diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:08 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:04:08 -0700 |
| commit | 033df95e8563cca7042756091a2e4165df47bf11 (patch) | |
| tree | c7ba08853b3dba4201edbfeb0d2e0810b4cc12a8 /35606-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '35606-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/35606-h.htm | 19980 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394.jpg | bin | 0 -> 54253 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 54810 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 53886 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 49603 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40437 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22925 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394f.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13069 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394g.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20158 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 47581 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394i.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56885 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394j.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56617 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394k.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39009 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394l.jpg | bin | 0 -> 24334 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img394m.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13061 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img395.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39095 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img454a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26469 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img454b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 90093 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img455.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56094 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img456a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 37433 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img456b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43826 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img464.jpg | bin | 0 -> 163277 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img466a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 146681 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img466b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56369 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img468.jpg | bin | 0 -> 1773 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img470a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 24263 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img470b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5300 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img473.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22741 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img474a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15141 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img474b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6277 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img475.jpg | bin | 0 -> 130873 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img485.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40556 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img499.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14812 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 35606-h/images/img500.jpg | bin | 0 -> 104228 bytes |
34 files changed, 19980 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/35606-h/35606-h.htm b/35606-h/35606-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..25c722e --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/35606-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,19980 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume X Slice IV - Finland to Fleury, Andre. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + table.reg td { white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.flt { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg p {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p, table.flt p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: black 2px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl {background-color: #e8e8e8} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i2 { margin-left: 2em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1, div.list2, div.list3 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list3 p {padding-left: 6em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list2 p {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em; + padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4 + "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 18, 2011 [EBook #35606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME X SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Finland to Fleury, André</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FINLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FINLAY, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FIUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FINN MAC COOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FIVES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FINNO-UGRIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FIX, THÉODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FINSBURY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FIXTURES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FINSTERWALDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FIORENZO DI LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FJORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FLACCUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FLACIUS, MATTHIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FIRDOUSĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FLAG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FLAGELLANTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FIREBACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FLAGELLATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FIRE BRAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FLAGEOLET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FIREBRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FLAGSHIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FIREFLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FIRE-IRONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FLAIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FLAMBARD, RANULF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FIRESHIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FLAMBOROUGH HEAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FIRE-WALKING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FLAMBOYANT STYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FIREWORKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FLAME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FIRM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FLAMEL, NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FIRMAMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FLAMEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FIRMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FLAMINGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FLAMINIA, VIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FIRMINY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FIRST-FOOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FLAMINIUS, GAIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FIRST OF JUNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FLAMSTEED, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FLANDERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FIRTH, MARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FIRŪZABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FLANNEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FIRŪZKŪH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FLANNELETTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FISCHART, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FLASK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FISCHER, EMIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FLAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FLATBUSH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FISH, HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FLAT-FISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FLATHEADS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FISHER, ALVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FISHER, GEORGE PARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FLAVEL, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FISHER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FLAVIAN I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FLAVIAN II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FISHERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FLAVIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FISHERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FLAVIGNY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FISHGUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FLAVIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FISHKILL LANDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FLAX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FISK, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FLAXMAN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FISK, WILBUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FLEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FISKE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FLÈCHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FISTULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FLECKNOE, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FITCH, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FLEET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FLEET PRISON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FITCH, RALPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FLEETWOOD, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FITCHBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FITTIG, RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FLEETWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FITTON, MARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FITZBALL, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FLEMING, PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FITZGERALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FLEMING, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FITZGERALD, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FLEMING, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FITZGERALD, RAYMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FLEMISH LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FLENSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FLERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FITZHERBERT, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FLETA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FITZ NEAL, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FLETCHER, ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FLETCHER, GILES</a> (English author)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FLETCHER, GILES</a> (English poet)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FITZROY, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FLETCHER, PHINEAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FITZROY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FLEUR-DE-LIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FLEURUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FLEURY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FITZWALTER, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">FINLAND<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Finnish, <i>Suomi</i> or <i>Suomenmaa</i>), a grand-duchy +governed subject to its own constitution by the emperor of +Russia as grand-duke of Finland. It is situated between the +gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large +territory in Lapland. It touches at its south-eastern extremity +the government of St Petersburg, includes the northern half +of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian governments +of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows, +roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing +into the Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf +of Bothnia it is separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken +line which takes the course of the valley of the Torneå river up +to its sources, thus falling only 21 m. short of reaching the head +of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs south-east and +north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach +the <span class="correction" title="amended from Artic">Arctic</span> Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns +southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Åland +archipelago—its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the +Swedish coast—as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, +Hogland, Tytärs, &c. Its utmost limits are: 59° 48′—70° 6′ N., +and 19° 2′—32° 50′ E. The area of Finland, in square miles, +is as follows (<i>Altas de Finlande, 1899</i>):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Government.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Continent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Islands<br />in Lakes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Islands<br />in Seas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lakes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nyland</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,062</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">286</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,582</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Åbo-Björneborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,594</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1331</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,333</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tavastehus</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,837</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,334</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Viborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">362</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,624</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Michel</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,652</td> <td class="tcr rb">1018</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,149</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,819</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kuopio</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">643</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,696</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,499</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vasa</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">203</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,313</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uleåborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,957</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">123,810</td> <td class="tcr allb">2385</td> <td class="tcr allb">1968</td> <td class="tcr allb">16,090</td> <td class="tcr allb">144,253</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Orography.</i>—A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia +to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct +parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging +to the Kjölen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, +and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper +from the White Sea. At the head-waters of the Torneå, Finland +penetrates as a narrow strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjölen +(the Keel), where the Haldefjäll (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 +ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other <i>fjälls</i>, or flat-topped +summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus +(1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of +its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the character of a +mountain region in the Saariselkä (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy +the remainder of Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary +plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 +to 1000 ft. Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space +comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, +and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Uleå and +Piellis. The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here +along the main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the country +appears on the hypsometrical map in the <i>Atlas de Finlande</i> as a +plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, covered with countless lakes, +lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft. The three main lake-basins +of Näsi-järvi, Päjäne and Saima are separated by low and flat hills +only; but one sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat +elevations running south-west to north-east along the north-west +border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching +from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A regular gentle slope leads from +these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie +tracts in its lower parts.</p> + +<p>A notable feature of Finland are the <i>åsar</i> or narrow ridges of +morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some +of them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and +they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the +rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in +the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo ås, which runs +from Hangöudd to Vesi-järvi, and is continued farther east under +the name of Salpauselliä, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland, +are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the +ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As +a rule these forest-clothed <i>åsar</i> rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally +120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding +to the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways +are traced in preference along them.</p> + +<p><i>Lakes and Rivers.</i>—A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the +aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams +(<i>fjården</i>), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great facilities +for internal navigation, while the connecting streams supply an +enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake +Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima +(three and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the +Vuoksen, flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, +while the lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the +Gulf of Finland; the basins of Pyhä-selkä, Ori-vesi and Piellis-järvi; +Päjäne, surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of +which are discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; +Näsi-järvi and Pyhä-järvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing +into the Gulf of Bothnia; Uleå-träsk, discharged by the Uleå into +the same gulf; and Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic +Ocean. Two large rivers, Kemi and Torneå, enter the head of the +Gulf of Bothnia, while the Uleå is now navigable throughout, owing +to improvements in its channel.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous +deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake +Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably +Devonian), and in the Kjölen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age +are met with in the Kola peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at +Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder of Finland is built up of the +oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaeozoic or +Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem to be the granites +of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of the granites +gave rise to the <i>Ladoga schists</i> and various deposits of the same +period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the country +came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous +formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes +then situated in West Finland, formed the +so-called <i>Bothnian series</i>. New masses of granites +protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian +deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while +denudation was again at work on a grand scale. A +new series of <i>Jatulian deposits</i> was formed and a new +system of foldings followed; but these were the last +in this part of the globe. The <i>Jotnian series</i>, which +were formed next, remain still undisturbed. It is to +this series that the well-known Rapakivi granite of +Åland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine +deposits younger than those just mentioned—all +belonging to a pre-Cambrian epoch—are found in +the central portion of Finland; and the greater +part of the country has probably been dry land since +Palaeozoic times. The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and +post-Glacial deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine +of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial +clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in +the peripheral coast-region—or in separate areas in the interior +depressions. Some Finnish geologists—Sederholm for one—consider +it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (<i>Yoldia</i> +sea) covered all southern Finland and also Scania (Skåne) in Sweden, +thus connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White +Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been +found anywhere in Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later +submergence under a post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells +now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of +Finland, and up to 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces +of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North +America, have been discovered. The country is still continuing +to rise, but at an unequal rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the +Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly +zero in the Baltic provinces.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west +winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in +corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual +isotherms of 41° and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E. +direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from +9° Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30° along the south coast; while in July +the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees, +being 53° in the north and 61° in the south-east. Everywhere, and +especially in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts +(June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain +and snow is from 25½ in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the +interior of southern Finland.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>, <i>Forests</i>, <i>Fauna</i>.—The flora of Finland has been most +minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists +were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different +provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province. +These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, +from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; +while the total for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants +are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 +to 64 species in the Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland +are the Scotch fir (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, L.), the fir (<i>Picea excelsa</i>, Link.); +two species of birch (<i>B. verrucosa</i>, Ehrh., and <i>B. odorata</i>, Bechst.), +as well as the birch-bush (<i>B. nana</i>); two species of <i>Alnus</i> (<i>glutinosa</i> +and <i>incana</i>); the oak (<i>Q. pedunculata</i>, Ehrh.), which grows only on +the south coast; the poplar (<i>Populus tremula</i>); and the Siberian +larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over 6,000,000 +trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large saw-mills, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The total export +of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is estimated, +however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for fuel) represents +nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in +different shapes. The total area under forests is estimated at +63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the state. +The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the +vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the +necessary bibliographical indications in <i>Travaux géographiques en +Finlande</i>, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in +1751, 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, +was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 +men. Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the +country districts. The distribution of population in various provinces +was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density per<br />sq. kilometre.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Åbo-Björneborg.</td> <td class="tcc rb">447,098</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kuopio</td> <td class="tcc rb">313,951</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nyland</td> <td class="tcc rb">297,813</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Michel</td> <td class="tcc rb">189,360</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tavastehus</td> <td class="tcc rb">301,272</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uleåborg</td> <td class="tcc rb">280,899</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 1.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Viborg</td> <td class="tcc rb">421,610</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vasa</td> <td class="tcc rb">460,460</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">2,712,562</td> <td class="tcc allb"> 8.6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, +showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was +estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898, but it +largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish +autonomy. In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in +1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 in 1904.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and +Swedes (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the +provinces of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong +to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek +Orthodox Church and 755 Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p>The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the +grand-duchy and of the province (<i>län</i>) of Nyland, principal seaport +(111,654 inhabitants); Åbo, capital of the Åbo-Björneborg province +and ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading +manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief +town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleåborg, +capital of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of +Vasa län (18,028); Björneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province +(13,519); and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same +name (5545).</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority +of the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has +been marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign +exports of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. +Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, +and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors +for that purpose. There are two high schools, one experimental +station, twenty-two middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of +agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies +exist in each province.</p> + +<p>Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of +fish, &c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the +value of £61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, +metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern +development, but the aggregate production approaches one and a +half millions sterling in value.</p> + +<p>Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output, +which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to +1951 grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and +iron. The last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the +lakes. In 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile +industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding +the high duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of +paper out of wood is also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, +there are upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with +an output valued at over £3,000,000 annually.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The roads, attaining an aggregate length of +27,500 m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway +was opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, +in 1870 (cost only £4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type +began to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of +railway, mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the +state railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. +Finland has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which +the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland +is the chief one. It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate +270 m. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. +Considerable works have also been made to connect the different +lakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a sum of £1,000,000 +having been spent for that purpose.</p> + +<p>The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an +enormous extension both in the towns and between the different +towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription +varies from 40 to 60 marks,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and +reached in 1904 the following values:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">From or to<br />Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">From or to<br />other Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Totals.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">£4,036,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,488,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£10,524,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,292,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,624,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great +Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports +are: cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding £3,000,000), +metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products. The +chief articles of export are: timber and wood articles (£5,250,000), +paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. +The chief ports are Helsingfors, Åbo, Viborg, Hangö and Vasa.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Great strides have been made since 1866, when a +new education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading, +occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are +given in the maternal house, or in “maternal schools,” or by ambulatory +schools under the control of the clergy, who make the necessary +examination in the houses of every parish. All education above +that level is in the hands of the educational department and school +boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound (since +1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to +have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these expenses +800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each +female teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. +Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, +classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence +to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums +or gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of +Helsingfors (formerly the Åbo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 +students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the +Helsingfors polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower +technical, commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several +scientific societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish +Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, +several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian +Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one +juridical, one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, +as also the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, +&c., issue publications well known to the scientific world. The +numerous local branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the +Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by +aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter +in publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well as +free libraries (in nearly every commune), and organizing lectures for +the people. The university students take a lively part in this work.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government and Administration.</i>—From the time of its union +with Russia at the Diet of Borgå in 1809 till the events of 1899 +(see <i>History</i>) Finland was practically a separate state, the +emperor of Russia as grand-duke governing by means of a nominated +senate and a diet elected on a very narrow franchise, and +meeting at distant and irregular intervals. This diet was on the +old Swedish model, consisting of representatives of the four +estates—nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants—sitting and +voting in separate “Houses.” The government of the country +was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated +with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the +Russian government. War and foreign affairs were entirely +in the hands of Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence +in Helsingfors. The senate also controlled the administration +of the law. The constitutional conflict of 1899-1905 brought +about something like a revolution in Finland. For some years +the country was subject to a practically arbitrary form of government, +but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese War and the +growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and +peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution. +As a Finnish writer puts it: “just as the calamities which had +befallen Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to +come from Russia.” The <i>status quo ante</i> was restored, the diet +met in extraordinary session, and proceeded to the entire recasting +of the Finnish government. Freedom of the press was +voted, and the diet next proceeded to reform its own constitution. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +Far-reaching changes were voted. The new diet, instead of +being composed of four estates sitting separately, consists of a +single chamber of 200 members elected directly by universal +suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the +grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not +more than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion +to population. A scheme of “proportional representation,” +the votes being counted in accordance with the system invented +by G.M. d’Hondt, a Belgian, was also adopted. The executive +was to consist of a minister-secretary of state and of the members +of the senate, who were entitled to attend and address the diet +and who might be the subject of interpellations. The members +of the senate were made responsible to the diet as well as to +the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has power to +consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government. +After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty +of the senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate +is not obliged to accept the decision of the majority of the diet, +nor, apparently, is the sovereign bound to accept the advice of +the senate. The first elections, April 1907, resulted in the +election to the diet of about 40% representatives of the Social +Democratic party, and nineteen women members. The budget +of Finland in 1905 was £4,273,970 of “ordinary” revenue. +The “ordinary” expenditure was £3,595,300. The public debt +amounted at the end of 1905 to £5,611,170.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning +of the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what +is now Finland, though it was only when Christianity was introduced, +about 1157, that they were brought into contact with +civilized Europe. They probably found the Lapps in possession +of the country. The early Finlanders do not seem to have had +any governmental organization, but to have lived in separate +communities and villages independent of each other. Their +mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, +as “Ukko,” the god of the air, “Tapio,” god of the forests, +“Ahti,” the god of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to +have been both brave and troublesome to their neighbours, and +their repeated attacks on the coast of Sweden drew the attention +of the kings of that country. King Eric IX. (St Eric), accompanied +by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it is +said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the +country in 1157, when the people were conquered and baptized. +King Eric left Bishop Henry with his priests and some soldiers +behind to confirm the conquest and complete the conversion. +After a time he was killed, canonized, and as St Henry became +the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend to her +own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence +and paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, +Thomas (also an Englishman), arrived and recommenced the +work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas nearly succeeded in detaching +Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a province subject +only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a crusade +in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the subdivisions +of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and +building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who +conquered and connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and +built the strong castle of Viborg. Almost continuous wars +between Russia and Sweden were the result of the conquest +of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled that the river +Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the +Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by +the Swedes, they spread among the Finlanders their civilization, +gave them laws, accorded them the same civil rights as belonged +to themselves, and introduced agriculture and other beneficial +arts. The Reformed religion was introduced into Finland by +Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John III. raised the +country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to +suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by +Sweden, especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor +having created an order of nobility,—counts, barons and +nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the beginning of the 17th century +established the diet of Finland, composed of the four orders of +the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants. Gustavus and +his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and +gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing +printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696) +the country suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the +diocese of Åbo alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months. +Finland has been visited at different periods since by these +scourges; so late as 1848 whole villages were starved during +a dreadful famine. Peter the Great cast an envious eye on +Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in 1710 he managed +to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and Villmanstrand; +and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime the +sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished +in the wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721 +the province of Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was +finally ceded to Russia. But the country had been laid very +low by war, pestilence and famine, though it recovered itself +with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes made an effort +to recover the ceded province, but through wretched management +suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August +1742, ceding by the peace of Åbo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand +and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have +occurred till 1788, under Gustavus III., who began to reign +in 1771, and who confirmed to Finland those “fundamental +laws” which they have succeeded in maintaining against kings +and tsars for over two centuries. The country was divided into +six governments, a second superior court of justice was founded +at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and +science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the +academic language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war +again broke out between Sweden and Russia, and was carried +on for two years without much glory or gain to either party, +the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the lost Finnish +province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again +broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the +cession in 1809 of the whole of Finland and the Åland Islands to +Russia. Finland, however, did not enter Russia as a conquered +province, but, thanks to the bravery of her people after they had +been abandoned by an incompetent monarch and treacherous +generals, and not less to the wisdom and generosity of the +emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her free constitution +and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent +grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates +were summoned to a free diet at Borgå and accepted Alexander +as grand-duke of Finland, he on his part solemnly recognizing +the Finnish constitution and undertaking to preserve the religion, +laws and liberties of the country. A senate was created and a +governor-general named. The province of Viborg was reunited +to Finland in 1811, and Åbo remained the capital of the country +till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were removed +to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had +not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors +in 1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous +and progressive, and his statue in the great square in +front of the cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors +testifies to the regard in which his memory is cherished by his +Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his successor soon fell under +the influence of the reactionary party which had begun to assert +itself in Russia even before the assassination of Alexander II. +One of Alexander III.’s first acts was to confirm “the constitution +which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His +Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious +memory, and developed with the consent of the estates of Finland +by our dearly beloved father of blessed memory the emperor +Alexander Nicolaievich.” But the Slavophil movement, with +its motto, “one law, one church, one tongue,” acquired great +influence in official circles, and its aim was, in defiance of the +pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to Orthodoxy +and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven +years’ struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the +defenders of the Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were +complicated by the rivalry between the Swedish party, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +had hitherto been dominant in Finland, and the Finnish “nationalist” +party which, during the latter half of the 19th century, +had been determinedly asserting itself linguistically and politically. +With some exceptions, however, the whole country united +in defence of its constitution; “Fennoman” and “Svecoman,” +recognizing that their common liberties were at stake, suspended +their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II. +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russia</a></span>) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the +“February manifesto” (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated +the legislative power of the Finnish diet. A new military +law, practically amalgamating the Finnish with the Russian +forces, followed in July 1901; Russian officials and the Russian +language were forced on Finland wherever possible, and in +April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was invested +with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded +with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the +expenses being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian +system was now in full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests +and banishments, and the suppression of newspapers, were the +order of the day. To all this the people of Finland opposed +a dogged and determined resistance, which culminated in +November 1905 in a “national strike.” The strike was universal, +all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the +industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway, +steamship, telephone and postal services were practically +suspended. Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and +electricity; no shops except provision shops were open; public +departments, schools and restaurants were closed. After six +days the unconstitutional government—already much shaken +by events in Russia and Manchuria—capitulated. In an imperial +manifesto dated the 7th of November 1905 the demands of +Finland were granted, and the <i>status quo ante</i> 1899 was restored.