bookland in a way which shows that these two kinds of tenure formed the +two main subdivisions of landownership: no one is to deny right to +another in respect of folkland or bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. +Dipl. 281), King Aethelberht exchanges five hides of folkland for five +hides of bookland which had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the +latter for the newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal +exactions except the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd +and joining in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland +was not free from the payment of _gafal_ (land tax) and providing +quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the testator +disposes freely of his bookland estates in favour of his sons and his +daughter, but to a son who is not considered as rightful offspring five +hides of folkland are left, provided the king consents. It is probable +that folkland is meant in two or three cases when Latin documents speak +of _terra rei publicae jure possessa_. + +Two principal explanations have been given to this term. Allen thought +that folkland was similar to the Roman _ager publicus_: it was the +common property of the nation (_folc_), and the king had to dispose of +it by carving out dependent tenures for his followers more or less after +the fashion of continental _beneficia_. These estates remained subject +to the superior ownership of the folk and of the king: they could +eventually be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a +holder of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A +letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be interpreted to +apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer, H.C. Lodge, Stubbs and +others followed Allen's lead. + +Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an article on +folkland in the _English Hist. Review_ for 1893. It considers folkland +as landownership by folkright--at common law, as might be said in modern +legal speech. In opposition to it bookland appears as landownership +derived from royal privilege. The incidents recorded in the charters +characterize folkland as subject to ordinary fiscal burdens and to +limitations in respect of testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to +be relieved from fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from +folkland into bookland (C.D. 281). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being +recognized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession +or devise, but by the consent of the king. These incidents and +limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to the +fundamental features of bookland contained in the numberless "books." +These are exemptions from fiscal dues and freedom of disposition of the +owner. This view of the matter has been accepted by the chief modern +authorities. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Allen, _Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of Royal + Prerogative in England_ (London, 1849); K. Maurer, _Kritische + Uberschau_ (1853), Band i. 102 ff.; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and + Beyond_, 244 ff. (Cambridge, 1897); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland," in the + _Eng. Hist. Rev._ (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, _Land Laws_ + (London, 1896); H. Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, Band i. (2nd + ed., 293, Leipzig, 1887-1892). (P. Vi.) + + + + +FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W.J. Thoms as a designation for +the traditional learning of the uncultured classes of civilized nations. +The word has been adopted in this sense into many foreign languages; it +is sometimes regarded as the equivalent of the Ger. _Volkskunde_. But +folklore is, properly speaking, the "lore _of_ the folk," while +_Volkskunde_ is lore or learning _about_ the folk, and includes not only +the mental life of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term +folklore is also used to designate the science which deals with +folklore; the study of survivals involves the investigation of the +similar customs, beliefs, &c., of races on lower planes of culture; +consequently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American +societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as with the +popular superstitions of the white races. + +_History._--The scientific study of folklore dates back to the first +quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long before that +date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of recent growth. The +first Folklore Society was founded in London in 1878; similar bodies now +exist in the United States, France, Italy, Switzerland and especially in +Germany and Austria. The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at +a very early period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the +28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many folk-tale +incidents; for India we have the _Jatakas_ and _Panchatantra_; and for +the Arabs the great collection of the _Thousand and One Nights_. Another +type of folk-narrative is represented by Aesop's _Fables_. Not +unnaturally beliefs and customs received less attention; our knowledge +of them among the ancients is as a rule pieced together. Among the +oldest professed collections are J.B. Thiers (1606-1703), _Traite des +superstitions_ (1679), Aubrey's _Miscellanies_ (1686) and H. Bourne's +(1696-1733) _Antiquitates vulgares_ (1725); but they belong to the +antiquarian, non-scientific period. + +The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore were the +brothers Grimm, by the publication of their _Kinder-und Hausmarchen_ +(1812-1815) and _Deutsche Mythologie_ (1835). They were the first to +present the folk-tale in its genuine unadulterated form. They differed +from their predecessors in regarding the myth, not as the result of +conscious speculation, but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, +disposed to press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the +figures of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as +the folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was +exaggerated by their successors, J.W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and others. At +the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880), the forerunner of +the anthropological school of folklore, shared in this mistake. Breaking +away eventually from the philological schools, which interpreted myths +and their supposed descendants, the folk-tales, as relating to the +storm, the sun, the dawn, &c. (see MYTHOLOGY), Mannhardt made +folk-custom and belief his basis. To this end he set himself to collect +and compare the superstitions of the peasantry; but his health was +always feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mannhardt's +researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor abroad. In 1878 the +foundation of the Folklore Society marked a new era in England, where +the philological school had had few adherents; and the anthropological +school soon produced evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew +Lang, Dr J.G. Frazer and Professor Robertson Smith. + +With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom and belief on +the one hand, and of rites and religions of people in the lower stages +of culture on the other hand, it has become abundantly clear that there +is no line of demarcation between the two. Each throws light upon the +other, and the superstitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of +savage creeds which have their parallels all over the world in the +culture of primitive peoples. + +_Subdivisions._--The folklore of civilized peoples may be conveniently +classified under three main heads: (1) belief and custom; (2) narratives +and sayings; (3) art. These again may be subdivided. The first division, +_Belief and Custom_, includes (A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, +including (a) those connected with natural phenomena or inanimate +nature, (b) tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d) +ghosts and goblins, (e) witchcraft, (f) leechcraft, (g) magic in general +and divination, (h) eschatology, and (i) miscellaneous superstitions and +practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including (a) festival customs +for which are set aside certain days and seasons, (b) ceremonial customs +on the occasion of events such as birth, death or marriage, (c) games, +(d) miscellaneous local customs, such as agricultural rites connected +with the corn-spirit (see DEMONOLOGY), and (e) dances. The second head +of _Narratives and Sayings_ may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or +tales told as true, (b) Marchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d) +drolls, apologues, cumulative tales, &c., (e) myths (see MYTHOLOGY), and +(f) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as they do not +come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes, riddles, jingles, +proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, &c. The third head, _Art_, subdivides +into (a) folk music with ballads and songs, (b) folk drama. Any +classification, however, labours under the disadvantage of separating +items which properly belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form +in which some superstitions are expressed. They may also be aetiological +in their nature and form an elaborate record of a custom. Eschatological +beliefs naturally take the form of myths. Traditional narratives can +also be classified under art, and so on. + +_Literature._--The literature of the subject falls into two sharply +defined classes--synthetic works and collections of folklore--of which +the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former class the most +important is Dr J.G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, which sets out from the +study of a survival in Roman religion and covers a wide field of savage +and civilized beliefs and customs. Especially important are the chapters +on agricultural rites, in which are set forth the results of Mannhardt's +researches. Other important lines of folklore research in the _Golden +Bough_ are those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view +of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and rain charms. Mr E.S. +Hartland's _Legend of Perseus_ is primarily concerned with the origin of +a folk-tale, and this problem in the end is dismissed as insoluble. A +large part of the book is taken up with a discussion of sympathetic +magic, and especially with the "life index," an object so bound up with +the life of a human being that it acts as an indication of his +well-being or otherwise. The importance of children's games in the study +of folklore has been recognized of recent years. An admirable collection +of the games of England has been published by Mrs G.L. Gomme. With the +more minute study of uncivilized peoples the problem of the diffusion of +games has also come to the fore. In particular it is found that the +string-game called "cat's cradle" in various forms is of very wide +diffusion, being found even in Australia. The question of folk-music has +recently received much attention (see SONG). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Introductory works: M.R. Cox, _Introduction to + Folklore_; Kaindl, _Die Volkskunde_; Marillier in _Revue de l'histoire + des religions_, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl. + + General works: J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; E.S. Hartland, _The + Legend of Perseus_; A. Lang, _Custom, and Myth, Myth, Ritual and + Religion_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_. + + British Isles. England: Burne, _Shropshire Folklore_; _Denham Tracts_ + (F.L.S.); Harland and Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folklore_; Henderson, + _Folklore of Northern Counties_; _County Folklore Series_ (Printed + Extracts) of the F.L.S. Wales: Elias Owen, _Welsh Folklore_; Rhys, + _Celtic Folklore_. Scotland: Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions_; Gregor, + _Folklore of N.E. of Scotland_; the works of J.G. Campbell, &c. + + Germany: Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, English translation by + Stallybrass; Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_; Meyer, _Deutsche + Volkskunde_; Tetzner, _Die Slaven in Deutschland_; Mogk in Paul's + _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_, and the works cited by Kaindl + (see above). + + France: Sebillot's works; Rolland, _Faune populaire_; Laisnel de la + Salle, _Croyances et legendes_. + + On the Slavs see the works of Krauss and v. Wlislochi; for Bohemia, + Grohmann, _Aberglaube_; for Greece, Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_, and + Rennell Rodd, _Folklore of Greece_; for Italy, Pitre's bibliography; + for India, Crooke's works, and the _Indian Antiquary_. For + questionnaires see _Handbook of Folklore_ (Folklore Soc.); Sebillot, + _Essai de questionnaires_; _Journal of American Folklore_ (1890, &c.); + and Kaindl's _Volkskunde_. For a bibliography of folk-tales see + Hartland, _Mythology and Folk-tales_; to his list may be added + Petitot's _Legendes indiennes_; Rand, _Legends of the Micmacs_; + Lummis, _The Man who Married the Moon_; and the publications of the + American Folklore Society. For other works see bibliographies in + _Folklore_ and other periodicals. On special points may be mentioned + Miss Cox's _Cinderella_ (Folklore Society); Kohler's works, &c. (see + also bibliography to the article TALE). For games see Gomme, _English + Games_; Culin, _Korean Games_; Rochholz, _Alemannisches Kinderlied_; + Bohme, _Deutsches Kinderlied_; Handelmann, _Volks- und Kinderspiele_; + Jayne, _String Figures_, &c.; and the bibliography to DOLL. See also + Sonnenschein's _Best Books_. + + The following is a list of the more important Societies and + publications:-- + + England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-lore Society. + + U.S.A.: American Folklore Society. + + France: _Societe des traditions populaires_. + + Germany: _Verein fur Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung fur + Volkskunde_; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other + provinces. + + Austria: _Verein fur osterreichische Volkskunde_. + + Switzerland: _Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur Volkskunde_. + + Italy: _Societa per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari_. + + In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or + less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies + mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for + the following among others: Belgium, _Wallonia_; Poland, _Wisla_; + France, _Melusine_ (1878, 1883-1901); Bohemia, _Cesky Lid_; Denmark, + _Dania_, &c.; Germany, _Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie_ + (1859-1890); _Am Urguell_ (1890-1898). (N. W. T.) + + + + +FOLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG +(1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen on the 21st of January +1794, the son of a district judge. He studied theology at Giessen and +law at Heidelberg, and after leaving the university edited the Elberfeld +_Allgemeine Zeitung_. Suspected of being connected with some radical +plots, he was imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 1821 +he went to Switzerland, where he taught in the canton school at Aarau, +farmed from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in Thurgau, and then +retired to Bern, where he lived till his death on the 26th of December +1855. Besides a number of minor poems he wrote _Harfengrusse aus +Deutschland und der Schweiz_ (1823) and _Malegys und Vivian_ (1829), a +knightly romance after the fashion of the romantic school. Of his many +translations, mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration +with R. Schwenck (1814), Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1818) and +_Siegfrieds Tod_ from the _Nibelungenlied_ (1842); he also collected and +translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819). In 1846 he published a +brief collection of sonnets entitled _An die gottlosen Nichtswuteriche_. +This was aimed at the liberal philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the +occasion of a literary duel between the two authors. Follen's posthumous +poem _Tristans Eltern_ (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known +work is a collection of German poetry entitled _Bildersaal deutscher +Dichtung_ (1827). + + + + +FOLLEN, KARL (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother of A.L. +Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 5th of September +1795. He first studied theology at Giessen, but after the campaign of +1814, in which, like his brother August, he took part as a Hessian +volunteer, began the study of jurisprudence, and in 1818 established +himself as _Privatdocent_ of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being +suspected of political intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after +the assassination of Kotzebue, fled to France. Here again the political +murder of the duc de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to Follen +being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge in +Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal school at Coire +and at the university of Basel; but the Prussian authorities +imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought in 1824 the hospitality +of the United States of America. Here he became an instructor in German +at Harvard in 1825, and in 1830 obtained an appointment as professor of +German language and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation +having given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835, +and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington in +Massachusetts in 1836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat which was +totally consumed by fire while on a voyage from New York to Boston, on +the night of the 13th-14th of January 1840. Follen was the author of +several celebrated patriotic songs written in the interests of liberty. +The best is perhaps _Horch auf, ihr Fursten! Du Volk, horch auf!_ of +which Johannes Wit, called von Dorring (1800-1863), was long, though +erroneously, considered the author. It was published in A.L. Follen's +collection of patriotic songs, _Freie Stimmen frischer Jugend_. + + His wife Elisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of some + reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, with a + biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846). + + + + +FOLLETT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1798-1845), English lawyer, was born at +Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of December 1798. He was the son of +Captain Benjamin Follett, who had retired from the army in 1790, and +engaged in business at Topsham. He received his education at Exeter +grammar school and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He +had entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a pleader +below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in 1824, and joined the +western circuit in 1825. At the very outset his great qualifications +were universally recognized. He was thoroughly master of his profession, +and his rapid rise in it was due not only to his quick perception and +sound judgment, but to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of +temper. In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Harding +Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to parliament +for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished himself, and under the +first administration of Sir Robert Peel was appointed solicitor-general +(November 1834); but resigned with the ministry in April 1835. In the +course of this year he was knighted. On the return of Peel to power in +1841 Sir William was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April +1844 he succeeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his +health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and had been permanently +injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down, and he was +compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the south of Europe. He +returned to England in March 1845; but the disease, consumption, +reasserted itself, and he died in London on the 28th of June following. +A statue of Follett, executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in +Westminster Abbey. + + + + +FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872), English journalist, descended +from a noble French Huguenot family, the Greniers of Languedoc, was born +in London in 1793. John Grenier, a banker, became naturalized in England +under the name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fonblanque +(1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and the author of a standard +legal work, a _Treatise on Equity_, was the father of Albany Fonblanque; +he represented the borough of Camelford in parliament; and was one of +the Whig friends of George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young +Fonblanque was sent to Woolwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers. His +health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be +suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a view to +being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (1812) he commenced +writing for the newspapers, and very soon attracted notice both by the +boldness and liberality of his opinions, and by the superiority of his +style to what Macaulay, when speaking of him, justly called the "rant +and twaddle of the daily and weekly press" of the time. While he was +eagerly taking his share in all the political struggles of this eventful +period, he was also continuing his studies, devoting no less than six +hours a day to the study of classics and political philosophy. Under +this severe mental training his health once more broke down. His energy, +however, was not impaired. He became a regular contributor to the +newspapers and reviews, realizing a fair income which, as his habits +were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary anxieties. + +From 1820 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively employed upon the +staff of _The Times_ and the _Morning Chronicle_, whilst he contributed +to the _Examiner_, to the _London Magazine_ and to the _Westminster +Review_. In 1828 the _Examiner_ newspaper, which had been purchased by +the Rev. Dr Fellowes, author of the _Religion of the Universe_, &c., was +given over to Fonblanque's complete control; and for a period of +seventeen years (1830 to 1847) he not only sustained the high character +for political independence and literary ability which the _Examiner_ had +gained under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt, but +even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a certain delight +in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed against themselves. +When it was proposed that the admirers and supporters of the paper +should facilitate a reduction in its price by the payment of their +subscription ten years in advance, not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord +Lytton) volunteer his aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting +with radicalism. During his connexion with the _Examiner_, Fonblanque +had many advantageous offers of further literary employment; but he +devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to the service of +the paper he had resolved to make a standard of literary excellence in +the world of journalism. Fonblanque was offered the governorship of Nova +Scotia; but although he took great interest in colonial matters, and had +used every effort to advocate the more generous political system which +had colonial self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his +beloved _Examiner_ even for so sympathetic an employment. In 1847, +however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post of statistical +secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course compelled him to resign +the editorship of the _Examiner_, but he still continued to contribute +largely to the paper, which, under the control of John Forster, +continued to sustain its influential position. During the later years of +his life Fonblanque took no prominent part in public affairs; and when +he died at the age of seventy-nine (1872) he seemed, as his nephew, +Edward Fonblanque, rightly observes, "a man who had lived and toiled in +an age gone by and in a cause long since established." + +The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may be judged of +by a study of his _England under Seven Administrations_ (1837), in +comparison with the course of social and political events in England +from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must be regarded in the light of +a reformer. Journalism before his day was regarded as a somewhat +discreditable profession; men of true culture were shy of entering the +hot and dusty arena lest they should be confounded with the ruder +combatants who fought there before the public for hire. But the fact +that Fonblanque, a man not only of strong and earnest political +convictions but also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate +to choose this field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a +man of letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best +gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old +prejudice. + + See the _Life and Labours of Albany Fonblanque_, edited by his nephew, + Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London, 1874); a collection of his + articles with a brief biographical notice. + + + + +FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac county, +Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 60 m. N. of Milwaukee, at the S. end of Lake +Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du Lac river, which is navigable +for only a short distance. Pop. (1890) 12,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom +2952 were foreign-born; (1910) 18,797. The city is a railway centre of +some importance, and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the +Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western +railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat lines +connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great Lakes. At +North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits, are car-shops of the two +last-mentioned railways, and in the city are manufactories of machinery, +automobiles, wagons and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, +refrigerators, agricultural implements, toys and furniture. The total +value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase +of 95.7% since 1900. The city has a Protestant Episcopal cathedral, the +Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital and convent, and a +public library with about 25,000 volumes in 1908. The first settlers on +the site of Fond du Lac arrived about 1835. Subsequently a village was +laid out which was incorporated in 1847; a city charter was secured in +1852. + + + + +FONDI (anc. _Fundi_), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of +Caserta, 12 m. N.W. of Formia, and 11 m. E.N.E. of Terracina by road. +Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above sea-level, at the N. end of a +plain surrounded by mountains, which extend to the sea. It occupies the +site of the ancient Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to _Latium +adjectum_, on the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road +which passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan, +and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly in +_opus incertum_, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no doubt, from +the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still exists, and bears the +inscription of three aediles who erected the gate, the towers and the +wall. A similar inscription of three different aediles from the N.W. +gate still exists, but not _in situ_. In the neighbourhood are the +remains of several ancient villas, and along the Via Appia still stands +an ancient wall of _opus reticulatum_, with an inscription, in large +letters, of one Varronianus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. +The engineering of the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Formia, where +it passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable. + +The modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The castle on +the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with beautiful tracery. +Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro (formerly S. Maria), which +was the cathedral until the see was suppressed in 1818 and united with +that of Gaeta; it contains a fine pulpit with "cosmatesque" work and the +fine tomb of Cristoforo Caetani (1439), two interesting 15th-century +triptychs and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of +the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1378. In the Dominican monastery the cell +which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown. + +The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with Formiae) +the _civitas sine suffragio_, because it had always secured the Romans +safe passage through its territory; the people as a whole did not join +Privernum in its war against Rome three years later, though Vitruvius +Vacca, the leader, was a native of Fundi. It acquired the full +citizenship in 188 B.C., and was partly under the control of a +_praefectus_. The inscription upon some waterpipes which have been +discovered shows that later it became a _municipium_. It was governed by +three aediles: Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due +to the exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xiii. p. 113). The +family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi. During the +Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily abandoned, but it seems +to have come under the rule of the papacy by A.D. 754 at any rate. Pope +John VIII. ceded it with its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but +its history is somewhat intricate after this period. Sometimes it +appears as an independent countship, though held by members of the +Caetani family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to +Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa tried to carry off +Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city. After this Fondi +was much neglected; in 1721 it was sold to the Di Sangro family, in +which it still remains. Its position as a frontier town between the +papal states and the kingdom of Naples, just in the territory of the +latter--the Via Appia can easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual +frontier called Portella[1] or S.E. of it--affected it a good deal +during the French Revolution and the events which led up to the +unification of Italy. + +The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and the +partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the ancient Via +Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a considerable detour. The +lake was also known in classical times ass, _lacus Amyclanu_ from the +town of Amyclae or Amunclae, which was founded, according to legend, by +Spartan colonists, and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th +century B.C. (E. Pais in _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, 1906, 611 seq.); the +bay was also known as _mare Amunclanum_. + +The ancient Speluncae (mod. _Sperlonga_) on the coast also belonged to +the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa in which Sejanus +saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost crushed by a fall of rock. +Considerable remains of it, and of the caves from which it took its +name, still exist 1 m. S.E. of the modern village. For modern +discoveries see P. di Tucci in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1880), 480; G. +Patroni, _ibid._ (1898), 493. The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient +writers, though the _ager Caecubus_, the coast plain round the Lago di +Fundi, was even more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; +and though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost +entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even more +to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the lacus Avernus +to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is spoken of in the +inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of Hadrian, together with +Falernian and Setian wines (_Corpus inscript. Lat._ vi. Berlin, 1882, +9797). The plain of Fondi is the northernmost point in Italy where the +cultivation of oranges and lemons is regularly carried on in modern +times. + + See G. Conte Colino, _Storia di Fondi_ (Naples, 1902); B. Amante and + R. Bianchi, _Memorie storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania_ + (Rome, 1903); T. Ashby, in _English Historical Review_, xix. (1904) + 557 seq. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the pass of Ad Lautulas see TERRACINA. + + + + +FONNI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft. above +sea-level, to the N.W. of Monte Gennargentu, 21 m. S. of Nuoro by road. +Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated +among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. The church of the +Franciscans, built in 1708, contains some curious paintings by local +artists. The costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on +the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is +similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are +long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over +that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and +black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a +blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two +identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried +girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black. A little to the N. +of Fonni, by the high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, +mentioned in the _Antonine Itinerary_ as situated 87 m. from Carales on +the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the +discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of +a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of baths and other +buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in +length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in _Notizie degli +scavi_, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (_tabula +honestae missionis_) of sailors who had served in the _classis Ravennas_ +was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (_id. ib._, 1882, 440; T. +Mommsen, _Corp. inscr. Lat._ x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several +"menhirs" (called _pietre celtiche_ in the district) and other +prehistoric remains. (T. As.) + + + + +FONSAGRADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Lugo; 25 +m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302. Fonsagrada is situated +3166 ft. above the sea, on the watershed between the rivers Rodil and +Suarna. It is an important market for all kinds of agricultural produce, +and manufactures linen and frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing +to the mountainous character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a +railway or navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any +considerable export trade. + + + + +FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892), first president of the united +states of Brazil, was born at Alagoas on the 5th of August 1827, being +the third son of Lieut.-Colonel Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He +was educated at the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained +the rank of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke out in 1864 +against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopez, dictator of +Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and before the close of +the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel, and some years later +that of general of division. After holding several military commands, he +was appointed in 1886 governor of the province of Rio Grande do Sul. In +this position he threw himself heartily into politics, espoused the +republican opinions then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their +exponents with his authority. After a fruitless remonstrance, the +government at the close of the year removed him from his post, and +recalled him to the capital as director of the service of army material. +Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage +insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed him from +office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the viscount de +Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of the military officers' +political rights. From that time his influence was supreme in the army. +In December 1888, when the Conservative Correa d'Oliveira became prime +minister, Fonseca was appointed to command an army corps on the frontier +of Matto Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a +dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to the chamber +of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in September. Divisions of +opinion soon arose within the Liberal party on the question of +provincial autonomy. The more extreme desired the inauguration of a +complete federal system. Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the +journalist and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to +head an armed movement against the government. The insurrection broke +out on the 15th of November 1889. The government commander, Almeida +Barreto, hastened to place himself under Fonseca's orders, and the +soldiers and sailors made common cause with the insurgents. The affair +was almost bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being +the only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn the +ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the republican, leaders +and proclaimed a republic. A provisional government was constituted by +the army and navy in the name of the nation, with Fonseca at its head. +The council was abolished, and both the senate and the chamber of +deputies were dissolved. The emperor was requested to leave the +territory of Brazil within twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of +November was embarked on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the 20th of December a +decree of banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So +universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt at +armed resistance. The provisional government exercised dictatorial +powers for a year, and on the 25th of February 1891 Fonseca was elected +president of the republic. He was, however, no politician, and possessed +indeed little ability beyond the art of acquiring popularity. His tenure +of office was short. In May he became involved in an altercation with +congress, and in November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond +his constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule +insurrection broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and before the close of +November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office. From +that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de Janeiro on the 23rd +of August 1892. + + + + +FONSECA, AMAPALA or CONCHAGUA, BAY OF, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean in +the volcanic region between the Central American republics of Honduras, +Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay is unsurpassed in extent and security by +any other harbour on the Pacific. It is upwards of 50 m. in greatest +length, by about 30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea +about 18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Conchagua (3800 ft.) +and Coseguina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguita and +Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called "Los Farellones," divide +the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient depth for +the largest vessels. A channel called "El Estero Real" extends from the +extreme southern point of the bay into Nicaragua for about 50 m., +reaching within 20 or 25 m. of Lake Managua. The principal islands in +the bay are Sacate Grande, Tigre, Gueguensi and Esposescion belonging to +Honduras, and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri +belonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest, being +about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its position is the +most important in the bay, being about 20 m. in circumference, and +rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft. On the southern and eastern +shores of the island the lava forms black rocky barriers to the waves, +varying in height from 10 to 80 ft.; but on the northward and eastward +are a number of _playas_ or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the +most considerable of these is the port of Amapala (q.v.). Fonseca Bay +was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named by him after +his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable enemy of Columbus. + + + + +FONT (Lat. _fons_, "fountain" or "spring," Ital. _fonte_, Fr. _les +fonts_), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for Christian +baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was administered at rivers or +natural springs (cf. Acts viii. 36), and no doubt the primitive form of +the rite was by _immersion_ in the water. _Infusion_--pouring water on +the head of the neophyte--was early introduced into the west and north +of Europe on account of the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its +occasional danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental +churches. _Aspersion_, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid, but +recorded early examples of its use are rare (see BAPTISM). These +different modes of administering baptism have caused corresponding +changes in the receptacles for the water. After the cessation of +persecution, when ritual and ornament began to develop openly, special +buildings were erected for administering the rite of baptism. This was +obviously necessary, for a large _piscina_ (basin or tank) in which +candidates could be immersed would occupy too much space of the church +floor itself. These baptisteries consisted of tanks entered by steps (an +ascent of three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but +not the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber (see +BAPTISTERY). + +By the 9th century, however, the use of separate baptisteries had +generally given place to that of fonts. The material of which these were +made was stone, often decorative marble; as early as 524, however, the +council of Lerida enacted that if a stone font were not procurable the +presbyter was to provide a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament +exclusively, which might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the +font never became an important decorative article of church furniture: +"The font, [Greek: kolumbethra] (says Neale, _Eastern Church_, i. 214), +in the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in the +West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the font seldom or +never possesses any beauty. The material is usually either metal or +wood. In Russia the _columbethra_ is movable and only brought out when +wanted." + +One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by Anastasius +in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been presented thereto +by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry, overlaid with silver +inside and out. In the middle were two porphyry pillars carrying a +golden dish, on which burnt the Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick +and fed with balsam). On the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with +silver statues of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags +poured out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional; the +majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine early +Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed, at Beer-Sheba. + +Few if any fonts survive older than the 11th century. These are all of +stone, except a few of lead; much less common are fonts of cast bronze +(a fine example, dated 1112, exists at the Church of St Barthelemy, +Liege). The most ancient are plain cylindrical bowls, with a +circular--sometimes cruciform or quatrefoil--outline to the basin, +either without support or with a single central pillar; occasionally +there is more than one pillar. The basins are usually lined with lead to +prevent absorption by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh, +possesses an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though the +circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts are not +infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone is found. +Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon; hexagons are even less +common, and pentagons very rare. There is a pentagonal font of this +period at Cabourg, dept. Calvados, N. France. + +Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief. Arcading +and interlacing work are common; so are symbol and pictorial +representation. A very remarkable leaden font is preserved at +Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in the life of Christ. +At Pont-a-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-reliefs of St John the Baptist +preaching, and baptizing Christ. Caryatides sometimes take the place of +the pillars, and sculptured animals and grotesques of strange design not +infrequently form the base. More remarkable is the occasional +persistence of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very +ancient font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a series of Christian +symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor (see +G. Stephens' brochure, _Thunor the Thunderer_). + +In the 13th century octagonal fonts became commoner. A very remarkable +example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim in Hanover, resting on +four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase from which water is running +(typical of the rivers of Paradise). Above is an inscription explaining +the connexion of these rivers with the virtues of temperance, courage, +justice and prudence. On the sides of the cup are representations of the +passage of the Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the +Virgin and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with +bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and +Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures of Our +Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles, exists at +Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set of four leonine hexameters inscribed +upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries octagonal fonts became the +rule. They are delicately ornamented with mouldings and similar +decorations, in the contemporary style of Gothic architectural art. +Though the basin is usually circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are +not infrequently found in which the outline of the basin follows the +octagonal shape of the outer surface of the vessel. Examples of this +type are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel. + +In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the Norman +conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude examples, such as +those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton, Sussex, are actually of Saxon +times; of course we cannot count as "Saxon fonts" those adapted from +pre-Norman sculptured stones originally designed for other purposes, +such as that at Dolton, Devonshire. On the other hand, Norman fonts are +very common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman +parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain, but +generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage, &c. Among +good examples that might be instanced of this period are Alphington, +Devon (inverted cone, without foot); Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on +caryatides); Ilam, Staffs (cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale, +Sculthorpe, Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the +last, remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a +projecting stoup in the side for the chrism--a unique detail); besides +others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffley, Oxon; Newenden, Kent; Coleshill, +Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome, Herefordshire. Some of the best +examples of "Norman" fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in +Winchester cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the +Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font at +Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden fonts that +remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in Gloucestershire, 4 +in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford and Sussex, 1 in Derby, +Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and Wiltshire); perhaps the finest +examples are at Ashover, Derbyshire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English +fonts are comparatively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth +ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of an Early +English font is at All Saints, Leicester; others may be seen at St +Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the Decorated period +are commoner, but not so frequent as those of the preceding Norman or +subsequent Perpendicular periods. Fonts of the Perpendicular period are +very common, and are generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem, +which, together with the body of the font, are frequently richly +ornamented with panelling. It was also the custom during this period to +ornament the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic +insignia, as at Herne, Kent. The fonts of this period, however, are as a +rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular work, are stiff +and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable font, with sculptured +figures, belonging to the late 14th century, at West Drayton in +Middlesex. + +In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal children +of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544 by Sir R. Lea, and +given by him to the church at St Albans, but was afterwards destroyed by +the Puritans. A silver font existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes +brought to Westminster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham, +Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the 16th +century. The only existing structure at all recalling the ancient +baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in Bedfordshire. The +font at Luton belongs to the Decorated style, and is enclosed in an +octagonal structure of freestone, consisting of eight pillars about 25 +ft. in height, supporting a canopy. The space around the font is large +enough to hold twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a +vessel for containing the consecrated water, which when required was let +down into the font by means of a pipe. + +In 1236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury, that +baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key, as a precaution +against sorcery:--"Fontes baptismales sub sera clausi teneantur propter +sortilegia." The lids appear at first to have been quite simple and +flat. They gradually, however, partook of the ornamentation of the font +itself, and are often of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated +with finials, crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers +are very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them to be raised +at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme, Oxon; St Gregory, +Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk; Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary +position of the font in the church was and is near the entrance, usually +to the left of the south door. + + See Arcisse de Caumont, _Cours d'antiquites monumentales_ (Paris, + 1830-1843); Francis Simpson, _A Series of Antient Baptismal Fonts_ + (London, 1828); Paley, Ancient Fonts; E.E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dict. + raisonne de l'architecture_ (1858-1868), vol. v.; J.H. Parker's + _Glossary of Architecture_; Francis Bond, _Fonts and Font-Covers_ + (London, 1908). A large number of fine illustrations of fonts, + principally of the earlier periods, will be found in the volumes of + the _Reliquary_ and _Illustrated Archaeologist_. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +FONTAINE, PIERRE FRANCOIS LEONARD (1762-1853), French architect, was +born at Pontoise on the 20th of September 1762. He came of a family +several of whose members had distinguished themselves as architects. +Leaving the college of Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to +L'Isle-Adam to assist in hydraulic works undertaken by the architect +Andre. To facilitate his improvement Andre allowed him to have access to +his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1779 he was sent to Paris +to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and there began his +acquaintance with Percier, which ripened into a life-long friendship. +After six years of study he competed for a prize at the Academy, and, +winning the second for the plan of an underground chapel, he received a +pension and was sent to Rome (1785). Percier accompanied him. The +Revolution breaking out soon after his return to France, he took refuge +in England; but after the establishment of the consulate he was +employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by the painter, +David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Henceforth he was fully +engaged in the principal architectural works executed in Paris as +architect successively to Napoleon I., Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe. +In conjunction with Percier (till his death) he was employed on the arch +of the Carrousel, the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand +staircase of the Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the +Louvre and the Tuileries. In 1812 he was admitted a member of the +Academy of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to the +emperor. With Percier he published the following works--_Palais_, +_maisons_, _et autres edifices de Rome moderne_ (1802); _Descriptions de +ceremonies et de fetes_ (1807 and 1810); _Recueil de decorations +interieures_ (1812); _Choix des plus celebres maisons de plaisance de +Rome et des environs_ (1809-1813); _Residences des souverains, +Parallele_ (1833). _L'histoire du Palais-Royal_ was published by +Fontaine alone, who lost Percier, his friend and associate, in 1838, and +himself died in Paris on the 10th of October 1853. + + + + +FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S.E. of Paris on the railway +to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 11,108. Fontainebleau, a town of clean, wide and +well-built streets, stands in the midst of the forest of Fontainebleau, +nearly 2 m. from the left bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the +Tambour mansion, and a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of +Ferrara, both of the 16th century, are still preserved; apart from the +palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue of General +Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, and a monument to +President Carnot was erected in 1895. Fontainebleau is the seat of a +subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. +The school of practical artillery and engineering was transferred to +Fontainebleau from Metz by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part +of the palace surrounding the cour des offices. + +Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills, and +manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes are grown in the +vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort, and during the season +the president of the Republic frequently resides in the palace. This +famous building, one of the largest, and in the interior one of the most +sumptuous, of the royal residences of France, lies immediately to the +south-east of the town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by +buildings, extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour du Cheval +Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of the parting scene between +Napoleon and the Old Guard in 1814), the Cour de la Fontaine, the Cour +Ovale, built on the site of a more ancient chateau, and the Cour d' +Henri IV.: the smaller Cour des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the +Cour Ovale. The exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. _Fons +Bleaudi_) are equally unknown, but the older chateau was used in the +latter part of the 12th century by Louis VII., who caused Thomas Becket +to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued a favourite +residence of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. The creator of the present +edifice was Francis I., under whom the architect Gilles le Breton +erected most of the buildings of the Cour Ovale, including the Porte +Doree, its southern entrance, and the Salle des Fetes, which, in the +reign of Henry II., was decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticcio +and Nicolo dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber +in France. The Galerie de Francois I. and the lower storey of the left +wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same architect, who +also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle St Saturnin. In the same reign +the Cour du Cheval Blanc, including the Chapelle de la Ste Trinite and +the Galerie d'Ulysse, destroyed and rebuilt under Louis XV., was +constructed by Pierre Chambiges. After Francis I., Fontainebleau owes +most to Henry IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des +Princes, with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cerfs, +used as a library. Louis XIII. built the graceful horseshoe staircase in +the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent 12,000,000 francs on works +of restoration, and Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe and Napoleon III. +devoted considerable sums to the same end. The palace is surrounded by +gardens and ornamental waters--to the north the Jardin de l'Orangerie, +to the south the Jardin Anglais and the Parterre, between which extends +the lake known as the Bassin des Carpes, containing carp in large +numbers. A space of over 200 acres to the east of the palace is covered +by the park, which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of +Henry IV. On the north the park is bordered by a vinery producing fine +white grapes. + +_Forest of Fontainebleau._--The forest of Fontainebleau is one of the +most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations it has been +the chosen haunt of French landscape painters. Among the most celebrated +spots are the Vallee de la Solle, the Gorge aux Loups, the Gorges de +Franchard and d'Apremont, and the Fort l'Empereur. The whole area +extends to 42,200 acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter +of this area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone +supplied a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech, +hornbeam and birch are the chief varieties of trees. + +It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the historical events +which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the Fair, Henry III. and +Louis XIII. were all born in the palace, and the first of these kings +died there. James V. of Scotland was there received by his intended +bride; and Charles V. of Germany was entertained there in 1539. +Christina of Sweden lived there for years, and the gallery is still to +be seen where in 1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to +death. In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the revocation of the +edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the great Conde. +In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests in Peter the Great of +Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark; and in the early part of the 19th +century it was twice the residence of Pius VII.,--in 1804 when he came +to consecrate the emperor Napoleon, and in 1812-1814, when he was his +prisoner. + + See Pfnor, _Monographie de Fontainebleau_, with text by Champollion + Figeac (Paris, 1866); _Guide artistique et historique au palais de + Fontainebleau_ (Paris, 1889); E. Bourges, _Recherches sur + Fontainebleau_ (Fontainebleau, 1896). + + + + +FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (1801-1839), French man of letters, was born at +Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began his career as a clerk in a +government office, but was dismissed for taking part in a political +banquet. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris and began to contribute +to the _Tablettes_ and the _Album_. He was brought to trial for +political articles written for the latter paper, but defended himself so +energetically that he secured the indefinite postponement of his case. +The offending paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a +collection of political poems, _Odes et epitres_, and a number of plays, +of which _Perkins Warbec_ (1828), written in collaboration with MM. +Halevy and Drouineau, was the most successful. In 1828 the _Album_ was +revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent but witty attack on +Charles X., entitled _Le Mouton enrage_ (20th June 1829). To escape the +inevitable prosecution Fontan fled over the frontier, but, finding no +safe asylum, he returned to Paris to give himself up to the authorities, +and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was +liberated by the revolution of 1830, and his _Jeanne la folle_, +performed in the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to +sympathy with the author's political principles than to the merits of +the piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton +history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ney, which he wrote +in collaboration with Charles Dupenty, _Le Proces d'un marechal de +France_ (printed 1831), was suppressed on the night of its production. +Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of October 1839. + + A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis of his + principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin's _Histoire de la + litterature dramatique_, vol. i. + + + + +FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect and mechanician, was +born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in 1543. After a good +training in mathematics, he went in 1563 to join his elder brother, then +studying architecture at Rome. He made rapid progress, and was taken +into the service of Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in +the church of Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the +cardinal's pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana +volunteered to complete the works in hand at his own expense. The +cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of Sixtus V., he +immediately appointed Fontana his chief architect. Amongst the works +executed by him were the Lateran palace, the palace of Monte Cavallo +(the Quirinal), the Vatican library, &c. But the undertaking which +brought Fontana the highest repute was the removal of the great Egyptian +obelisk, which had been brought to Rome in the reign of Caligula, from +the place where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in +front of St Peter's he accomplished in 1586. After the death of Sixtus +V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation of public +moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his post (1592). This +appears to have been just in time to save the Colosseum from being +converted by Fontana into a huge cloth factory, according to a project +of Sixtus V. Fontana was then called to Naples, and accepted the +appointment of architect to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples +he built the royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a +new harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only +literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the obelisk +(Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and was honoured with a public +funeral in the church of Santa Anna. His plan for a new harbour at +Naples was carried out only after his death. His son Giulio Cesare +succeeded him as royal architect in Naples, the university of that town +being his best-known building. + + + + +FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614), Italian portrait-painter, was the daughter +of Prospero Fontana (q.v.). She was greatly employed by the ladies of +Bologna, and, going thence to Rome, painted the likenesses of many +illustrious personages, being under the particular patronage of the +family (Buoncampagni) of Pope Gregory XIII., who died in 1585. The Roman +ladies, from the days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in +1605, showed no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had +done; and Paul V. was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits, +often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guido. In works of a +different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness. Among +the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum; the "Virgin lifting +a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the Escorial; and the "Queen +of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her own portrait in youth--she was accounted +very beautiful--was perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts +Zappi of Imola, the family into which Lavinia married. Her husband, +whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the draperies +in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the whole a better +painter than her father; from him naturally came her first instruction, +but she gradually adopted the Caraccesque style, with strong +quasi-Venetian colouring. She was elected into the Academy of Rome, and +died in that city in 1614. + + + + +FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597), Italian painter, was born in Bologna, and +became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola. He afterwards worked for Vasari +and Perino del Vaga. It was probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a +practice of offhand, self-displaying work. He undertook a multitude of +commissions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few +weeks an entire hall in the Vitelli palace at Citta di Castello. Along +with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works of parade he +attained a certain measure of success, although his drawing was +incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs to the degenerate +period of the Bolognese school, under the influence chiefly of the +imitators of Raphael--Sabbatini, Sammachini and Passerotti being three +of his principal colleagues. His soundest successes were in portraiture, +in which branch of art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo +introduced him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was +pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court with the +three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand scale, and figured +as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his professional brethren. +Returning to Bologna, after doing some work in Fontainebleau and in +Genoa, he opened a school of art, in which he became the preceptor of +Lodovico and Agostino Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as +reformers and innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue +of Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane history +and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in Bologna,--the +picture of the "Adoration of the Magi," in the church of S. Maria delle +Grazie, being considered his masterpiece--not unlike the style of Paul +Veronese. He died in Rome in 1597. + + + + +FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898), German poet and novelist, was born at +Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At the age of sixteen he was +apprenticed to a chemist, and after qualifying as an apothecary, he +found employment in Leipzig and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in +England, and settling in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature. +He made repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English +ballads, and as the first fruits of his tours published _Ein Sommer in +London_ (1854); _Aus England, Studien und Briefe_ (1860) and _Jenseit +des Tweed, Bilder und Briefe aus Schottland_ (1860). Fontane was +particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg, in which his home lay; +he was proud of its past achievements, and delighted in the growth of +the capital city, Berlin. The fascination which the country of his birth +had for him may be seen in his delightfully picturesque _Wanderungen +durch die Mark Brandenburg_ (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the +wars of Prussia in _Der schleswig-holsteinische Krieg im Jahre 1864_ +(1866) and _Der deutsche Krieg von 1866_ (1869). He proceeded to the +theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Vaucouleurs, +remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates in +_Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870_ (1871), and he published the result of +his observations of the campaign in _Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71_ +(1874-1876). Like most of his contemporaries, he at first sought +inspiration for his poetry in the heroes of other countries. His +_Gedichte_ (1851) and ballads _Manner und Helden_ (1860) tell of +England's glories in bygone days. Then the achievements of his own +countrymen entered into rivalry, and these, as an ardent patriot, he +immortalized in poem and narrative. It is, however, as a novelist that +Fontane is best known. His fine historical romance _Vor dem Sturm_ +(1878) was followed by a series of novels of modern life: _L'Adultera_ +(1882); _Schach von Wuthenow_ (1883); _Irrungen, Wirrungen_ (1888); +_Stine_ (1890); _Unwiederbringlich_ (1891); _Effi Briest_ (1895); _Der +Stechlin_ (1899), in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the +realistic methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to +the conditions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September 1898 +at Berlin. + + Fontane's _Gesammelte Romane und Erzahlungen_ were published in 12 + vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1905). For his life see the + autobiographical works _Meine Kinderjahre_ (1894) and _Von zwanzig bis + dreissig_ (1898), also _Briefe an seine Familie_ (1905); also F. + Servaes, _Theodor Fontane_ (1900). + + + + +FONTANES, LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1821), French poet and politician, was +born at Niort (Deux Sevres) on the 6th of March 1757. He belonged to a +noble Protestant family of Languedoc which had been reduced to poverty +by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father and grandfather +remained Protestant, but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His +parents died in 1774-1775, and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where he +found a friend in the dramatist J.F. Ducis. His first published poems, +some of which were inspired by English models, appeared in the _Almanack +des Muses_; "Le Cri de mon coeur," describing his own sad childhood, in +1778; and "La Foret de Navarre" in 1780. His translation from Alexander +Pope, _L'Essai sur l'homme_, was published with an elaborate preface in +1783, and _La Chartreuse_ and _Le Jour des morts_ in the same year, _Le +Verger_ in 1788 and his _Epitre sur l'edit en faveur des +non-catholiques_, and the _Essai sur l'astronomie_ in 1789. Fontanes was +a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became joint-editor of the +_Moderateur_. He married at Lyons in 1792, and his wife's first child +was born during their flight from the siege of that town. Fontanes was +in hiding in Paris when the four citizens of Lyons were sent to the +Convention to protest against the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The +petition was drawn up by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered, +he fled from Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and +afterwards at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made professor +of literature in the Ecole Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and he was one +of the original members of the Institute. In the _Memorial_, a journal +edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated reaction to the monarchical +principle. He was exiled by the Directory and made his way to London, +where he was closely associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to +France, and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him to write +an _eloge_ on Washington, secured his return to the Institute and his +political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the legislative chamber, +of which he was president from 1804 to 1810. Other honours and titles +followed. He has been accused of servility to Napoleon, but he had the +courage to remonstrate with him on the judicial murder of the due +d'Enghien, and as grand master of the university of Paris (1808-1815) he +consistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He +acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marquis in 1817. +He died on the 17th of March 1821 in Paris, leaving eight cantos of an +unfinished epic poem entitled _La Grece sauvee_. + +The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style of the 18th +century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sainte-Beuve edited the +_Oeuvres_ (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sympathetic critical study of +the author and his career. But by that time the Romantic movement was in +the ascendant and Fontanes met with small appreciation. + + + + +FONTENAY-LE-COMTE, a town of western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Vendee 30 m. N.E. of La Rochelle on +the State railway between that town and Saumur. Pop. (1906) town, 7639; +commune, 10,326. Fontenay, an ancient and straggling town, is situated a +few miles south of the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the +Vendee, at the point where it becomes navigable. The church of +Notre-Dame (15th to 18th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly +sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (16th and 17th +centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The town has several +houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most remarkable of these is +the Hotel de Terre Neuve (1595-1600), which contains much rich +decoration together with collections of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay +was the birthplace of many prominent men during the 15th and 16th +centuries, and the Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the +Renaissance style, given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates +the fact. The chief square is named after Francois Viete, the great +mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1540. The public institutions +of the town include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. +Among its industries are the manufacture of felt hats, oil and soap and +timber-sawing, flour-milling and tanning. There is trade in horses, +mules, timber, grain, fruit, &c. + +Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls. The affix +of "comte" is said to have been applied to it when it was taken by King +Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan and given to his brother Alphonse, +count of Poitou, under whom it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to +the English by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by +Duguesclin. It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of +the 16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied both by the +republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793. From 1790 to 1806 it +was capital of the department of Vendee. + + + + +FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (1657-1757), French author, was born at +Rouen, on the 11th of February 1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of +January 1757, having thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His +father was an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two +Corneille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in his native +city, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary precocity and +versatility of his talents. His teachers, who readily appreciated these, +were anxious for him to join their order, but his father had designed +him for the bar, and an advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost +the first cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and +gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. His attention was first +directed to poetry; and more than once he competed for prizes of the +French Academy, but never with success. He visited Paris from time to +time and established intimate relations with the abbe de Saint Pierre, +the abbe Vertot and the mathematician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in +1680, the total failure of his tragedy _Aspar_. Fontenelle afterwards +acknowledged the justice of the public verdict by burning his +unfortunate drama. His opera of _Thetis et Pelee_, 1689, though highly +praised by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and +it may be regarded as significant that of all his dramatic works not one +has kept the stage. His _Poesies pastorales_ (1688) have no greater +claim to permanent repute, being characterized by stiffness and +affectation; and the utmost that can be said for his poetry in general +is that it displays much of the _limae labor_, great purity of diction +and occasional felicity of expression. + +His _Lettres galantes du chevalier d'Her_ ..., published anonymously in +1685, was an amusing collection of stories that immediately made its +mark. In 1686 his famous allegory of Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised +as the rival princesses Mreo and Eenegu, in the _Relation de l'ile de +Borneo_, gave proof of his daring in religious matters. But it was by +his _Nouveaux Dialogues des morts_ (1683) that Fontenelle established a +genuine claim to high literary rank; and that claim was enhanced three +years later by the appearance of the _Entretiens sur la pluralite des +mondes_ (1686), a work which was among the very first to illustrate the +possibility of being scientific without being either uninteresting or +unintelligible to the ordinary reader. His object was to popularize +among his countrymen the astronomical theories of Descartes; and it may +well be doubted if that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or +successful expositor among his disciples. + +Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home in Rouen, but in 1687 he removed +to Paris; and in the same year he published his _Histoire des oracles_, +a book which made a considerable stir in theological and philosophical +circles. It consisted of two essays, the first of which was designed to +prove that oracles were not given by the supernatural agency of demons, +and the second that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It +excited the suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by name Baltus, +published a ponderous refutation of it; but the peace-loving disposition +of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered. To the +following year (1688) belongs his _Digression sur les anciens et les +modernes_, in which he took the modern side in the controversy then +raging; his _Doutes sur le systeme physique des causes occasionnelles_ +(against Malebranche) appeared shortly afterwards. + +In 1691 he was received into the French Academy in spite of the +determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this quarrel, +especially of Racine and Boileau, who on four previous occasions had +secured his rejection. He consequently was admitted a member both of the +Academy of Inscriptions and of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he +became perpetual secretary to the latter body. This office he actually +held for the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official +capacity that he wrote the _Histoire du renouvellement de l'Academie des +Sciences_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1722) containing extracts and +analyses of the proceedings, and also the _eloges_ of the members, +written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best known of +his _eloges_, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that of his uncle +Pierre Corneille. This was first printed in the _Nouvelles de la +republique des lettres_ (January 1685) and, as _Vie de Corneille_, was +included in all the editions of Fontenelle's _Oeuvres_. The other +important works of Fontenelle are his _Elements de la geometrie de +l'infini_ (1727) and his _Apologie des tourbillons_ (1752). Fontenelle +forms a link between two very widely different periods of French +literature, that of Corneille, Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and +that of Voltaire, D'Alembert and Diderot on the other. It is not in +virtue of his great age alone that this can be said of him; he actually +had much in common with the _beaux esprits_ of the 17th century, as well +as with the _philosophes_ of the 18th. But it is to the latter rather +than to the former period that he properly belongs. + +He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-Beuve has +said, he well deserves a place "_dans la classe des esprits infiniment +distingues_"--distinguished, however, it ought to be added by +intelligence rather than by intellect, and less by the power of saying +much than by the power of saying a little well. In personal character he +has sometimes been described as having been revoltingly heartless; and +it is abundantly plain that he was singularly incapable of feeling +strongly the more generous emotions--a misfortune, or a fault, which +revealed itself in many ways. "_Il faut avoir de l'ame pour avoir du +gout._" But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken +too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the esteem of +many friends suffices to show that the theoretical selfishness which he +sometimes professed cannot have been consistently and at all times +carried into practice. + + There have been several collective editions of Fontenelle's works, the + first being printed in 3 vols. at the Hague in 1728-1729. The best is + that of Paris, in 8 vols. 8vo, 1790. Some of his separate works have + been very frequently reprinted and also translated. The _Pluralite des + mondes_ was translated into modern Greek in 1794. Sainte-Beuve has an + interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several useful references, in + the _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii. See also Villemain, _Tableau de la + litterature francaise au XVIII^e siecle_; the abbe Trublet, _Memoires + pour servir a l'histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de + Fontenelle_ (1759); A. Laborde-Milaa, _Fontenelle_ (1905), in the + "Grands ecrivains francais" series; and L. Maigron, _Fontenelle, + l'homme, l'oeuvre, l'influence_ (Paris, 1906). + + + + +FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, about 4 m. +S.E. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of Fontenoy, in which +on the 11th of May 1745 the French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the +Anglo-Allied army under the duke of Cumberland. The object of the French +(see also AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE) was to cover the siege of the +then important fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies, who slowly +advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed of the impending attack, +Louis XV., with the dauphin, came with all speed to witness the +operations, and by his presence to give Saxe, who was in bad health and +beset with private enemies, the support necessary to enable him to +command effectively. Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal +Konigsegg, and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of +Waldeck. + +The right of the French position (see map) rested on the river at +Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned, between Antoing and +Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed, and Fontenoy itself was +put in a complete state of defence. On the left rear of this line, and +separated from Fontenoy by some furlongs of open ground, another redoubt +was made at the corner of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain. +The infantry was arrayed in deployed lines behind the Antoing-Fontenoy +redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood; behind them +was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were guarded by a mounted +volunteer corps called _Grassins_. At Calonne the marshal had +constructed three military bridges against the contingency of a forced +retreat. The force of the French was about 60,000 of all arms, not +including 22,000 left in the lines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself, +who was suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unable to +mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the troops. +At early dawn of the 11th of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian army with the +Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vezon, facing towards Fontenoy +and the wood, while the Dutch on their left extended the general line to +Peronne. The total force was 46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe +could actually put into the line of battle. + +The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Konigsegg and Waldeck on the +10th grew out of circumstances. A preliminary skirmish had cleared the +broken ground immediately about Vezon and revealed a part of the +defender's dispositions. It was resolved that the Dutch should attack +the front Antoing-Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank +attack against Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground +between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round the wood was +projected but had to be given up, as in the late evening of the 10th the +Allies' light cavalry drew fire from its southern edge. Cumberland then +ordered his cavalry commander to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to +cover the formation of the infantry. On the morning of the 11th another +and most important modification had to be made. The advance was +beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became visible. +Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby (major and +brevet-colonel 1st Guards), with four regiments and an artillery +detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing its fire with that of +Fontenoy, seemed absolutely to inhibit the development of the flank +attack. At 6 A.M. the brigade moved off, but it was irresolutely handled +and halted time after time; and after waiting as long as possible, the +British and Hanoverian cavalry under Sir James Campbell rode forward and +extended in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious +cannonade which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir +John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were to have +covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns of the Dutch +towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry forward through the lanes, +each unit on reaching open ground covering the exit and deployment of +the one in rear, all under the French cannonade. This went on for two +hours, and save that it showed the magnificent discipline of the British +and Hanoverian regiments, was a bad prelude to the real attack. +Cumberland's own exertions brought a few small guns to the front of the +Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed Antoine +Louis, duc de Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Francaises, and another +Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Saxe's artillery commander. + +[Illustration: Map of Fontenoy.] + +It was now 9 A.M., and while the guns from the wood redoubt battered the +upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby's brigade was huddled together, +motionless, on the right. Cumberland himself galloped thither, and under +his reproaches Ingoldsby lost the last remnants of self-possession. To +Sir John Ligonier's aide-de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a +bitterly formal order to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied that the +duke's orders were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main body. +By now, too, the Dutch advance against Antoing-Fontenoy had collapsed. + +But on the right the cannonade and the blunders together had roused a +stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and the men they led. +Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, the Hanoverian general +Zastrow, gave up the right attack and brought his battalions into the +main body. A second halfhearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by +some Dutch troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of +these battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highland +regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their own accord. +Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian field-marshal had agreed to +take all risks and to storm through between Fontenoy and the wood +redoubt, and had launched the great attack, one of the most celebrated +in the history of war. The English infantry was in two lines. The +Hanoverians on their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to +file into third line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were +the battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, man-drawn, +accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavalry followed. The column +may have numbered 14,000 infantry. All the infantry battalions closed on +their centre, the normal three ranks becoming six. If the proper +distances between lines were preserved, the mass must have formed an +oblong about 500 yds X 600 yds (excluding the cavalry). + +The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the head of the front line and +gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in parade order, drums beating +and colours flying, the mass advanced, straight up the gentle slope, +which was swept everywhere by the flanking artillery of the defence. +Then, when the first line reached the low crest on the ends of which +stood the French artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full +enfilade from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and +foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the front +gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to avoid the fire. +Then the French advanced, and the Guards Brigade and the Gardes +Francaises met face to face. Captain Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760), +lieutenant of the First (Grenadier) Guards, suddenly ran in front of the +line, took off his hat to the enemy and drank to them from a pocket +flask, shouting a taunt, "We hope you will stand till we come up to you, +and not swim the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his +own men, he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers +returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether or not the +French, as legend states, were asked and refused to fire first, the +whole British line fired one tremendous series of volleys by companies. +50 officers and 760 men of the three foremost French regiments fell at +once, and at so appalling a loss the remnant broke and fled. Three +hundred paces farther on stood the second line of the French, and slowly +the mass advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well inside the +French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that swept the +crest it had passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up, the +assailants were practically in square and repelled various partial +attacks coming from all sides. The Regiment du Roi lost 33 officers and +345 men at the hands of the Second (Coldstream) Guards. But these +counter-attacks gained a few precious minutes for the French. It was the +crisis of the battle. The king, though the court meditated flight, stood +steady with the dauphin at his side,--Fontenoy was the one great day of +Louis XV.'s life,--and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse to collect +his cavalry for a charge. The British and Hanoverians were now at a +standstill. More and heavier counter-strokes were repulsed, but no +progress was made; their cavalry was unable to get to the front, and +Saxe was by now thinking of victory. Captain Isnard of the Touraine +regiment suggested artillery to batter the face of the square, +preparatory to a final charge. General Lowendahl galloped up to Saxe, +crying, "This is a great day for the king; they will never escape!" The +nearest guns were planted in front of the assailants, and used with +effect. The infantry, led by Lowendahl, fastened itself on the sides of +the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaux and the Irish +Brigade conspicuous above the rest. On the front, waiting for the cannon +to do its work, were the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmerie and all the +light cavalry, under Saxe himself, the duke of Richelieu and count +d'Estrees. The left wing of the Allies was still inactive, and troops +were brought up from Antoing and Fontenoy to support the final blow. +About 2 P.M. it was delivered, and in eight minutes the square was +broken. As the infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn +groups the French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts +to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and they +regained the broken ground about Vezon, whence they had come. Cumberland +himself and all the senior generals remained with the rearguard. + +The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat less than +normally heavy when distributed over the whole of both armies, but +exceedingly severe in the units really engaged. Eight out of nineteen +regiments of British infantry lost over 200 men, two of these more than +300. A tribute to the loyalty and discipline of the British, as compared +with the generality of armies in those days, may be found in the fact +that the three Guards' regiments had no "missing" men whatever. The 23rd +(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 322 casualties. Boschlanger's Hanoverian +regiment suffered even more heavily, and four others of that nation had +200 or more casualties. The total loss was about 7500, that of the +French 7200. The French "Royal" regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men; +some other regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch +lost a bare 7% of their strength. + +Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the Prussian Guards +at St Privat is to-day, _a locus classicus_ for military theorists. But +the technical features of the battle are completely overshadowed by its +epic interest, and above all it illustrates the permanent and +unchangeable military characteristics of the British and French nations. + + + + +FONTEVRAULT, or FONTEVRAUD (Lat. _Fons Ebraldi_), a town of western +France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 10 m. S.E. of Saumur by +road and 2-1/2 m. from the confluence of the Loire and Vienne. Pop. +(1906) 1279. It is situated in the midst of the forest of Fontevrault. +The interest of the place centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has +been utilized and abused as a central house of detention for convicts. +The church (12th century), of which only the choir and apse are +appropriated to divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by +four cupolas destroyed in 1816. There is a fifth cupola above the +crossing. In a chapel in the south transept are the effigies of Henry +II. of England, of his wife Eleanor of Guienne, of Richard I. of England +and of Isabella of Angouleme, wife of John of England--Eleanor's being +of oak and the rest of stone. The cloister, refectory and chapter-house +date from the 16th century. The second court of the abbey contains a +remarkable building, the Tour d'Evrault (12th century), which long went +under the misnomer of _chapelle funeraire_, but was in reality the old +kitchen. Details and diagrams will be found in Viollet-le-Duc's +_Dictionnaire de l'architecture_. There are three stories, the whole +being surmounted by a pyramidal structure. + +The _Order of Fontevrault_ was founded about 1100 by Robert of +Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec, in the +diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher and ascetic. +The establishment was a double monastery, containing a nunnery of 300 +nuns and a monastery of 200 monks, separated completely so that no +communication was allowed except in the church, where the services were +carried on in common; there were, moreover, a hospital for 120 lepers +and other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by the +nuns. The basis of the life was the Benedictine rule, but the observance +of abstinence and silence went beyond it in stringency. The special +feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled the monks as well as +the nuns. At the beginning the order had a great vogue, and at the time +of Robert's death, 1117, there were several monasteries and 3000 nuns; +afterwards the number of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the +same plan. The institute never throve out of France; there were attempts +to introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were three +houses--at Ambresbury (Amesbury in Wiltshire), Nuneaton, and Westwood in +Worcestershire. The nuns in England as in France were recruited from the +highest families, and the abbess of Fontevrault, who was the +superior-general of the whole order, was usually of the royal family of +France. + + See P. Helyot, _Hist, des ordres religieuses_ (1718), vi. cc. 12, 13; + Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1907), i. 46; the arts. + "Fontevrauld" in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), supply full references to + the literature. The most recent monograph is Edouard, _Fontevrault et + ses monuments_ (1875); for the later history see art. by Edmund Bishop + in _Downside Review_ (1886). (E. C. B.) + + + + +FOOD (like the verb "to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. +_foda_; cf. "fodder"; connected with Gr. [Greek: pateiothai], to feed), +the general term for what is eaten by man and other creatures for the +sustenance of life. The scientific aspect of human food is dealt with +under NUTRITION and DIETETICS. + +_Infancy._--The influence of a normal diet upon the health of man (we +exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must depend on the +abnormal conditions existing) begins at the earliest stage of his life. +No food has as yet been found so suitable for the young of all animals +as their mother's milk. This, however, has not been from want of +seeking. Dr Brouzet (_Sur l'education medicinale des enfants_, i. p. +165) had such a bad opinion of human mothers, that he expressed a wish +for the state to interfere and prevent them from suckling their +children, lest they should communicate immorality and disease! A still +more determined pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who +thought life had been reduced to its present shortness by our inborn +propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer and honey +for milk, which latter he calls "brute's food." Baron Justus von Liebig, +as the result of his chemical researches, introduced a "food for +infants," which in more modern days has been followed by a +multiplication of patent foods. A close imitation of human milk may also +be made by the addition to fresh cow's milk of half its bulk of soft +water, in each pint of which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of +powdered "sugar of milk" and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These +artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value where +for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food, however, for +the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone. A vigorous baby +can indeed bear with impunity much rough usage, and often appears none +the worse for a certain quantity of farinaceous food; but the majority +do not get habituated to it without an exhibition of dislike which +indicates rebellion of the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on +their way to the front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands +secrete an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then +anything but milk must be given tentatively, and considered in the light +of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition. + +The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's age, partly +by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth nine times out of +ten consists of the lower central front teeth, which may appear any time +during the sixth and seventh month. The mother may then begin to +diminish the number of suckling times; and by a month she can have +reduced them to twice a day, so as to be ready when the second group +makes its way through the upper front gums to cut off the supply +altogether. The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders, +usually after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid +food can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a +considerable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which +seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month. + +_Childhood and Youth._--At this stage of life the diet must obviously be +the best which is a transition from that of infancy to that of adult +age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire surrender of every +consideration to the claim of growth is not possible, nor indeed +desirable. Moreover, that abundance of adipose tissue, or reserve new +growth, which a baby can bear is an impediment to the due education of +the muscles of the boy or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so +continuous as before, but at the same time should be more frequent than +for the adult. Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule +should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in nutritive +power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate, all sufficient. The +maturity the body then reaches involves a hardening and enlargement of +the bones and cartilages, and a strengthening of the digestive organs, +which in healthy young persons enables us to dispense with some of the +watchful care bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are +generally sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be +allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition which +has hitherto been paramount. + +_Adults._--It is only necessary here to refer to the article on +DIETETICS (see also VEGETARIANISM) for a discussion of the food of +normal adults; and to such headings as DIETARY (for fixed allowances) or +COOKERY. Different staple articles of food are dealt with under their +own headings. For animals other than man see the respective articles on +them. + + Among numerous books on the subject, in addition to those enumerated + under DIETETICS, see Sir Henry Thompson's _Foods and Feeding_ (1894); + Hart's _Diet in Sickness and Health_ (1896); Knight, _Food and its + Functions_ (1895). + + + + +FOOD PRESERVATION. The preservation of food material beyond the short +term during which it naturally keeps sound and eatable has engaged human +thought from the earliest dawn of civilization. Necessity compelled man +to store the plenitude of one season or place against the need of +another. The hunter dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man +preserved milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented +grape-juice into wine. With the separation of country from town, the +development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricultural and +food-producing people, the spreading of civilized man from torrid to +arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and sea and of armies on +the march, the problem of the prevention of the natural decomposition to +which nearly all food substances are liable became increasingly urgent, +and forms to-day, next to the production of food, the most important +problem in connexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long +as the reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at +preservation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless processes +which have during modern times been proposed and attempted comparatively +few have stood the test of experience. In the light of modern knowledge, +however, the guiding principles appear to be very simple. + +Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it were, of their +own accord. They may lose water by evaporation, and fatty substances may +alter by the absorption of oxygen from the air. They are otherwise quite +stable and unchangeable while not attacked and eaten up by living +organisms, or while the life with which they may be endowed is in a +state of suspense. An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its +ripening change; a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alter. A +substance, in order to be a food material, must be decomposable under +the attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be +available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the life +be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower organism. All +decomposition of food is due to the development within the food of +living organisms. Under conditions under which living organisms cannot +enter or cannot develop food keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length +of time. The problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore, +into that of keeping out or killing off all living things that might +feed upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly belong +to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food preservation +is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist. + +The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily intelligible when +once their biological origin is recognized. Yeasts cause the +decomposition of saccharine substances into alcohol and carbon dioxide, +acetic and lactic ferments produce from sugar or from alcohol the +organic acids causing the souring of food, moulds as a rule cause +oxidation and complete destruction of organic matter, nitrogenous or +saccharine, while most bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous +constituents, producing albumoses and peptones and breaking up the +complex albumen-molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to +alkaloids, generally with the production of evil-smelling gases. These +processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently take place +successively in the decomposition of food, one set of organisms taking +up the work of destruction as the conditions become favourable to its +development and unfavourable to its predecessor. The organisms may come +from the air, the soil or from animal sources. The air teems with +organisms which settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable +nidus; the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid life; +while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of all animals +harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms in countless millions. +Whenever, therefore, food material is exposed to the air, or touched by +the soil or by animals or man, it becomes infected with living cells, +which by their development lead to its decomposition and destruction. + +Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chemicals; or their +development may be arrested by cold, removal of water, or by the +presence of agents inhibiting their growth though not destroying their +life. All successful processes of food preservation depend upon one or +other of these circumstances. + +_Preservation by Heat._--At the boiling-point of water all living cells +perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for about three hours. +Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75 deg. C. (167 deg. F.) in the +presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty at 140 deg. +C. (284 deg. F.). Destruction of life takes place more rapidly in +solutions showing an acid than a feebly alkaline reaction; hence acid +fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which, when quite fresh, is +alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food becomes temporarily sterile, until +a fresh crop of organisms finds access from the air. By repeated cooking +all food can be indefinitely preserved. One of the most important +functions of cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts +against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use of certain +fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbarous ages; few +materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and in vegetables some sort of +sterilizing process is attempted by washing (of salads) or removal of +the outer skin (of fruits). All preparation of food for the table, +cooking being the most important, tends towards preservation, but is +effectual only for a few hours or days at most, unless special means are +adopted to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam with a +thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with a thin layer of +lard, attempts unconsciously to bar the road to bacteria and other +minute organisms. To preserve food in a permanent manner and on a +commercial scale it has to be cooked in a receptacle which must be +sufficiently strong for transport, cheap, light and unattacked by the +material in contact with it. None of the receptacles at present in use +quite fulfils the whole of these conditions: glass and china are heavy +and fragile, and their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called +tin-plate, is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing to +its strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-increasing +scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrought iron, now +generally consists of steel containing but very little carbon; it is +cleaned by immersion in acid and covered with a very thin layer of pure +tin, all excess of tin being removed by hot rollers and brushes. The +layer of tin, which formerly constituted from 3 to 5% of the total +weight of the plate, has, owing to the increased price of tin and the +improvement in machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight is +only from 1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is imperfect, +perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all acid +juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception of milk, +all human food is slightly acid, and consequently all food that has been +preserved in tin canisters contains variable traces of dissolved tin. +Happily, salts of tin have but little physiological action. +Nevertheless, the employment cf tin-plate for very acid materials, like +tomatoes, peaches, &c., is very objectionable. + +The process of preservation in canisters is carried out as +follows:--The canister, which has been made either by the use of solder +or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material to be +preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the interstices +the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally the former. +Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in pressure chambers, +which are heated by steam to 120 deg. C. or more. The tins are exposed +to that temperature for such time as experience has shown to be +necessary to heat the contents throughout to at least 100 deg. C. The +temperature is then allowed to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of +water, when the tins can be taken out of the pressure chamber, or they +are placed in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride +and are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a small +aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the +expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means of a drop of +solder. This process, which was originally introduced by Francois Appert +early in the 19th century, is employed on an enormous scale, especially +in America. The use of lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the +tin covered with a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. +Imperfect sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development +within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and drummy. More +frequently than not the contents of the larger tins, containing meat or +other animal products, are not absolutely sterile, but the conditions +are mostly such that the organisms which have survived the cooking +process cannot develop. When they can develop without formation of gas +dangerous products of decomposition may be produced without showing +themselves to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine +poisoning have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated with +preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although no class of +preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine formation. The +formation of poisonous substances has never been traced to preserved +fruit or other material poor in nitrogen. The mode of preserving food in +china or glass is quite similar, but the losses by breakage are not +inconsiderable. Food which has been preserved in tins is sometimes +transferred to glass and re-sterilized, the feeling against "tinned" +food caused by the "Chicago scandals" not having entirely subsided. Were +it not for the facts that sterilization is rarely quite perfect, and +that the food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to +keep for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances, +however, there is a distinct limit to the age of soundness of canned +food. + +_Preservation by Chemicals._--Salt is the oldest chemical preservative +and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and with wood-smoke, +has been used for many centuries, mainly as a meat preservative. It is +used either dry in layers strewn on the surface of the meat or fish to +be preserved, or in the form of brine in which the meat is submerged or +which is injected into the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is +but moderate. It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is +non-injurious, that an excess at once betrays itself in the taste, and +that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When aided by +wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power upon traces of +creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite efficient. The addition +of saltpetre is principally for the purpose of giving to the meat a +bright pink tint. The strongly saline taste of pickled meat or salted +butter appears gradually to have become repugnant to a large part of +mankind, and other preservatives have come into use, possessing greater +bactericidal power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to +them is discussed in the article ADULTERATION. At the present time the +use of borax or boracic acid is almost universal in England. Meat which +has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde, and has thus been +superficially sterilized, is also coming into commerce in increasing +quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is distinctly poisonous, and has the +property of combining with albuminoids and rendering them completely +insoluble in the digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are +not infrequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages or +deterioration of so-called "potted meats," which are supposed to last +fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable length of +time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites are chiefly used in the preservation +of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium fluoride has been found in +butter. The whole of these substances possess decided and injurious +physiological properties. Alcohol now rarely forms a preservative of +food material, its employment being confined to small fruit. The use of +sugar as a preservative depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute +solution it is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it +possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concentrated +syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less does not undergo +any biological change; in the presence of organic acids, like those +contained in fruit, growth of organisms is inhibited when the percentage +of water is somewhat greater. Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in +the manufacture of jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the +surface of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains +unaffected and unaltered. + +_Preservation by Drying._--Food materials in which the percentage of +moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little liable to +bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent _Penicillium_. +Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts, which are laden with +otherwise decomposable food material, by the simple expedient of water +removal. The life of cereal grains and many seeds appears to be +unlimited. By the removal of water the most perishable materials, like +meat or eggs, can be rendered unchangeable, except so far as the +inevitable oxidation of the fatty substances contained in them is +concerned and which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat, +upon which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of +attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting for comparatively small +articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish. It has been +superseded even among less civilized communities by the spread of canned +food. Fruit, however, is very largely preserved in the dried state. +Grapes are sun-dried and thus form currants, raisins and sultanas, the +last variety being often bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums, +apples and pears are artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on +wire sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated with +notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried vegetables, +including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans and cabbages, are also +manufactured. + +The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to some +extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due to J. von +Liebig and Max von Pettenkofer, and dates from the middle of the 19th +century. The soluble material is extracted mainly from beef, in +Australia to some extent from mutton, by means of warm water; the +albumen is coagulated by heat and removed, and the broths thus obtained +are evaporated _in vacuo_ until the extract contains no more than about +20% of water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 25 lb. of lean +beef. + +_Preservation by Refrigeration._--At or below the freezing-point of +water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multiplication. +Although it has been asserted that many of them perish when kept for +some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that the vast majority +of bacteria and their germs remain merely dormant. Even so highly +organized structures as cereal seeds do not suffer in vitality on being +kept for a considerable length of time at the far lower temperature of +liquid air. Biological change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point, +and as long as that temperature is maintained food material remains +unaltered, except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation of +water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical alterations due to +oxidation. + +Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a reasonably +long time, and without the addition of any preservative substance, food +in a raw condition. It is the only process of preservation which from a +sanitary point of view is entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and +properly employed. Its introduction on a commercial scale has more +powerfully affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less +degree, of the United States than any other scientific advance since +the establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities of +frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are introduced in +the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until required. +Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have become almost +impossible, and the abundance of Australian and New Zealand ranches, and +of West Indian orchards, has been made readily accessible to the British +consumer. For household purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers +suffices to preserve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used +for the purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored +from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far larger +quantity is artificially produced by the methods described in the +article on REFRIGERATING, which also contains an account of the means by +which low temperatures are produced for industrial purposes of +importation and storage. Fleets of steamships fitted with refrigerating +machinery and insulated cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food +materials, which are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses, +markets and hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July +1873 from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory state. +In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America. The first cargo of +frozen meat was successfully brought to the United Kingdom in 1880 from +Australia in the "Strathleven," fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine. +The temperature in the cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34 deg. +F., whilst in the chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the +freezing room or chambers a much lower temperature (between 0 deg. and +10 deg. F.) is maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled +slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent damage +by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice. The carcasses when +freezing must be hung separated from each other, but for storage or +transportation they are packed tightly together. Fish such as salmon is +washed, thoroughly cleansed, and frozen on trays. Butter should be +cooled as rapidly as possible to about 10 deg. F.; its composition as +regards proportion of volatile fatty-acids, &c., remains absolutely +unaltered for years. Cheese should only be cold-stored when nearly ripe +and should not be frozen. Eggs must be carefully selected, each one +being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases holding about +three hundred, which are taken first to a room in which they are slowly +cooled to about 33 deg. F., and are then kept in store just below +freezing-point. Particular attention must be paid to the relative +humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit should be quite fresh; grapes +may be chilled to 26 deg. F., while lemons cannot safely be kept at a +lower temperature than 36 deg. The time during which soft fruit can be +kept even in cold-store is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks. + +In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable prejudice +existed against stored meat. While in many cases the flavour of fresh +meat is rather superior, the food value is in no way altered by +cold-storage.[1] + +_Preservation by Pickling other than Salt._--For the preservation of +vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to a +limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute solution of +sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage of eggs the more +aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a portion of its water to the +more concentrated yolk, which thereby expands and renders its thin +containing-membrane liable to rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats +and salmon, is preserved by packing in olive or other oil. + +The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely, milk, +deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that alkaline +liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat than acid +materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour which milk +undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact that milk forms +perhaps the best medium for the growth and propagation of bacterial +organisms, there is exceptional difficulty in its sterilization. As +secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly sterile fluid, and, as shown +by Sir J. Lister, when drawn under aseptic conditions and kept under +such, it remains definitely fresh and sweet. Bacterial and other +pollution at the time of milking arises from the animal, the stable, the +milker and the vessels. In animals suffering from tuberculosis and other +bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the udder. Milk as +it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,000 bacteria and +often many millions per cubic centimetre. In fresh country cream 100 +millions per cubic centimetre are not unusual. These bacteria are of +many kinds, some of them spore-bearing. The spores are more difficult to +kill than the adult organism. The first step towards preservation is the +removal of the dirt unavoidably present, to the particles of which a +considerable proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through +cloths or, better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effects +that removal. Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by a +breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a jet of the +milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plate, a process +known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the cream separates slowly, +and does not form the coherent layer thrown up by ordinary milk. Heating +is then effected either after bottling or by passing the milk +continuously through pipes in which it is heated to from 160 deg. to 170 +deg. F. By a repetition of the heating process on two or more succeeding +days, complete sterilization may be effected, although a single +treatment is sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many +forms of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the general +introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in Denmark for the +feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these animals has +practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the use of +sterilized milk is now very general. In England it has found little +favour in households, but is making rapid progress on board ship. + +Milk which has been condensed has for many years found a most extensive +sale. The first efforts to condense and thus preserve milk date from +1835, when an English patent was granted to Newton. In 1849 C.N. +Horsford prepared condensed milk with the addition of lactose. +Commercially successful milk condensation began in 1856. The milk is +heated to about 180 deg. F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, +after having been mixed with from 10 to 12 parts of sugar per 100 parts +of milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122 deg. F., and +is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such concentration that +100 parts of the condensed milk, including the sugar, contain the solids +of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened condensed milk, although rarely quite +sterile, keeps indefinitely, and is invariably brought into commerce in +tin canisters. The preparation of sweetened condensed milk forms one of +the most important branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is +steadily increasing in England. Although milk can quite well be +preserved in the form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically +possesses immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which the +balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very unfavourable, such +unsweetened milk has found little or no favour. Milk powder is +manufactured under various patents, the most successful of which depends +upon the addition of sodium bicarbonate and the subsequent rapid +evaporation of the milk on steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk +powder made from skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but +full-cream milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of +the finely divided butter-fat. It is largely employed in the preparation +of so-called milk chocolates. (O. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Per contra_, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the + _Year-book for 1907_ (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. + 197-206, with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two + and three years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on + the efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an "indefinite" period + is concerned; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat + may really account for various modern diseases. + + + + +FOOL (O. Fr. _fol_, modern _fou_, foolish, from a Late Latin use of +_follis_, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a +jester, a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester. + +The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached its +culminating point of influence and recognized place and function in the +social organism during the middle ages, appears to have existed in all +times and countries. Not only have there always been individuals +naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others; there has been besides +in most communities a definite class, the members of which have used +their powers or weaknesses in this direction as a regular means of +getting a livelihood. Savage jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests, +have certainly much in common with the jester by profession. There +existed in ancient Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose +habits were not essentially different from those of the jesters of the +middle ages. Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon +has given a picturesque account in the _Banquet_. Philip of Macedon is +said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as well as +court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have sometimes been +not unreasonably confounded) were common in a number of the petty courts +at that era of civilization. _Scurrae_ and _moriones_ were the Roman +parallels of the medieval witty fool; and during the empire the +manufacture of human monstrosities was a regular practice, slaves of +this kind being much in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester +again has from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories +are told of Bahalul (see D'HERBELOT, s.v.) the jester of Harun +al-Reshid, which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the +conquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures of all kinds +were found at the court of Montezuma. But that monarch no doubt hit upon +one great cause of the favour of monarchs for this class when he said +that "more instruction was to be gathered from them than from wiser men, +for they dared to tell the truth." Douce, in his essay _On the Clowns +and Fools of Shakespeare_, has made a ninefold division of English +fools, according to quality and place of employment, as the domestic +fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool of the +mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the "vice," and +is the original of the stage clowns so common among the dramatists of +the time of Elizabeth, and who embody so much of the wit of Shakespeare. +A very palpable classification is that which distinguishes between such +creatures as were chosen to excite to laughter from some deformity of +mind or body, and such as were so chosen for a certain (to all +appearance generally very shallow) alertness of mind and power of +repartee,--or briefly, butts and wits. The dress of the regular court +fool of the middle ages was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge +from the prints and illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge +on this matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time. +The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight, with +generally one leg different in colour from the other. The head was +covered with a garment resembling a monk's cowl, which fell over the +breast and shoulders, and often bore asses' ears, and was crested with a +cockscomb, while bells hung from various parts of the attire. The fool's +bauble was a short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was +sometimes attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham +castigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occasionally worn, +but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots than to the wits. + +The fool's business was to amuse his master, to excite him to laughter +by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression of state affairs, and, +in harmony with a well-known physiological precept, by his liveliness at +meals to assist his lord's digestion. The names and the witticisms of +many of the official jesters at the courts of Europe have been preserved +by popular or state records. In England the list is long between Hitard, +the fool of Edmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I., +and probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are +remembered from some connexion with general or literary history. Scogan +was attached to Edward IV., and later was published a collection of poor +jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew Boorde's name was attached, but +without authority. + +Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have been a +kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally used his influence +with the king for good and charitable purposes. Armin, who, in his _Nest +of Ninnies_, gives a full description of Sommers, and introduces many +popular fools, says of him-- + + "Only this much, he was a poor man's friend. + And helpt the widow often in her end. + The king would ever grant what he would crave. + For well he knew Will no exacting knave." + +The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is full of +allusions to Will Sommers. + +Richard Tarleton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted from any +list of jesters. A book of Tarleton's Jests was published in 1611, and, +together with his _News out of Purgatory_, was reprinted by Halliwell +Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844. Archie Armstrong, for a +too free use of wit and tongue against Laud, lost his office and was +banished the court. The conduct of the archbishop against the poor fool +is not the least item of the evidence which convicts him of a certain +narrow-mindedness and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of +the court-jester flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with +fantastic effect. Caillette and Triboulet are well-known characters of +the times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabelais's romance, and is +the hero of Victor Hugo's _Le Roi s'amuse_, and, with some changes, of +Verdi's opera _Rigoletto_; while Chicot, the lithe and acute Gascon, who +was so close a friend of Henry III., is portrayed with considerable +justness by Dumas in his _Dame de Monsoreau_. In Germany Rudolph of +Habsburg had his Pfaff Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen +(whose features, as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved +by the pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after +jester. + +Late in the 16th century appeared _Le Sottilissime Astuzie di Bertoldo_, +which is one of the most remarkable books ever written about a jester. +It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of Bologna, and is a +comic romance giving an account of the appearance at the court of Alboin +king of the Lombards of a peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and +wit. The book was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number +of editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified. Though +fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo are typical of +the jester. That the private fool existed as late as the 18th century is +proved by Swift's epitaph on Dicky Pearce, the earl of Suffolk's jester. + + See Flogel, Geschichte der Hofnarren (Leipzig, 1789); Doran, The + History of Court Fools (1858). (W. He.) + + + + +FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat. _festum stultorum_, _fatuorum_, _follorum_, Fr. +_fete des fous_), the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious +festivals which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical +counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The +celebrations are directly traceable to the pagan Saturnalia of ancient +Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire to Christianity, +and of the denunciation of bishops and ecclesiastical councils, +continued to be celebrated by the people on the Kalends of January with +all their old licence. The custom, indeed, so far from dying out, was +adopted by the barbarian conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths +in Spain, Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in +Britain. So late as the 11th century Bishop Burchard of Worms thought it +necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected with it +(_Decretum_, xix. c. 5, Migne, _Patrologia lat_. 140, p. 965). Then, +just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among the people, +the clergy themselves gave it the character of a specific religious +festival. Certain days seem early to have been set apart as special +festivals for different orders of the clergy: the feast of St Stephen +(December 26) for the deacons, St John's day (December 27) for the +priests, Holy Innocents' Day for the boys, and for the sub-deacons +Circumcision, the Epiphany, or the 11th of January. The Feast of Holy +Innocents became a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected +by his fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or +archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as his clergy, while the +canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At first there is no +evidence to prove that these celebrations were characterized by any +specially indecorous behaviour; but in the 12th century such behaviour +had become the rule. In 1180 Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens, +calls the festival of the sub-deacons _festum stultorum_ (Migne, +_Patrol_. _lat_. 202, p. 79). The burlesque ritual which characterized +the Feast of Fools throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A +young sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal _insignia_ +(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary. A mock +mass was begun, during which the lections were read _cum farsia_, +obscene songs were sung and dances performed, cakes and sausages eaten +at the altar, and cards and dice played upon it. + +This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though condemned by +serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the child-like popular mind of +the middle ages no suggestion of contempt, though when belief in the +doctrines and rites of the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready +instrument in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this +kind of retribution Scott in _The Abbot_ gives a vivid picture, the +Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling remnant of +the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting on substituting the +traditional Feast of Fools. + +This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more conspicuously +displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under various forms was +celebrated in a large number of churches throughout the West. The ass +had been introduced into the ritual of the church in the 9th century, +representing either Balaam's ass, that which stood with the ox beside +the manger at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt, +or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often the ass +was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes he was the +occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to modern notions, but +by no means intended in an irreverent spirit. The three most notable +celebrations of the Feast of the Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. +At Rouen the feast was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to +represent the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with +a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs and +kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil, the chief +figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow wooden effigy, +within which a priest capered and uttered prophecies. The procession was +followed, inside the church, by a curious combination of ritual office +and mystery play, the text of which, according to the _Ordo processionis +asinorum secundum Rothomagensem usum_, is given in Du Cange. + +Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was held on the +14th of January, and represented the flight into Egypt. A richly +caparisoned ass, on which was seated the prettiest girl in the town +holding in her arms a baby or a large doll, was escorted with much pomp +from the cathedral to the church of St Etienne. There the procession was +received by the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the +sanctuary. Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to +the _Introit_, _Kyrie_, _Gloria_, &c., the congregation chanted "Hinham" +(Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this feast actually +runs: _In fine Missae Sacerdos versus ad populum vice, Ite missa est, +Hinhannabit: populus vero vice, Deo Gratias, ter respondebit Hinham, +Hinham, Hinham_ (At the close of the mass the priest turning to the +people instead of saying, _Ite missa est_, shall bray thrice: the +people, instead of _Deo gratias_, shall thrice respond Hee-haw, Hee-haw, +Hee-haw). + +At Sens the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast of Fools, +celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision. The clergy went in +procession to the west door of the church, where two canons received the +ass, amid joyous chants, and led it to the precentor's table. Bizarre +vespers followed, sung falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts +from all the vespers of the year. Between the lessons the ass was +solemnly fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the +precentor out into the square before the church (_conductus ad ludos_); +water was poured on the precentor's head, and the ass became the centre +of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery being carried on far +into the night, while the clergy and the serious-minded retired to +matins and bed. + +Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish the Feast of +Fools. Thus in 1198 the chapter of Paris suppressed its more obvious +indecencies; in 1210 Pope Innocent III. forbade the feasts of priests, +deacons and sub-deacons altogether; and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened +those who disobeyed this prohibition with excommunication. How little +effect this had, however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, +archbishop of Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene excesses +of the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in 1444 the +university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, addressed a +letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and that King Charles +VII. found it necessary to order all masters in theology to forbid it in +collegiate churches. The festival was, in fact, too popular to succumb +to these efforts, and it survived throughout Europe till the +Reformation, and even later in France; for in 1645 Mathurin de Neure +complains in a letter to Pierre Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries +which yearly on Innocents' Day took place in the monastery of the +Cordeliers at Antibes. "Never did pagans," he writes, "solemnize with +such extravagance their superstitious festivals as do they.... The +lay-brothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen ... +occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They don the sacerdotal +garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hands books turned upside +down, and pretend to read through spectacles in which for glass have +been substituted bits of orange-peel." + + See B. Picart, _Ceremonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les + peuples_ (1723); du Tilliot, _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la + fete des Fous_ (Lausanne, 1741); Aime Cherest, _Nouvelles recherches + sur la fete des Innocents et la fete des Fous dans plusieurs eglises + et notamment dans celle de Sens_ (Paris, 1853); Schneegans in Muller's + _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Kulturgeschichte_ (1858); H. Bohmer, art. + "Narrenfest" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop_. (ed. 1903); Du Cange, + _Glossarium_ (ed. 1884), s.v. "Festum Asinorum." + + + + +FOOLSCAP, the cap, usually of conical shape, with a cockscomb running up +the centre of the back, and with bells attached, worn by jesters and +fools (see FOOL); also a conical cap worn by dunces. The name is given +to a size of writing or printing paper, varying in size from 12 X 15 in. +to 17 X 13-1/2 in. (see PAPER). The name is derived from the use of a +"fool's cap" as a watermark. A German example of the watermark dating +from 1479 was exhibited in the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The _New +English Dictionary_ finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduction +of the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at his paper-mill at +Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth in the familiar +story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool's cap for the royal +arms as a watermark on the paper used for the journals of parliament. + + + + +FOOL'S PARSLEY, in botany, the popular name for _Aethusa Cynapium_, a +member of the family _Umbelliferae_, and a common weed in cultivated +ground. It is an annual herb, with a fusiform root and a smooth hollow +branched stem 1 to 2 ft. high, with much divided (ternately pinnate) +smooth leaves and small compound umbels of small irregular white +flowers. The plant has a nauseous smell, and, like other members of the +order (e.g. hemlock, water-drop wort), is poisonous. + + + + +FOOT, the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals consisting of +tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges, on which the body rests when in an +upright position, standing or moving (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and +Artistic_; and SKELETON: _Appendicular_). The word is also applied to +such parts of invertebrate animals as serve as a foot, either for +movement or attachment to a surface. "Foot" is a word common in various +forms to Indo-European languages, Dutch, _voet_, Ger. _Fuss_, Dan. +_fod_, &c. The Aryan root is _pod_-, which appears in Sans. _pud_, Gr. +[Greek: pous, podos] and Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. From the resemblance to +the foot, in regard to its position, as the base of anything, or as the +lowest member of the body, or in regard to its function of movement, the +word is applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the plate of a +sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to the part of an +organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing the bottom of a +type is divided by a groove into two portions known as "feet." Probably +referring to the beating of the rhythm with the foot in dancing, the Gr. +[Greek: pous] and Lat. _pes_ were applied in prosody to a grouping of +syllables, one of which is stressed, forming the division of a verse. +"Foot," i.e. foot-soldier, was formerly, with an ordinal number +prefixed, the name of the infantry regiments of the British army. It is +now superseded by territorial designations, but it still is used in the +four regiments of the infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a +lineal measure of length the "foot" is of great antiquity, estimated +originally by the length of a man's foot (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). For +the ceremonial washing of feet, see MAUNDY THURSDAY. + + + + +FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic Aphtha, Eczema +Epizootica), a virulent contagious and inoculable malady of animals, +characterized by initial fever, followed by the formation of vesicles or +blisters on the tongue, palate and lips, sometimes in the nostrils, +fourth stomach and intestine of cattle, and on parts of the body where +the skin is thin, as on the udder and teats, between the claws, on the +heels, coronet and pastern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very +rapidly. A rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is +accompanied by salivation and a peculiar "smacking" of the lips. The +vesicles gradually enlarge and eventually break, exposing a red raw +patch, which is very sensitive. The animal cannot feed so well as usual, +suffers much pain and inconvenience, loses condition, and, if a +milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or, if pregnant, may abort. +More or less lameness is a constant symptom, and sometimes the feet +become very much diseased and the animal is so crippled that it has to +be destroyed. It is often fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by +the saliva and the discharges from the vesicles, though all the +secretions and excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all +articles and places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by +injecting the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or +the peritoneal cavity. + +If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of different +disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has been a European +malady for more than 2000 years. But no reliance can be placed on this +evidence, and it is not until we reach the 17th and 18th centuries that +we find trustworthy proof of its presence, when it was reported as +frequently prevailing extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During +the 19th century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations +between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become widely +diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced from the +Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, +Saxony and Prussia were invaded in 1834. Cattle in the Vosges and in +Switzerland were attacked in 1837, and the disease extending to France, +Belgium and Holland, reached England in 1839, and quickly spread over +the three kingdoms (see also under AGRICULTURE). At this time the +importation of foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was +supposed that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships' +stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the voyage. +This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct outbreaks, +and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-mouth disease. +From the observations of the best authorities it would appear to be an +altogether exotic malady in the west of Europe, always invading it from +the east; at least, this has been the course noted in all the principal +invasions. It was introduced into Denmark in 1841; and into the United +States of America in 1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by +diseased cattle from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic +from the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually +extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North America. It +was twice introduced into Australia in 1872, but was stamped out on each +occasion. It appears to be well known in India, Ceylon, Burma and the +Straits Settlements. In 1870 it was introduced into the Andaman Islands +by cattle imported from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in +the same year it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is +frequently epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks +used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle also +spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also prevails in +central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle of the Dinkas +suffering from a disease of the kind. + +Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young animals, or when +malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge. In one year (1892) in +Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with an estimated loss to the owners +of L7,500,000 sterling. It is transmissible to nearly all the domestic +animals, but its ravages are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and +swine. Human beings are also liable to infection. + +The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative diet, with +salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to the +sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation of the +diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough disinfection +of all places and substances which are capable of conveying the +infection. + + + + +FOOTBALL, a game between two opposing sides played with a large inflated +ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or by both feet and +hands. + +Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity, and their +existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris, Faroe Islanders, +Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos, points to their primitive +nature. In Greece the [Greek: episkyros] seems to have borne a +resemblance to the modern game. Of this we read in Smith's _Dictionary +of Antiquities_--"It was the game at football, played in much the same +way as with us, by a great number of persons divided into two parties +opposed to one another." Amongst the Romans the _harpastum_, derived +from the Greek verb [Greek: harpazo], I seize, thus showing that +carrying the ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil +Kennett, in his _Romae antiquae notitia_, terms this missile a "larger +kind of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and +striving to throw it into one another's goals, which was the conquering +cast." The _harpastum_ was a gymnastic game and probably played for the +most part indoors. The real Roman football was played with the inflated +_follis_, which was kicked from side to side over boundaries, and thus +must have closely resembled the modern Association game. Tradition +ascribes its introduction in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It +has been played in Tuscany under the name of _Calcio_ from the middle +ages down to modern times. + +Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman tradition +has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians assert that a +variety of football has been played in Ireland for over 2000 years. In +early times the great football festival of the year was Shrove Tuesday, +though the connexion of the game with this particular date is lost in +obscurity. William Fitzstephen, in his _History of London_ (about 1175), +speaks of the young men of the city annually going into the fields after +dinner to play at the well-known game of ball on the day _quae dicitur +Carnilevaria_. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention of +football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314) in +consequence of "the great noise in the city caused by hustling over +large balls (_rageries de grosses pelotes_)." A clear reference is made +"ad pilam ... pedinam" in the Rotuli Clausarum, 39 Edward III. (1365), +memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be prohibited on account of the +decadence of archery, and the same thing occurs in 12 Richard II. c. 6 +(1388). Both Henry VIII. and Elizabeth enacted laws against football, +which, both then and under the Stuarts and the Georges, seems to have +been violent to the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by +prominent writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot, in his _Boke named the +Governour_ (1531), speaks of football as being "nothyng but beastely +fury and extreme violence, whereof proceedeth hurte and consequently +rancour and malice to remayne with thym that be wounded, wherefore it is +to be put in perpetual silence." In Stubbes' _Anatomie of Abuses_ (1583) +it is referred to as "a develishe pastime ... and hereof groweth envy, +rancour and malice, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great +effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth." Fifty years later +(1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone's _Table-Book_) as remarking, "I +would now make a safe retreat, but methinks I am stopped by one of your +heroic games called football; which I conceive (under your favour) not +very conveniently civil in the streets, especially in such irregular and +narrow roads as Crooked Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like +your military pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed +these two valiant exercises in the streets." + +An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes of +Galway in 1527 forbade every other sport save archery, excepting "onely +the great foot balle." In the time of Charles II. football was popular +at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene College, as is evidenced by the +following extract from the register book of that institution under the +date 1679:-- + + "That no schollers give or receive at any time any treat or collation + upon account of ye football play, on or about Michaelmas Day, further + than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their thirsts. + And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking and spending + money--Sophisters and Freshmen together--upon ye account of making or + not making a speech at that football time be utterly left off and + extinguished." + +It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the masses, and +never took root, except in educational institutions, among the upper +classes until the 19th century. No clubs or code of rules had been +formed, and the sole aim seems to have been to drive the ball through +the opposing side's goal by fair means or foul. So rough did the game +become that James I. forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes +the exercise in his _Basilikon Doron_ as "meeter for laming than making +able the users thereof." Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part +in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses closed in +order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered that the game fell +into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal, occurred; and Shrove +Tuesday "football-day" gradually died out about 1830, though a relic of +the custom still remained in a few places. For some thirty years +football was only practised at the great English public schools, many of +which possessed special games, which in practically all cases arose from +the nature of the individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its +charging, tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it +was taken up by the great public schools, would have been extremely +dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts of some schools, +as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence at such institutions the +dribbling style of play, in which Mr Montague Shearman (_Football_, in +the "Badminton Library") sees the origin of the Association game, came +into existence. Only at Rugby (later at some other schools), which from +the first possessed an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved +and developed, including even its roughness, for actual "hacking" (i.e. +intentional kicking of an opponent's legs) was not expressly abolished +at Rugby until 1877. The description of the old school game at Rugby +contained in _Tom Brown's School Days_ has become classic. + +1. _Rugby Union._--We have seen that from early times a rudimentary game +of football had been a popular form of sport in many parts of Great +Britain, and that in the old-established schools football had been a +regular game among the boys. In different schools there arose various +developments of the original game; or rather, what, at first, must have +been a somewhat rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape +as a definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby +school had developed such a game, and from football played according to +Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about the middle of the +19th century that football--up till that time a regular game only among +schoolboys--took its place as a regular sport among men. To begin with, +men who had played the game as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to +continue playing their favourite school game, and others were induced to +join them; while in other cases, clubs were formed by men who had not +had the experience of playing the game at school, but who had the energy +and the will to follow the example of those who had had this experience. +In this way football was established as a regular game, no longer +confined to schoolboys. When football was thus first started, the game +was little developed or organized. Rules were very few, and often there +was great doubt as to what the rules were. But, almost from the first, +clubs were formed to play football according to Rugby rules--that is, +according to the rules of the game as played at Rugby school. But even +the Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and indeed almost +unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school. Still, the +fact that play was according to Rugby rules produced a certain +uniformity; but it was not till the establishment of the English Union, +and the commencement of international matches, that a really definite +code of rules was drawn up. + +It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the game of Rugby +school became so popular in preference to the games of other schools, +such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. It was probably very largely due to +the reputation and success of Rugby school under Dr Arnold, and this +also led most probably to its adoption by other schools; for in 1860 +many schools besides Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The +rapidity with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th century +was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior club of the London +district, was established in 1860, and Richmond, its great rival, +shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football clubs had been started in +Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield football club dates back +to 1855. Likewise, in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby +football clubs had been formed before 1870, and by that date the game +had been implanted both in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland, +before 1860, football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had been +established throughout the United Kingdom, and in many districts had +been regularly played for a number of years. Rapid as, in some ways, had +been the spread of the game between the years 1850 and 1870, it was as +nothing to what happened in the following twenty years; for by 1890 +Rugby football, together with Association football, had become the great +winter amusement of the people, and roused universal interest; while +to-day on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of +thousands of people playing football, while those who watch the game can +be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that led to this great +increase in the game and interest taken in it were, undoubtedly, the +establishment of the various national Unions and the international +matches; and, of course, the local rivalry of various clubs, together +with cup or other competitions prevalent in certain districts, was a +leading factor. The establishment of the English Union led to a +codification of the rules without which development was impossible. + +In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded in London. This +Union was an association of some clubs and schools which joined together +and appointed a committee and officials to draw up a code of rules of +the game. From this beginning the English Rugby Union has become the +governing body of Rugby football in England, and has been joined by +practically all the Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters +connected with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the international +teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded in Edinburgh on +the same lines, and with the same objects, while in 1880 the Welsh +Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Rugby Football Union, were +established as the national Unions of Wales and Ireland, though in both +countries there had been previously Unions not thoroughly representative +of the country. All these Unions became the chief governing body within +their own country, and one of their functions was to make the rules and +laws of the game; but as this had been done to start with by the English +Union, the others adopted the English rules, with amendments to them +from time to time. This state of affairs had one element of +weakness--viz. that since all the Unions made their own rules, if ever a +dispute should arise between any of them, a dead-lock was almost certain +to ensue. Such a dispute did occur in 1884 between the English and +Scottish Unions. This dispute eventually turned on the question of the +right of the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the game, +and to be the paramount authority in the game, and superior to the other +Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted this claim, and finally, in +1889, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Marindin were appointed as a commission +to settle the dispute. The result was the establishment of the +International Board, which consists of representatives from each +Union--six from England, two from each of the others--whose duties were +to settle any question that might arise between the different Unions, +and to settle the rules under which international matches were to be +played, these rules being invariably adopted by the various Unions as +the rules of the game. + +With the establishment of the International Board the organization of +the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail, and in 1895 +occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading clubs in Yorkshire +and Lancashire broke off from the English Union and formed the Northern +Union, which since that date has had many accessions, and has become the +leading body in the north of England. The question in dispute was the +payment of players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer +love of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do, and who +could give the time to play it; but with the increasing popularity of +the game it became the pastime of all classes of the people, and clubs +began to grow rich by "drawing big gates,"--that is, large numbers of +spectators, frequently many thousands in number, paid for the privilege +of witnessing the match. In these circumstances the temptation arose to +reimburse the player for any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to +for playing the game, and thus it became universally recognized as +legitimate to pay a player's expenses to and from a match. But in the +case of working men it often meant that they lost part of their weekly +wage when they had to go a distance to play a match, or to go on tour +with their club--that is, go off for a few days and play one or two +matches in different parts of the country--and consequently the claim +was made on their behalf to recoup them for their loss of wage; while at +the same time rich clubs began to be willing to offer inducements to +good players to join their club, and these inducements were generally +most acceptable in the form of money. In Association football (see +below) professionalism--i.e. the hiring and paying of a player for his +services--had been openly recognized. A large section of the English +Union--the amateur party--would not tolerate anything that savoured of +professionalism, and regarded payments made to a player for broken time +as illegitimate. The result was the formation of the Northern Union, +which allowed such payments, and has practically recognized +professionalism. This body has also somewhat altered the laws of the +game, and reduced the number of players constituting a team from fifteen +to thirteen. In Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly +amateur; but wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan +the professional element is strong. + +Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to select +international teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first international +match was played between England and Scotland in Edinburgh. This was a +match between teams picked from English and Scottish players. These +matches from the first roused widespread interest, and were a great +stimulus to the development of the game. With the exception of a few +years, when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all the +countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one +another--England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland since 1875 +and Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing Ireland in 1877 and +Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales met first in 1882 and then in +1884, and since 1887 have played annually. The qualifications of a +player for any country were at first vaguely considered to be birth; but +they were never definitely settled, and there has been a case of a +player playing for two countries. In 1894, however, the International +Board decided that no player was to play for more than one country, and +this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and though birth +is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is not essential. +Though international matches excite interest throughout the United +Kingdom, the matches between two rival clubs arouse just as much +excitement in their district, particularly when the clubs may be taken +as representatives of two neighbouring rival towns. But when to this +rivalry there is added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the +excitement is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions +have never been so popular as among Association, but the competition for +the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before the establishment of +the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly was the main cause of the +popularity of the game in that county. Similarly the competition for the +South Wales Cup from 1878 to 1887 did a great deal to establish the game +in that country. The method of carrying on these competitions is, that +all the clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in +the first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn in +pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is only one +pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elaboration of this +competition is the "League system" of the Association game. This, +likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players. Still it exists in +some districts, especially where clubs are anxious to draw big gates. In +the League system a certain number of clubs form a league to play one +another twice each season; two points are counted for a win and one for +a draw. The club which at the end of the season comes out with most +points wins the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup +competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season, and +one defeat does not debar a club from eventually coming out first. + +It is said that wherever Britons go they take their games with them, and +this has certainly been the case with Rugby football, especially in New +Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An interchange of football visits +between these colonies and the motherland is now an important feature in +the game. These tours date from 1888, when an English team visited +Australia and New Zealand. In the following season, 1889, a team of New +Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over to England, and +by their play even then indicated how well the grammar of the game had +been studied in that colony. Subsequently several British teams visited +at intervals New Zealand and Australia, and in 1905 New Zealand sent +home a team which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played +altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England, +Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz. by a +try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for itself. In 1908 +a combined team of English and Welsh players toured in New Zealand and +Australia, and also visited Canada on their way home. The team was not +so strong as could have been wished, and though they did fairly well in +Australia, they lost all three "test matches" against New Zealand. In +South Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play is +hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The first +British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the generosity of +Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking against loss. Teams were +also sent out in 1896 and 1903; the result of matches played in each +visit showing the steady improvement of the colonists. In 1906 the South +Africans paid their first visit to England, and the result of their tour +proved them to be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England +managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one of the home +Unions to gain a victory. The success of these colonial visits, more +especially financially, created a development very foreign to the +intentions of their organizers. The Northern Union as a professional +body had drifted into a somewhat parlous state, through suffering on the +one hand from a lack of international matches, and on the other from the +competition of Association professional teams. The great financial +success resulting from the New Zealand tour of 1905 roused the attention +of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered into +negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team who would come +over and play the Northern Union clubs, the visiting players themselves +taking a share of the gate-money. For this purpose a team of New +Zealanders toured the north of England in 1907, and their action caused +the introduction of professional or Northern Union football in both New +Zealand and Australia. + +The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to +English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful soil, and +numerous clubs exist in that country. Since 1906 international matches +have been played between France and England, and the energy of French +players, coupled with their national _elan_, makes them formidable +opponents. The Rugby code has also obtained a firm footing in Canada, +India, Ceylon and the Argentine. + +The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite +conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft though +firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than 110 yds. long +nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approximates to these +dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines, called touch-lines, down +the sides, and goal-lines along the ends. The touch-lines are continued +beyond the goal-lines for a distance of not more than 25 yds.; and +parallel to the goal-line and behind it, at a distance of not more than +25 yds., is drawn a line called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of +the touch-lines produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from +the touch-lines, are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding 11 +ft. in height, and generally much more--averaging perhaps from 20 to 30 +ft. from the ground, and placed 18 ft. 6 in. apart. At a height of 10 +ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar; and the object of +the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar between the upright +posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball is egg-shaped (strictly an oblate +spheroid), and the official dimensions are--length, 11 to 11-1/4 in.; +length circumference, 30 to 31 in.; width circumference, 25-1/2 to 26 +in.; weight, 13 to 14-1/2 oz. It is made of india-rubber inflated, and +covered with a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is +generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked by flags +on the touch-line; and 25 yds. from each goal-line there is similarly +marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the side that had gained +the majority of goals won the match, and if no goal had been scored, or +an equal number, the game was said to be left drawn; but a modification +was adopted before long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the +ordinary course of play; but from the very first a try goal could be +obtained by that side one of whose players either carried the ball +across his opponents' goal-line and then touched it down (i.e. on the +ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the +goal-line, before any of his opponents. The "try" is then proceeded with +as follows: the ball is taken out by a member of the side obtaining the +try in a straight line from the spot where it was "touched down," and is +deposited in a selected position on the ground in the field of play, the +defending side being all confined behind their own goal-line until the +moment the ball is so placed on the ground, when another member of the +attacking side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a "place kick") +over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal is kicked; +very often not. The modification first allowed was to count that side +the winner which had gained the majority of tries, provided no goal or +an equal number of goals had been scored; but a majority of one goal +took precedence of any number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards +abolished, and a system of points instituted by which the side with the +majority of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and +tries has undergone several changes, the system in 1908 being as +follows:--A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which case the +try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except from a mark or a +penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a goal obtained by a player +who drops the ball from his hands and kicks it the moment it rises off +the ground, as in the "half-volley" at cricket or tennis. A goal from a +mark or penalty kick 3 points. Under the Northern Union code any sort of +goal counts 2 points, a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a +goal, both try and goal count, i.e. 5 points are scored. + +In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked in the direction of +the opponents' goal, but it may also be carried; but it must not be +thrown forward or knocked on--that is, in the direction of the +opponents' goal--though it may be thrown back. Thus the game is really a +combination of football and handball. The main principle is that any one +who is not "offside" is in play. A player is offside if he gets in front +of the ball--that is, on the opponents' side of the ball, nearer than a +colleague in possession of the ball to the opponents' goal-line; when in +this position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the ball +under penalty. The leading feature of the game is the "scrummage." In +old days at Rugby school there was practically no limit to the numbers +of players on each side, and not infrequently there would be a hundred +or more players on one side. This was never prevalent in club football; +twenty a-side was the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to +fifteen a-side, the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides +the ball got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted +to drive it through this mass by shoving, kicking, and otherwise forcing +their way through with the ball in front of them. This was the origin of +the scrummage. + +The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and ten minutes, +sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defends each goal in turn +for half the time of play. Of the fifteen players who compose a side, +the usual arrangement is that eight are called "forwards," and form the +scrummage; two "half-backs" are posted outside the scrummage; and four +"three-quarter-backs," a little behind the halves, stretch in a line +across the field, their duties being mainly to run and kick and pass the +ball to other members of their own side, and to prevent their opponents +from doing the same. In recent years, owing to the development of +"passing," the field position of the half-backs has undergone a change. +One stands fairly close to the scrummage and is known as the +"scrum-half," the other takes a position between the latter and the +three-quarters, and is termed the "stand-off-half." Behind the +three-quarters comes the "full-back" or "back," a single individual to +maintain the last line of defence; his duties are entirely defensive, +either to "tackle" an opponent who has managed to get through, or, more +usually, to catch and return long kicks. Play is started by one side +kicking the ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of +the opponents' goal. The ball is then caught by one of the other side, +who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he goes on until he is +"tackled," or caught, by one of his opponents, unless he should choose +to "pass" or throw it to another of his own side, who, provided he be +not offside, may either kick, or run, or pass as he chooses. The ball in +this way is kept moving until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line, +or is tackled. If the ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at +right angles to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is +thrown in straight either by one of the same side whose player carried +the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or thrown +out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the goal-line +either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defending side +touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 25 yds. from the +goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the field. If the ball is +tackled the player carrying the ball gets up from the ground as soon as +possible, and the forwards at once form the scrummage by putting down +their heads and getting ready to shove against one another. They shove +as soon as the ball is put down between the two front rows. In the +scrummage the object is, by shoving the opponents back or otherwise +breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in the direction +of the opponents' goal-line by a series of short kicks in which the +players run after the ball as fast as possible, while their opponents +lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a kick or other device stop +the rush. Instead, however, of the forwards breaking away with the ball, +sometimes they let the ball come out of the scrummage to their +half-backs, who either kick or run with it, or pass it to the +three-quarter-backs, and so the game proceeds until the ball is once +more "dead"--that is, brought to a standstill. The scrummage appears to +be an uninteresting manoeuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but +it is not merely a manoeuvre in which weight and strength alone tell--it +also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the feet, applying +the weight to best advantage, and also in outflanking the opposing side, +as it were--usually termed wheeling--directing all the force to one side +of the scrummage and thus breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively +one, for the players are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it +is called a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an +open game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the open +game; but in any case the game is always a hard and exciting struggle, +frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very rapidly from one +side to the other, so that it is a matter of no surprise to find the +British public so ardently attached to it. (C. J. N. F.; C. J. B. M.) + +2. _Association._--It is generally supposed that the English game of +Association football is the outcome of the game of football as played at +Cambridge University about the middle of the 19th century. In October +1863 a committee, consisting of representatives of the schools of Eton, +Harrow, Rugby, Marlborough, Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code +of laws which settled the fundamental principle of the "Association" +game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which permitted of +handling and carrying the ball. In Association football the use of the +hands or arms, either for the purpose of playing the ball or impeding or +holding an opponent, is absolutely prohibited; "dribbling" or kicking +the ball with the feet, and propelling it by the head or body, are the +methods to be adopted. The Cambridge laws specially provided for +"kicking" the ball. Laws 13 and 14 provided that "the ball, when in +play, may be stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit +by the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding, +pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden." + +The laws of Association football first took practical shape as the +outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863 at the Freemasons' +Tavern, London. The clubs which sent delegates were representative of +all classes of football then played. The meeting was a momentous one, +for not only was the foundation laid of the Football Association, the +national association which has since then controlled the game in +England, but as the outcome of the differences of opinion which existed +as to "hacking" being permissible under the laws, the representatives +who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is now so roundly +condemned in both the Association and Rugby games, withdrew and formed +the Rugby Union. + +The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the Football +Association at their meeting on the 24th of November 1863. They took the +view that those laws "embraced the true principles of the game with the +greatest simplicity"; the laws were "officially" passed on the 1st of +December 1863, and the first publication was made in _Bell's Life_ four +days later. These laws have from time to time been modified, but the +principles as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the +Association game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual +dimensions for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and the goals +are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post 8 ft. from the +ground. The ball is about 14 oz. in weight, and must be a perfect sphere +from 27 to 28 in. in circumference, as distinguished from the elliptical +or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in +front of the goals, and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the +"penalty area"; within which, at a distance of 12 yds. opposite the +centre of the goal, is the "penalty kick mark." The boundary lines at +the sides of the field are called the "touch-lines"; those at the ends +(in the centre of which are the goals) being the "goal-lines." The game +is started by a place kick from the centre of the field of play, and +none of the opposite side is allowed to approach within 10 yds. of the +ball when it is kicked off. When the ball passes over the touch line it +has to be thrown in by one of the opposite side, and can be returned +into the field of play in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line +at any time without touching one of the defending side, it has to be +kicked out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked in +front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest the +point where the ball left the field of play. But should it touch one of +the defending side in its transit over the goal-line the attacking side +has the privilege of a free kick from the corner flag (a "corner kick"). +This is often a great advantage, but such free kick does not produce a +goal unless the ball touches one of the other players on its way to the +post. Ordinarily a goal is scored when the ball goes between the +goal-posts and under the cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or +carried. The regulation duration of a game is an hour and a half, and +ends are changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has +the choice of ends or kick-off, and the one obtaining the majority of +goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free kick except when the +free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty for certain +infringements of the rules by the opposite side; and if such +infringement take place within the penalty area on the part of a player +on the side then defending the goal, and in the judgment of the referee +be intentional, a "penalty kick" is awarded to the attacking side. The +penalty kick is a free kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players +of the defending side being excluded from the penalty area, except the +goalkeeper, who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore, +being an almost certain goal. + +A player is always in play as long as there are three of the opposite +side between him and the opposite goal _at the time the ball is kicked_. +This "offside" rule gives much trouble to the young player, though why +it should do so it is not easy to say. The rule is simple if the words +in italics are remembered. The ball must not be carried, knocked or +wilfully handled under any pretence whatever, save by the goalkeeper, +who is allowed to use his hands in defence of his goal, either by +knocking on or throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus +far he is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if he carry the +ball the penalty is a free kick. There are other infringements of the +rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them the +serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player. Players +are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such as have their +heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal plates or +gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this rule is liable +to be prohibited from taking further part in a match. + +In the early 'sixties of the 19th century there were probably not more +than twenty-five organized clubs playing Association football in the +United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined in the south of England +to the universities and public schools. But whilst the game was being +established in the south it was making steady progress in the north, +particularly in Yorkshire, where the Sheffield Club had been formed as +early as 1854. In 1867 the game had become so well established that it +was decided to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played +"in the wilds of Battersea Park," terminated in a draw, neither side +having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the growing +popularity of the game. During the season 1870-1871, only three years +later, two matches of an international character were played between +Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership with the Football Association; +they were not, however, recognized as "international" matches. The first +real international match, England v. Scotland, was played on the 30th of +November 1872 at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between +England and Wales was played at Kennington Oval in 1879; and that +between England and Ireland at Belfast in 1882. In 1896 amateur +international matches were inaugurated with Germany, Austria and +Bohemia; and games are now annually played with Scotland, Wales, +Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany, Holland, Austria and other +continental countries. As the outcome of the international relations +with Scotland, Wales and Ireland, an International Football Association +Board was formed in 1882, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon. +Two representatives from each of the four national associations +constitute the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not only by +the clubs and players of the United Kingdom but in all countries where +the Association game is played. At a meeting held at Paris on the 21st +of May 1904 the "International Federation of Association Football" was +instituted. It consists of the recognized national associations in the +respective countries: and its objects are to develop and control +Association international football. The countries in federation are: +Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, +Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. + +The small number of clubs taking part in the game in the early days +becomes of interest when compared with the magnitude of the game in the +20th century. Association football has become one of the most popular of +all national sports in the United Kingdom. It is slowly but surely +taking a similar position on the continent of Europe and is making +progress even in the Far East, Japan being one of its latest adherents. +In the season of 1871-1872 the Football Association inaugurated its +popular challenge cup competition which is now competed for by both +amateur and professional clubs. In the first year fifteen clubs entered, +all of which were from the south of England. The first winners of the +cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the final +tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the competition was +mostly limited to the southern clubs, but in the season of 1881-1882 the +Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in the final tie by the Old Etonians +by one goal to nothing. Professionalism was then unknown in the game, +and comparatively little interest was taken in it except by the players +themselves. In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the +first time taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in +the north for the next nineteen years, until in the season of 1900-1901 +it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur Club, who defeated +the Sheffield United Club at Bolton by three goals to one. In the +following season the cup was again taken north by the Bury Club. In the +early days of the competition a few hundred people only attended the +final tie, which for many years was played at Kennington Oval in London. +In the course of time, however, the interest of the public so largely +increased that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capacity; +accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Manchester, +where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1894 it was played at +Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace. The attendance during the +following ten years averaged 80,000 people. The record attendance was in +the season of 1900-1901, when the south were contesting with the north, +the spectators then being upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1908-1909 +356 clubs entered the competition; in 1910-11 the number had increased +to 404. + +The great development of the game necessitated many changes in the +system of control. About the year 1880 (although contrary to the rules) +a practice of making payment to players crept into the game in the north +of England and slowly developed. After some years of debate as to the +best method of dealing with this development the Football Association +decided in 1885 to legalize and control the payment of players. The +rules define a professional player as one who receives remuneration of +any sort above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually +paid, or is registered as a professional. They further provide that +training expenses not paid by the players themselves will be considered +as remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotel expenses. Players +competing for any money prizes in football contests are also considered +professionals. + +In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional clubs of the +north and midlands of England, was formed; and a new scheme was +inaugurated for the playing of matches on what is known as the "League" +principle, the essential advantage of which is that the clubs in +membership of a league agree to play with each other "home and home" +matches each season, and also bind themselves under certain penalties to +play their best team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern +League came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the +interest in the game in the south and west of England. The Football +League and the Southern League very soon had their imitators, and in +1909 there were upwards of six hundred league competitions playing under +the sanction and control of the Football Association. The league system +also found favour in Scotland, Wales and Ireland, and has extended to +most of the colonies where Association football is played. In the season +of 1893-1894 the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur clubs in +membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated. In the first +season 32 clubs entered, and the growing popularity of the competition +is shown by the fact that in the season of 1908-1909 there were 229 +entries. + +The Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven clubs, had in +1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 amateur clubs and a +quarter of a million of amateur players, and 400 professional clubs with +7000 professional players. It has also directly affiliated 52 county, +district and colonial associations, and indirectly in membership a large +number of minor associations which are affiliated through the county and +district associations. The Army Association includes 316 army clubs in +Great Britain and Ireland, together with clubs formed by the various +battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and other army stations; +and the Royal Navy Football Association comprises all ships afloat +having Association football clubs. + +The regulations of the Football Association, which is the recognized +administrative and legislative body for the game in England, make +provision for the sanction and control of leagues and competitions; and +its rules, regulations, principles and practices very largely prevail in +all national associations. The king is the patron, and the council +consists of 56 members, a president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10 +representatives elected by the clubs in the ten divisions into which the +country is subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the +navy and of county associations in England which have upwards of 50 +clubs in membership, each representative being directly appointed by his +association. In 1905 the Football Association became incorporated under +the Joint Stock Companies Acts, and as a consequence the word "Limited" +appears in its title. It is not, however, a trading body; the +shareholders are not entitled to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may +the members of the council, who are the directors, receive any payment +for their services. The Scottish Football Association is also an +incorporated body with similar powers. Many of the leading clubs of the +United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under the regulations +of the Football Association they may not pay a larger dividend to their +shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the directors receive payment for +their services. + +The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late years +has been naturally to make the game faster by bringing every one into +full play. The great aim accordingly has been to encourage combination +and to discourage purely individual efforts. In the early days, though +there was a certain amount of cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on +himself. Even up to the middle of the 'seventies dribbling was looked +upon as the great desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just +as long kicks were the main object of a back. The development of the +game was of course bound to change all that. The introduction of +passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler pure +and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods with which he was +mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradually came to be regarded as the +keynote to success. Instead of one full back, as was originally the +case, and one half-back, the defence gradually developed by the addition +first of a second half, then of a second full back, and still later of a +third half-back, until it came to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of +course, two full backs and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used +to constitute the attack in the earliest days of the Association have +been reduced by degrees, as the science of the game became understood, +until they now number only five. The effect of the transition has been +to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing, and as a natural +consequence to make the game more open and thereby generally more +interesting and attractive. Association football is indeed, from the +standpoint of the spectator, a much brighter game than it was in its +infancy, the result of the new methods bringing every one of the eleven +players into full relief throughout the game. The players who, as a +rule, make or mar the success of a side in modern football are the +centre forward and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the +attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close dribbling and +following up, the new formation makes for accuracy of passing among the +forwards, with intelligent support from the half-backs. The net result +is practically the effective combination of the whole side. To do his +part as it ought to be done every member of an eleven must work in +harmony with the rest, and on a definite system, in all cases +subordinating his own methods and personal interests to promote the +general well-being of the side. (C. W. A.; F. J. W.) + + The literature of British football is very extensive, but the + following works are among the best: _Football_ in the "Badminton + Library" (London, 1904), where the different games played at Eton, + Harrow, Rugby, Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly + described; Rev. F. Marshall, _Football; the Rugby Game_ (London, + Cassells); J.E. Vincent, _Football; its History for Five Centuries_ + (London, 1885); C.J.B. Marriott and C.W. Alcock, _Football_ ("Oval + Series"); "Football," in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _The Rugby + Football Union Handbook_, Richardson, Greenwich, Official Annual; and + _The Football Annual_, Merritt and Hatcher (Association Game), London. + +_United States._--In America the game of football has been elaborated +far more than elsewhere, and involves more complications than in +England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of football generally +resembling the English Association game was played on the village greens +and by the students of colleges and academies. There was no running with +the ball, but dribbling, called "babying," was common. In 1871 a code of +rules was drawn up, but they were unsatisfactory and not invariably +observed. "Batting the ball," i.e. striking the ball forward with the +fists, was allowed. There were two backs, sixteen rushers or forwards, +and two rovers or "peanutters," who lurked near the opponents' goal. +During this period the first international football game was played at +Yale between the college team and one made up of old Etonians, the rules +being a compromise between the American and the English. + +English Rugby, introduced from Canada, was first played at Harvard +University, and in 1875 a match under a compromise set of rules, taken +partly from the Rugby Union and partly from the existing American game, +was played with Yale. The following year Yale adopted the regular Rugby +Union rules, and played Harvard under these. Later, several other +colleges adopted these English rules. Absence of tradition necessitated +expansion of these laws, and a convention of colleges was assembled. +Thenceforward annual conventions were held, which from time to time +altered and amplified the rules. A college association was formed, and +the game grew in popularity. Public criticism of the roughness shown in +the play early threatened its existence; indeed at one time the +university authorities compelled Harvard to abstain from the annual game +with Yale. Changes in the rules were introduced, and the game has been +characterized by less roughness and by increased skill. It has become +the most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal +university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even 40,000 +spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but a Rules +Committee, invited by the University Athletic Club of New York, made the +necessary changes in the rules from time to time, and these have been +accepted by the country at large. In the West associations were formed; +but the game in the East is played principally under separate agreements +between the contesting universities, all using, however, one code of +rules. Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new committee of +wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as well as public and +private schools have also taken up the game. The American football +season lasts from the middle of September to the first of December only, +owing to the severity of the American winter. Professional football is +not played in America. + +The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men on a field of +330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines into squares with +sides 5 yds. long, leaving a strip 5 ft. wide on each side of the field. +Until 1903 the field was divided by latitudinal lines only and was +therefore popularly called the "gridiron"; subsequently it was called +the "checkerboard." The end lines are called "goal-lines," the side +"touch-lines." The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle +line, or 55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of +each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding 20 ft. in +length, set 18 ft. 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the ground. +The ball is in shape and material of the English Rugby type. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FIELD. + + The football rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a + scrimmage, the first man who receives the ball, commonly known as the + quarter-back, may carry it forward beyond the line of scrimmage, + provided in so doing he crosses such line at least 5 yds. from the + point where the snapper-back put the ball in play, and furthermore, + that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line + of scrimmage at least 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put + in play. The field is marked off at intervals of 5 yds. with white + lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in penalizing fouls + and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained in three downs, and also at + intervals of 5 yds. with white lines parallel to the side lines, in + order to assist the referee in determining whether the quarter-back + runs according to rule, or whether, in case of a forward pass, such + pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed from the + gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the + above diagram shows exactly how the field should be marked. As the + width of the field does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it is + wise to run the first line through the middle point of the field and + then to mark off the 5 yds. on each side from that middle line. In + order to save labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion + of the longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is + accomplished if their points of intersection with the transverse lines + are distinctly marked, for instance, by a line a foot long.] + +A match game consists of two periods (_halves_) of thirty-five minutes +with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games usually have shorter +halves. There are four officials: the _umpire_, whose duty it is to +watch the conduct of the players and decide regarding fouls; the +_referee_, who decides questions regarding the progress of the ball and +of play; the _field judge_ who assists the referee and keeps the time; +and the _linesman_, who (with two assistants, one representing each +eleven) marks the distance gained or lost in each play. + +In scoring, a "touchdown" (the English Rugby "try") counts 5 points, a +goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the touchdown), a +"goal from the field," whether from placement or drop-kick, 4, and a +"safety" (the English Rugby "touchdown") 2. _Mutatis mutandis_, these +are made as in English Rugby. American Rugby differs from the English +game, because in the scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other, +and, although separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a +constant man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of "interference" +is allowed. Furthermore, a player in the American game is put "on side" +when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward passing, i.e. +throwing the ball toward the opponents' goal, is permissible under +certain restrictions. The costume usually consists of a close-fitting +jersey with shoulders and elbows padded and reinforced with leather; +short trousers with padded thighs and knees, heavy stockings and shoes +with leather cleats. In the early period of the game caps were worn, +but, as they were impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour +of the wearing of long hair, and the "chrysanthemum head" became the +distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however, proved an +inadequate protection, and some players now wear a "head harness" of +soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed in the places of injured +players. + +The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby, and the +rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking, place-kicking, +goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are practically the same, +except that, on a free kick after a fair catch, the opposing players in +the American game may not come up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in +front of it. In the American game there is no scrummage in the English +sense, nor is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch. +The element of chance in both these methods of play was done away with +by the enunciation of the principle of the "possession of the ball." In +America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a runner has been +tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is also put into play by +an evolution called a scrimmage, usually called "line-up," which beyond +the name bears no resemblance to the English scrummage. The ball, at +every moment of the game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to +the other. It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not +being able to make the required distance of 10 yds. in three successive +attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven linemen (i.e. +forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-lines on the +spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The ball is placed on the +ground by the centre-rush, also called the snapper-back, who, upon the +signal being given by his quarter-back, "snaps back" the ball to this +player, or to the full-back, by a quick movement of the hand or foot. +The moment the ball is snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it +is a foul for the side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an +opponent except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms); or +for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The defenders +may use their hands and arms only to get their opponents out of the way +in order to get at the man with the ball. Each member of the attacking +side endeavours, of course, to prevent his opponents from breaking +through and interfering with the quarter-back, who requires this +protection from his line in order to have time to pass the ball to one +of the backs, whom he has notified by a signal to be ready. In the +United States a player may be obstructed by an off-side opponent so long +as hands and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called +"blocking-off" and "interference" when done to protect a friend running +with the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of +American football. As soon as the ball is passed to one of the +half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his +interference must form immediately. This means that one or more of his +fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs, blocking off any +opponent who tries to tackle him. The first duty of the defence against +a hostile run is therefore to break up the interference, i.e. put these +defenders out of the play, so that the runner may be reached and +tackled. + +The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off or goal. +If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account of the direction +of wind, the loser must kick off and send the ball at least 10 yds. into +the opponents' territory from a place-kick from the 55 yds. line. The +two ends of the kicking side, who are usually fast runners, get down the +field after the ball as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man +who catches the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the +kick-off is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it +back as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his +opponents the ball is down, and a line-up takes place, the ball being in +the possession of the catcher's side, which now attacks. In order to +prevent the so-called "block game," once prevalent, in which neither +side made any appreciable progress, the rules provide that the side in +possession of the ball must make _at least 10 yds. in three successive +attempts_, or, failing to do so, must surrender the ball to the enemy, +or, as it is called, "lose the ball on downs". This is infrequent in +actual play, because if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly +successful, it becomes evident that the chances of completing the +obligatory 10-yd. gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a +forward pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the ball +on the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the ball, +nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. When the wind +is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks often, as the other +side, not being able to kick back on equal terms, is forced to play a +rushing game, which is always exhausting. Again, the kicking game is +often resorted to by the side that has the lead in the score, in order +to save its men and yet retain the advantage. The only remaining way to +advance the ball is on a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English +game. The free kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from +placement. Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it is +brought back to the point where it crossed the line by the man who +carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of the side +which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one of two ways. +Either it may be touched to the ground and then kicked at least 10 yds. +towards the opponents' goal, or it may be taken into the field at right +angles to the line a distance not less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and +there put down for a line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring +how far he will go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping. + +Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for his weight and +ability to handle the ball cleanly in snapping back. He must also, in +case the full-back is to make the next play, be able to throw the ball +from between his legs accurately into the full-back's hands, thus saving +the time that would be wasted if the quarter-back were used as an +intermediary. The two "guards," who must also be heavy men, form with +the centre the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in +defence blocking the enemy. The two "tackles" must be heavy yet active +and aggressive men, as they must not only help the centre and guards in +repelling assaults on the middle of the line, but also assist the ends +in stopping runs round the line as well as those between tackle and end, +a favourite point of attack. The "ends" are chosen for their activity, +sure tackling, fast running and ability to follow up the ball after a +kick. Of the four players behind the line, the full-back must be a sure +catcher and tackler and a fast runner. The two half-backs must also be +fast runners and good dodgers. One of them is often chosen for his +ability to gain ground by "bucking the line," i.e. plunging through the +opposing team's line. He must therefore be over the average weight, +while the other half-back is called upon to gain by running round the +opposing ends. The quarter-back is the commanding general and therefore +the most important member of his side, as with him lies the choice of +plays to be made when on the attack. Courage, coolness, promptness in +decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities +absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obtains the +ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of a series of +numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain play that is to be +carried through the moment the ball is snapped back. A good quarter-back +thinks rapidly and shouts his signal for the next play as soon as a down +has been called and while the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays +are run off rapidly and the enemy is given as little time as possible to +concentrate. The signals, which are secret and often changed to guard +them from being solved by the enemy, are formed by designating every +position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and other open +plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called sequence-signals, +and indicate a prearranged series of plays for use in certain +emergencies. Every manoeuvre of the attacking side is carried out by +every member of the team, the ideal being "every man in every play every +time." As soon as a signal is given each man should know what part of +the ensuing move will fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for +the runner, or getting down the field under a punt. Every team has its +own code. + +About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and mass plays +(wedge-formations, tandems, &c.), i.e. to the grouping of bodies of men +behind the line, and starting them before the ball was snapped back, so +that they struck the line with an acquired momentum that was extremely +severe, particularly when met by men equally determined. These plays +caused frequent injuries and led to legislation against them, the most +important law providing for a limitation to the number of men who could +be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping seven men drawn up +in the line. + +_Penalties_ are of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for refusing +to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for repeated fouls +made with the intention of delaying the game; (2) disqualification of +players for unnecessary roughness or ungentlemanly conduct; and (3) for +infringement of rules, for which certain distances are taken away from +the previous gains of the side making the fouls. + +The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages interspersed with +runs and kicks. The systematized development of plays places at the +disposal of the quarter an infinite variety of attack, which he seeks to +direct at the opposing line with bewildering rapidity and dash. During +the preliminary games of the season "straight football" is generally +played; that is, intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple +plunges into the line are mainly relied upon. "Trick plays," which +comprise all manoeuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved for later +and more important matches. Among these is the "fake (false) kick," in +which the full-back takes position as if to receive the ball for a kick, +but the ball is passed to a different player for a run. Another play of +this kind is the "wing-shift," in which some or all of the players on +one side of centre suddenly change to the other side, thus forming a +mass and throwing the opponents' line out of balance. To this category +belong also "double passes," "false passes," "delayed passes," "delayed +runs" and "criss-crosses." + +Training for football in America resembles that for other sports in +regard to food and hygiene. The coaching systems at the universities +differ, but there is generally a head coach, who is assisted by +graduates, each of whom pays especial attention to one set of men, one +to the men in the centre of the line, one to the backs, another to the +ends, &c. Candidates for the teams are put through a severe course of +practice in catching punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts, +falling on the ball, tackling a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking +through the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the +kicking is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves +particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the ball +whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of cardinal +importance in American football, and dribbling for this reason is +unknown. When running with the ball the player is taught to take short +steps, to follow his interference, that is, not isolate himself from his +defenders, and neither to slow up nor shut his eyes when striking the +opposing line. Tackling well below the waist is taught, but it is a foul +to tackle below the knee. The general rule for defensive work of all +kinds is "play low." + + See Walter Camp, _How to play Football_, and the _Official Football + Guide_ (annual), both in Spalding's Athletic Library; his _Book of + College Sports_ (New York, 1893), his _American Football_ (New York, + 1894), and his _Football_ (Boston, 1896)--the last in co-operation + with L.F. Deland; R.H. Barbour, _The Book of School and College + Sports_ (New York, 1904); W.H. Lewis, _Primer of College Football_ + (Boston, 