</p> + +<p>But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution, +although precious to those whose only protection it was, was an +antiquated and not very efficient instrument of government. +Popular feeling had been excited by the political conflict, advanced +tendencies had declared themselves, and when the new +diet met it proceeded as explained above to remodel the constitution, +on the basis of universal suffrage, with freedom of +the press, speech, meeting and association.</p> + +<p>In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The +Imperial government insisted that the decision in all Finnish +questions affecting the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed +attempt was made to curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.</p> + +<p><i>Ethnology.</i>—The term Finn has a wider application than +Finland, being, with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (<i>q.v.</i>) +or Ugro-Finnic, the collective name of the westernmost branch +of the Ural-Altaic family, dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, +the Baltic provinces (Esthonia, Livonia, Curland), parts of +Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both banks of middle +Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural Mountains +and the Yenissei) and Hungary.</p> + +<p>Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people +except the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence +of civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen, +agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be +distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who +retain their Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race, +of low stature, with almost round head, low forehead, flat +features, prominent cheek bones, eyes mostly grey and oblique +(inclining inwards), short and flat nose, protruding mouth, +thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the occiput seems +flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard weak +and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture +with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion +also somewhat brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, +faithful and submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom +and independence, but also somewhat stolid, revengeful and +indolent. Many of these physical and moral characteristics +they have in common with the so-called “Mongolian” race, +to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also linguistically, +related.</p> + +<p>Considerable researches have been accomplished since about +1850 in the ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale +which has no parallel in any other country. The study of the +prehistoric population of Finland—Neolithic (no Palaeolithic +finds have yet been made)—of the Age of Bronze and the Iron +Age has been carried on with great zeal. At the same time the +folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked out with +wonderful completeness (see <i>L’Œuvre demi-séculaire de la Société +de Littérature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois</i>, by Dr +E.G. Palmén, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn’s report to the +London Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun +by Porthan, Z. Topelius, and especially E. Lönnrot (1802-1884), +for collecting the popular poetry of the Finns, was continued +by Castrén (1813-1852), Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka +(1854-1889), who extended their researches to the Finns settled +in other parts of the Russian empire, and collected a considerable +number of variants of the Kalewala and other popular poetry +and songs. In order to study the different eastern kinsfolk +of the Finns, Sjögren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to +North Russia, and Castrén to West and East Siberia (<i>Nordische +Reisen und Forschungen</i>), and collected the materials which +permitted himself and Schiefner to publish grammatical works +relative to the Finnish, Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, +Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott +languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx of linguists, +continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and the +Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (<i>Foundations +of Finno-Ugrian Archaeology</i>, in Finnish, and <i>Atlas of Antiquities</i>) +led the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their +attention to the basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga. +A series of expeditions (of Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were +consequently directed to those regions, especially since the +discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable Orkhon inscriptions +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turks</a></span>, p. 473), which finally enabled the Danish linguist, +V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to discover +that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See <i>Inscriptions +de l’Iénissei recueillies et publiées par la Société Finl. d’Archéologie</i>, +1889, and <i>Inscriptions de l’Orkhon</i>, 1892.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The general history of Finland is fully treated by +Yrjö Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889). +Both works have been translated into German. The constitutional +conflict gave rise to a host of books and pamphlets in various +languages. Mechelin, Danielson and Hermanson were the leading +writers on the Finnish side, and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the +political documents have been published and translated. A finely +illustrated book, <i>Finland in the Nineteenth Century</i>, by various Finnish +writers, gives an excellent account of the country; also Reuter’s +<i>Finlandia</i>, a very complete work with an exhaustive bibliography. +The constitutional question was fully discussed in English in <i>Finland +and the Tsars</i>, by J.R. Fisher (2nd ed., 1900). <i>The Atlas de +Finlande</i>, published in 1899 by the Geographical Society of Finland, +is a remarkably well executed and complete work. <i>The +Statistical Annual for Finland—Statistisk Arsbok för Finland</i>—published +annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in Helsingfors, +gives the necessary figures.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Finnish Literature.</i></p> + +<p>The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael +Agricola (1506-1557), who published an <i>A B C Book</i> in 1544, +and, as bishop of Åbo, a number of religious and educational +works. A version of the New Testament in Finnish was printed +by Agricola in 1548, and some books of the Old Testament in +1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at Stockholm +in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable +to the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the +poets of Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a +wider audience. It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of +Finland, the <i>Kalewala</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), was introduced to readers by the +exertions of Elias Lönnrot (<i>q.v.</i>), that the Finnish language was +used for literary composition. Lönnrot also collected and edited +the works of the peasant-poets P. Korhonen (1775-1840) and +Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing the improvisations +of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last quarter of +the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary activity +in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the publication +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the +aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the +political troubles, books in almost every branch of research are +found in the language, mainly translations or adaptations. We +meet with, during the present century, a considerable number +of names of poets and dramatists, no doubt very minor, as also +painters, sculptors and musical composers. At the Paris +International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish painters +and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any +country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied +a position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution +to a history of Finnish literature is Krohn’s <i>Suomenkielinen +runollisuns ruotsinvallan aikana</i> (1862). Finland is wonderfully +rich in periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish +Societies of Literature and of Sciences and other learned bodies +being specially valuable. A great work in the revival of an +interest in the Finnish language was done by the <i>Suomalaisen +Kirjallisuuden Seura</i> (the Finnish Literary Society), which from +the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, <i>Suomi</i>. The +Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition of the +works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan +(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published +at Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjö Koskinen, and has +been translated into both Swedish and German. The author +was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the above form being a Finnish +translation. Other works on Finnish history and some important +works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In language +we have Lönnrot’s great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published +by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner’s <i>Comparative +Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages</i> (Helsingfors and +Leipzig) is in German. In imaginative literature Finland has +produced several important writers of the vernacular. Alexis +Stenwall (“Kiwi”) (1834-1872), the son of a village tailor, +was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular dramas and an +historical romance, <i>The Seven Brothers</i> (1870). Among recent +playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most +successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895), +P. Cajander (b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish, +and Karl Bergbom (b. 1843). Among lyric poets are J.H. +Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jännes (b. 1848) and Yrjö Weijola +(b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari Päivärinta +(b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a grimly +realistic story, <i>His Life</i>. Many of the popular Finnish authors +of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio +Filander a farmer; Heikki Maviläinen a smith; Juhana Kokko +(Kyösti) a gamekeeper. The most gifted of the writers of +Finland, however, is certainly Juhani Aho (b. 1861), the son of +a country clergyman. His earliest writings were studies of +modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went to +reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods +of the leading French novelists of the newer school. About the +year 1893 he began to publish short stories, some of which, such +as <i>Enris</i>, <i>The Fortress of Matthias</i>, <i>The Old Man of Korpela</i> and +<i>Finland’s Flag</i>, are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a +very interesting degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary +Finnish population. It has been well said that in the +writings of Juhani Aho can be traced all the idiosyncrasies +which have formed the curious and pathetic history of Finland +in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b. 1857), in +tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships +which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country +life. Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Järnefelt (b. 1861). +Santeri Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naïvely, but not without +skill, has followed in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to +exaggerate either the force or the originality of these early +developments of a national Finnish literature, which, moreover, +are mostly brief and unambitious in character. But they are +eminently sincere, and they have the great merit of illustrating +the local aspects of landscape and temperament and manners.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—E.G. Palmén, <i>L’Œuvre demi-séculaire de la +Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura</i>, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882); +J. Krohn, <i>Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet</i> (Helsingfors, 1897); +F.W. Pipping, <i>Förteckning öfver böcker på finska språket</i> (Helsingfors, +1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, <i>Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und +seiner Dichter</i> (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, <i>Popular Poetry of the +Finns</i> (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, <i>Öfversigt af Finlands Litteraturhistoria +för skolor</i> (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using the Swedish +language, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Finnish mark, <i>markka</i>, of 100 <i>penni</i>, equals about 9½ d.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINLAY, GEORGE<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1799-1875), British historian, was born +of Scottish parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December +1799. He studied for the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went +to Göttingen. He had already begun to feel a deep interest in +the Greek struggle for independence, and in 1823 he resolved to +visit the country. In November he arrived in Cephalonia, where +he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly afterwards he +landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he +improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities +of the country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion +of the Greek leaders, both civil and military, he by no means +lost his enthusiasm for their cause. A severe attack of fever, +however, combined with other circumstances, induced him to +spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the spring of 1825 in Rome, +Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland, and, after +spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to +Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the +university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His +enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he +resided almost uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in +the unsuccessful operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard +Church for the relief of Athens in 1827. When independence +had been secured in 1829 he bought a landed estate in Attica, +but all his efforts for the introduction of a better system of +agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to the +literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first +publications were <i>The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation</i> +(1836); <i>Essai sur les principes de banque appliqués à l’état actuel +de la Grèce</i> (Athens, 1836); and <i>Remarks on the Topography +of Oropia and Diacria, with a map</i> (Athens, 1838). The first +instalment of his great historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed., +1857) under the title <i>Greece under the Romans; a Historical +View of the Condition of the Greek Nation from the time of its +Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the Roman Empire +in the East</i>. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself still +further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several +tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of +one of them he published a volume <i>On the Site of the Holy +Sepulchre; with a plan of Jerusalem</i> (1847). <i>The History of the +Byzantine and Greek Empires from 716-1453</i> was completed +in 1854. It was speedily followed by the <i>History of Greece under +the Ottoman and Venetian Domination</i> (1856), and by the <i>History +of the Greek Revolution</i> (1861). In weak health, and conscious +of failing energy, he spent his last years in revising his history. +From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of <i>The Times</i> +newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable attention, +and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct +influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned +societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edinburgh +the honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the +26th of January 1875. A new edition of his <i>History</i>, edited by +the Rev. H.F. Tozer, was issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in +1877. It includes a brief but extremely interesting fragment of an +autobiography of the author, almost the only authority for his life.</p> + +<p>As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field +of research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon +alone being a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious; +as a scholar he was accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute +and profound; and in all that he wrote he was unswerving in +his loyalty to the principles of constitutional government and to +the cause of liberty and justice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINN MAC COOL<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (in Irish <span class="sc">Find Mac Cumaill</span>), the central +figure of the later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called +Ossianic or Fenian. In Scotland Find usually goes by the name +of Fingal. This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the +title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Rí Fionnghall, <i>i.e.</i> king of +the Norse. Find’s father, Cumall mac Trénmóir, was uncle to Conn +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +Cétchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 157. Cumall +carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named +Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which +Cumall was slain by Goll mac Morna (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 174). Find was born +after his father’s death and was at first called Demni. He is +leader of the <i>fiann</i> or <i>féinne</i> (English “Fenians”), a kind of +militia or standing army which was drawn from all quarters of +Ireland. His father had held the same office before him, but +after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac Morna, who +retained it until Find came to man’s estate. Find usually +resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded +by some of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered +throughout Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those +coming from over the sea. In times of invasion Find collected +his forces, overcame the foe, and pursued him to Scotland or +Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might be. When not +engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or +love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the +conditions of admission to this privileged band, which were +at once singular and exacting. The foremost heroes in Find’s +train were his son Ossian, his grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain, +and Diarmait O’Duibne, whose elopement with Find’s destined +bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King Cormac mac Airt +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story. These, +like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was +allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance. +The latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being +Goll and Conan. By the annalists Find is represented as having +met with death by treachery either in 252 or 283. Under +Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac Airt, the power +of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly +took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the +battle of Gabra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 283). Very few survived the defeat, but +the story makes Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival +of St Patrick in 432.</p> + +<p>It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have +existed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older +in date than the Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal +with events happening in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196), +Lugaid mac Con (196-227), and Cormac mac Airt (227-266), +but none of these in their oldest shape contain any allusion +whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history of the +Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a +Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster +against Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was +originally a figure in Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the +Viking age, but we have no documentary evidence concerning +him at this time. He seems primarily to have been regarded as +a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been transformed +into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that +his personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local +tradition out of stories clustering round the figure of the Viking +leader Ketill Hviti (Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the +year 1000 Find was certainly connected in the minds of the people +with the reign of Cormac mac Airt, but the process is obscure. +Recently John MacNeill has pointed out that in the oldest +genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui Tairrsigh of +Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county of +Kildare and parts of King’s and Queen’s counties). The Ui +Tairrsigh were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill +would account in this manner for the slow acceptance of the +stories by the conquering Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was +fashionable at court, the subject races clung to the Fenian cycle. +For the last 800 years Find has been the national hero of the +Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands +and the Isle of Man. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span> (subsection <i>Irish Literature</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A. Nutt, <i>Ossian and the Ossianic Literature</i> +(London, 1899); H. Zimmer, “Keltische Beiträge iii.,” <i>Zeitschrift für +deutsches Altertum</i> (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L.C. Stern, “Die +Ossianischen Heldenlieder,” <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte</i> +(1895; trans, by J.L. Robertson in <i>Transactions of the +Gaelic Society of Inverness</i>, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp. 257-325); J. +MacNeill, <i>Duanaire Finn</i> (London, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINNO-UGRIAN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or Finno-Ugric, the designation of a +division of the Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers. +The first part is the name given by their neighbours, though +not used by themselves, to the inhabitants of the eastern shores +of the Baltic. It is probably the same word as the Fenni of +Tacitus and <span class="grk" title="Phinnoi">Φίννοι</span> of Ptolemy, though it is not certain that those +races were Finns in the modern sense. It possibly means people +of the fens or marshes, and corresponds to the native word <i>Suomi</i>, +which appears to be derived from <i>suo</i>, a marsh. Finn and +Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland but +also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia +and sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this +sense the Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and +Mordvins (Volga), and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The +name is not, however, extended to the Ostiaks, Voguls and +Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate subdivision called +Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country on +either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castrén in +a scientific sense.</p> + +<p>The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not +be pressed as indicating a community of physical features +and customs. But making allowance for the change of language +by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians form, with the striking exception +of the Hungarians, a moderately homogeneous whole. +They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and Manchus, +have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power +of political organization. Those of them who have not come +under European influence live under the simplest form of +patriarchal government, and states, kings or even great chiefs +are almost unknown among them.</p> + +<p>Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south +Siberia extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large +parts of it are still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and +marsh was no doubt much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric +tribes seem to shun the open steppes but are widely spread in +the wooded country, especially on the banks of lakes and rivers. +Their want of political influence renders them obscure, but they +form a considerable element in the population of the northern, +middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found much +to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except +in the Baltic provinces). The difference of temperament between +the Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little +Russians is partly due to an infusion of Finnish blood.</p> + +<p>Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built +and, though there is considerable variation in height and the +cephalic index, are mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat +squat, and brachy- or mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish +or olive coloured, the eyes grey or blue, the hair light, the +beard scanty. Most of them seem deficient in energy and +liveliness, both mental and physical; they are slow, heavy, +conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined to +be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are +patient, persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When +their natural mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly +and hospitable.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Tribes and Nations.</i>—The Ugrian subdivision, which seems +to be in many respects the more primitive, consists of three +peoples standing on very different levels of civilization, the +Ostiaks and Voguls and the Hungarians.</p> + + +<p>The <i>Ostiaks</i> (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic +fishermen and hunters inhabiting at present the government +<span class="sidenote">Ostiaks.</span> +of Tobolsk and the banks of the Obi. They formerly +extended into the government of Perm on the European +side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the Yenisei +appear to be a different race and not to belong to the Finno-Ugrian +group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship +the River Obi. Allied to them are the <i>Voguls</i>, a similar nomadic +tribe found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly +extending at least as far as the government of Vologda. +<span class="sidenote">Voguls.</span> +The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls are allied, though not +mere dialects of one another, and form a small group separated +from the languages of the Finns both Western and Eastern. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +For further details of these and other tribes see under the separate +headings.</p> + +<p>According to the legend, Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and +Magyor. They married daughters of the prince of the Alans +and became the ancestors of the two kindred nations, +Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story corresponds +<span class="sidenote">Magyars or Hungarians.</span> +with what can be ascertained scientifically about +the origin of these peoples. It is probable that the +Huns and Magyars were allied tribes of mixed descent comprising +both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian elements. The language is +indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name Hungarian seems to +lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish connexions +which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and +Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu +as far east as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are +of opinion that the tribes from whom the present Hungarians +are descended were formed originally in the Terek-Kuban +country to the north of the Caucasus, where a mixture of Turkish +and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian language but Turkish +mode of life predominating. They were also influenced by +Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns +and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe +in the 5th century and made no permanent settlement in spite +of the devastation they caused, whereas the Magyars remained +for some centuries near the banks of the Don. According to +tradition they were compelled to leave a country called Lebedia +under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved westward +under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary +in the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions +was called Árpád. For the chequered and often tragic history +of the country see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>. The Magyars were converted to +Christianity in the 11th century and adhered to the Roman +not the Eastern Church. They have in all probability entirely +lost their ancient physique, but have retained their language, +and traces of their older life may be seen in their fondness for +horses and flocks.</p> + +<p>The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The <i>Permians</i> +and <i>Syryenians</i> may be treated as one tribe. The latter name +is very variously spelt as Syrjenian, Sirianian, Zyrjenian, +Zirian, &c. They both call themselves Komi and +<span class="sidenote">Permians and Syryenians.</span> +speak a mutually intelligible language, allied to +Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied +to this sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found +chiefly in the governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel, +but there are a few Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals. +The Syryenian headquarters are at the town of Ishma on the +Pechora, whereas the name Permian is more correctly restricted +to the inhabitants of the right bank of the upper Kama. Both +probably extended much farther to the west in former times. +The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than +most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for +trading purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.</p> + +<p>The <i>Votiaks</i> are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons +dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government +of Viatka. Their language indicates that they have +borrowed a good deal from the Tatars and Chuvashes, +<span class="sidenote">Votiaks.</span> +and they seem to have little individuality, being described as +weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves +Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them +migrated, doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into +the government of Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are +said to have improved in physique.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cheremissians</i>, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call +themselves Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the +neighbourhood of Kazan. Those inhabiting the right +bank of the Volga are physically stronger and are +<span class="sidenote">Cheremissians.</span> +known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place +names makes it probable that their present position is the result +of their being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then +southwards by the Russians. There is some discrepancy between +their language and their physical characteristics. The former +shows affinities to both Mordvinian and the Permian group, but +their crania are said to be mainly dolichocephalic, and it has +been suggested that they are connected with the neolithic +dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle +and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.</p> + +<p>The <i>Mordvinians</i>, also called Mordvá, Mordvins and Mordvs, +are scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially +Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk, +Ufa and even Orenburg. Though not continuous, +<span class="sidenote">Mordvinians.</span> +their settlements are considerable both in extent and +population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns, +and their traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought +with the Tatars. They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the +6th century, but do not now use the name, calling themselves +after one of their two divisions, Moksha or Erza. Their country +is still covered with forest to a large extent. Their language +is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the other it shows +a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other Eastern +languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar +to itself.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lapps</i> are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They +call themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians. +They are the shortest and most brachycephalic race +in Europe. The majority are nomads who live by +<span class="sidenote">Lapps.</span> +pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but +others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or +fishing. From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation +among the Finns and other neighbouring nations for skill +in sorcery.</p> + +<p>The <i>Esthonians</i> are the peasantry of the Russian province +Esthonia and the neighbouring districts. They were serfs +until 1817 when they were liberated, but their condition +remained unsatisfactory and led to a serious rebellion in +<span class="sidenote">Esthonians.</span> +1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns, and +are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting +the Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they +are known to foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii +of Tacitus, and to have properly belonged to quite a different +tribe. They call themselves Mā mēs, or country people, and +their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish, Virolaiset, Esthonians.) +Though not superior to other tribes in general intelligence, +they have become more civilized owing to their more intimate +connexion with the Russian and German population around them.</p> + +<p><i>Livs</i>, <i>Livlanders</i> or <i>Livonians</i> is the name given to the old +Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and +north Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and +predatory pagan tribe in the middle ages, and it is +<span class="sidenote">Livonians.</span> +possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish race +from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost +completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken +in a few places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been +disputed if it still exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and +is allied to Esthonian.</p> + +<p>The <i>Votes</i> (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also +called southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent +<span class="sidenote">Votes.</span> +the original inhabitants of Ingria, the district round +St Petersburg, but have decreased before the advance +of the Russians and also of Karelians from the north. They are +heard of in the 11th century, but now occupy only about thirty +parishes in north-west Ingria.</p> + +<p>The <i>Vepsas</i> or <i>Vepses</i>, also called Northern Chudes, are another +tribe allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the +<span class="sidenote">Vepsas.</span> +Votes. They are found in the district of Tikhvinsk +and other parts of the government of Old Novgorod, +and apparently extended farther east into the government of +Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and +Vepsas are closely related to the Esthonians.</p> + +<p>The <i>Finns</i> proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the +most important and civilized division of the group. They +inhabit at present the grand duchy of Finland and the +adjacent governments, especially Olonetz, Tver and +<span class="sidenote">Finns.</span> +St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called Kainulaiset +was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns, +the Tavastlanders or Hämäläiset, who occupy the southern and +western parts of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaiset +found in the east and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards +the White Sea.</p> + +<p>The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the +grand duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There +is a considerable admixture of Swedish blood; the language is +full of Swedish words; Christianity is universal; and the upper +classes and townspeople are mainly Swedish in their habits and +speech, though of late a persistent attempt has been made to +Russify the country. The Finns have much the same mental +and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but have +reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several +collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been +made, the most celebrated of which is the <i>Kalewala</i>, compiled +by Lönnrot about 1835, and there is a copious modern literature. +The study of the national languages and antiquities is prosecuted +in Helsingfors and other towns with much energy: several +learned societies have been formed and considerable results +published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that this scientific +activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, owes +much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary +language there are several dialects, the most important of which +is that of Savolaks.</p> + +<p>The <i>Karelians</i> are not usually regarded as separate from the +Finns, though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas +and Votes. Living farther east they have come less +under Swedish and more under Russian influence than +<span class="sidenote">Karelians.</span> +the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the districts +which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this influence +has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of European +civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more +than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better proportioned +build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and +friendly, but less persevering and tenacious. They number +about 260,000, of whom about 63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000 +in Tver and Novgorod, but in the southern districts are less +distinguished from the Russian population. They belong to +the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy are +Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a +Karelian population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda +and Tambov. It was among them that the <i>Kalewala</i> was +collected, chiefly in East Finland and Olonetz.</p> + +<p>There is some difference of opinion as to whether the <i>Samoyedes</i> +should be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given +the rank of a separate division equivalent to Finno-Ugrian +and Turkish. The linguistic question is +<span class="sidenote">Samoyedes.</span> +discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe +who wander with their reindeer over the treeless plains which +border on the White and Kara seas on either side of the Urals. +In culture and habits they resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes, +and there seems to be no adequate reason for separating them.</p> + +<p>Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian +group, but some doubt must remain as to the propriety +<span class="sidenote">Other inclusions.</span> +of the classification, either because they are now +extinct, or because they are suspected of having +changed their language.</p> + +<p>The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga +before they invaded the country which now bears their name, +were probably a tribe similar to the Magyars, though all record +of their language is lost. It has been disputed whether the +Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied parts of south Russia +and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians or Turks, and +there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs, which +without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the difference +ethnographically important. The formation of hordes +of warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different +races, was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably +often a matter of chance what language was adopted as the +common speech.</p> + +<p>At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who +speak Tatar languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are +also the Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified +by Finnish influence. The little known Soyots of the head-waters +of the Yenisei are also said to be Finno-Ugrians.</p> + +<p>The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas +and Votes but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all +Finno-Ugrian tribes, and to all extinct tribes of whatever race +who have left tombs, monuments or relics of mining operations +in European Russia or Siberia. Some Russian archaeologists use +it specifically of the Permian group. But its extension is so +vague that it is better to discard it as a scientific term.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Languages.</i>—The Finno-Ugric languages are generally +considered as a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists +of four families: Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric, +including Samoyede unless it is reckoned separately as a fifth. +The chief character of the group is that agglutination, or the +addition of suffixes, is the only method of word-formation, +prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, as is +also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages, +such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A +connexion between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has +also been suggested. On the other hand, the more highly +developed agglutinative languages, such as Finnish, approach +the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan languages may have +been developed from an ancestor not unlike the Ural-Altaic +group.</p> + +<p>The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other +divisions of the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabulary. +Compared with Mongol and Manchu they have a much +greater wealth of forms, both in declension and conjugation; +the suffixes form one word with the root and are not wholly or +partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal element +is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and +nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages, +but Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting +position or motion, and the union of the case termination with +the noun is more complete; in some languages the object can +be incorporated in the verb, which does not occur in Turkish, +but the negative is rarely (Cheremissian) thus incorporated +after the Turkish fashion (<i>e.g.</i> <i>yazmak</i>, “to write”; <i>yazmamak</i>, +“not to write”), and in some languages takes pronominal +suffixes (Finnish <i>en tule</i>, <i>et tule</i>, <i>eivät tule</i>, “I, you, they do not +come”). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in Finnish +and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed, +or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns +and particles exist and are fully developed in some languages. +The tendency to form compounds, which is not characteristic +of Turkish, is very marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is +said also to be found in Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian. +The original order in the sentence seems to be that the governing +word follows the word governed, but there are many exceptions +to this, particularly in Hungarian where the arrangement is +very free.</p> + +<p>In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of +Turkish, Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance +between the numbers. Many of the languages contain numerous +Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but with this exception the +resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and indicates an +ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of word-building +and of the elements used, even if they have not the +same sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of +sentences and in some details (<i>e.g.</i> the use of the infinitive or +verbal substantive), seem to justify the hypothesis of an original +relationship with the Turkish languages, which in their turn +have connexions with the other groups.</p> + +<p>Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by +some among the Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate +displays a far closer resemblance to them in both grammar +and vocabulary than do any of the Turkish languages. The +numerals are different, but the personal and interrogative +pronouns and many common words (<i>e.g.</i> <i>joha</i>, “river,” Finn. +<i>joki</i>; <i>sava</i>, “good,” Finn, <i>hywä</i>; <i>kole</i>, “fish,” Finn, <i>kala</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is +very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb +differs, verb and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In +detail, however, the verbal suffixes show analogies to those of +Finno-Ugrian. Vowel-harmony and weakening of consonants +occur as in Finnish.</p> + +<p>Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be +divided into two sections: (1) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak, +Vogul and Magyar; and (2) Finnish. The Permian languages +(Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a distinct group within +this latter section, and the remainder may be divided into the +Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West +Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).</p> + +<p>The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the +Finnish branch before the systems of declension or conjugation +were developed. Their case suffixes seem to be later formations, +though we find, <i>t</i>, <i>tl</i> or <i>k</i> for the plural and traces of <i>l</i> as a local +suffix. Ostiak and Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods +and tenses are less numerous but the number of verbal forms is +increased by those in which the pronominal object is incorporated. +Hungarian has naturally advanced enormously beyond the +stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks of strong +European influence, but also retains primitive features. Vowel-harmony +is observed (<i>várok</i>, “I await,” but <i>verek</i>, “I strike”). +The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive +or intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated. +Alone among Finno-Ugrian languages it has +developed an article, and the adjective is inflected when used +as a predicate though not as an attribute (<i>Jó emberek</i>, “good +men,” but <i>Az emberek jók</i>, “the men are good”). There is +great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, a tendency +to form long compounds.</p> + +<p>The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by +any striking differences, but show greater resemblances to one +another in details. None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian +an objective conjugation. The case system is elaborate +and generally comprises twelve or fifteen forms. The negative +conjugation is peculiar; there are negative adjectives ending +in <i>tem</i> or <i>tom</i> and abessive cases (<i>e.g.</i> Finnish <i>syyttä</i>, without a +cause, <i>tiedotta</i>, without knowledge).</p> + +<p>Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development +less fully than the more western languages. They are +less completely inflected than the Finnish languages and more +thoroughly agglutinative in the strict sense. In vocabulary, +<i>e.g.</i> the numerals, they show resemblances to the Ugrian division. +Syryenian has older literary remains than any Finno-Ugrian +language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th +century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals +and translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.</p> + +<p>Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of +the Volga Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been +influenced by Russian and Tatar rather than by Scandinavian, +and hence show apparent differences. But Mordvinian has +points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem to point +to a comparatively late separation, <i>e.g.</i> the use of <i>kemen</i> for ten, <i>-nza</i> +as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the +regular formation of the imperfect with <i>i</i>, the infinitive with +<i>ma</i>, and the participle with <i>f</i> (Finnish <i>va</i>). On the other hand +it has many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation +like the Ugrian languages, and has developed two forms of +declension, the definite and indefinite.</p> + +<p>Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages +and Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations +and also in marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable +(Syry. <i>yas</i>, Cher. <i>vlya</i>) between the singular and the case suffixes. +Most of the numerals are like Syryenian but <i>kändekhsye</i>, <i>indekhsye</i>, +for eight and nine, recall Finnish forms (<i>kahdeksan</i>, <i>yhdeksän</i>), +as do also the pronouns.</p> + +<p>The connexion between the various West Finnish languages +is more obvious than between those already discussed. Lappish +(or Lapponic) forms a link between them and Mordvinian. Its +pronouns are remarkably like the Mordvinian equivalents, but +the general system of declension and conjugation, both positive +and negative, is much as in Finnish. Superficially, however, +the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the difference in +phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for diphthongs +and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.</p> + +<p>The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and +Livish) to Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but +to the casual learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than +Finnish, but on the whole is less primitive and has assumed +under foreign influence the features of a European language +even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony is found only in the +Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the pronominal affixes +are not used, and the negative has become an unvarying particle, +though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in Finnish. +On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the +general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and +the positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish. +Esthonian has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and +a certain amount of literary culture, the best-known work being +the national epic or <i>Kalewi-poeg</i>.</p> + +<p>Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian +or Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken +language of the Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian, +but the <i>Kalewala</i> and their other old songs are written in a pure +Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary +language of poetry throughout modern Finland, just as the +Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic poetry. It is +more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves many +old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is +softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in +ordinary speech, <i>e.g.</i> <i>saa’a, kosen</i> for <i>saada, kosken</i>.</p> + +<p>The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the +group is clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian +and in its present form consists of non-Aryan material +recast in an Aryan and European mould. Not only are some +of the simplest words borrowed from Scandinavian, but the +grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan peculiarities +have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian. +The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with +a string of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms +a whole with the root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the +adjective is declined and compared and agrees with its substantive; +compound tenses are formed with the aid of the +auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of relative pronouns +and particles.</p> + +<p>Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting +examples of non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both +translation and imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it +may be doubted if the experiment is successful. The sense of +effort is felt less in Hungarian than in the other languages; +though they are admirable instruments for terse conversation or +popular poetry, there appears to be some deep-seated difference +in the force of the verb and the structure of phrases which +renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to +express sentences of the type common in European literature.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Civilization and Religion.</i>—The Finno-Ugric tribes have +not been equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and +Magyars, have adopted, at least in towns, the ordinary civilization +of Europe; others are agriculturists; others still nomadic. +The wilder tribes, such as the Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly +consist of one section which is nomadic and another which is +settling down. The following notes apply to traces of ancient +conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere universal. +Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike, +though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages +as they advanced among this older population. But most +Finno-Ugrians are astute and persevering hunters, and the +Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow. The tribes are divided +into numerous small clans which are exogamous. Marriage by +capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are still +polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the +more general form. Women are treated as servants and often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +excluded from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive +form of house consists of poles inclined towards one another +and covered with skins or sods, so as to form a circular screen +round a fire; winter houses are partly underground. Long +snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are largely employed in +summer. The Finns in particular are very good seamen. The +Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden +moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different +languages, which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that +the original system did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude +for calculating and trading is not great. Several thousands of +the Ostiaks, Voguls and Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much +paganism lingers among the nominal Christians, and in poetry +such as the <i>Kalewala</i>. The deities are chiefly nature spirits and +the importance of the several gods varies as the tribes are hunters, +fishermen, &c. Sun or sky worship is found among the Samoyedes +and <i>Jumala</i>, the Finnish word for god, seems originally to mean +sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river Obi and +also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns, +Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by +each clan with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship +are also found. The Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice +to ghosts, and the Ostiaks to make images of the more important +dead, which are tended and honoured, as if alive, for some years. +Images are found in the tombs and barrows of most tribes, and +the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use idols, generally +of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of the +idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations +of Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are +said to sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is +due to possession by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and +cured by spells, seems to prevail among all tribes, and in general +extraordinary power is supposed to reside in incantations and +magical formulae. This belief is conspicuous in the <i>Kalewala</i>, +and almost every tribe has its own collection of prayers, healing +charms and spells to be used on the most varied occasions. +A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards (Finnish +noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples. +They are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the +will of the gods; a magic drum plays a great part in their +invocations, and their office is generally hereditary. The non-Buddhist +elements of Chinese and Japanese religion present +the same features as are found among the Finno-Ugrians—nature-worship, +ancestor-worship and exorcism—but in a much more +elaborate and developed form.</p> + +<p>IV. <i>History.</i>—Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history +or written records, and little in the way of traditions of their +past. In their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter +to some extent the course of ordinary European history. For +the earlier period we have no positive information, but the labours +of investigators, especially in Finland, have collected a great +number of archaeological and philological data from which an +account of the ancient wanderings of these tribes may be constructed. +Barrows containing skulls and ornaments may mark +the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be +of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan +words of an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact +with the other language from which it borrowed at the time when +such forms were current. But clearly all such deductions +contain a large element of theory, and the following sketch is +given with all reserve.</p> + +<p>The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the +Urals and spoke a common language. It is not certain if they +were all of the same physical type, for the association of different +races speaking one language is common in central Asia. They +were hunters and fishermen, not agriculturists. At an unknown +period the Finns, still undivided, moved into Europe and perhaps +settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps arrived there +before 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, learned some rudiments of agriculture, and +developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still +in the neolithic stage. About 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they came in contact +with an Iranian people, from whom they learned the use of +metals, and borrowed numerals for a hundred (Finnish <i>sata</i>, +Ostiak <i>sāt</i>, Magyar <i>szaz</i>; cf. Zend <i>sata</i>) and a thousand (Magyar +<i>ezer</i>; cf. <i>haza<span class="ov">n</span>ra</i> and <i>hazar</i>). Magyar and some other languages +also borrowed a word for ten (<i>tíz</i>, cf. <i>das</i>). This Iranian race +may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are believed by many +authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented by the +Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route +up the Volga in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> About that time the +Western Finns must have broken away from the Mordvinians +and wandered north-westwards. At a period not much later +than the Christian era, they must have come in contact with +Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also with +Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter +first in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as +there may have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces. +But the distribution of tombs and barrows seems to indicate +that they entered Finland not from the east through Karelia +but from the Baltic provinces by sea to Satakunta and the +south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From both +Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous +quantity of culture-words and probably the ideas and materials +they indicate. Thus the Finnish words for gold, king and +everything concerned with government are of Scandinavian +origin. Their migration to Finland was probably complete about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later as Russians +were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns northwards, +overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country between +St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to +drive the Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east. +The Finns know the Russians by the name of <i>Venäjä</i>, or Wends, +and as this name is not used by Slavs themselves but by Scandinavians +and Teutons, it seems clear that they arrived among +the Finns as greater strangers than the Scandinavians and +known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps first +preached to the Finns as early as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, but there was a long +political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of +the 13th century Finland was definitely converted and annexed +to Sweden, remaining a dependency of that country until 1809, +when it was ceded to Russia.</p> + +<p>The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward +movement and did not fall under western influences but came +into contact with Tatar tribes and were more or less Tatarized. +In some cases this took the form of the adoption of a Tatar +language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and Votiak) a large +number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that there +were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting +to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such +was Great Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the +Mongols in 1238. The pressure of tribes farther east acting on +these settlements dislodged sections of them from time to time +and created the series of invasions which devastated the East +Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But we do not +know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians, +Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were +Turks, Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking +a Ugrian language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspection +of the performances of the various tribes, as far as we can +distinguish them, suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the +warlike element. The names Hun and Hungarian may possibly +be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot assume that this tribe +passed across Asia unchanged in language and physique. The +Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of the 9th +century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and +conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or +so before this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu, +probably a district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The +isolated groups of Hungarians now found in Transylvania and +called Szeklers are considered the purest descendants of the +invading Magyars. Those who settled in the plains of Hungary +probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars and +earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as +Pechenegs and Kumans.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Among the older writers may be mentioned +Strahlenberg (<i>Das nord- und östliche Theil von Europa und Asia</i>, +1730), Johann Gottlieb Georgi (<i>Description de toutes les nations de +l’empire de la Russie</i>, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777); but especially +the various works of Matthias A. Castrén (1852-1853) and W. Schott +(1858). Modern scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their +languages was founded by these two authors. Among newer works +some of the most important separate publications are: J.R. Aspelin, +<i>Antiquités du nord finno-ougrien</i> (1877-1884); J. Abercromby, +<i>Pre- and Proto-historic Finns</i> (1898); and A. Hackmann, <i>Die ältere +Eisenzeit in Finnland</i> (1905).</p> + +<p>The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and +languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not +in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there +are several: <i>Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne</i> (Helsingfors) +(<i>Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja</i>); <i>Finnisch-Ugrische +Forschungen</i> (Helsingfors and Leipzig); <i>Mitteilungen der archäologischen, +historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der Kais. +Universität zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les +études ouralo-altaïques</i> (Budapest). In all of these will be found +numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halévy, +Heikel, Krohn, Muncácsi, Paasonen, Setälä, Smurnow, Thomsen +and Vambéry.</p> + +<p>The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the +headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions +may be consulted the works of Castrén, Schott and Otto Donner, +also such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages: +Byrne, <i>Principles of the Structure of Language</i>, vol. i. (1892); Friedrich +Müller, <i>Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft II.</i>, Band ii., Abth. 1882; +Steinthal and Misleli, <i>Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. El.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINSBURY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a central metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded N. by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the +city of London and W. by Holborn and St Pancras. Pop. +(1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares are Pentonville +Road, from King’s Cross east to the Angel, Islington, continuing +E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate +Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre +from W. to E., King’s Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon +Road, and so to the City; St John Street and Road and Goswell +Road (the residence of Dickens’ Pickwick) running S. from the +Angel towards the City; and Rosebery Avenue running S.W. +from St John Street into Holborn. The commercial character +of the City extends into the southern part of the borough; the +residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local industries +include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing +and paper-making.</p> + +<p>An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation +is not known. The place was supposed by some to take name +from an extensive fen, a part of which, commonly known as +Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was drained in the 16th century +and subsequently laid out as public grounds. It was a frequent +resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of entertainment and +the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that it furnished +a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in the fire +of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous +at a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of +Clerkenwell (<i>q.v.</i>), a locality of considerable historic interest, +including the former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which +the gateway and other traces remain. Among several other +sites and buildings of historical interest the Charterhouse (<i>q.v.</i>) +west of Aldersgate Street, stands first, originally a Carthusian +monastery, subsequently a hospital and a school out of which +grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill Fields, +City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the +middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons +interred here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother +of John and Charles Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the +Society of Friends. A neighbouring chapel is intimately associated +with the Wesleys, and the house of John Wesley is opened +as a museum bearing his name. Many victims of the plague +were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields, near the junction +of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the fields +lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable +Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and +armoury. Sadler’s Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as +a place of entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a +fashionable medicinal spring, music room and theatre, the last +most notable in its connexion with the names of Joseph Grimaldi +the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other institutions are the technical +college, Leonard Street, and St Mark’s, St Luke’s and +the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the parcels +department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green +the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the +Thames). Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the +New River Head. The municipal borough coincides with the +east and central divisions of the parliamentary borough of +Finsbury, each returning one member. The borough council +consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. Area, +589.1 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FINSTERWALDE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Prussia, on the Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster, +28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The +town has a Gothic church (1581), a château, schools, cloth and +cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and saw mills and factories +for machine building. The town, which is first mentioned in +1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635 and +of Prussia in 1815.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIORENZO DI LORENZO<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1440-1522), Italian painter, of +the Umbrian school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most +of his authentic works are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There +is probably no other Italian master of importance of whose +life and work so little is known. In fact the whole edifice that +modern scientific criticism has built around his name is based +on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in the Pinacoteca +of Perugia—a niche with lunette, two wings and predella—and +on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that city +in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint +an altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova—the pentatych of the +“Madonna and Saints” now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth +and death and pupilage nothing is known, and Vasari does not +even mention Fiorenzo’s name, though he probably refers to him +when he says that Cristofano, Perugino’s father, sent his son +to be the shop drudge of a painter in Perugia, “who was not +particularly distinguished in his calling, but held the art in great +veneration and highly honoured the men who excelled therein.” +Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino and of Pinturicchio +show certain mannerisms which point towards Fiorenzo’s +influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some fifty +pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes +works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be +surprised to find great divergence of opinion as regards the +masters under whom Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied. +Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo, +Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione, Filippo Lippi, +Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with this +distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter +that stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the +probability is that he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly +influenced by Gozzoli. Fiorenzo’s authentic works are remarkable +for their sense of space and for the expression of that peculiar +clear, soft atmosphere which is so marked a feature in the work +of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity of feeling and a +power of expressing character which are far removed from the +somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures +bearing Fiorenzo’s name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight +charming St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-authenticated +works, so Florentine in conception and movement, +that the Perugian’s authorship is very questionable. On the +other hand the beautiful “Nativity,” the “Adoration of the +Magi,” and the “Adoration of the Shepherds” in the same +gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the +fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco +at Deruta. The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the +Frankfort museums contain each a “Madonna and Child” +ascribed to the master, but the attribution is in each case open +to doubt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jean Carlyle Graham, <i>The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo</i> +(Perugia, 1903); Edward Hutton, <i>The Cities of Umbria</i> (London).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G. K.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIORENZUOLA D’ARDA,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a town of Emilia, Italy, in the +province of Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft. +above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via +Aemilia, and has a picturesque piazza with an old tower in the +centre. The Palazzo Grossi also is a fine building. Alseno +lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is the Cistercian abbey of Chiaravalle +della Colomba, with a fine Gothic church and a large and +beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble), of the 12th-14th +century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1748-1821), German +painter and historian of art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th +of October 1748. He received his first instructions in art at an +academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in 1761, to continue +his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to Bologna, where +he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 admission +to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained +the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick. +In 1781 he removed to Göttingen, occupied himself as a drawing-master, +and was named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints +at the university library. He was appointed professor extraordinary +in the philosophical faculty in 1799, and ordinary +professor in 1813. During this period he had made himself +known as a writer by the publication of his <i>Geschichte der zeichnenden +Künste</i>, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in +1815 to 1820 by the <i>Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste in Deutschland +und den vereinigten Niederlanden</i>, in 4 vols. These works, +though not attaining to any high mark of literary excellence, +are esteemed for the information collected in them, especially +on the subject of art in the later middle ages. Fiorillo practised +his art almost till his death, but has left no memorable masterpiece. +The most noticeable of his painting is perhaps the +“Surrender of Briseis.” He died at Göttingen on the 10th of +September 1821.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIR,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch +pine (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>), but at present not infrequently employed +as a general term for the whole of the true conifers (<i>Abielineae</i>); +in a more exact sense, it has been transferred to the “spruce” +and “silver firs,” the genera <i>Picea</i> and <i>Abies</i> of most modern +botanists.</p> + +<p>The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having +their needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of +growing in clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their +cones are composed of thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales, +each with a more or less conspicuous bract springing from the +base. The trees have usually a straight trunk, and a tendency +to a conical or pyramidal growth, throwing out each year a more +or less regular whorl of branches from the foot of the leading +shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend horizontally.</p> + +<p>In the spruce firs (<i>Picea</i>), the cones are pendent when mature +and their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the +shoots, though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally. +In the genus <i>Abies</i>, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their +scales drop off when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct +rows on each side of the shoot.</p> + +<p>The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the +Norway spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>), so well known in British plantations, +though rarely attaining there the gigantic height and +grandeur of form it often displays in its native woods. Under +favourable conditions of growth it is a lofty tree, with a nearly +straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in somewhat irregular +whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed with dark, +clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as they +increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even +in large trees, often sweeping the ground—a habit that, with +the jagged sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses, +gives a peculiarly graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway +spruce. The slender, sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered +thickly around the shoots; the upper one pressed towards the +stem, and the lower directed sideways, so as to give a somewhat +flattened appearance to the individual sprays. The elongated +cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper branches; +they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and +eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the +extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge +their seeds until the following spring.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:381px; height:483px" src="images/img394.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Norway Spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>). Male Flowers. A, branch +bearing male cones, reduced; B, single male cone, enlarged; C, single +stamen, enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on +most of the mountain ranges of northern and central Europe; +while in Asia it occurs at least as far east as the Lena, and in +latitude extends from the Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle. +On the Swiss Alps it is one of the most prevalent and striking +of the forest trees, its dark evergreen foliage often standing out +in strong contrast to the snowy ridges and glaciers beyond. +In the lower districts of Sweden it is the predominant tree in +most of the great forests that spread over so large a portion of +that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part of +the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according +to Franz Christian Schübeler, on the mountain slopes up to an +altitude of from 2800 to 3100 ft., and clothing the shores of some +of the fjords to the water’s edge; in the higher regions it is +generally mingled with the pine. Less abundant on the western +side of the fjelds, it again forms woods in Nordland, extending +in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to the 67th parallel; +but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at a greater +elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish Lapland +it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft., its +upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In +all the Scandinavian countries it is known as the <i>Gran</i> or <i>Grann</i>. +Great tracts of low country along the southern shores of the +Baltic and in northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce. +It everywhere shows a preference for a moist but well-drained +soil, and never attains its full stature or luxuriance of growth +upon arid ground, whether on plain or mountain—a peculiarity +that should be remembered by the planter. In a favourable +soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of the +stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of +from 150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5 +to 6 ft. at the base. But when it grows in dense woods, where +the lower branches decay and drop off early, only a small head +of foliage remaining at the tapering summit, its stem, though +frequently of great height, is rarely more than 1½ or 2 ft. in +thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight leading shoot, in the +vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2½ or even 3 ft. in +a single season. In its native habitats it is said to endure for +several centuries; but in those countries from which the commercial +supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection +in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:157px; height:415px" src="images/img394e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:103px; height:373px" src="images/img394f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:203px; height:438px" src="images/img394g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:356px; height:552px" src="images/img394a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:351px; height:546px" src="images/img394b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">SILVER FIR (<i>Abies pectinata</i>).<br /> +<i>A</i>, Cone and foliage.</td> +<td class="caption">SPRUCE FIR (<i>Picea excelsa</i>).<br /> +<i>B</i>, Cone and foliage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:353px; height:559px" src="images/img394c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:352px; height:562px" src="images/img394d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">HEMLOCK SPRUCE (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>)<br /> +<i>C</i>, Cone, seed and foliage.</td> +<td class="caption">DOUGLAS FIR (<i>Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii</i>).<br /> +<i>D</i>, Cone, seed and foliage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Photos by Henry Irving</i>. +</td></tr></table> + + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:389px; height:562px" src="images/img394h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:512px" src="images/img394m.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:558px" src="images/img394i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">CYPRESS (<i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>). +<i>A</i>, Cone and branchlets.</td> +<td class="caption"> </td> +<td class="caption">JUNIPER (<i>Juniperus communis</i>). +<i>B</i>, Fruit and foliage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:413px; height:553px" src="images/img394j.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:463px; height:305px" src="images/img394k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:398px; height:269px" src="images/img394l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">ARAUCARIA (<i>A. imbricata</i>, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle). +<i>C</i>, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed.</td> +<td class="caption" colspan="2">YEW (<i>Taxus baccata</i>). +<i>D</i>, Seed and foliage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="3"><i>Photos by Henry Irving</i>. +</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:317px; height:498px" src="images/img395.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Norway Spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>). +Cones; scale with seeds. A, Branch bearing +(<i>a</i>) young female cones, (<i>b</i>) ripe cones, +reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, +enlarged.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood +is white, apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an +open place, but, as produced in the close northern forests, often +of fine and even grain. Immense quantities are imported into +Britain from Norway, Sweden and Prussia, under the names +of “white Norway,” “Christiania” and “Danzig deal.” The +larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used for +the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and +rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably +as lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears +less adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from +Sweden in a manufactured state, in the form of door and window-frames +and ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap +“white deal” furniture is made of this wood. The younger and +smaller trees are remarkably durable, especially when the bark +is allowed to remain on them; and most of the poles imported +into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and similar +uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often +made of it, and are +said to be lighter +than those of pine. +The best poles are +obtained in Norway +from small, slender, +drawn-up trees, +growing under the +shade of the larger +ones in the thick +woods, these being +freer from knots, +and tougher from +their slower growth. +A variety of the +spruce, abounding in +some parts of Norway, +produces a red +heartwood, not easy +to distinguish from +that of the Norway +pine (Scotch fir), and +imported with it into +England as “red +deal” or “pine.” +This kind is sometimes +seen in plantations, +where it may +be recognized by its +shorter, darker +leaves and longer +cones. The smaller branches and the waste portion of the +trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported as fire-wood, +or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce is +also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.</p> + +<p>The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded +by the tree in less abundance than those furnished by the pine, +are of considerable economic value. In Scandinavia a thick +turpentine oozes from cracks or fissures in the bark, forming +by its congelation a fine yellow resin, known commercially as +“spruce rosin,” or “frankincense”; it is also procured artificially +by cutting off the ends of the lower branches, when it +slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of +Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce, +a long strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin +that slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in +the latter part of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the +following spring to ensure a continuance of the supply. The +process is repeated every alternate year, until the tree no longer +yields the resin in abundance, which under favourable circumstances +it will do for twenty years or more. The quantity +obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on the vigour +of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected to the +operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed, +and the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value +even for fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better +sort of “Burgundy pitch” of the druggists is prepared. By +the peasantry of its native countries the Norway spruce is +applied to innumerable purposes of daily life. The bark and +young cones afford a tanning material, inferior indeed to oak-bark, +and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value in countries +where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In +Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over +the floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses, +as a fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting. +The young shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of +those northern latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to +obtain. In times of scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the +sweetish inner bark, beaten in a mortar and ground in his +primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke out a scanty supply of +meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable though somewhat +resinous substitute for his ordinary <i>flad-brod</i>. A decoction +of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy +for scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential +ingredient in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as +an occasional beverage. The well-known “Danzig-spruce” +is prepared by adding a decoction of the buds or cones to the +wort or saccharine liquor before fermentation. Similar preparations +are in use wherever the spruce fir abounds. The wood is +burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being reckoned in Germany +about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the widespreading +roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland +and Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are +selected, split through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley +of wood-ashes and salt, which, dissolving out the resin, loosens +the fibres and renders them easily separable, and ready for twisting +into cordage. Light portable boats are sometimes made of +very thin boards of fir, sewn together with cord thus manufactured +from the roots of the tree.</p> + +<p>The Norway spruce seems to have been the “Picea” of +Pliny, but is evidently often confused by the Latin writers +with their “Abies,” the <i>Abies pectinata</i> of modern botanists. +From an equally loose application of the word “fir” by our +older herbalists, it is difficult to decide upon the date of introduction +of this tree into Britain; but it was commonly planted +for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th century. +In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as well +as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for +its successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be +turned to agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for +economic planting in Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which +come to perfection in more bleak and elevated regions, and on +comparatively barren ground, though it may perhaps be grown +to advantage on some moist hill-sides and mountain hollows. +Its great value to the English forester is as a “nurse” for other +trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form render it +admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the young +saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out. +For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a picturesque +tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among +the best of the conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet +harmonizing with the olive green and rounded outline of oaks +and beeches, or with the red trunk and glaucous foliage of the +pine. When young its spreading boughs form good cover for +game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are +useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring. +In a good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous +size: one in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft. +in height, and the trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the +ground. The spruce bears the smoke of great cities better than +most of the <i>Abietineae</i>; but in suburban localities after a +certain age it soon loses its healthy appearance, and is apt to +be affected with blight (<i>Eriosoma</i>), though not so much as +the Scotch fir and most of the pines.