1896). (E. B.; W. Ca.) + + + + +FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-1863), American admiral, was born at New Haven, +Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806, his father, Samuel Augustus +Foote (1780-1846), being a prominent lawyer and Whig politician, who as +U.S. senator moved in 1829 "Foote's resolutions" on public lands, in the +discussion of which Daniel Webster made his "reply to Hayne." He entered +the U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 1830. After +cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the "John Adams," he was +assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later (1846-1848) to the +Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made commander of the "Perry," and +engaged for two years in suppressing the slave trade on the African +coast. In 1856, as commander of the "Portsmouth," he served on the East +India station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the Barrier +Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak of the Civil War, +he was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, becoming a full captain in +1861. In August 1861 he was assigned to the command "of the naval +operations upon the Western waters." His exploit in capturing Fort Henry +(on the right bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the +6th of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant's land +forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success; but their +combined attack on Fort Donelson (12 m. off, on the left bank of the +Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry garrison had escaped, +resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16), in heavy losses to Foote's +gunboats, Foote himself being severely wounded. In March-April he +co-operated in the capture of New Madrid (q.v.) and Island No. 10. In +June he retired from his command and in July was promoted rear-admiral, +and became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On the 26th +of June 1863 he died at New York. + + See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1906). + + + + +FOOTE, MARY HALLOCK (1847- ), American author and illustrator, was +born in Milton, New York, on the 19th of November 1847, of English +Quaker ancestry. She was educated at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female +Collegiate Seminary and at the Cooper Institute School of Design for +women, in New York. In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining +engineer, and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California, +Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. She is best known for her stories, in which, +as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough picturesque life, +especially the mining life, of the West. Some of her best drawings +appear in her own books. Among her publications are _The Led-Horse +Claim_ (1883), _John Bodewin's Testimony_ (1886), _The Chosen Valley_ +(1892), _Coeur d'Alene_ (1894); _The Prodigal_ (1900), a novelette; _The +Desert and the Sown_ (1902); and several collections of short stories, +including _A Touch of Sun and other Stories_ (1903). + + + + +FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777), English dramatist and actor, was baptized at +Truro on the 27th of January 1720. Of his attachment to his native +Cornwall he gives no better proofs as an author than by making the +country booby Timothy (in _The Knights_) sound the praises of that +county and of its manly pastimes; but towards his family he showed a +loyal and enduring affection. His father was a man of good family and +position. His mother, Eleanor Goodere, whom he is said in person as well +as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he liberally supported in +the days of his prosperity, and after her death indignantly vindicated +her character from the imputations recklessly cast upon it by the +revengeful spite of the duchess of Kingston. About the time when Foote +came of age, he inherited his first fortune through the murder of his +uncle, Sir John Dinely Goodere, Bart., by his brother, Captain Samuel +Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at Worcester, and +at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing himself in both places by +mimicry and audacious pleasantries of all kinds, and, although he left +Oxford without taking his degree, acquiring a classical training which +afterwards enabled him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion, +and helped to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance. + +Foote was "designed" for the law, but certainly not by nature. In his +chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian Coffee-house hard by, he +learned to know something of lawyers if not of law, and was afterwards +able to jest at the jargon and to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and +to satirize the Latitats of the other branch of the profession with +particular success. The famous argument in Hobson v. Nobson, in _The +Lame Lovers_, is almost as good of its kind as that in Bardell v. +Pickwick. But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house +in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was the social +centre. After he had run through two fortunes (the second of which he +appears to have inherited at his father's death), and had then passed +through severe straits, he made his first appearance on the actual stage +in 1744. It is said that he had married a young lady in Worcestershire; +but the traces of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to +his washer-woman) are mysterious, and probably apocryphal. + +Foote's first appearance as an actor was made little more than two +years after that of Garrick, as to whose merits the critics, including +Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. His own first venture, as +Othello, was a failure; and though he was fairly successful in genteel +comedy parts, and was, after a favourable reception at Dublin, enrolled +as one of the regular company at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746, +he had not as yet made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay +neither in tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder "where +the devil it _did_ lie," when his successful performance of the part of +Bayes in _The Rehearsal_ at last suggested to him the true outlet for +his extraordinary gift of mimicry. Following the example of Garrick, he +had introduced into this famous part imitations of actors, and had added +a variety of other satirical comment in the way of "gag." Engaging a +small company of actors, he now boldly announced for the 22nd of April +1747, at the theatre in the Haymarket "_gratis_," "a new entertainment +called the _Diversions of the Morning_," to which were to be added a +farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue "spoken by the B-d-d +Coffee-house." Foote's success in these _Diversions_ obtained for him +the name of "the English Aristophanes," an absurd compliment, declined +by Foote himself (see his letter in _The Minor_). The _Diversions_ +consisted of a series of imitations of actors and other well-known +persons, whose various peculiarities of voice, gesture, manner or dress +were brought directly before the spectators, while the epilogue +introduced the wits of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and +specially "took off" an eminent physician (probably the munificent Sir +William Browne, whom he afterwards caricatured in _The Devil on Two +Sticks_), and a notorious quack oculist of the day. The actors ridiculed +in this entertainment having at once procured the aid of the constables +for preventing its repetition, Foote immediately advertised an +invitation to his friends to drink a dish of tea with him at the +Haymarket on the following day at noon--"and 'tis hoped there will be a +great deal of comedy and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make +the morning as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to +be had at St George's coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no person +will be admitted. N.B.--_Sir Dilbury Diddle will be there, and Lady +Betty Frisk has absolutely promised._" The device succeeded to +perfection; further resistance was abandoned as futile by the actors, +whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the "instructions to his pupils" +which the entertainer pretended to impart (typifying them under +characters embodying their several chief peculiarities or defects--the +massive and sonorous James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy +Ryan as a razor-grinder, the charming Peg Woffington, whose tones had an +occasional squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her wares and the +bill of the play); and Mr Foote's _Chocolate_, which was afterwards +converted into an evening _Tea_, became an established favourite with +the town. + +In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend a third +fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his means by a +speculation in small-beer, as is recorded in an amusing anecdote told of +him by Johnson. But he could now command a considerable income; and when +money came he seems to have freely expended it in both hospitality and +charity. During his engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of +which he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and +more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of other +authors and more especially in his own. He played Hartop in his +_Knights_ (1749, printed 1754). _Taste_ (1752), in which parts of the +_Diversions_ were incorporated, was followed by some eighteen pieces, +the majority of which were produced at the Haymarket, the favourite home +of Foote's entertainments. In 1760 he succeeded in obtaining for this +theatre a licence from the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766) +converted into a licence for summer performances for life. The +entertainments were a succession of variations on the original idea of +the _Diversions_ and the _Tea_. Now, it was an Auction of Pictures +(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second act of +the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on _Orators_ (1754), suggested by some +bombastic discourses given by Macklin in his old age at the Piazza +coffee-house in Covent Garden, where Foote had amused the audience and +confounded the speaker by interposing his humorous comments. _The +Orators_ is preserved in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with +a mock lecture on the art of oratory and its representatives in England, +and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate, to which +Holberg's _Politician-Tinman_ can hardly have been a stranger. At a +later date (1773) a new device was introduced in a _Puppet-show_. The +piece (unprinted) played in this by the puppets was called _Piety in +Pattens_, and professed to show "by the moral how maidens of low degree +might become rich from the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by +the literature how thoughts of the most commonplace might be concealed +under cover of words the most high flown." In other words, it was an +attack upon sentimental comedy, which was still not altogether +extinguished. An attack upon Garrick in connexion with the notorious +Shakespeare jubilee was finally left out from the _Puppet-show_, and +thus was avoided a recurrence of the quarrel which many years before had +led to an interchange of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by +Woodward of the imitative Foote. + +On the whole, the relations between the two public favourites became +very friendly, and on Foote's part unmistakably affectionate, and they +have not been always generously represented by Garrick's biographers. A +comparison between the two as actors is of course out of the question; +but, though Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue, +there is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his character was +one of malicious heartlessness. Of Samuel Johnson's opinions of him many +records remain in Boswell; when Johnson had at last found his way into +Foote's company (he afterwards found it to Foote's own table) he was +unable to "resist" him, and, on hearing of Foote's death, he thought the +career just closed worthy of a lasting biographical record. + +Meanwhile most of poor Foote's friendships in high life were probably +those that are sworn across the table, and require "t'other bottle" to +keep them up. It is not a pleasant picture--of Lord Mexborough and his +royal guest the duke of York, and their companions, bantering Foote on +his ignorance of horsemanship, and after he had weakly protested his +skill, taking him out to hounds on a dangerous animal. He was thrown and +broke his leg, which had to be amputated, the "patientee" (in which +character he said he was now making his first appearance) consoling +himself with the reflection that he would now be able to take off "old +Faulkner" (a pompous Dublin alderman with a wooden leg, whom he had +brought on the stage as Peter Paragraph in _The Orators_) "to the life." +The duke of York made him the best reparation in his power by promising +him a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766); and Foote not +only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Limp, he considered +the leg he had lost "a redundancy, a mere nothing at all," but +ingeniously turned his misfortune to account in two of his later pieces, +_The Lame Lover_ and _The Devil on Two Sticks_, while, with the true +instinct of a public favourite, making constant reference to it in plays +and prologues. Though the characters played by him in several of his +later plays are comparatively short and light, he continued to retain +his hold over the public, and about the year 1774 was beginning to think +of withdrawing, at least for a time, to the continent, when he became +involved in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his +entertainments nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick's +case, and it is said in Johnson's) put any visible restraint upon +personal satire. _The Author_, in which, under the infinitely humorous +character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Welsh gentleman of the name +of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed, been ultimately suppressed. But in +general he had pursued his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to +public ridicule and contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or +supposed quacks in medicine (as in _The Devil on Two Sticks_), +enthusiasts in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in _The Cozeners_) and George +Whitefield and his connexion (in _The Minor_). He had not only dared the +wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in _The Nabob_), and been +rewarded by the withdrawal, from among the pundits who rationalized away +Whittington's Cat, of Horace Walpole and other eminent members of the +body, but had in the same play attacked a well-known representative of a +very influential though detested element in English society,--the +"Nabobs" themselves. But there was one species of cracked porcelain +which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with impunity. The rumour +of his intention to bring upon the stage, in the character of Lady Kitty +Crocodile in _The Trip to Calais_, the notorious duchess of Kingston, +whose trial for bigamy was then (1775) impending, roused his intended +victim to the utmost fury; and the means and influence she had at her +disposal enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to +prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint as to +the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify Foote's +character in every way that hatred and malice could suggest. After he +had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been exchanged between the +duchess and him equally characteristic of their respective writers, +Foote took his revenge upon the chief of the duchess's instruments, a +"Reverend Doctor" Jackson, who belonged to the "reptile" society of the +journalists of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of +_The Bankrupt_. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper in _The +Capuchin_, under which name the altered _Trip to Calais_ was performed +in 1776. But the resources of his enemies were not yet at an end; and a +discharged servant of Foote's was suborned by Jackson to bring a charge +of assault and apply for a warrant against him. Though the attempt +utterly broke down, and Foote's character was thus completely cleared, +his health and spirits had given way in the struggle--as to which, +though he seems to have had the firm support of the better part of the +public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the very audiences of +his own theatre had been, or had seemed to be, divided in opinion. He +thus resolved to withdraw, at least for a time, from the effects of the +storm, let his theatre to Colman, and after making his last appearance +there in May 1777, set forth in October on a journey to France. But at +Dover he fell sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few +hours died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary's church at Dover +(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that he had a +hand "open as day for melting charity." His resting-place in Westminster +Abbey is without any memorial. + + Foote's chief power as an actor lay in his extraordinary gift of + mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the mere + outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose likeness he + assumed. He must have possessed a wonderful flexibility of voice, + though his tones are said to have been harsh when his voice was not + disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assuming + characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies, where he + occasionally "doubled" parts. The excellent "patter" of some of his + plays, such as _The Liar_ and _The Cozeners_, must have greatly + depended for its effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person he was + rather short and stout, and coarse-featured; but his overflowing + humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible + sparkle of his eyes. + + As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank. He + regarded comedy as "an exact representation of the peculiar manners of + that people among whom it happens to be performed; a faithful + imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which are + openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the + correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community." + This he regarded as the _utile_, or useful purpose, of comedy; the + _dulce_ he conceived to be "the fable, the construction, machinery, + conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece." For part at least of this + view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly "Letter" in which + he replied, "to the Reverend Author of the 'Remarks, Critical and + Christian,' on _The Minor_"), he rather loftily appealed to classical + authority. But he overlooked the indispensableness of the _dulce_ to + the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species of art. His + comic genius was particularly happy in discovering and reproducing + characters deserving of ridicule; and the fact that he not only took + them from real life, but closely modelled them on well-known living + men and women, was not in himself an artistic sin. Nor indeed was the + novelty of this process absolute, though probably no other comic + dramatist has ever gone so far in this course, or has pursued it so + persistently. The public delighted in his "d----d fine originals," + because it recognized them as copies; and he was himself proud that he + had taken them from real persons, instead of their being "vamped from + antiquated plays, pilfered from the French farces, or the baseless + beings of the poet's brain." But the real excellence of many of + Foote's comic characters lies in the fact that, besides being + incomparably ludicrous types of manners, they remain admirable comic + types of general human nature. Sir Gregory Gazette, and his imbecile + appetite for news; Lady Pentweazel, and her preposterous vanity in her + superannuated charms; Mr Cadwallader, and his view of the advantages + of public schools (where children may "make acquaintances that may + hereafter be useful to them; for between you and I, as to what they + learn there, does not signify twopence"); Major Sturgeon and Jerry + Sneak; Sir Thomas Lofty, Sir Luke Limp, Mrs Mechlin, and a score or + two of other characters, are excellent comic figures in themselves, + whatever their origin; and many of the vices and weaknesses exposed by + Foote's vigorous satire will remain the perennial subject of comic + treatment so long as a stage exists. The real defect of his plays lies + in the abnormal weakness of their construction, in the absolute + contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention or + conduct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the + interest of the action to the exhibition of particular characters. His + characters are ready-made, and the action is only incidental to them. + With the exception of _The Liar_ (which Foote pretended to have taken + from Lope de Vega, but which was really founded on Steele's adaptation + of Corneille's _Le Menteur_), and perhaps of _The Bankrupt_, there is + hardly one of Foote's "comedies" in which the conception and conduct + of the action rise above the exigencies of the merest farce. Not that + sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters are wanting, but + these familiar ingredients are as incapable of exciting real interest + as an ordinary farcical action is in itself unable to produce more + than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays Foote constantly + resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce--a disguise. Of course + Foote must have been well aware of the shortcomings of his rapidly + manufactured productions; he knew that if he might sneer at "genteel + comedy" as suited to the dramatists of the servants' hall, and + pronounce the arts of the drama at the great houses to be "directed by + the genius of insipidity," he, like the little theatre where he held + sway, was looked upon as "an eccentric, a mere summer fly." + + At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic scenes + of genuine farce. An oration of "old masters," an election of a + suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians, a + newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputations + massacred--all these and other equally happy situations are brought + before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And everywhere the + comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour, and the comic + characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy which at once raises + them above the level of mere theatrical conventionalism. Foote + professed to despise the mere caricaturing of national peculiarities + as such, and generally used dialect as a mere additional colouring; he + was, however, too wide awake to the demands of his public not to treat + France and Frenchmen as fair game, and coarsely to appeal to national + prejudice. His satire against those everlasting victims of English + comedy and farce, the Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned + from Paris, was doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he + made fun of the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the + society of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of + Foote's social satire are excellent, and the abuses against which it + is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone of + his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at + refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made + occasional mistakes; but he was on the right side in the warfare + against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice, the + two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived. + + The following is a list of Foote's farces or "comedies" as he calls + them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print. The + date of production, and the character originally performed by Foote, + are added to the title of each: + + _The Knights_ (1748: Hartop, who assumes the character of Sir + Penurious Trifle); Taste (1752), in which part of the _Diversions_ is + incorporated; _The Englishman in Paris_ (1753: Young Buck); _The + Englishman returned from Paris_ (1756: Sir Charles Buck); _The Author_ + (1757: Cadwallader); _The Minor_ (1760: Smirk and Mrs Cole); _The + Liar_ (1762); _The Orators_ (1762: Lecturer); _The Mayor of Garratt_ + (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); _The Patron_ (1764: Sir Thomas + Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); _The Commissary_ (1765: Mr Zac. + Fungus); _The Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768: Devil,--alias Dr Hercules + Hellebore); _The Lame Lover_ (1770: Sir Luke Limp); _The Maid of Bath_ + (1771: Mr Flint); _The Nabob_ (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); _The Bankrupt_ + (1773: Sir Robert Riscounter); _The Cozeners_ (1774: Mr Aircastle); + _The Capuchin_, a second version of The Trip to Calais, forbidden by + the censor (1776: O'Donovan). His dramatic works were collected in + 1763-1768. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Foote's biography may be read in W. ("Conversation") + Cooke's _Memoirs of Samuel Foote_ (3 vols., 1805), which contain, + amidst other matter, a large collection of his good things and of + anecdotes concerning him, besides two of his previously unpublished + occasional pieces (with the _Tragedy a la mode_, part of the + _Diversions_, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From this source + seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information in the + rather grandiloquent essay on Foote prefixed by "Jon Bee" (John + Badcock, fl. 1816-1830, also known as "John Hunds") to his useful + edition of Foote's Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars will be + found in Tate Wilkinson's _Wandering Patentee_ (York, 1795) and in + other sources. There is an admirable essay on Foote, reprinted with + additions, from the _Quarterly Review_, in John Forster's + _Biographical Essays_ (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy + Fitzgerald (1910). (A. W. W.) + + + + +FOOTMAN, a name given among articles of furniture to a metal stand, +usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong or oval in shape, +for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-room fire. In the days +before the general use of hot-water dishes the footman possessed +definite utility, but although it is still in occasional use, it is now +chiefly regarded as an ornament. It was especially common in the +hardware counties of England, where it is still frequently seen; the +simple conventionality of its form is not inelegant. + + + + +FOOTSCRAY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, on the +Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901) +18,301. The city has large bluestone quarries from which most of the +building stones in Melbourne and the neighbourhood is obtained; it is +also an important manufacturing centre, with numerous sugar-mills, jute +factories, soap works, woollen-mills, foundries, chemical works and many +other minor industries. + + + + +FOOT-STALL, a word supposed to be a literal translation of _piedestal_, +or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture (see BASE). + + + + +FOPPA, VINCENZO, Italian painter, was born near Brescia. The dates of +his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and 1492; but there is now +good reason for substituting 1427 and 1515. He settled in Pavia towards +1456, and was the head of a Lombard school of painting which subsisted +up to the advent of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia. +His contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in +perspective and foreshortening being recognized especially. Among his +noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan, the "Martyrdom of +St Sebastian"; and a "Crucifixion" in the Carrara gallery, Bergamo, +executed in 1455. He worked much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his +paintings are now lost. + + See C.J. Ffoulkes and R. Maiocchi, _Vincenzo Foppa_ (1910). + + + + +FORAGE, food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender collected for +the food of the horses of an army. In early usage the word was confined +to the dried forage as opposed to grass. From this word comes "foray," +an expedition in search of "forage," and hence a pillaging expedition, a +raid. The word "forage," directly derived from the Fr. _fourrage_, comes +from a common Teutonic origin, and appears in "fodder," food for cattle. +The ultimate Indo-European root, _pat_, cf. Gr. [Greek: pateisthai], +Lat. _pascere_, to feed, gives "food," "feed," "foster"; and appears +also in such Latin derivatives as "pastor," "pasture." + + + + +FORAIN, J. L. (1852- ), French painter and illustrator, was born in +1852. He became one of the leading modern Parisian caricaturists, who in +his merciless exposure of the weaknesses of the _bourgeoisie_ continued +the work which was begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The +scathing bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as +his pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in his +painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives him to +caricature. He has, indeed, been rightly called "a Degas pushed on to +caricature." In his pen-and-ink work he combines extraordinary economy +of means with the utmost power of expression and suggestion. Forain's +popularity dates from the publication of his _Comedie parisienne_, a +series of two hundred and fifty sketches republished in book form. He +has contributed many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the +_Figaro_, _Le Rire_, _L'Assiette au beurre_, _Le Courrier francais_, and +_L'Indiscret_. His political drawings for the _Figaro_ were republished +in book form under the title of _Doux Pays_. + + + + +FORAKER, JOSEPH HENSON (1846- ), American political leader, was born +near Rainsboro, Highland county, Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He +passed his early life on a farm, enlisted as a private in the 89th Ohio +Volunteer Infantry in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for +part of the time as an aide on the staff of General H.W. Slocum, and in +1865 received a captain's brevet for "efficient services during the +campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia." After the war he spent two +years at the Ohio Wesleyan University and two years at Cornell. In 1869 +he was admitted to the Ohio bar and began practice in Cincinnati. He was +a judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he +was the Republican candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in +1885 and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in 1889. +He then for eight years practised law with great success in Cincinnati. +In 1896 he was elected United States senator to succeed Calvin S. Brice +(1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected and served until 1909. In the Senate +he was one of the aggressive Republican leaders, strongly supporting the +administration of President M'Kinley (whose name he presented to the +Republican National Conventions of 1896 and 1900) in the debates +preceding, during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War, +and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt, was +conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence. He vigorously +opposed various measures advocated by the president, and led the +opposition to the president's summary discharge of certain negro troops +after the Brownsville raid of the 13th of August 1906 (see BROWNSVILLE, +Texas). + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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