</p> + +<p>The black spruce (<i>Picea nigra</i>) is a tree of more formal growth +than the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +and in more regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce; +and, though the lower ones become bent to a horizontal position, +they do not droop, so that the tree has a much less elegant +appearance. The leaves, which grow very thickly all round the +stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a dark greyish-green. +The cones, produced in great abundance, are short and +oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are +deep purple when young, but become brown as they ripen. +The tree also occurs in the New England states and extends over +nearly the whole of British North America, its northern limit +occurring at about 67° N. lat., often forming a large part of the +dense forests, mostly in the swampy districts. A variety with +lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in Newfoundland and +some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees usually +grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great +height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the +Norway spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a +diameter of 1½ or 2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty +soil, and often grows luxuriantly in very moist situations. The +wood is strong, light and very elastic, forming an excellent +material for small masts and spars, for which purpose the trunks +are used in America, and exported largely to England. The +sawn timber is inferior to that of <i>P. excelsa</i>, besides being of a +smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the log-houses +of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks. The +spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots +of this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for +some time in water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the +resulting decoction is then poured into a cask with molasses or +maple sugar and a little yeast, and left to ferment. It is often +made by the settlers and fishermen of the St Lawrence region, +being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The American +“essence of spruce,” occasionally used in England for making +spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and +concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree +are of no great value. It was introduced into Britain at the +end of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>The white spruce (<i>Picea alba</i>), sometimes met with in English +plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce, +the branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light +glaucous green; the small light-brown cones are more slender +and tapering than in <i>P. nigra</i>, and the scales have even edges. +It is of comparatively small size, but is of some importance in the +wilds of the Canadian dominion, where it is found to the northern +limit of tree-vegetation growing up to at least 69°; the slender +trunks yield the only useful timber of some of the more desolate +northern regions. In the woods of Canada it occurs frequently +mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous +tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used +by the Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark +covering of their canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark +is employed to varnish over the seams. It was introduced to +Great Britain at the end of the 17th century and was formerly +more extensively planted than at present.</p> + +<p>The hemlock spruce (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>) is a large tree, abounding +in most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador; +in lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often +the prevailing tree. The short leaves are flat, those above +pressed close to the stem, and the others forming two rows; +they are of a rather light green tint above, whitish beneath. +The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The large branches +droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays are much +lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most +elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old, +the branches, broken and bent down by the winter snows, give +it a ragged but very picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently +3 ft. thick near the base. The hemlock prefers rather dry +and elevated situations, often forming woods on the declivities +of mountains. The timber is very much twisted in grain, and +liable to warp and split, but is used for making plasterers’ laths +and for fencing; “shingles” for roofing are sometimes made of +it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most +valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are sometimes +used for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It +was introduced into Great Britain in about the year 1736.</p> + +<p>The Douglas spruce (<i>Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii</i>), one of the +finest conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes +considerably more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures +8 or 10 ft. across. The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are +of a deep green tint; the cones are furnished with tridentate +bracts that project far beyond the scales. It forms extensive +forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia and Oregon, +whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its strength, +durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep +yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick +bark. It was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery +by David Douglas in 1827, and has been widely planted, but +does not flourish well where exposed to high winds or in too +shallow soil.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>Abies</i> group, the silver fir (<i>A. pectinata</i>), may be taken +as the type,—a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size, +with large spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward +the extremities. The flat leaves are arranged in two regular, +distinct rows; they are deep green above, but beneath have two +broad white lines, which, as the foliage in large trees has a +tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery appearance from below. +The large cones stand erect on the branches, are cylindrical +in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which +project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is +of a silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to +have been the true “Abies” of the Latin writers—the “pulcherrima +abies” of Virgil. From early historic times it has been +held in high estimation in the south of Europe, being used by +the Romans for masts and all purposes for which timber of great +length was required. It is abundant in most of the mountain +ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in the +northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the +Caucasus and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Extensive +woods of this fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree +grows up to nearly 4000 ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms +great part of the extensive forest of the Hochwald, and occurs +in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is plentiful likewise on +the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior to that of +<i>Picea excelsa</i>, but, being soft and easily worked, is largely +employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all +the purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently +made of it, and it is in great esteem for carving and for the +construction of stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the +wood is more perishable than that of the spruce fir when exposed +to the air, though it is said to stand well under water. The bark +contains a large amount of a fine, highly-resinous turpentine, +which collects in tumours on the trunk during the heat of summer. +In the Alps and Vosges this resinous semi-fluid is collected by +climbing the trees and pressing out the contents of the natural +receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels held beneath +them. After purification by straining, it is sold as “Strasburg +turpentine,” much used in the preparation of some of the finer +varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar +process as that from <i>Picea excelsa</i>. A fine oil of turpentine is +distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse +resin. Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th +century, the silver fir has become common there as a planted tree, +though, like the Norway spruce, it rarely comes up from seed +scattered naturally. There are many fine trees in Scotland; +one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his <i>Sylva Britannica</i>, +then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In the more +southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90 ft., +and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young +shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on +light soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents +a ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top +and horizontal boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque +relief above the rounded summits of the neighbouring trees. +The silver fir flourishes in a deep loamy soil, and will grow even +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +upon stiff clay, when well drained—a situation in which few +conifers will succeed. On such lands, where otherwise desirable, +it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones do not ripen +till the second year.</p> + +<p>The silver fir of Canada (<i>A. balsamea</i>), a small tree resembling +the last species in foliage, furnishes the “Canada balsam”; +it abounds in Quebec and the adjacent provinces.</p> + +<p>Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies, +and some furnish valuable products in their native countries; +but they are not yet of sufficient economic or general interest to +demand mention here.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information see Veitch’s <i>Manual of Coniferae</i> (2nd ed., +1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRDOUSĪ,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> <span class="sc">Firdausī</span> or <span class="sc">Firdusī</span>, Persian poet. Abu ’l +Kāsim Mansur (or Hasan), who took the <i>nom de plume</i> of Firdousī, +author of the epic poem the <i>Shāhnāma</i>, or “Book of Kings,” +a complete history of Persia in nearly 60,000 verses, was born +at Shadab, a suburb of Tūs, about the year 329 of the Hegira +(941 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), or earlier. His father belonged to the class of <i>Dihkans</i> +(the old native country families and landed proprietors of Persia, +who had preserved their influence and status under the Arab +rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of Tūs +(in Khorasan). Firdousī’s own education eminently qualified +him for the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook, +for he was profoundly versed in the Arabic language and literature +and had also studied deeply the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was +conversant with the ancient historical records which existed +in that tongue.</p> + +<p>The <i>Shāhnāma</i> of Firdousī (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>) is +perhaps the only example of a poem produced by a single +author which at once took its place as the national epic of the +people. The nature of the work, the materials from which +it was composed, and the circumstances under which it was +written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and necessarily +tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the empire +and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series +of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient +sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory +of so imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th +century of the Christian era we find mention made of these +historical traditions in the work of an Armenian author, Moses +of Chorene (according to others, he lived in the 7th or 8th +century). During the reign of Chosroes I. (Anushirvan) the +contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch, an +attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the +kingdom, all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient +kings, and the results were deposited in the royal library. During +the last years of the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed, +the former collection being revised and greatly added to by the +Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by several learned mobeds. His +work was entitled the <i>Khoda’ināma</i>, which in the old dialect +also meant the “Book of Kings.” On the Arab invasion this +work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the iconoclastic +caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately +preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira +being paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a +learned Persian who had embraced Islam. Other Guebres +occupied themselves privately with the collection of these traditions; +and, when a prince of Persian origin, Yakūb ibn Laith, +founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing off his +allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the +work of his illustrious predecessors. His “Book of Kings” +was completed in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely +circulated in Khorasan and Irak. Yakūb’s family did not +continue long in power; but the Samanid princes who succeeded +applied themselves zealously to the same work, and Prince +Nūh II., who came to the throne in 365 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 976), entrusted +it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki’s +labours were brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination, +and the fall of the Samanian house happened not long after, and +their kingdom passed into the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahmūd +ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the dynasty (998-1030), continued +to make himself still more independent of the caliphate than his +predecessors, and, though a warrior and a fanatical Moslem, +extended a generous patronage to Persian literature and learning, +and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic institutions. +The task of continuing and completing the collection of the +ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted +him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many +of the influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount +of materials for the work, and after having searched in vain +for a man of sufficient learning and ability to edit them faithfully, +and having entrusted various episodes for versification to the +numerous poets whom he had gathered round him, he at length +made choice of Firdousī. Firdousī had been always strongly +attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun at an +early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of +the death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design +of himself carrying out the work which the latter had only just +commenced; and, although he had not then any introduction +to the court, he contrived, thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed +Lashkari, to procure a copy of the Dihkan Danishwer’s collection, +and at the age of thirty-six commenced his great undertaking. +Abu Mansur, the governor of Tūs, patronized him and encouraged +him by substantial pecuniary support. When Mahmud +succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the +work, Firdousī was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni. +At first court jealousies and intrigues prevented Firdousī from +being noticed by the sultan; but at length one of his friends, +Mahek, undertook to present to Mahmud his poetic version of +one of the well-known episodes of the legendary history. Hearing +that the poet was born at Tūs, the sultan made him explain the +origin of his native town, and was much struck with the intimate +knowledge of ancient history which he displayed. Being presented +to the seven poets who were then engaged on the projected +epic, Abu ’l Kāsim was admitted to their meetings, and on one +occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud’s request, in praise of +his favourite Ayāz, with such success that the sultan bestowed +upon him the name of Firdousī, saying that he had converted +his assemblies into paradise (<i>Firdous</i>). During the early days +of his sojourn at court an incident happened which contributed +in no small measure to the realization of his ambition. Three of +the seven poets were drinking in a garden when Firdousī approached, +and wishing to get rid of him without rudeness, they +informed him who they were, and told him that it was their +custom to admit none to their society but such as could give +proof of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed +that each should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own +to be the last, and all four ending in the same rhyme. Firdousī +accepted the challenge, and the three poets having previously +agreed upon three rhyming words to which a fourth could not +be found in the Persian language, ’Ansari began—</p> + +<p>  “Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun”;</p> + +<p class="noind">Farrakhi added—</p> + +<p>  “The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun”;</p> + +<p class="noind">’Asjadi continued—</p> + +<p>  “Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior’s johsun”;<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p class="noind">and Firdousī, without a moment’s hesitation, completed the +quatrain—</p> + +<p>  “Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun.”</p> + +<p class="noind">The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdousī +recited to them the battle as described in the <i>Shāhnāma</i>, and +delighted and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.</p> + +<p>Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling +and versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such +marks of his favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet +an enthusiastic panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of +the <i>Shāhnāma</i>, and forms a curious contrast to the bitter satire +which he subsequently prefixed to the book. The sultan ordered +his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to pay to Firdousī a +thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but the poet +preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct +a dike for his native town of Tūs, which suffered greatly from +defective irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream +of his childhood. Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy +of Hasan Maimandi, who often refused to advance him sufficient +for the necessaries of life, Firdousī passed the later portion of +his life in great privation, though enjoying the royal favour +and widely extended fame. Amongst other princes whose +liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary difficulties, +was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who +sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy +of the episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which Firdousī had sent +him, and promised him a gracious reception if he should ever +come to his court. As this prince belonged, like Firdousī, to the +Shiah sect, while Mahmud and Maimandi were Sunnites, and +as he was also politically opposed to the sultan, Hasan Maimandi +did not fail to make the most of this incident, and accused the +poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and patron, as well as of +heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in the attack, and +for some time Firdousī’s position was very precarious, though +his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work prevented +him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the +misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.</p> + +<p>At length, after thirty-five years’ work, the book was completed +(1011), and Firdousī entrusted it to Ayāz, the sultan’s favourite, +for presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi +to take the poet as much gold as an elephant could carry, but the +jealous treasurer persuaded the monarch that it was too generous +a reward, and that an elephant’s load of silver would be sufficient. +60,000 silver dirhems were accordingly placed in sacks, and +taken to Firdousī by Ayāz at the sultan’s command, instead of +the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse, which had been +promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and seeing +the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold, +received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he +complained to Ayāz that he had not executed the sultan’s order. +Ayāz related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan +Maimandi, and Firdousī in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to +Ayāz himself, the same amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the +rest to a beer seller for a glass of beer (<i>fouka</i>), sending word +back to the sultan that it was not to gain money that he had +taken so much trouble. On hearing this message, Mahmud at +first reproached Hasan with having caused him to break his word, +but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master’s anger +upon Firdousī to such an extent that he threatened that on the +morrow he would “cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the +feet of his elephants.” Being apprised by one of the nobles of +the court of what had taken place, Firdousī passed the night +in great anxiety; but passing in the morning by the gate that +led from his own apartments into the palace, he met the sultan +in his private garden, and succeeded by humble apologies in +appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being appeased +himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Returning +home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses +which he had composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing +to the grand mosque of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the +place where the sultan was in the habit of praying, the following +lines:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea. +What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein +without finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the +sea.”</p> +</div> + +<p>He then gave a sealed paper to Ayāz, begging him to hand it +to the sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed, +and set off on his travels with no better equipment than his +staff and a dervish’s cloak. At the expiration of the 20 days +Ayāz gave the paper to the sultan, who on opening it found the +celebrated satire which is now always prefixed to copies of the +<i>Shāhnāma</i>, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest and severest +pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage, +sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture, +but he was already in comparative safety. Firdousī directed his +steps to Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of +Jorjan, who at first received him with great favour, and promised +him his continued protection and patronage; learning, however, +the circumstances under which he had left Ghazni, he feared the +resentment of so powerful a sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew +already coveted his kingdom, and dismissed the poet with a +magnificent present. Firdousī next repaired to Bagdad, where +he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him +to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic +poem which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier +gave Firdousī an apartment near himself, and related to the +caliph the manner in which he had been treated at Ghazni. +The caliph summoned him into his presence, and was so much +pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which Firdousī +composed in his honour, that he at once received him into +favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to +chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however, +somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph’s eyes; in order +therefore to recover his prestige, Firdousī composed another +poem of 9000 couplets on the theme borrowed from the Koran +of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife—<i>Yūsuf and Zuleikha</i> +(edited by H. Ethé, Oxford, 1902; complete metrical translation +by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, though +rare and little known, is still in existence—the Royal Asiatic +Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time +heard of his asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter +menacing his liege lord, and demanding the surrender of the +poet. Firdousī, to avoid further troubles, departed for Ahwaz, +a province of the Persian Irak, and dedicated his <i>Yūsuf and +Zuleikha</i> to the governor of that district. Thence he went to +Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his intimate and +devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon the +frontier. Firdousī confided to him that he contemplated writing +a bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the +sultan of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of +the latter, dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and +remonstrated with Mahmud. Nasir Lek’s message and the +urgent representations of Firdousī’s friends had the desired +effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his intention of offering +full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy Maimandi to death. +The change, however, came too late; Firdousī, now a broken +and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tūs, +and, while wandering through the streets of his native town, +heard a child lisping a verse from his own satire in which he +taunts Mahmud with his slavish birth:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Had Mahmud’s father been what he is now</p> +<p class="i05">A crown of gold had decked this aged brow;</p> +<p class="i05">Had Mahmud’s mother been of gentle blood,</p> +<p class="i05">In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his +misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was +buried in a garden, but Abu’l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of +Tūs, refused to read the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging +that he was an infidel, and had devoted his life to the glorification +of fire-worshippers and misbelievers. The next night, however, +having dreamt that he beheld Firdousī in paradise dressed in the +sacred colour, green, and wearing an emerald crown, he reconsidered +his determination; and the poet was henceforth held to +be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the Hegira +(1020 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion +of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the +meanwhile despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of +gold to Firdousī, with a robe of honour and ample apologies +for the past. But as the camels bearing the treasure reached +one of the gates of the city, Firdousī’s funeral was leaving it by +another. His daughter, to whom they brought the sultan’s +present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister remembering +his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for +the river of Tūs, this work was completed in honour of the poet’s +memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon +that prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +order of Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is +rejected by modern scholars (see T. Nöldeke, “Das iranische +Nationalepos,” in W. Geiger’s <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii. +pp. 150-158).</p> + +<p>The <i>Shāhnāma</i> is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends +current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, +a class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There +is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousī adhered faithfully +to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect storehouse +of the genuine traditions of the country.</p> + +<p>The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of +the 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation +in a magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French +government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. +The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great +expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published +the French translation (1876-1878) with her illustrious husband’s +critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper +form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. +Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There +is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1832; reprinted +1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly +unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with an introduction +containing an account of Firdousī and the Shāhnāma; the version +by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The +episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers +from Matthew Arnold’s poem. The only complete translation is Il +Libro dei Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author +of a history of Persian poetry.</p> + +<p>See also E.G. Browne’s <i>Literary History of Persia</i>, i., ii. (1902-1906); +T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shāhnāma, +editions, &c.; and H. Ethé, “Neupersische Litteratur,” in the same +work.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. H. P.; X.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A sort of cuirass.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>fýr</i>; the word is common to West German +languages, cf. Dutch <i>vuur</i>, Ger. <i>Feuer</i>; the pre-Teutonic form +is seen in Sanskrit <i>pū</i>, <i>pāvaka</i>, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="pur">πῦρ</span>; the ultimate origin +is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. <i>purus</i>), +the term commonly used for the visible effect of combustion +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flame</a></span>), operating as a heating or lighting agency.</p> + +<p>So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a +question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a +tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to +be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would +decide the question in the affirmative; but when they are +carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from +conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe +in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the +bamboo jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no +better authority has been found for the statement, and the +story, which seems to be current in eastern Africa, may be +nothing else than the propagation of fables about the Pygmies +whom the ancients located around the sources of the Nile. +Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring +expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island +“there was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of +fire,” and that the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced +by flint and steel and the smoke emitted by those with +cigars in their mouths. The presence of the word <i>afi</i>, fire, in the +Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the ethnographer of the +expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as equivalent +only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the supposition +of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a +missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word <i>afi</i> in his +list for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin +of fire, and describes some peculiar customs connected with its +use. Alvaro de Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us +that the inhabitants of Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific, +showed great fear when they saw fire—which they did not know +before. But that island has not been identified with certainty +by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to the Ladrones or +Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre +Gobien, “till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants, +burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts +ablaze, their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats +up wood. Some of them having approached the fire too near +were burnt, and the others kept aloof, fearing to be torn or +poisoned by the powerful breath of that terrible animal.” To +this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone islanders made pottery +before the arrival of Europeans, that they had words expressing +the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and cooking. Let +us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have been +found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus +the question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing +impossible in the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe, +it cannot be said that such a tribe has been discovered.</p> + +<p>It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that +fire was subject to his control, and could even be called into +being by appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon +and its various aspects he must soon have become familiar. +The volcano lit up the darkness of night and sent its ashes or its +lava down into the plains; the lightning or the meteor struck +the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less obvious cause +produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is possible +that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings save +awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity +as with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have +bred confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary +to suppose that the practical discovery of fire was made only +at one given spot and in one given way; it is much more probable +indeed that different tribes and races obtained the knowledge +in a variety of ways.</p> + +<p>It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable +to rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers +in Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman +bearing always about with her a burning brand, which it is one +of her principal duties to protect and foster; and it has been +supposed that it was only ignorance which imposed on her the +endless task. This is absurd. The Australian methods of +producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood are perfectly +well known, and are illustrated in Howitt’s <i>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</i>, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a +little trouble to the men.</p> + +<p>The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably +in detail, but are for the most part merely modified applications +of concussion or friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the +working up of stone into implements must have been followed +sooner or later by the discovery of fire; for in the process of +chipping sparks were elicited, and in the process of polishing +heat was generated. The first or concussion method is still +familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of +use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are +comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians +take two pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur, +strike them together till the sulphur catches fire, and then +transfer the flame to a heap of dry grass over which a few feathers +have been scattered. Instead of two pieces of quartz the +Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of iron pyrites. Mr +Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken china +violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same +process in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China +two pieces of bamboo are considered sufficient, the silicious +character of the outside layer rendering it as good as native +flint. The friction methods are more various. One of the +simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and groove—“a +blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own making +in a piece of wood lying on the ground.” Much, of course, +depends on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the +manipulator. In Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce +fire in a few seconds, but only succeeded himself after much +labour. The same device was employed in New Zealand, the +Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak Islands. +Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards +other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary +piece of wood—thus making what Tylor has happily designated +a fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia, +Kamchatka, Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs +of Ceylon, throughout a great part of southern Africa, among +the Eskimo and Indian tribes of North America, in the West +Indies, in Central America, and as far south as the Straits of +Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient Mexicans, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a Mexican +MS.—a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick +to rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method +of rotation seems to be very generally in use; but various +devices have been resorted to for the purpose of diminishing +the labour and hastening the result. The Gaucho of the Pampas +takes “an elastic stick about 18 in. long, presses one end to his +breast and the other in a hole in a piece of wood, and then +rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter’s centre-bit.” +In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord or +thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end +and that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others +put the upper end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold +firmly in their mouth. A further advance was made by the +Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who applied the principle of +the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious pump-drill was +used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of these +instruments and a rich variety of details connected with +fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor’s valuable +chapter in his <i>Researches</i>. These methods of producing fire are +but rarely used in Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious +observances. We read in Wuttke that some time ago the +authorities of a Mecklenburg village ordered a “wild fire” to be +lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. For two hours the +men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was not to be +ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the +atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting +to the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such +a fire, to be efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded +female was compelled to give in; fire was obtained—-but of +bad quality, for it did not stop the murrain.</p> + +<p>It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be +concentrated by a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions +the burning-lens in <i>The Clouds</i>, and the story of Archimedes +using a mirror to fire the ships at Syracuse is familiar to every +schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be trusted as an authority +the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the sacred fire with a +concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the burning-glass +is in common use.</p> + +<p>To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the +cosmogonies, those records of pristine speculative thought, +do not give any reply which would not be found in the relations +of travellers and historians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes +is likewise the god of fire. At Mangaïa it is told that the great +Maui went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making +fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the +tale differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind +grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands. +Wishing to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out, +and so he obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every +thing melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother +herself were already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven, +saved the hero and the perishing world; but before the waters +extinguished all the blaze, Mahuika shut a few sparks into some +trees, and thence men draw it now. The Maoris have also the +legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki’s footsteps, and that +lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western Point, Victoria, the +Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened the door of the +sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that Karakorok, the +good man’s good daughter, seeing the earth to be full of serpents, +went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had killed +them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame burst +out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the Persian +<i>Shahnama</i> also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. Hushenk, +the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, which, +evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. “Light +shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out in +glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world.” The snake +escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.</p> + +<p>North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering +through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the +prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same +idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have +been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on +the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that +their ancestor obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther +struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.</p> + +<p>Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, +like the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri, +the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the +lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are +his children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed +“the secret of the stone’s edge and the iron’s hardness.” The +Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or +even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his +hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet +in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head +a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe +how “fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it +was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold.” Ukko, +the Esthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with +his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck +his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the “fiery babe.” +He gave it to the Wind’s daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden +let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and +fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not +come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water, +drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive. +Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun’s +chariot.</p> +</div> + +<p>Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which +the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save +the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light, +or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the +expedient of a fire which should burn night and day in a public +building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks, +Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez, +the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their “national +fires” burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the “eternal +lamps” in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic +churches, may be a survival. The “Regia,” Rome’s sacred +centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a +fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the +two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political +interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was +at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: +all public business and most private affairs were transacted by +the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder +that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities +consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and +promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water +not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious +institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of +water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult +to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and +the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the +Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all +authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately. +The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken, +and it had to be restored in some way or other—either by Jove +sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests +making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two +pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a +concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier +without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum +burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the +emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia, +and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that +burning in the mother country.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Not before the three curiae +united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +Athens became a shining light to the world only, we are told, +when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each +its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated, +making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated +around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.</p> + +<p><i>Periodic Fires.</i>—Because the sun loses its force after noon, +and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the +ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, +as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. +Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and +on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning +of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with +much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses +were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent +lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels +were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by +the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities +in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant +on the same day a general remission of sins. All things were +made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of +his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old +World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried +these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated +with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of the <i>saecula</i>, or +astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a +century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have +been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years) +every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn +procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, +the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if +they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and +stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of +time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would +have believed that it was because the great fire was being extinguished +at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many +other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed +to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the +end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, +how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying +everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is +also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha +(2 Esdras xvi. 15).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dupuis, <i>Origine de tous les cultes</i> (1794); Burnout, <i>Science +des religions</i>; Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert +Kuhn. <i>Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks</i> (1859); +Steinthal, <i>Über die ursprüngliche Form der Sage von Prometheus</i> +(1861); Albert Reville, “Le Mythe de Prométhée,” in <i>Revue des deux +mondes</i> (August 1862); Michel Bréal, <i>Hercule et Cacus</i> (1863); Tylor, +<i>Researches into the Early History of Mankind</i>, ch. ix. (1865); Bachofen, +<i>Die Sage von Tanaquil</i> (1870); Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (6th +ed., 1900); Haug, <i>Religion of the Parsis</i> (1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Re.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among +the Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people +with a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care +of a so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating +from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home. +The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman +temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American +Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, +had each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die +out, they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, +Pueblos and Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins +discussed important affairs of state at the “council fires,” +around which each <i>sachem</i> marched three times, turning to it all the +sides of his person. “It was a saying among our ancestors,” said an +Iroquois chief in 1753, “that when the fire goes out at Onondaga”—the +Delphi of the league—“we shall no longer be a people.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION.<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> Fire is considered in this +article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against +fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the +organization of fire extinguishing establishments.</p> + +<p>History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in +towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. +The following is a list of notable fires of early days:—</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">Great Britain and Ireland</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p> 798. <i>London</i>, nearly destroyed.</p> + +<p> 982. <i>London</i>, greater part of the city burned.</p> + +<p>1086. <i>London</i>, all houses and churches from the east to the west + gate burned.</p> + +<p>1212. <i>London</i>, greater part of the city burned.</p> + +<p>1666. <i>London</i>, “The Great Fire,” September 2-6.</p> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 6em;">It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned +for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400 +streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul’s church, 86 +parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal exchange, +the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52 +companies’ halls, and a vast number of other stately +edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone +bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the +Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from +the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to +Holborn bridge. Six persons were killed. The total loss of +property was estimated at the time to be £10,731,500.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1794. <i>London</i>, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above + £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1834. <i>London</i>, Houses of Parliament burned.</p> +<p>1861. <i>London</i>, Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated + at £2,000,000.</p> +<p>1873. <i>London</i>, Alexandra palace destroyed.</p> +<p>1137. <i>York</i>, totally destroyed.</p> +<p>1184. <i>Glastonbury</i>, town and abbey burned.</p> +<p>1292. <i>Carlisle</i>, destroyed.</p> +<p>1507. <i>Norwich</i>, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.</p> +<p>1544. <i>Leith</i>, burned.</p> +<p>1598. <i>Tiverton</i>, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; + 33 persons killed. Loss, £150,000.</p> +<p>1612. <i>Tiverton</i>, 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.</p> +<p>1731. <i>Tiverton</i>, 300 houses burned.</p> +<p>1700. <i>Edinburgh</i>, “the Great Fire.”</p> +<p>1612. <i>Cork</i>, greater part burned, and again in 1622.</p> +<p>1613. <i>Dorchester</i>, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.</p> +<p>1614. <i>Stratford-on-Avon</i>, burned.</p> +<p>1644. <i>Beaminster</i>, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.</p> +<p>1675. <i>Northampton</i>, almost totally destroyed.</p> +<p>1683. <i>Newmarket</i>, large part of the town burned.</p> +<p>1694. <i>Warwick</i>, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.</p> +<p>1707. <i>Lisburn</i>, burned.</p> +<p>1727. <i>Gravesend</i>, destroyed.</p> +<p>1738. <i>Wellingborough</i>, 800 houses burned.</p> +<p>1743. <i>Crediton</i>, 450 houses destroyed.</p> +<p>1760. <i>Portsmouth</i>, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.</p> +<p>1770. <i>Portsmouth</i>, dockyard burned. Loss, £100,000.</p> +<p>1802. <i>Liverpool</i>, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1827. <i>Sheerness</i>, 50 houses and much property destroyed.</p> +<p>1854. <i>Gateshead</i>, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1875. <i>Glasgow</i>. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">France</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p> 59. <i>Lyons</i>, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.</p> +<p>1118. <i>Nantes</i>, greater part of the city destroyed.</p> +<p>1137. <i>Dijon</i>, burned.</p> +<p>1524. <i>Troyes</i>, nearly destroyed.</p> +<p>1720. <i>Rennes</i>, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.</p> +<p>1784. <i>Brest</i>. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1862. <i>Marseilles</i>, destructive fire.</p> +<p>1871. <i>Paris</i>. Communist devastations. Property destroyed, + £32,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Central and Southern Europe</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p> 64. <i>Rome</i> burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city + were destroyed.</p> +<p>1106. <i>Venice</i>, greater part of the city was burned.</p> +<p>1577. “ fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by + an explosion.</p> +<p>1299. <i>Weimar</i>, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.</p> +<p>1379. <i>Memel</i> was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540, + 1678, 1854.</p> +<p>1405. <i>Bern</i> was destroyed.</p> +<p>1420. <i>Leipzig</i> lost 400 houses.</p> +<p>1457. <i>Dort</i>, cathedral and large part of the town burned.</p> +<p>1491. <i>Dresden</i> was destroyed.</p> +<p>1521. <i>Oviedo</i>, large part of the city destroyed.</p> +<p>1543. <i>Komorn</i> was burned.</p> +<p>1634. <i>Fürth</i> was burned by Austrian Croats.</p> +<p>1680. <i>Fürth</i> was again destroyed.</p> +<p>1686. <i>Landau</i> was almost destroyed.</p> +<p>1758. <i>Pirna</i> was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.</p> +<p>1762. <i>Munich</i> lost 200 houses.</p> +<p>1764. <i>Königsberg</i>, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000.</p> +<p>1769. <i>Königsberg</i>, almost destroyed.</p> +<p>1784. <i>Rokitzan</i> (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.</p> +<p>1801. <i>Brody</i>, 1500 houses destroyed.</p> +<p>1859. <i>Brody</i>, 1000 houses destroyed.</p> +<p>1803. <i>Posen</i>, large part of older portion of city burned.</p> +<p>1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.</p> +<p>1818. <i>Salzburg</i> was partly destroyed.</p> +<p>1842. <i>Hamburg</i>. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.</p> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 6em;">During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219 +buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed. One-fifth +of the population was made homeless, and 100 persons +lost their lives. The total loss amounted to £7,000,000. +After the fire, contributions from all Germany came in to +help to rebuild the city.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1861. <i>Glarus</i> (Switzerland), 500 houses burned.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Northern Europe</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1530. <i>Aalborg</i>, almost entirely destroyed.</p> +<p>1541. <i>Aarhuus</i>, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.</p> +<p>1624. <i>Opslo</i>, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.</p> +<p>1702. <i>Bergen</i>, greater part of the town destroyed.</p> +<p>1728. <i>Copenhagen</i>, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.</p> +<p>1794. <i>Copenhagen</i>, royal palace with contents burned.</p> +<p>1795. <i>Copenhagen</i>, 50 streets, 1563 houses burned. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span></p> + +<p>1751. <i>Stockholm</i>, 1000 houses destroyed.</p> +<p>1759. <i>Stockholm</i>, 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.</p> +<p>1775. <i>Åbo</i>, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.</p> +<p>1827. <i>Åbo</i>, 780 houses burned, with the university.</p> +<p>1790. <i>Carlscrona</i>, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.</p> +<p>1802. <i>Gothenburg</i>, 178 houses burned.</p> +<p>1858. <i>Christiania</i>. Loss estimated at £250,000.</p> +<p>1865. <i>Carlstadt</i> (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop’s + residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Russia</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1736. <i>St Petersburg</i>, 2000 houses burned.</p> +<p>1862. <i>St Petersburg</i>, great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1752. <i>Moscow</i>, 18,000 houses burned.</p> +<p>1812. <i>Moscow</i>, The Russians fired the city on September 14 to + drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued + five days. Nine-tenths of the city was + destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800. + Loss, £30,000,000.</p> +<p>1753. <i>Archangel</i>, 900 houses burned.</p> +<p>1793. <i>Archangel</i>, 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.</p> +<p>1786. <i>Tobolsk</i>, nearly destroyed.</p> +<p>1788. <i>Milau</i>, nearly destroyed.</p> +<p>1812. <i>Riga</i>, partly destroyed.</p> +<p>1834. <i>Tula</i>, destructive fire.</p> +<p>1848. <i>Orel</i>, large part of the town destroyed.</p> +<p>1850. <i>Cracow</i>, large part of the town burned.</p> +<p>1864. <i>Novgorod</i>, large amount of property destroyed.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Turkey</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p class="center">The following fires have occurred at <i>Constantinople</i>:—</p> + +<p>1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.</p> +<p>1745. A fire lasted five days.</p> +<p>1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed + estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the + year 10,000 houses were destroyed.</p> +<p>1751. 4000 houses were burned.</p> +<p>1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years + 1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.</p> +<p>1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m. + in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and + nearly 650 houses were destroyed.</p> +<p>1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.</p> +<p>1778. 2000 houses were burned.</p> +<p>1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50 + mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. + In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.</p> +<p>1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000 + houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of + 1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of + Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated + at 2,000,000 florins.</p> +<p>1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been + burned, and as many in 1795.</p> +<p>1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many + magnificent buildings.</p> +<p>1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter + were destroyed.</p> +<p>1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.</p> +<p>1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.</p> +<p>1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at + £3,000,000.</p> +<p>1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c. + Over 22,000 people were left homeless.</p> +<p>1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population + and native Christians, was swept by a fire which + destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the + best in the city, including the residence of the foreign + legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.</p> +<p>1797. <i>Scutari</i>, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.</p> +<p>1763. <i>Smyrna</i>, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.</p> +<p>1772. <i>Smyrna</i>, 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c. + consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.</p> +<p>1796. <i>Smyrna</i>, 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.</p> +<p>1841. <i>Smyrna</i>, 12,000 houses were burned.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">India</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1631. <i>Rajmahal</i>. Palace and great part of the town burned.</p> +<p>1799. <i>Manilla</i>, vast storehouses were burned.</p> +<p>1833. <i>Manilla</i>, 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people + rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.</p> +<p>1803. <i>Madras</i>, more than 1000 houses burned.</p> +<p>1803. <i>Bombay</i>. Loss by fire of £600,000.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">China and Japan</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1822. <i>Canton</i> was nearly destroyed by fire.</p> +<p>1866. <i>Yokohama</i>, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the + foreign settlement destroyed.</p> +<p>1872. <i>Yeddo</i>. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroying + buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000 + persons were made homeless.</p> +<p>1873. <i>Yeddo</i>. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1679. <i>Boston</i>. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels + in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.</p> +<p>1760. <i>Boston</i>. A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.</p> +<p>1787. <i>Boston</i>. A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.</p> +<p>1794. <i>Boston</i>. 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.</p> +<p>1872. <i>Boston</i>. Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest + quarter of Boston was destroyed.</p> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 6em;">The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and + Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. + 776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick + warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned. + The loss was about £15,000,000. Before the end of the year + 1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially + than ever.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1778. <i>Charleston</i> (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.</p> +<p>1796. <i>Charleston</i>, 300 houses were burned.</p> +<p>1838. <i>Charleston</i>. One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158 + buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.</p> +<p>1802. <i>Portsmouth</i> (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.</p> +<p>1813. <i>Portsmouth</i>, 397 buildings destroyed.</p> +<p>1820. <i>Savannah</i>, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.</p> +<p>1835. <i>New York</i>. The great fire of New York began in Merchant + Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings + in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile + firms lost their places of business. The area + burned over was 52 acres. The loss was + £3,000,000.</p> +<p>1845. <i>New York</i>. A fire in the business part of the city, July 20, + destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was + £1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.</p> +<p>1845. <i>Pittsburg</i>. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20 + squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.</p> +<p>1846. <i>Nantucket</i> was almost destroyed.</p> +<p>1848. <i>Albany</i>. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over + 37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.</p> +<p>1849. <i>St Louis</i>. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or + part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. + Loss, £600,000.</p> +<p>1851. <i>St Louis</i>. More than three-quarters of the city was burned, + May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.</p> +<p>1851. <i>St Louis</i>, 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.</p> +<p>1850. <i>Philadelphia</i>. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost. + Loss, £200,000.</p> +<p>1865. <i>Philadelphia</i>. 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons + killed. Loss, £100,000.</p> +<p>1851. <i>Washington</i>. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Congressional + Library were burned.</p> +<p>1851. <i>San Francisco</i>. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings. + A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city + destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another + fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.</p> +<p>1857. <i>Chicago</i>. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.</p> +<p>1859. <i>Chicago</i>. Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.</p> +<p>1866. <i>Chicago</i>. Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss, + £100,000 each.</p> +<p>1871. <i>Chicago</i>. The greatest fire of modern times.</p> +</div> + +<p style="margin-left: 6em;">It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and + raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, + or 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were + lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 + buildings were consumed. The buildings were one-third in + number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city. + Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been + rebuilt. The loss was estimated at £39,000,000.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1862. <i>Troy</i> (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.</p> +<p>1866. <i>Portland</i> (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city + was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were + blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 + to £2,250,000.</p> +<p>1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan. + 15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss + estimated at £600,000.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">British North America</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1815. <i>Quebec</i> was injured to the extent of £260,000.</p> +<p>1845. <i>Quebec</i>, 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the + population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to + £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300 + dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30 + streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.</p> +<p>1866. <i>Quebec</i>, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.</p> +<p>1825. <i>New Brunswick</i>. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than + 100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many + towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 + buildings burned. Loss, about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, + Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.</p> +<p>1837. <i>St John</i> (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, + and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, + £1,000,000. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span></p> +<p>1877. <i>St. John.</i> Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was + 200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed; + 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives + lost. Total loss, £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city + burned.</p> +<p>1846. <i>St John’s</i> (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. + Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss + estimated at £1,000,000.</p> +<p>1850. <i>Montreal</i>. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on + June 7. 200 houses were burned.</p> +<p>1852. <i>Montreal</i>. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute. + The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in + width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">South America</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1536. <i>Cuzco</i> was nearly consumed.</p> +<p>1861. <i>Mendoza</i>. A great fire followed an earthquake which had + destroyed 10,000 people.</p> +<p>1862. <i>Valparaiso</i> was devastated by fire.</p> +<p>1863. <i>Santiago</i>. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly + women and children, perished.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">West Indies</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1752. <i>Pierre</i> (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.</p> +<p>1782. <i>Kingston</i> (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.</p> +<p>1795. <i>Montego Bay</i> (Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.</p> +<p>1805. <i>St Thomas.</i> 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.</p> +<p>1808. <i>Spanish Town</i> (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated + at £1,500,000.</p> +<p>1828. <i>Havana</i> lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.</p> +<p>1843. <i>Port Republicain</i> (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was + burned.</p> +</div></div> + +<p class="pt2">Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable +fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations +at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible +examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, extensive +as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the +necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by +attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-preventive +measures even than to the better organization of the +fire-fighting establishments.</p> + +<p>It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British +empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to +1899:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Port of Spain (Trinidad)</td> <td class="tcr cl">March 4, 1895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New Westminster (British Columbia)</td> <td class="tcr">Sept. 10, 1898</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Toronto (Ontario)</td> <td class="tcr cl">Jan. 6, 10, and</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">March 3, 1895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Windsor (Nova Scotia)</td> <td class="tcr cl">Oct. 17, 1897</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">St John’s (Newfoundland)</td> <td class="tcr">July 8, 1892</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">London—Charterhouse Square</td> <td class="tcr cl">Dec. 25, 1889</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”    St Mary Axe</td> <td class="tcr">July 18, 1893</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”    Old Bailey and Fleet Street</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 15, 1893</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”    Tabernacle Street, Finsbury</td> <td class="tcr">June 21, 1894</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”    Bermondsey Leather Market</td> <td class="tcr cl">Sept. 13, 1894</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”    Bermondsey Leather Market</td> <td class="tcr">May 17, 1895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”    Minories</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 10, 1894</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”    South-West India Docks</td> <td class="tcr">Feb. 8, 1895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”    Charlotte and Leonard Streets, Finsbury</td> <td class="tcr cl">June 10, 1896</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”    Cripplegate</td> <td class="tcr">Nov. 19, 1897</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Nottingham</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 17, 1894</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr">Dec. 21, 1893</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 30, 1896</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sunderland</td> <td class="tcr">July 18, 1898</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Dublin</td> <td class="tcr cl">May 4, 1894</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Glasgow—Anderston Quay</td> <td class="tcr">Jan. 16, 1897</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Glasgow—Dunlop Street</td> <td class="tcr cl">April 25, 1898</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary +number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar +places of public entertainment up to the close of the 19th century +calls for mention. Since that time, however, there has been a +considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption +of successful measures of fire prevention. A list of some 1100 +fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in 1897 (<i>Fires at Public +Entertainments</i>), and the results of these fires analysed. They +involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 souls. About +half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in +other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list +extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce +the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable +disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre +at Chicago.</p> + +<p>The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires +is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss +of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year, +mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making +themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages +quite £50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain +precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it +may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss +by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say 1897), was about +£17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced +by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling. +This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,—in +spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the +increasing amount of property in buildings—is in the main owing +to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class +of new building and a great improvement in existing structures, +and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in +general fire precautionary measures by the public.</p> + +<p>Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, +more particularly in London and in the country towns of the +south of England since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition +held in 1903 at Earl’s Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress +of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought +on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the +British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire +service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-preventive +side of fire protection.</p> + +<p><i>Fire Protection.</i>—The term “Fire Protection” is often misunderstood. +Fire-extinguishing—in other words, fire brigade +work—is what the majority understand by it, and many towns +consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an +efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade +as such, however, has but a minor rôle in a rational system of +protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition +in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based +on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers, +fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protection +is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire +research.</p> + +<p>Under the heading of “Fire Prevention” should be classed +all preventive measures, including the education of the public; +and under the heading “Fire Combating” should be classed +both self-help and outside help.</p> + +<p>Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, +but as a rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained +partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of +fire-survey regulations—supplemented, if necessary, by special +rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the +storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatrical +performances. The education of the public may be simply +such as can be begun informally at school and continued by +official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement +with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced. +There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, +had some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school +<i>Standard Reader</i> replaced by more instructive ones, which warn +children not to play with matches, and teach them to run for help +in case of an emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been +arranged in place of the meaningless sentences so often used in +elementary schools. There are a number of municipalities where +regular warnings are issued every December as to the dangerous +Christmas-tree. In such places every inhabitant has at least an +opportunity of learning how to throw a bucket of water properly, +and how to trip up a burning woman and roll her up without fanning +the flames. The householder is officially informed where the nearest +fire-call point is, and how long he must expect to wait till the first +engine can reach his house. If he is a newspaper reader, he will +also have ample opportunity of knowing the resources of his town, +and the local reporter’s fire report will give him much useful information +based on facts or hints supplied by the authorities.</p> +</div> + +<p>Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the +heading of “Fire Combating.” Self-help mainly deals with +the protection of large risks, such as factories, stores and public +places of amusement, which lend themselves to regulation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> +The requirements of the fire survey code may allow for hydrants +or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for their regular inspection, +and the means for self-help may thus be given. These means +will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some +of the employés engaged on the risk are instructed as to their +purpose, and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. +The possibility of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be +encouraged by enforcing regular drills for the employés, and +regular inspections to test their efficiency. There are towns +where great reliance is placed on the efforts of such amateur +firemen. In some cities they even receive extra pay and are +formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and +retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.</p> + +<p>Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder +can scarcely be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned +for the education of the public, if properly utilized, would assure +intelligent behaviour on the part of a large percentage of the +community. There are places where, without any regulation +being attempted, and thanks entirely to the influence referred +to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a bucket, and a +crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the household. +Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly +encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference +with personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, +with the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple +of scaling ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given +to householders to learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box +of this kind be put in a fire-station, and certain afternoons +in the year be reserved on which this elementary instruction will +be given, and the students afterwards shown over the fire-station +or treated to a “turn-out,” a considerable number will be found +to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter whether +curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will +be attained.</p> + +<p>Under “outside” help should be understood what is organized, +and not simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or +by a neighbour. The link between self-help and outside help is +the fire-call.</p> + +<p><i>The Fire-Call.</i>—The efficiency of the fire-call depends not +only on the instrument employed and its position, but also +on its conspicuous appearance, and the indications by which +its situation may be discovered. These indications are quite +as important as the instruments themselves. The conspicuousness +of the instrument alone does not suffice. Of the official +notifications given in the press, those in regard to the position +of the call-points are among the most useful. An indication at +every street corner as to the direction to take to reach the point—or +perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the nearest +call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front door—may +enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize +the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It +is immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by +bell outside a fire-station, by a messenger from some special +messenger service, by a call through a telephone, or by an +electric or automatic appliance. Any instrument will do that +ensures the call being transmitted with maximum speed and +certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the locality.</p> + +<p><i>Outside Help.</i>—Organized outside help may not be limited +simply to the attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements +can be made for the attendance of the local police force, +a public or private salvage corps, an ambulance, or, in some +cases, a military guard. Then in some instances arrangements +are made for the attendance of the water and gas companies’ +servants, and even officials from the public works office, insurance +surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage +corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire +brigade, and others where the police are generally on the spot +in good force five minutes after the arrival of the first engines. +There are several cities where the ambulance wagon and the +steamers arrive together, and another city where the military +authorities always send a fire piquet which can be turned out +in a few minutes.</p> + +<p>If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank +of the individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire +brigade, even if he holds only non-commissioned officer’s rank, +should have control, and his authority be fully recognized. +Unfortunately, there are not many countries where this is the +case. The efficiency of outside help depends in the first instance +on the clear definition of the duties and powers of all concerned—on +the legal foundation, in fact; then on the organization, the +theoretically as well as practically correct executive; and, last +but by no means least, on the prestige, the social standing, the +education of commanders and their ability to handle men. +Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck, +smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry; +showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for +public applause, will be dangerous.</p> + +<p><i>Research.</i>—Under the heading “Fire Research” should be +included theoretical and experimental investigation as to +materials and construction, combined with the chronicling of +practical experience in fires, then the careful investigation and +chronicling of the causes of fires, assisted where necessary by a +power for holding fire inquests in interesting, suspicious or fatal +cases. Experimental investigation as to natural and accidental +causes as distinct from criminal causes can be included. Research +in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire +inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, +by the senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by +immediate government investigations held on the same lines as +inquiries into explosions and railway accidents.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> As to general +research work, there are several cities which contribute substantially +towards the costs of fire tests at independent testing +stations. Some towns also have special commissions of experts +who visit all big fires occurring within easy travelling distance, +take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as to how the +materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics +as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places +such tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with +oil lamps, their burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The British Fire Prevention Committee.</i>—The British Fire Prevention +Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great +Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February +1899. It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The +members include civil engineers, public officials holding government +appointments, fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst +the subscribers in the main include the great public departments, +such as the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the +important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial +government departments and municipalities are also on the roll, +together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand +has formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. +The ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council +and an executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription +of members and subscribers. The services of the members +of council and executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket +expenses of any kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals +mainly with questions of regulations, rules and publications of +general technical interest, the tests are probably what have brought +the committee into prominence and given it an international reputation. +They are not only the recognized fire tests of Great +Britain, but they rank as universal standard tests for the whole of +the civilized world, and Americans, just as much as Danes, Germans +or Austrians, pride themselves when some product of their country +has passed the official procedure of a test by the committee. The +reports of the tests, which state facts only without giving criticisms +or recommendations, are much appreciated by all who have the +control of public works or the specification of appliances. The +committee does not limit itself solely to testing proprietary forms +of construction or appliances, but has a number of tests—quite equal +to the proprietary tests—of articles in general use. The ordinary +concrete floor or the ordinary wooden joist floor protected by asbestos +boards or slag wool receives as much attention as a patent floor; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +and similarly the ordinary everyday hydrant receives equal attention +with the patent hydrant, or ordinary bucket of water with the special +fire extinguisher. The door tests of the committee, which cover +some thirty different types of doors, deal with no less than twenty +ordinary wooden doors that can be made by any ordinary builder +or cabinet-maker. These so-called non-proprietary tests are made +at the expense of the general funds of the committee, whilst for the +proprietary tests the owners have to pay about two-thirds of the +expenses incurred in the form of a testing fee. The expenses incurred +in a test, of course, not only comprise the actual testing operation of +testing, but also the expense of producing the report, which is always +a very highly finished publication with excellent blocks. The expense +incurred also includes the establishment expenses of the testing +station at Regent’s Park.</p> + +<p>The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire +Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in +both of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National +Fire Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. +It from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent +of Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official reports, +well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and methods of the +countries visited, and serving as most useful reference publications.</p> + +<p>Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both +in respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been +most beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless +of the fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount +of property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage +annually is about £5,000,000. This great annual saving has been +obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British +Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about £23,000, of which +more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary +contributions or subscriptions.</p> + +<p>There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although +several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests, +notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several +insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American +Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside +Great Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare +with the systematic series of inquiries conducted without any +substantial state aid in London.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Distribution of Losses.</i>—Property destroyed by fire is practically +an absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the +owner, or it may be distributed among a number of people, who +are taxed for it in the form of a contribution to their national +or local fire fund, a share in some mutual insurance “ring,” +or the more usual insurance companies’ premium. In the first +two cases some expenses have also to be met in connexion with +the management of the fund, “tariff” organization, or “ring.” +In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to +be covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance +enterprise as such, and then a further amount for division amongst +those who share the risk of the venture—namely, the insurance +company’s shareholders.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. +The sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss +with a minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly +managed company paying large dividends will cover a loss, but +with an unnecessarily large extra outlay. In every case the loss +remains; and as property may always be considered part of the +community, the province or nation, as the case may be, suffers. +It is always in the interest of a nation to minimize its national losses, +no matter whether they fall on one individual’s shoulders or on many, +and whether such losses are good for certain trades or not. With a +suitable system of fire protection it is possible to bring these losses +to a minimum, but this minimum would probably only be reached by +an extra expense, which would fall heavier on the insurers’ pockets +in the form of municipal rates than the higher premium for the +greater risk. A practical minimum is all that can be attempted, +and that practical minimum varies according to circumstances.</p> + +<p>Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, +and the actual extra cost of this protection should be something less +than the saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a +smaller dead loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure +for his combined contributions toward the losses, the +management of his insurance, and the protective measures. Where +there is mutual insurance or municipal insurance in its best +sense, the losses by fire and the costs of the protection are often +booked in one account, and the better protection up to a certain +point should mean a smaller individual annual share. Where there +is company insurance the municipal rates are increased to cover the +cost of extra protection, while a proportionate decrease is expected +in the insurance premiums. Competition and public opinion +generally impose this decrease of the insurance rates as soon as there +is a greater immunity from fire. Where the insurance companies +are well managed and the shareholders are satisfied with reasonable +dividends, practical protection can be said to find favour with all +concerned, but if the protection is arranged for and the companies +do not moderate their charges accordingly, the reverse is the case.</p> + +<p>The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the +maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is +considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which +municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the effect +that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good fire +service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly +managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however, +means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has +to pay for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal +rate, or in the form of an increased premium raised to meet the +contribution levied, this is simply juggling with figures.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Cost.</i>—As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, +better and safer building from the fire point of view means +better and more valuable structures of longer life from the +economic aspect. Such better and safer constructional work +pays for itself and cannot be considered in the light of an extra +tax on the building owner. The compilation and administration +of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be attended +to by the same executive authorities as would in any case +superintend general structural matters, and the additional +work would at the most require some increased clerical aid. +If the execution of the fire survey regulations were delegated +to the same authority there would again simply be some extra +clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of perhaps a few extra +surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly efficient, it has +been found advisable in several instances to form parties of three +for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be a fire +brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep, +who would have to receive a special retaining fee.</p> + +<p>The cost of the public training referred to would be small, +as the elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster’s +work, and the Press matters could be easily managed +in the fire brigade office. Payments would have only to be made +for advertisements, such as the official warnings, lists for fire-call +points, &c., and perhaps for the publication of semi-official +hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and drills for amateurs +are concerned would be under the control of the fire brigade. +There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase +and maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.</p> + +<p>The most expensive items in the system of fire protection +undoubtedly come under the headings “Fire-Call” and “Fire +Brigade.” As to the former, there are a number of cities where +the cost is modified by having the whole of the electrical service +for the police force, the ambulance and fire brigade, managed by +a separate department. The same wires call up each of these +services, and, as the same staff attend to their maintenance, +the fire protection of a city need only be debited with perhaps +a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed independently. +The combined system has also the great advantage of facilitating +the mutual working of the different services in case of an emergency. +The indicators which have been referred to involve an +outlay; but here again, if the three services work together, +the expenses on the count of fire protection can be lessened. +The money rewards given in some cities to the individuals who +first call the fire-engines may become a heavy item. Their +utility is doubtful, and they have formed an inducement for +arson.</p> + +<p>As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong +active force should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. +The latter should be as inexpensive as possible, but should at +least constitute a part-paid and disciplined body which could +be easily called in for emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot +allow for an active force being ready for such coincidences as an +unusual number of large fires starting simultaneously, but they +must allow for an ample strength always being forthcoming +for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due consideration +for men’s rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire +brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the +property owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of +the force. The budget must also allow for an attractive rate of +pay, as the profession is one which requires men who have a +maximum of the sterling qualities which we look for in the pick +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +of a nation. It must also not be forgotten that the fire service +is one of the few where a system of pensions is the only fair way +of recognizing the risks of limb and health, and at the same time +securing that stability in which practical experience from long +service is so essential a factor. The budget must allow for an +ample reserve of appliances.</p> + +<p>Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit +of its having a separate section for salvage corps purposes +depends on circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is +required, and should be part and parcel of the municipal brigade +and organized on the same lines with a reserve, no matter +whether the insurance of the locality be managed by the authorities +or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it matters little +whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.</p> + +<p>Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are +items for fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, +due confidence being placed in the opinions of the fire officers +and surveyors, there is no reason why the outlay should be great. +The statistical work would only require some clerical aid. Where +special coroners are retained for criminal cases some extra money +will of course be required; but even here the costs need not be +excessive, as there are many retired fire brigade officers and fire +surveyors who are well suited for the work, and would be satisfied +with a small emolument.</p> + +<p>As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places +where special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests +of fire protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the +heading “Fire Protection” have simply to cover the maintenance +of hydrants and tablets, or at the most the cost of the water +actually used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the +cost of hydrants is shared with the scavenging department or +the commission of sewers, which also have the use of them. +Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to a private +water company, the property owners will be paying their share +for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.</p> + +<p>The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving +and for the protection of property. It should be remembered +that a good staircase and a ladder are often as useful +for the manœuvring of the firemen as for life-saving purposes, +and that they are practically as essential for the saving of property +as for saving life. No distinction need be made between +the two risks when speaking of fire protection in general; but as +the safety of the most valueless life is generally classed higher +than that of the most valuable property, it may be well to give +life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.</p> + +<p>Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective +system is defective. With good construction and a fire survey, +the quick arrival of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks +of detection are as a rule far too great to encourage its growth.</p> + +<p><i>Saving of Life.</i>—Under “Fire Prevention” special requirements +in the Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life +by requiring practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. +The risks in theatres and assembly halls require separate +legislation. In ordinary structures no inmate of a building +should be more than sixty feet away from a staircase, and +preferably there should be two staircases at his disposal in the +event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only given +to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that +their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater +danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The +possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.</p> + +<p><i>Safety of Property.</i>—As far as the protection of property +is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by +the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain +classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, +the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. +Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the +division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in construction.</p> + +<p>The legislator’s first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one +house from spreading to another, and a stranger’s property, +so to say, from being endangered. This is quite possible, given +good party walls carried well over the roof to a height regulated +by the nature of the risk, the provision of the shutters to windows +where necessary, and the use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a +thoroughly good roof—or still better, a fire-resisting attic floor—can +do much. If the locality has a fire brigade and the force +is efficiently handled, “spreads” from one house to another +should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts are, +however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to +localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible +for street improvements.</p> + +<p>The division of a building or large “risk” into a number +of minor ones is only possible to a certain extent. There is no +need to spend enormous sums to make each of the minor “risks” +impregnable. The desire should be simply to try to retard the +spread for a certain limited time after the flames have really +taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most fires will +have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient fire-extinguishing +establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can +be on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration +from becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an +ordinary well-built house, for example, if the joists are strong +and the boards grooved, if some light pugging be used and the +plastering properly done, if the doors are made well-fitting and +fairly strong, a very considerable amount of furniture and fittings +can remain well alight for half an hour before there is a spread. +In a warehouse or factory “risk” the same holds good. With +well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps +run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary +double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with +sheet iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned +for a considerable time. Many of the recent forms of “patent” +flooring are exceedingly useful for the division of “risks,” and +with their aid a fire can be limited to an individual storey of a +building, but it should not be forgotten that even the best of +flooring is useless if carried by unprotected iron girders supported, +say, by some light framing or weak partition. The general +mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete construction +is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts, +shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that +the protection of the supports and girder-work requires most +careful attention.</p> + +<p>Of the various systems of “patent” flooring, as a rule the +simpler forms are the more satisfactory. It should, however, +always be remembered that any specific form of flooring alone +does not prevent a fire breaking from one “risk” to another. +They should go hand in hand with general good construction, +and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the modern +fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their introduction +for fire protection alone. In considering their introduction, the +general advantages which they afford as to spans, thickness, +general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A practical +installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first, not +increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly +should add to the general value of the structure by giving it a +more substantial character.</p> + +<p>The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should +not be forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well +armed with shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting +glass, and the lifts not only vertical doors, but also horizontal +flaps, cutting up the well into sections. The question of light +partitions must also not be neglected.</p> + +<p>Division of “risks,” common-sense construction, and proper +staircase accommodation are really all that fire protection +requires, and where the special Building Act clauses have been +kept within the lines indicated, there has been little friction and +discontent. It is only as a rule when the authorities are eccentric +in their demands that the building owner considers himself +harassed by protective measures.</p> + +<p>Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the +actual outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey +can also increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen +the possibility of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +or ladders, and a regular inspection of their efficiency, will do +much. The examination of a rusty door-catch may save a +building. The actual preventive work of the surveyor will, +however, mostly consist in warning property owners against +temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty +chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas +brackets fixed in risky positions. Self-help will be greatly +facilitated by the judicious arrangement of fire-extinguishing +gear, and a like inspection of its efficiency. Hydrants and +cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so stiff that the water +cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand pumps and +pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest errors +generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of +the fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his +efforts are unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not, +perhaps, use the gear at all.</p> + +<p>With regard to regulations governing “special risks,” so far +as the safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls +is concerned, attention should be chiefly given to the exits. +Spread of fire, and even its outbreak, are secondary considerations. +A panic caused by the suspicion of a fire can be quite +as fatal as that caused by the actual start of a conflagration. +In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct communication +should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the main +staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and +burners should be prohibited.</p> + +<p><i>Fire-resisting Materials.</i>—One of the greatest misnomers +in connexion with fire prevention was originally the description +of certain materials and systems of construction as being “fire-proof.” +This has seriously affected the development of the +movement towards fire prevention, for, having regard to the fact +that nothing described as “fire-proof” could be fire-proof in +the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so described, +and in fact everything described as “fire-proof” came to be +looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion +and obtain a better understanding on the subject, the International +Fire Prevention Congress of London in 1903, at which +some 800 representatives of government departments and +municipalities were present, discussed this matter at considerable +length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in consideration +of their importance in affecting the whole development of fire-resisting +construction, are published below. It is the classification +of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that has +been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire, +and in numerous other countries, since that date.</p> + +<p>The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations +contained in the following statement issued by +the British Fire Prevention Committee:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having +given their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term +“fire-proof,” now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably +applied to many building materials and systems of building construction +in use in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that +the avoidance of this term in general business, technical, and legislative +vocabulary is essential.</p> + +<p>The executive consider the term “fire-resisting” more applicable +for general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying +qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended +to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or low +temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general +adoption of this term in place of “fire-proof.”</p> + +<p>Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the +fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction, +consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise +the authorities controlling building operations, should clearly discriminate +between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact, +requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city +warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight +requires very different protection from the tenement house of the +suburbs.</p> + +<p>The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting +materials and systems of construction affording <i>temporary</i> protection, +<i>partial</i> protection, and <i>full</i> protection against fire, and to classify all +building materials and systems of construction under these three +headings. The exact and definite limit of these three classes is based +on the experience obtained from numerous investigations and tests, +combined with the experience obtained from actual fires, and after +due consideration of the limitations of building practice and the +question of cost.</p> + +<p>The executive’s minimum requirements of fire-resistance for +building materials or systems of construction will be seen from the +standard tables appended for—</p> + +<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,<br /> +II. Fire-resisting partitions,<br /> +III. Fire-resisting doors,</p> + +<p class="noind">but they could be popularly summarized as follows:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire +for at least three-quarters of an hour.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire +for at least one hour and a half.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire +for at least two hours and a half.</p> + +<p>The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the +actual minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and +the application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables +by all technically interested, but for the popular discrimination—-which +the executive are desirous of encouraging—the time standard +alone should suffice.</p> + +<p>It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards +in this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that +the same standardization may in future be common to all countries, +and the preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization +are already in hand.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fire Combating.</i>—As to self-help, complication must always +be avoided. The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest +lines. One thing which must be instilled into him is not to +waste water—a sure sign of lack of training. Of course the drills +must be on the same lines as those of the local brigade, and on +no account should other gear be used for self-help than is generally +customary in that force. When volunteers and regulars work +together, the former should always remember that the paid +force are experts, though the regulars must never have that +contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers +are often men who are probably experts in some other vocation +outside fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which +a professional fire-fighter has had.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Load per<br />Superficial<br />Foot<br />Distributed<br />(per Sq. Metre).</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.580 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">112 ℔<br />(546.852 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">168 ℔<br />(820.278 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.580 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">224 ℔<br />(1093.706 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">280 ℔<br />(1367.130 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.258 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="7">kg. = kilogramme.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Thickness of<br />material.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 in. and under<br />(.051 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without Frames.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Thickness of<br />material.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 in. and under<br />(.051 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">½ in. and under<br />(.018 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">25 sq. ft.<br />(2.322 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">25 sq. ft.<br />(2.322 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Transmission of Fire-Calls.</i>—There are several methods of +transmitting the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of +course, to run direct to the nearest fire-station; but this is only +possible where the distance is short. In one or two cities, however, +the number of fire-stations is so great that they are very +close to one another, and hence “direct” calls are generally +recorded.</p> + +<p>Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is +reported at some public office, police-station or guard-room, +where there are always runners ready to start off to the nearest +fire-station. The special runner is here practically a makeshift +for the more modern telegraph or telephone line, and it is believed +that the only city in which this system is employed is one where +the unsettled political atmosphere has compelled the authorities +to prohibit the construction of any telegraph lines other than +those for the use of the general postal service. Similar messenger +services have, however, also been introduced in connexion with +the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises known +as “general messenger” or “call-boy” services, which are +organized for business purposes, have the advantage of including +the fire-call and the police-call. In the same way that a cab can +be signalled, a call may come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready +runner makes off to the fire-station instead of to the cab rank. +As a rule, these messenger offices are near the fire-station. The +combination is rather a curious one, as it embraces the most +advanced notions of giving every “risk” its own fire-call, and +the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.</p> + +<p>Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely +on the public telephone system, the terms of subscription to +which may compel holders to forward fire messages if required +to do so. This system allows for such development as the +payment of retaining fees to porters in public and other buildings +which have a night service, on condition that the fire-call shall +be promptly despatched. The telephones are, perhaps, even +provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should be +remembered that the service always goes through a general +telephone exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.</p> + +<p>In the special telephone line system special wires are laid +from buildings which are practically open all the year round +direct to their nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again +made for prompt attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes +the place of the telephone, but this requires the porter or attendant +to be specially trained to the work. To simplify matters, +the buildings are sometimes provided with automatic fire-calls +instead of telephones; but the principle of the system remains +the same. In districts where there are few public offices, the +list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has been +frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries’ shops, +where night service is not unusual.</p> + +<p>What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next. +Automatic fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +are under lock and key, and the keys are distributed only among +policemen, watchmen or householders, and the messages can, +therefore, only be given by persons known to the authorities.</p> + +<p>The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next +to the direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones +can be laid on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an +instance where an attempt was made to give every householder +a private fire-call. This system is, however, unfortunately +too extreme for the municipal purse. If in connexion with +some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the messenger +services referred to, it would be a different matter, though it +should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call +points means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire, +and a risk of too many sections of the fire brigade being on the +road to it.</p> + +<p>Besides these forms of “call,” there is also the private alarm. +Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones, +alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which +a call can be given direct from the “risk” involved.</p> + +<p>Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most +frequented positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front +of a church would be the best; in others, the front of a public-house. +It should always be remembered that every facility +should be given to enable as many people as possible to know +the whereabouts of the call points without any distinct effort +on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar conspicuous +by day, and a coloured lamp by night.</p> + +<p>As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box +stating the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the +best methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most +in use in a modern city, and hence the plate is read by many. +In an oriental town the public fountain would, however, take +the place of the letter-box. Plates put up inside every front +door are somewhat extreme measures. In one city red darts +are painted on the glass of every street lamp, indicating the +direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign, however, +has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its +meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.</p> + +<p>Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a +sovereign. In some places every call is rewarded—even those +to chimney fires—and this often results in an abuse of the +privilege. Rogues light fires on the top of a chimney and then +run to call the engines. If a reward be given, a limitation +should be made. In one town no relation or employé of the +owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given +for calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.</p> + +<p>No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by +mistake. The possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is +a bona fide reason for a call which should not be discouraged. +Malicious alarms should, however, be treated with the utmost +rigour, as the absence of firemen from their stations always means +an extra risk to life and property. Combined “lynch law” +and imprisonment has generally been adopted with good effect. +The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of the +engine and thrashed with a broad fireman’s belt, and after that +handed to the police.</p> + +<p>The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to +facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the +headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed +or the telephone is used no special arrangements are required, +but where the telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced, +the apparatus must be adapted for this contingency. +At some automatic fire-call points a few signals can be given, at +others, a telegraphic or telephonic transmitter can be applied. +Much valuable time may be saved in this way when more assistance +is required.</p> + +<p><i>Fire Brigades.</i>—The organization of fire brigades varies +greatly. There are brigades where officers and men are practically +constantly ready to attend a fire, and others where they +are ready on alternate days, two days out of every three, or three +days out of every four, and the off day is entirely their own, +or at the most, only partially used by the authorities for some +light work. The men off duty are only expected to attend a fire +if there is a great emergency, the brigade being strong enough +without them for ordinary eventualities. Both systems can be +worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service, which +would be only called out for great calamities. They could be +organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the +reserve men might be attached to sections of the regulars and +mixed with them when the occasion arises. The reserves can +consist either of retired firemen who have a few regular drills, +or of amateurs who go through a special course of training, and +have some series of drills at intervals, with preferably a short +spell of service every year with the regulars. For the regulars, +forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has given the +most satisfactory results.</p> + +<p>The division of the active force may be on a system of a number +of small parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong +bodies. Another system allows for subdivision into sections of +equal strength, ranging from parties of, say, five men with a +non-commissioned officer to thirty non-commissioned officers +and men with an officer. The force can, of course, also simply +be divided up into parties or sections of different strengths not +governed by a system of military units. The sections either can +work independently, as units, simply governed by one central +authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor +or major bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole +individually responsible to headquarters.</p> + +<p>The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may +be “officers and gentlemen” in the military sense, or have only +temporarily done work with the rank and file when in training. +There could also be a combination of these two systems. Only +the captain and deputy-captain might be officers in the military +sense, the sections or divisions being officered by “non-coms.” +Some cities have an officer to every thirty “non-coms” and men, +whilst others put a division of as many as two hundred under +a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection is +treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have +really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military +sense have been found essential. They have also been found +advantageous where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing. +The prestige of the fire service has been raised everywhere where +the officers, besides being fire experts, are educated men of +social standing. There are cities where the officers of the fire +brigade are in every way recognized as equal to army or navy +men, their social position is the same, and their mess fulfils the +same functions as a regimental mess. The fire brigade officer +is recognized at court, and there is no ceremonial without him. +On the other hand, there are also cities with brigades several +hundred strong where the captain’s social standing is beneath +that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary +training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally +had some experience in another profession, such as the army, the +navy, or the architectural and engineering professions, previous +to their entering the fire service. Some brigades recruit from +army officers only, and preferably from the engineers or artillery +regiments; others recruit from among architects and engineers, +subject to their having at least had some military experience +in the reserve forces or the volunteers. Some cities only take +engineers or architects, and make a point of it that they should +have no previous military experience. Some previous experience +in the handling of men is essential.</p> + +<p>As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are +taken as firemen; others where the engines are manned by +sailors. In some towns the building trades supply the recruits; +in others, all trades are either discriminately or indiscriminately +represented. A combination from the army or navy on the one +side and the building trades on the other is most satisfactory. +The knowledge of building construction in the ranks stands the +force in good stead, and has often saved both lives and property. +Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important trade, +much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing +their own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from +sedentary trades should not be excessive. Where there are only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +men of one trade or calling, there is often too great a tendency +to one-sidedness, and a great amount of prejudice.</p> + +<p>Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for +both officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry +men are very useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary, +also a good memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in +a brigade, and should be transferred to some other service if +the fatness be developed during their engagement with a brigade. +Many brigades take only single men, “non-coms” and officers +only being allowed to marry. There are many brigades where +twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the privates, fifty +for the “non-coms,” and sixty for the officers.</p> + +<p>As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their +sections or units provided with practically the same gear; +others where each unit has a double or treble set, one of which +is used according to circumstances. The section may have a +manual engine, a steamer and a ladder truck at its disposal, +and may turn out with either. There are towns where the units +are differently equipped, and steamer or manual sections called +out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where the +sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of +engines and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete +with (say) a chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape. +The contrast to this will be found in the small parties of twos +or threes, whose turn-out would only consist of a small hose +trolley or an escape. Of course, there are all kinds of combinations, +the most important of which allows a section to have +one or more independent subsections. Though practically +belonging to the “unit,” the subsections work independently +in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long +ladder, or a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The +subsections may act as outposts or simply as specialist parties, +which are only called out for particular work.</p> + +<p>As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street +stations are provided for the small parties referred to. In a few +cases two small parties are housed under the same roof. The +large bodies that back them are generally quartered together +in extensive barracks, from which any number of engines and +men can be turned out according to the nature of the call. Then +there are cities where every section has its own well-built station; +others where one or two sections are housed together, according +to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a dozen located +at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of the +group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the +other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be +the central station of a district at the same time. The actual +working of the district headquarters would, however, then be +kept separate from the working of the headquarters staff. The +latter would, perhaps, have some sections ready to send anywhere +besides the trucks, &c., necessary for the officers, the +general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is usual to +combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the +headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district +centres.</p> + +<p>In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts, +&c., various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory +results have been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not +simply a hose-car or escape-party) can reach any building in the +city within six minutes from the time of the call reaching the +station, the six minutes including both turn-out and run. Where +there are exceptionally large or dangerous risks, this time has had +to be shortened to four minutes, and the possibility of an attendance +from a second station assured within six minutes. In +dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have been +obtained where every house can be reached from the district +centre within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters +would naturally have a central position in the city. In one or +two instances the headquarters offices are located in a separate +building, which in no way serves as a fire-station, but simply as +a centre through which all orders and business pass.</p> + +<p>The different stations must be in connexion with each other. +The special runner or rider is practically disappearing. The +telegraph and telephone have taken his place. Some cities +favour Morse telegraphy, which certainly had great advantages +over the telephone at one time, as messages could be easily +transmitted to several stations with the same effort, but telephone +distributors have now been successfully introduced. Errors +are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and there is +always a record of every message. The most modern forms of +telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the +fire service than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in +direct communication with every station, but every station +should be able to communicate with its neighbour directly, as +well as through the headquarters office, and there should be a +direct wire to its district station if it has one. There should be +three routes of communication, so that two should be always +ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters +or the district centres would be in touch with the various +auxiliaries referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and +the telephone exchange.</p> + +<p>As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one +unit to answer the first call if they have no particulars, others +always turn out two or three sections, and there are several +cities where the district centre would at least send an officer +and a few men as well. In one brigade, headquarters is always +represented by either the chief or the second officer in the case +of a call of this kind. The idea is that it is always better to have +too strong a force quickly in attendance than too small a number +of men, and that it is most important that the first arrival should +be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a call and one +breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being too +great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however, +not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other +fires are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines, +on account of a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a +call reaches the firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn +out, and if more help is required other sections will be called +up individually. In others the reinforcements are not called +up separately, but the fires are divided into three classes—small, +medium and large; and on the message arriving of a more +extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section already +know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls +to certain classes of risks, <i>e.g.</i> to theatres or public offices, may +always be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the +same message will then simultaneously turn out the stronger +body without any further detailed instructions being necessary. +In some towns the fire-call automata are so arranged that the +messenger can at once call for the different classes of fire. This, +however, is not to be recommended, as a messenger will probably +consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic blaze, and will bring out +too many engines.</p> + +<p><i>Equipment.</i>—The following are characteristic features in the +equipment of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure +water supply, some brigades simply attend with hose-cars, +life-saving gear and ladders; or, instead of the hose-cars, take +their manuals, which they practically never use and which serve +only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others take, and make +a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with them +ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time +is thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug; +and in case of a hydrant being out of order, there is always +sufficient water at hand until the second hydrant has been found. +Many cities have introduced chemical engines to take the place +of this combination of water barrel and manual engine. A +supply of water is carried on the chemical engine. Some cities +always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however, +only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at +once used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently +of the pressure there is in the water service. Where +there is no good water service, manuals or steamers have, of +course, to be sent out, and are supplied either from the low-pressure +service or from the natural waterways or wells. There +are still a large number of cities where the suburbs have no +proper water service, and the water barrel is then very handy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the +chemical treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire, +with the view of increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals +instead of water. In certain localities fire appliances are still +run out to fires by hand, especially where there is a high pressure +water system and hose carts only are required. Generally the +appliances are horsed. Motor traction is, however, now rapidly +superseding horse traction for reasons of economy and the +wider and more rapid range of efficiency.</p> + +<p>As to life saving and manœuvring gear, some brigades rely +almost entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend +on scaling ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence +is placed in the jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are +much used; and there are a few where wonderful work is done +with life-lines. To indicate the diversity with which any one +appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the fire service, +it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different ways in +which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material +of the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape—whether +round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means +of holding it, the way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at +what distance from the endangered building the sheet is to be +held. Last, but not least, come the words of command.</p> + +<p><i>Working of Brigades.</i>—In some forces all possible attention +is given to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others +the speed at which engines run to the fire is considered to be +of primary importance. Other brigades, again, give equal +attention to both. There are brigades which work entirely on +military lines, each man having certain duties marked out for +him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are others +where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there +are combinations in the same way as regards command. Some +chief officers arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies, +and control the working of the brigade from a position of vantage +at a distance. Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire, +perhaps at the branch itself, or on some gallant life-saving +exploit where they no doubt do good work as a fireman, but in +no way fulfil the office of commanders. Officers must remember +that they are officers, and not rank and file; and this is generally +very difficult to those who have advanced from the ranks. +Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to +their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must +always be in a good position where they can superintend everything +pertaining to the outbreak in question. Some brigades +seem to make a point of working quietly, and shouting is +absolutely forbidden, all commands being given by shrill whistles. +In some brigades all commands are given by word of mouth, and +there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being +bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes +trying. As a rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.</p> + +<p>Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others +are satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a +distance. Some attack the fire direct, others only try to protect +what surrounds the seat of the flames. Several brigades are +ordered always to try to attack by the natural routes of the +front door and the staircases. In others, the men always have +to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the aid of +ladders—through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully +extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades +boast of never having damaged property unnecessarily. They +have, for instance, had the patience to suffocate a cellar fire, +instead of putting the whole cellar under water. In certain +classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the hand-pump +have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction +than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which +to judge the training and handling of a fire brigade—to see what +damage they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and +windows, when there is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided, +where every man in the force feels that his first duty is to prevent +damage and loss and his second to extinguish the fire.</p> + +<p>Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally +stationed at headquarters; where this division is split up into +sections, there would also be a distribution among the district +centres; the salvage men are simply part of the force, told off +on special duty. Where there are private salvage corps, their +stations are generally near the headquarters or district centres +of the brigade, from which they receive notice of the fire. In +some cities the salvage corps work quite independently; in +others, they work under the chief of the brigade directly they +arrive at the fire.</p> + +<p>As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with +the fire service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room +to work in is now fully recognized, and the police are at once +called out and often brought on to the scene in an incredibly +short time. The value of these measures should not be under-rated, +especially in cities where rowdyism exists. In many +cities the ambulance service is also turned out to fires. Where +no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen +should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and +gasmen are also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many +garrison towns the military turn out to assist the fire brigade.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>National Fire Brigades’ Union.</i>—The National Fire Brigades’ +Union, which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great +Britain, originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire +brigades held at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria’s jubilee +on the 30th of May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were +present. Next day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall, +Oxford, and it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades +Union. Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade, +was appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed +first president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through +ill-health he was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the +union offered to provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers +for his regiment the duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped +corps were sent out to the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein, +South Africa, under Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned +the services rendered by the firemen in his despatches.</p> + +<p>The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own +council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the +central council. The districts are:—Eastern, Midlands, South Coast, +South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South +Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North +Wales, Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in +1902). There are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents +in America, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, +France, Germany, Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South +Africa, India and the Federated Malay Straits. The total strength +of the union is 667 fire brigades and members with nearly 12,000 +firemen. Every member of the union gives his time and services +for the benefit of the country; all appointments are honorary, with +the exception that a small allowance is made for clerical assistance. +A drill book is issued by the union, and the fourth edition was +published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these books have been issued to +brigades all over the world.</p> + +<p>The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers. +All members have to come up for re-examination every three years, +else they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination +is more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association. +This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial +fire brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance +work. A very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the +union entitled <i>First Aid in the Fire Service</i>, by Chief Officer William +Ettles, M.D.</p> + +<p>The union organized and took part in the International Fire +Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and +1896, and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses +at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It +has also held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal +Palace, and before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Fire Brigade Organization.</i></p> + +<p>Below are given examples of the organization of different fire +brigades. The brigades so described have been selected not so +much on account of their intrinsic importance, as because they +represent classes or types of brigades and fire brigade organization +which it may be useful to refer to. In respect of the London +fire brigade, however, historical data are also presented, as it +is only with the aid of these that the extraordinary development +of that force can be properly realized.</p> + +<p>With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire +brigade, the resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903 +are reprinted below. As they indicate, the general feeling +amongst all interested in fire protection from an economic point +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> +of view is that fire brigades should not be merely fire extinguishing +organizations but should utilize their influence in a much +wider sense.</p> + +<p>The Congress considered:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers +to take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire projection, +inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers’ experience in actual +fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work of +architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful for +the organization and development of precautionary measures.</p> + +<p>2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should +encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study +of questions of fire prevention.</p> + +<p>3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and +that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a government +department.</p> + +<p>4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That +on the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immediately +made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain +the cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the +result of such investigation to a public department for tabulation +and publication.</p> + +<p>5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be +charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred, +as may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.</p> + +<p>6. That the press should from time to time publish technical +reports on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge +and experience gained.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>London.</i>—In the early part of the 19th century the methods +in vogue for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis +were of the most crude and disjointed character, in striking +contrast with the highly elaborated system now put into practice +by the London County Council through its fire brigade; and it +was not until the second half of the 19th century was well +advanced that anything approaching an adequate and satisfactory +organization was brought into existence. Until the +passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only +acts relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London +were the Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90), +and “an act (14 Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better +Regulation of Buildings and Party Walls, and for the more +effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire within the Cities of +London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof, and other +the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of +Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras, +and St Luke’s at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex.” The +clauses in the latter act relating to protection against fire remained +in force till the passing of the act of 1865. They provided +that every parish should keep “one large engine and one small, +called a hand engine, a leathern pipe, and a certain number of +ladders.” The Lighting and Watching Act contained a clause +which extended to England and Wales and so covered the area +“without the bills of mortality,” enabling the inspectors appointed +under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines; +and certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without +the bills of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.</p> + +<p>The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in +1862, reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act +of George III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered +practically of importance, but that, at the time of the report, +the arrangements generally made by the parishes under the act +were not only entirely useless, but in many cases produced +injurious results, as the system under the act frequently conferred +a reward for the first useless parochial engine, whereas +the efficient engine which might be on the spot a few minutes +later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were, however, +exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a +“very efficient” fire brigade was maintained at an expense of +about £500 a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the +rating of the parish. The select committee were unable to +ascertain with any accuracy the total amount paid by the +metropolitan parishes for the maintenance, “however inefficient,” +of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be +about £10,000.</p> + +<p>For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance +offices in London kept fire brigades at their individual expense; +to these brigades were attached a considerable number of men +usually occupied as Thames watermen, retained in the service +of the different Fire Offices, who received payment only on the +occurrence of fires, and who wore the livery and badge of the +respective companies. These fire brigades were, to quote the +report of the select committee of 1862, considered as giving +notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a considerable +rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of good +as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.</p> + +<p>The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced +an attempt to be made, which was effectually carried out in +the year 1832, by R. Bell Forde, a leading director of the Sun +Fire Office, to form one brigade for the purpose of promoting +economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus the first organized +fire brigade for London began its operations under the united +sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the leading +insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known +as the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense +was at first £8000, the number of stations 19, the number of +men employed 80. By 1862 the annual cost had grown to +£25,000, the number of stations had become 20, and the number +of men 127.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire +Engine Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in substitution +for which the new Cannon-Street station has been +built. The following is a list of the other stations of the establishment:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">School House-lane, Shadwell</td> <td class="tcl">Crown Street, Soho</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wellclose Square</td> <td class="tcl">Wells Street</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jeffrey’s Square</td> <td class="tcl">Baker Street</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Whitecross Street</td> <td class="tcl">King Street, Golden Square</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Farringdon Street</td> <td class="tcl">Horseferry Road</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holborn</td> <td class="tcl">Waterloo Road</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chandos Street</td> <td class="tcl">Southwark Bridge Road</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tooley Street</td> <td class="tcl">Southwark Bridge (floating)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lucas Street, Rotherhithe</td> <td class="tcl">Rotherhithe (floating)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner +as far as its limited equipment and strength would permit, but +it was universally admitted that the staff, engines and stations +were totally inadequate for the general protection of London +from fire. The directors of the insurance offices themselves +admitted this, but they considered their brigade sufficient for +the protection of that part of London in which the largest amount +of insured property was located, and contended that it was not +their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying +districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve +their offices in serious loss.</p> + +<p>From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire +offices was supplemented by the “Society for the Protection of +Life from Fire.” This society was managed by a committee of +which the lord mayor was president. It was supported entirely +by voluntary contributions, and, at a cost of about £7000 a +year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90 stations in different +parts of the most central districts in London. Its most outlying +station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it maintained +no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham, +Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its +equipment was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the +metropolis.</p> + +<p>In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire +Engine Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed +by fire, and the attention of the government was consequently +directed to the inadequacy of the existing conditions for fire +extinction. It was suggested, at the time, that the parochial +engines should be placed under the inspection of the commissioners +of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and the +existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another +thirty years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a +fire brigade should be created under the superintendence of the +commissioners of police, and should form part of the general +establishment of the metropolitan police. In 1865, however, +the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act was passed, under which the +responsibility for the provision and maintenance of an efficient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan Board of Works. +Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the staff, +stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment; +the engines maintained by the various parochial authorities, +and the men in charge of them were also absorbed by the new +organization, as were the fire-escapes and staff of the Society +for the Protection of Life from Fire.</p> + +<p>The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the maintenance +of the brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny +rate on all the rateable property in London; (2) contributions +by the fire insurance companies at the rate of £35 per million +of the gross amount insured by them in respect of property in +London; and (3) a contribution of £10,000 a year by the government. +Although the revenue allotted increased year by year, +its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls +from all parts of London for protection from fire. Some temporary +financial relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board +of Works (Loans) Act 1869, which (1) authorized the interest +on borrowed money to be paid, and the principal to be redeemed +out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan Consolidated rate, apart +from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade purposes; and (2) +provided that the amount to be raised for the annual working +expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be +produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value +of property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One +result of the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by +which the London County Council was constituted), under which +a county rate for all purposes is levied, was virtually to repeal +the limitation of the amount which might be raised from the +ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time the +expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other +departments of the council’s service, been determined solely +by what the council has judged to be the requirements of the +case.</p> + +<p>When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire +brigade was admittedly not large enough properly to protect +the whole of London, the provision in various suburban districts +being notoriously inadequate to the requirements. A plan for +enlarging and improving old stations, and for carrying out a +scheme of additional protection laid down after careful consideration +of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on the 8th +of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided +for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for +the establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with +horsed escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-escape +and hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Since it came into existence the London County Council has established +additional fire stations at Dulwich, New Cross, Kingsland, +Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd’s Bush, West Hampstead, East +Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant’s +Wharf (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, +Burdett Road (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea), +Herne Hill, Lee Green and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vauxhall, +Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and +North End stations are sub-stations. New stations have been +erected, in substitution for small and inconvenient buildings, at +Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham, Brompton, Islington, Paddington, +Redcross Street (City), Euston Road, Clapham, Mile End, +Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington, Westminster, +Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing stations at +Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead, Battersea, +Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been considerably +enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been established +in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively. +A building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation +of the staff of the Cherry-garden river station; and another building +has been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff +of a river station which has been established there.</p> + +<p>In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in +course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional +sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise. +The Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and enlarged. +The council had also determined to erect new stations in +substitution for existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway, +Waterloo Road, Shooter’s Hill and North End, Fulham; and to +build additional sub-stations at Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton +Hill, Camberwell New Road, Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and +Earlsfield.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Budapest.</i>—There is a combination of a professional force +and a volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary +service of factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade +possesses a central station and eight sub-stations, two minor +stations, and permanent theatre-watchrooms at the royal +theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the professional brigade consisted +of a chief officer, an inspector, a senior adjutant and two +junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23 warrant officers, 3 +engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen with 62 +horses. There have been some slight increases since. The +apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22 +manual engines, 27 small manual engines, 11 water carts, 13 +traps, 4 tenders, 26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders, +9 ordinary extension ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets +and 22,000 metres of hose. The various stations are connected +with the central station by private telephone lines. There are +149 telephonic fire alarms distributed throughout the city. +They are on radial lines connected up with their respective +nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from three +to seventeen call-points.</p> + +<p>The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and +comprises some eighty members. Its equipment is housed with +that of the professional brigade, and is bought and maintained +by the municipality. This volunteer brigade is a comparatively +wealthy institution, having a capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst +receiving a special subsidy annually from the municipality. +Though legally an entirely independent institution, the brigade +voluntarily puts itself under the command of the chief officer +of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at the disposal +of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every night +and “turn out” when called upon to render service. This +volunteer brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer +brigades, and it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that +the educational classes referred to above are held and facilities +accorded to the officers undergoing instruction to gain experience +at the Budapest fires.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the +volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with +the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest +factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory fire +brigades. These brigades—forty-four in number—are essentially +private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to +which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual +understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory +immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory +brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with +1 steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have +a very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke +helmets.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Cologne.</i>—The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong +(1906), with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional +officers, a warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16 +foremen. The brigade has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are +used for ambulance purposes. The brigade has three large +stations and a minor station, and has a permanent fire-watch +at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for duty as +coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of +duty to twenty-four hours of rest.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary +retained fire brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent, +2 deputy superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses, +who are retained men housed in municipal buildings (tenements), +and available as an immediate reserve force. The first section +of the reserve force are housed centrally.</p> + +<p>There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades +manned by volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and +horsed from the municipal stables or municipal tramways. +Three of these volunteer brigades, which have large suburban +districts, comprise each a superintendent, 2 senior foremen and +3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen and 3 coachmen. The minor +outlying suburbs have several such brigades, each having one +senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2 coachmen. +The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295, +all ranks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of professional +brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of +suburban volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is +still an old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the +extra sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building. +The brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed +matter, in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally +well prepared. The brigade does permanent “fire-watch” duty at +the municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It +provides additional watches during performances at all other +theatres and public entertainments. Such duties are provided in +part by an auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade. +A number of the professional brigade are always utilized for doing +general work in the workshops of the brigade. The first or central +section of the auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and +is additionally turned out eleven times per annum (without drill). +Men newly attached to the auxiliary force have to go through a +four weeks’ recruit drill.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Nuremberg.</i>—The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most +economically organized efficient fire service in Central Europe, +and its form of organization is peculiar and exceptional. In +1902 the entire fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (£6300). +The total of inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small +amount of money the city gets a highly-trained retained fire +brigade of 156 men (1907), and two volunteer fire brigades of +130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has an auxiliary of +eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and two +private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands +under a professional chief officer and professional second officer. +There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen +attached to the retained brigade. The service has been in +existence for fifty years. It has gradually developed and has +worked remarkably well, and may, in fact, be taken as a model +institution for municipal economy, with due regard to up-to-dateness +and efficiency. The retained fire brigade comprises +entirely municipal employés, regularly engaged in the municipal +workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal +workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There +is a headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer +brigade in the centre of the town, a modern district station in the +western district, and a third district station is in course of erection +for the eastern district, which is at present only served by a +small branch station.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14 +firemen (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade. +Nine men of the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at +night, together with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west +district station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day, +and the same number at night.</p> + +<p>The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units +of the following strength, namely:—</p> + +<p>First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder.</p> + +<p>Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long +ladder.</p> + +<p>Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.</p> + +<p>Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose- and coal-tender trap.</p> + +<p>From the west district station three units can be turned out in +rotation, namely:—-</p> + +<p>First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.</p> + +<p>Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.</p> + +<p>Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender +trap.</p> + +<p>The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises +a turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.</p> + +<p>The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession, +these horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further +has a reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.</p> + +<p>The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal +25 manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of +the hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet +pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening “fire +watch” at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get +modest extra pay for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather +to cover disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages. +The brigade uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in +proximity to the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on +duty for fire brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical +purposes the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which +the men do municipal work in the municipal workshops, and elsewhere, +<i>i.e.</i> in training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up +to the best professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well +drilled and includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do +duty at night by rotation. The brigade’s responsibilities are clearly +defined, and the position of the professional chief and second officer +clearly laid down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During +the fifty years’ existence of the service, 85 firemen received the +twenty-five years’ long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the +suburban volunteer brigades.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Venice.</i>—The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force +of “Vigili” or municipal watchmen, which body does general +duty in preserving order and rendering assistance to the community. +In other words, this force performs the duties of the +civil police (rather than governmental or criminal police), fire, +patrol watch service, and public control in a general sense. +The force, which in all its sections made a most excellent impression, +has a commandant, under whom the two primary sections +work, namely (<i>a</i>) the civil police section and the (<i>b</i>) fire brigade +section; each section in turn having its own principal officers. +The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire +brigade section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant +of the whole force is a retired military officer, and the chief of the +fire service section is a civil engineer, and these two officers, +together with the chief of the civil police section, are the three +superior officers of the force. The police section serve as auxiliaries +to the fire brigade section in case of any great fire, and, +of course, generally work very much hand in hand on all occasions. +The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6 foremen, +6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well +equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large +modern petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old +type steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small +petrol motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-engines, +ladders, &c., which are in considerable number, are +carried in a large fleet of swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is +done with Roman ladders, which are usually planted on two +gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the depth of the canal +permits, the lower length is buried in the canal bottom. Hook +ladders are also used.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the +headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a +strength of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite +the station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire +station of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the +Doge’s palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground +floor facing St Mark’s Square have been adapted for fire station +purposes in a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of +the brigade has been used to form emblems, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Vienna.</i>—In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted +on modern lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality +having been greatly extended. The professional brigade was +somewhat strengthened and entirely re-equipped, and the +various existing volunteer brigades of the outlying districts +were transformed into suburban volunteer fire brigades, equipped +and controlled by the municipality and standing under the +general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle +involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force +around Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal +brigade, a principle of great economic advantage, as the professional +brigade would otherwise have had to be materially +strengthened, probably trebled. These suburban volunteer fire +brigades number no fewer than 34, and have 1200 firemen of +all ranks. They are practically independent institutions as far +as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but +their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided +by the municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional +firemen detached from headquarters are attached to their +stations as telegraph clerks and drill-instructors.</p> + +<p>The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their +own districts, and further, assist in other districts when so +ordered by headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great +fires in the city proper. Headquarters, of course, renders +assistance at large suburban fires. These suburban volunteer +fire brigades are very perfectly equipped with appliances, generally +of the same type as those used in the central professional +brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped with combined +chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached. They +have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +The men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, <i>i.e.</i> do +not take pay of any description or make any charges for attendance +at fires or refreshments at fires.</p> + +<p>The Vienna “professional brigade,” as it is generally called, +has a personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475 +men. Of stations there is the headquarters, a district station, +4 branch stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations, +and 2 “watches” in public buildings. The officers of the brigade +consist of the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors. +The officers, of whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered +at headquarters. There are three telegraph superintendents. +The rank and file is composed of 8 drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph +clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two classes), 22 engineers +and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four telegraph +clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban +volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus +and service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to “turn out”:—2 +open and 2 officers’ service carriages (at headquarters), 6 “traps” +for the first “turn-out” (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district +fire station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men, +and equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder +and jumping sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-boxes, +a jack, tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump +and a hose-reel attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters +and 1 at the district station), each manned by seven firemen and +equipped like the “traps” with the exception that, instead of the +life-saving chute, the carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two +petroleum torches each, an extension ladder (15 metres long) and +some spare coal for the steam fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension +ladders each 25 metres long, and 3 extension turn-table ladders +each 25 metres long (at headquarters and at two of the sub-stations); +each of the pneumatic ladders has three men, and each turn-table +ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at headquarters and 1 each +in the other stations), each having five men with 3 hook-ladders, a +jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel, a hand-engine, a smoke +helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a tool box, torches, +&c.; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and one each in the +district fire station and the 4 steam-engine stations), each with an +engineer and stoker.</p> + +<p>The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large +chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs). +The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68, +and there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The +total number of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two +electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire telegraphic +and telephonic installation, including the lines in the volunteer +brigades’ districts kept up by the professional brigade, comprises +47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with altogether 161 +Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Zürich.</i>—Zürich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of +which are built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the +buildings being subject to the local building regulations and the +State Insurance Association’s rules, in which they are compulsorily +insured. The brigade is a compulsory militia brigade, +placed under the control of the head of the department of police +under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer is head of a +special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the safety +of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is +known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade. +His office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a +small permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence. +Every male inhabitant of Zürich is compelled to do some service +for the prevention of, or protection against, fire, from the age of +twenty to fifty years. The duty may be fulfilled (1) by active +service, or (2) in the case of an able-bodied citizen, who for some +reason is not found suited to be a member of the brigade, or has +been dismissed from the brigade, by the payment of a tax, +which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain citizens, +however, are <i>ipso facto</i> exempt from active service, namely +members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic +school, of the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice, +and of the Town Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters, +the officials of railways, tramway and steamboat companies, of +the post-office and telephone department, students of the Polytechnic +school and other educational institutions and municipal +officials, with whose duties fire brigade service is incompatible. +Exemption from active service can also be accorded on a testimonial +of a medical board. Exemption from active service, +however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which +amounts to between £4000 and £5000. In making the selection +of men for active service only, men particularly fitted for the +work are taken, namely, men who are personally keen, who +have a good physique, and who are preferably of the building or +allied trades. The officers of the brigade are appointed by the +municipal committee. The men’s drills are by the chief officer, +and the men are liable to fines and to imprisonment (up to four +days) for not attending their drills. The whole of the brigade +is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss Fire +Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition +provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty. +There is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the municipality, +which also accords a scale of compensation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen +companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections, +namely, a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police +section, the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending +to salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal +with the fire in its own district without calling upon the company +of an adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious +fire that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a +system of decentralization and independence of companies in this +brigade not often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc +for each drill of two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours, +and fifty centimes per hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided. +Any telephone can be used free by law for an alarm. The brigade has +at its disposal an extension telephone service, but the men are not +all connected up with the telephone of their respective districts, +and thus the alarm is given mainly with horns sounded by men who +are on the telephone. No section of the brigade has less than ten +men on the telephone.</p> + +<p>The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances +in the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks, +and each section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly +housed in small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter +doors, to which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty +of these hydrant houses distributed round the city, the larger appliances +being at headquarters and at some depots.</p> + +<p>Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for +the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company +might be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief +officer and staff, and independent organization, the organization of +the companies, however, being identical. A company comprises 1 +chief officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6 +orderlies, a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively +1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service +section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the life-saving +section, and 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 20 men +for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there +some slight variation in the organization, namely, 1 and 2 sections +have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior +officer. At Zürich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an extraordinary +uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and instructions in +all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268 in all ranks. +There were about 70 fires in that year.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. O. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>United States.</i></p> + +<p>Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a +scale that in 1902 it was estimated by P.G. Hubert (“Fire +Fighting To-Day and To-Morrow,” <i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>, 1902, +32, pp 448 sqq.) that in proportion to population the fire force +of America was nearly four times that of Germany or France and +about three times that of England. The many fires consequent +on wooden construction even in the large cities; the bad effect +of sudden climatic changes—drying, parching heat being followed +by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less safe +character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements, +the more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the +reasons assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-fighting +service in the United States is in no way connected with +the military as it is on the continent of Europe; the association +of volunteer with paid firemen is uncommon except in the +suburban parts of the large cities, and in the smaller cities and +towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term are, during +that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.</p> + +<p><i>New York.</i>—The fire department of New York City is the +result of gradual development. The first record of municipal +action in regard to fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +leather buckets and a supply of fire-ladders and hooks were +purchased, and a tax of one guilder for fire apparatus was imposed +on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were ordered to be dug; in +1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was required to +provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and +bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets respectively; +in 1689 “brent-masters” or fire-marshals were +appointed; in 1695 every dwelling-house had to provide one +fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two Richard Newsham hand-engines +were ordered from England, and soon afterwards a +superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small salary; +in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad +Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the +appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable +or militia duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire companies +increased rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially +political; and success in a fire company was a sure path to +success in politics, the best-known case being that of Richard +Croker, a member of “Americus 6,” commonly called “Big +Six,” of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman. +Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (predecessors +of the present “ward leader’s outing”) under the +auspices of the volunteer organizations, annual balls after 1829, +water-throwing contests, often over liberty poles, and bitter +fights between different companies (sometimes settled by fist +duels between selected champions), improved the organization +of these companies as political factors if not as fire-fighters. +So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in 1836, +when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from +office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when +the volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their +work, and they began again only when Gulick assured them that +the news was false; almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick +was reinstated. The type of the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer +fire hero was made famous in 1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau’s +playing of the part Mose in Benjamin Baker’s play, <i>A Glance at +New York</i>. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York were raised +entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.</p> + +<p>In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted +of 163 companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder) +manned by 3521 men (engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts +about 25, and hook and ladder companies about 40); the chief +engineer, elected with assistants for terms of five or three years +by ballots of the firemen, received a salary of $3000 a year; and +three bell-ringers in each of eight district watch-towers, who +watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a year. +The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire +District and established therein a Fire Department, headed by +four commissioners, who with the mayor and comptroller constituted +a board of estimate.</p> + +<p>This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when +the Greater New York was chartered and the present system +was introduced. At its head is a commissioner who receives +$7500 a year. The more immediate head of the firemen is a +chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member of the force not +appointed on the basis of a civil service examination; the chief +has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond +boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each +receiving an annual salary of $5000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Manhattan, +Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens); +59 chiefs of battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, +and 28 in Brooklyn and Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in +Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 111 in Brooklyn and Queens), +365 assistant foremen (221 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond; +and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 431 engineers of steamers (247 +in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184 in Brooklyn and +Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, +and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens); and the total uniformed +force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine companies—at +East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River), West +35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan +and the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in +Brooklyn and Queens there were 70 engine companies, including +two fire-boat companies—at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The +appropriations for the year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan, +Bronx and Richmond, and $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens; +and the department expenses were $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx +and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for Brooklyn and Queens.</p> + +<p>The first high-pressure main system in the city was installed at +Coney Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically +driven centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area, +1360 acres) and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in +1908, and where the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the +City Hall to 25th St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue +and East Broadway, being the “Dry Goods District”; water is +pumped either from city mains or from the river, and the change may +be made instantaneously. The fire watch-tower system was abolished +in 1869; the present system is that of red box electric telegraph +alarms, which register at headquarters (East 67th St.), where an +operator sends out the alarm to that engine-house nearest to the +fire which is ready to respond, and a chart informing him of the +absence from the engine-house of apparatus. There are volunteer +forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond boroughs and in +other outlying districts.</p> + +<p><i>Boston.</i>—The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great +fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000), +a chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior +deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent +and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent +and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the +force numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam +fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination +chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3 fire-boats +(built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29 ladder-trucks +and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main service was +established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the application of +the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made in Boston in +1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer, then +a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric +telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent +of the Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Chicago.</i>—The Chicago organization practically dates from the +fire of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858. +Its principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary +$8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen +battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and +assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants, +engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908 +was 1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale, +Norwood Park, Hansen Park and Ashburn Park. In the business +part of the city there is a patrol of seven companies employed by +the Board of Fire Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed +force (except the chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In +1908 the equipment included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and +ladder companies, including one water-tower, 15 chemical engines and +one hose company; and there were 5 fire-boats (4 active and 1 +reserve). The first fire-boat was built in 1883. The initial installation +of high-pressure mains was completed in 1902, and was greatly +enlarged in 1908.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Fire Appliances.</i></p> + +<p><i>Fire-Alarms.</i>—Most large cities possess a system of electrical +fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals +along the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either +opens the door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window +with which it is fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus +causing the particular number allocated to the box, which of +course indicates its position, to be electrically telegraphed to +the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as thought advisable. +Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box. Automatic +fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric circuit +is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain temperature. +The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or to give +warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for +closing it are of the most varied kinds—the expansion of mercury +in a thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended +between horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass +in a curved strip of brass and steel welded together, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Fire-Engines.</i>—The earliest method of applying water to the +extinction of fires was by means of buckets, and these long +remained the chief instruments employed for the purpose, +though Hero of Alexandria about 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> described a fire-engine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +with two cylinders and pistons worked by a reciprocating +lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in Rome. In +the 16th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire squirts +or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same +century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by +a screw handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time +of the Great Fire were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2½ or 3 in. in diameter, +and three men were required to manipulate them. The next +stage of development was to mount a cistern or reservoir on +wheels so that it was portable, and to provide it with pumps +which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed +delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important +advance was made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der +Heyde, senior and junior, made flexible hose by sewing together +the edges of a strip of leather, and applied it for both suction and +delivery, so that the engines could be continuously supplied with +water and the stream could be more readily directed on the seat +of the fire. For many years manual engines were the only ones +employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as +many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are superseded +by power-driven engines, at least for all important services. +The first practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braithwaite +about 1829, but though it proved useful in various fires +in London for several years after that date, it was objected to +by the men of the fire brigade and its use was abandoned. A +generation later, however, steam fire-engines began to come into +vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to the scene +of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be geared +to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not +till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines +were employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity +have all been used. Such engines have the advantage that they +can reach a fire much more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle, +especially in hilly districts, and they can if necessary be made +of greater power, since their size need not be limited by considerations +of the weight that can be drawn by horses. Petrol-propelled +engines can be started off from a station within a few seconds +of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are ready to work +immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines possess +the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under +steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol +engines, which cost nothing for maintenance except while they +are actually working. Motor engines are made with a capacity +to deliver 1000 gallons of water a minute or even more, but the +sizes than can deal with 400 or 500 gallons a minute are probably +those most commonly used.</p> + +<p>In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are +often provided for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks +and along the waterside. The capacity of these may rise to 6000 +gallons a minute. Steam is the power most commonly used in +them, both for propulsion and for pumping, but in one built +for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in 1909, +an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam +engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with +oil-fuel, and steam could be raised in a few minutes while the +boat was on its way to a fire. The pumps could throw a 1½-in. +jet to a height of nearly 200 ft. In some places, as at Boston, +Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for service at some distance from +the water. Fire-mains laid through the streets terminate in deep +water at points accessible to the boats, the pumps of which can +be connected to them and made to fill them with water at high +pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply +system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure +water can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar +devices, to draw a much larger quantity from the ordinary +mains and force it in jets to considerable heights and distances, +without the intervention of any engine.</p> + +<p>The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-pipes, +which are made either of leather fastened with brass or +copper rivets, or of canvas (woven from flax) which has the +merit of lightness but is liable to rot, or of rubber jacketed with +canvas (or in America with cotton). For directing the water on +the fire, nozzles of various forms are employed, some throwing +a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and others again combining +jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive away smoke +and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to +enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached. +A line of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the extensions +of which are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests +on the wall of the building at the required height. Water-towers +enable the jet to be delivered at a considerable height independently +of any support from the building. A light, stiff, lattice +steel frame is mounted on a truck, on which it lies horizontally +while being drawn to a fire, but when it has to be used it is +turned to an upright position, often by the aid of compressed +gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still greater +height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be +controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the +nozzle to be moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe +up the tower may be of large diameter, so that it can carry a +huge volume of water, and at the bottom it may terminate in a +reservoir into which several fire-engines may pump simultaneously.</p> + +<p>Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable +sizes as fire-extinguishers or “extincteurs,” and in the larger +ones as “chemical engines,” throw a jet of water charged with +gas, commonly carbon dioxide, which does not support combustion. +Essentially they consist of a closed metal tank, filled +with a solution of some carbonate and also containing a small +vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the acid is +kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to +be used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger +projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the +bottle of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus +breaks the bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker +which pierces the metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the +acid comes into contact with the carbonate solution carbon +dioxide is formed, and a stream of gas and liquid mixed issues +under considerable pressure from the attached nozzle or hosepipe. +Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few gallons, +are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings, &c., +and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act +when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire, +because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear; +but it is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid +they emit is much more efficacious than plain water, and too +much importance can easily be attached to spectacular displays +of their power to extinguish artificial blazes of wood soused with +petrol, which have been burning only a few seconds. Chemical +engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by fire brigades +as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or motor +vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose, +and other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with +pumps for throwing powerful jets of ordinary water. Large +buildings, such as hotels and warehouses, where a competent +watchman is assumed to be always on duty, may be protected +by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and connected +by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the various +floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when +pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and +carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a +stream is available at the hydrants.</p> + +<p><i>Automatic Sprinklers.</i>—Factories, warehouses and other +buildings in which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted +with automatic sprinklers which discharge water from the +ceiling of a room as soon as the temperature rises to a certain +point. Lines of pipes containing water under pressure are carried +through the building near the ceilings at distances of 8 or 10 ft. +apart, and to these pipes are attached sprinkler heads at intervals +such that the water from them is distributed all over the room. +The valves of the sprinklers are normally kept closed by a device +the essential feature of which is a piece of fusible metal; this +as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about 160° F.) by +the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the water, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower. +In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes +are filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 ℔ per sq. in. When +the sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a +fire, the compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of +pressure in the pipes is arranged to operate a system of levers +that opens the water-valve of the main-feed pipe. The idea of +automatic sprinklers is an old one, and a system was patented +by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their present development +they are specially associated with the name of Frederick +Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.</p> + +<p><i>Fire-Escapes.</i>—The best kind of fire-escape, because it is +always in place, and always ready for use, is an external iron +staircase, reaching from the top of a building to the ground, +and connected with balconies accessible from the windows on +each floor. In many towns the building by-laws require such +staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a certain height +and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of +non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper +room to reach the ground through the window, numberless +forms have been invented, from simple knotted ropes and +folding ladders to slings and baskets suspended by a rope over +sheaves fixed permanently outside the windows, and provided +with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the speed of +his descent, and to “chutes” or canvas tubes down which +he slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders, +mounted on a wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb; +sometimes the persons rescued are sent down a chute attached +to the apparatus, but many fire brigades think it preferable to +rely on carrying down those who are unable to descend the +ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a number of +men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape +is by jumping from an upper window.</p> +<div class="author">(X.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the United States a special officer called a “fire-marshal” +has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in +1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in +Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut +(1901), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been +passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question +has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred, +should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in recent +years in the City of London no regular system exists.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Thomas C. Martin, <i>Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police +Patrol Systems</i> (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the +Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was +installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in +1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIREBACK,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the name given to the ornamented slab of cast +iron protecting the back of a fireplace. The date at which +firebacks became common probably synchronizes with the +removal of the fire from the centre to the side or end of a room. +They never became universal, since the proximity of deposits +of iron ore was essential to their use. In England they were +confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey, and +appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties +was exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other +parts of the country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there +was a certain commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed +an interesting and even artistic form. The earlier examples +were commonly rectangular, but a shaped or gabled top eventually +became common. English firebacks may roughly be separated +into four chronological divisions—those moulded from more +than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical, mythological +and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies +of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Netherlandish. +The fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of +detached ornament were much used before attempts were made +to elaborate a homogeneous design, but by the middle of the 17th +century firebacks of a very elaborate type were being produced. +Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion, the death of +Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of serpents. +Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being +used extensively—many existing firebacks bear the arms of +the Stuarts. About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private +families began to be used, the earliest instances remaining +bearing those of the Sackvilles, who were lords of a large portion +of the forest of Anderida, which furnished the charcoal for the +smelting operations in our ancient iron-fields. To the armorial +shields the date was often added, together with the initials +of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to cut the +design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face downwards +upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into +the impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands +and in parts of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and +Metz there are several private collections, and there are also +many examples in public museums. The museum of the Porte de +Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest examples in existence +with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles V., accompanied +by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first +destroyed in France the possession of a <i>plaque de cheminée</i> +bearing heraldic insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection +to the republic, and on the 13th of October 1793 the National +Convention issued a decree giving the owners and tenants of +houses a month in which to turn such firebacks with their face +to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron foundries of a +sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct of equality. +Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to this +day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs +outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not +infrequently made, and the old examples are much prized and +collected.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRE BRAT,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a small insect (<i>Thermobia</i> or <i>Thermophila +furnorum</i>) related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses, +where it feeds upon bread and flour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIREBRICK.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>—Under this term are included all bricks, blocks +and slabs used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &c., where +the brickwork has to withstand high temperature (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brick</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary +very greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain, +corrosive action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace +charge, chemical action of furnace charge and products of combustion, +&c., and in order to meet these different conditions +many varieties of firebricks are manufactured.</p> + +<p>Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, <i>i.e.</i> from clays +which withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive +shrinkage or warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although +the term “fireclay” is generally restricted in use to certain +shales from the Coal Measures, which contain only a small +percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are consequently +highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of refractoriness +for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a fireclay which +has a fusion point below 1600° C.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but generally +the percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high, +and the percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash +(taken together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &c., +are also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical +or other properties are necessary.</p> + +<p>The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various +fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon +its refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a +certain proportion of ground firebrick, ganister, sand or some similar +refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking +generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing +is continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or +other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas +firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected +to rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained +and consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken +to obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and +mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose +to which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often +contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron +disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules +are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is used.</p> + +<p>A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather +open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping, +strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be subjected +when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the +full contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these requirements, +and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground +firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up. +The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between +rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to +ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay +and other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry +state, water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks +made up from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.</p> + +<p>The proportion of ground firebrick, &c., used depends on the nature +of the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but +generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage +of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to +produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking, +warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing +a sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings +and coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +special mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain +fireclay goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay +for the manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &c., where the +temperature is very variable but never very high, a certain percentage +of sawdust is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out +on firing and ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material +is much less liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a +closer texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work, +where strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For +the construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &c., the firebrick used +must be sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing +strain of the superimposed brickwork, &c., at the highest temperature +to which they are subjected.</p> + +<p>The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces, +&c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the +brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The +firebrick may waste by crumbling—due to excessive porosity or +openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence +of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &c.; it may gradually wear +away by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the +solid particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases themselves; +it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface +through contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is subjected +to very high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract +and so split and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized +fact that successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion +point, or long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually +produce vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close +texture, and entirely alters the properties of the brick.</p> + +<p>Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is +necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the chemical +composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the formation of +fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the furnace +charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be basic or +aluminous and not siliceous, <i>i.e.</i> it should be made from a fireclay +containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to which a high +percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has been added. +For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials containing +little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and +uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their +carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite, +clay and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &c.</p> + +<p>In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the +manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or +ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the +material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of +the south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these +siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork +does not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &c., +of many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick +can be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should endeavour +to make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &., +to meet certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials +at his disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making +firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a +thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of +which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary +mortar, and the joints should be as close as possible, only just +sufficient of the paste being used to enable the bricks to bed on +one another.</p> + +<p>It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of +firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory material—such +as kaolin—in order to protect the firebricks from the direct +action of the flue gases, &c., and quite recently a thin paste of +carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has +been more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carborundum +bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of +carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to +have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that +the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin +coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious +and highly-refractory facing.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. B.*; W. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIREFLY,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a term popularly used for certain tropical American +click-beetles (<i>Pyrophorus</i>), on account of their power of emitting +light. The insects belong to the family <i>Elateridae</i>, whose characters +are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). The genus <i>Pyrophorus</i> +contains about ninety species, and is entirely confined to +America and the West Indies, ranging from the southern United +States to Argentina and Chile. Its species are locally known as +<i>cucujos</i>. Except for a few species in the New Hebrides, New +Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous <i>Elateridae</i> are unknown in the +eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of conspicuous +smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area +beneath the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these +regions are situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of +cells which may be regarded as a specialized portion of the +fat-body. Both the male and female fireflies emit light, as well +as their larvae and eggs, the egg being luminous even while +still in the ovary. The inhabitants of tropical America sometimes +keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of illumination, +or make use of the insects for personal adornment.</p> + +<p>The name “firefly” is often applied also to luminous beetles +of the family <i>Lampyridae</i>, to which the well-known glow-worm +belongs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRE-IRONS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the implements for tending a fire. Usually +they consist of poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most +frequently of iron, steel, or brass, or partly of one and partly +of another. The more elegant brass examples of the early part +of the 19th century are much sought after for use with the brass +fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from an +ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are +smaller in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1493-<i>c.</i> 1545), Italian poet and +littérateur, was born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493. +The family name was taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated +at the foot of the Apennines, its original home. The grandfather +of Agnolo had obtained the citizenship of Florence and transmitted +it to his family. Agnolo was destined for the profession +of the law, and pursued his studies first at Siena and afterwards +at Perugia. There he became the associate of the notorious +Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the +model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola +practised for a time the profession of an advocate, but with +little success. It is asserted by all his biographers that while +still a young man he assumed the monastic dress at Vallombrosa, +and that he afterwards held successively two abbacies. Tiraboschi +alone ventures to doubt this account, partly on the +ground of Firenzuola’s licentiousness, and partly on the ground +of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to be +conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope +Clement VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled +at Prato as abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a +collected edition was published in 1548, are partly in prose and +partly in verse, and belong to the lighter classes of literature. +Among the prose works are—<i>Discorsi degli animali</i>, imitations +of Oriental and Aesopian fables, of which there are two French +translations; <i>Dialogo delle bellezze delle donne</i>, also translated +into French; <i>Ragionamenti amorosi</i>, a series of short tales in +the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling him in elegance and in licentiousness; +<i>Discacciamento delle nuove lettere</i>, a controversial piece +against Trissino’s proposal to introduce new letters into the +Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of <i>The Golden +Ass</i> of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed +through many editions; and two comedies, <i>I Lucidi</i>, an imitation +of the <i>Menaechmi</i> of Plautus, and <i>La Trinuzia</i>, which in some +points resembles the <i>Calandria</i> of Cardinal Bibbiena. His +poems are chiefly satirical and burlesque. All his works are +esteemed as models of literary excellence, and are cited as authorities +in the vocabulary of the Accademia della Crusca. The date +of Firenzuola’s death is only approximately ascertained. He +had been dead several years when the first edition of his writings +appeared (1548).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works have been very frequently republished, separately and +in collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued +at Florence in 2 vols. in 1848.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRESHIP,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down +on an enemy to set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity, +and in the middle ages. The highly successful employment +of one by the defenders of Antwerp when besieged by the prince +of Parma in 1585 brought them into prominent notice, and they +were used to drive the Armada from its anchorage at Gravelines +in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes with great +effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century. Thus +in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald) +were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque +Roads; and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of +the Greek fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the consequent +demoralization of the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +contributed to secure for the insurgents the command of the sea. +In general, however, it was found that fireships hampered the +movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an enemy’s fire, or +towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion was +frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position. +They were made by building “a fire chamber” between the decks +from the forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the mainmast. +This space was filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar, +together with gunpowder in iron vessels. The gunpowder and +combustibles were connected by trains of powder, and by +bundles of brushwood called “bavins.” When a fireship was +to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy, +and when close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat +which was towed astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous +a reward of £100, or in lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be +worn as a mark of honour, was granted in the British navy to the +successful captain of a fireship. A rank of <i>capitaine de brûlot</i> +existed in the French navy of Louis XIV., and was next to the +full captain—or <i>capitaine de vaisseau</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRE-WALKING,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a religious ceremony common to many +races. The origin and meaning of the custom is very obscure, +but it is shown to have been widespread in all ages. It still +survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji Islands, Tahiti, India, the +Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is said Japan. The details +of its ritual and its objects vary in different lands, but the +essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests, fakirs, and +devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is +always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with +the spring festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful +harvest. Such was the Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the +time of Kublai Khan the Taoist Buddhists held great festivals +to the “High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens” and walked +through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their priests bearing +images of their gods in their arms. Though they were severely +burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed +if they had faith. J.G. Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. iii. p. 307) +describes the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien. +The chief performers are labourers who must fast for three days +and observe chastity for a week. During this time they are +taught in the temple how they are to perform their task. On +the eve of the festival a huge brazier of charcoal, often twenty +feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of the great god. At +sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A Taoist priest +throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two +exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse +the fire again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The +trained performers then pass through with the image of the god. +Frazer suggests that, as the essential feature of the rite is the +carrying of the deity through the flames, the whole thing is +sympathetic magic designed to give to the coming spring sunshine +(the supposed divine emanation), that degree of heat +which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks, +notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and +Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three +months in the year, the priest walks over a narrow trench +filled with smouldering wood ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian +tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal hero Bir by a like performance, +and they declare that the walker who is really “possessed” +by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as observed +in the Madras presidency see <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, vii. (1878) +p. 126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the +ceremony is called <i>vilavilarevo</i>, and according to an eyewitness +a number of natives walk unharmed across and among white-hot +stones which form the pavement of a huge native oven. +In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In April 1899 an Englishman +saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see <i>The Field</i>, May 20th, 1899). The +fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in honour of a +mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called <i>Nistinares</i> +and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in the +fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine. +Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the +<i>Nistinares</i> (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot +embers and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the +muddy ground where libations of water have been poured.</p> + +<p>The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity +of the performers from burns. On this point authorities and +eyewitnesses differ greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief +was thrown on to the stones when the first man leapt into the +oven, and what remained of it snatched up as the last left the +stones. Every fold that touched the stone was charred! In +some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but this +is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an impression +that there is something still to be explained in the +escape of the performers from shocking injuries. S.P. Langley, +who witnessed a fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the +whole rite as there practised is a mere symbolic farce (<i>Nature</i> +for August 22nd, 1901).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses’ reports +<i>in extenso</i>, see A. Lang, <i>Magic and Religion</i> (1901). See also Dr +Gustav Oppert, <i>Original Inhabitants of India</i>, p. 480; W. Crooke, +<i>Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India</i>, p. 10 +(1896); <i>Folklore Journal</i> for September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv. +P. 87.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIREWORKS.<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> In modern times this term is principally +associated with the art of “pyrotechny” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="pur">πῦρ</span>, fire, and +<span class="grk" title="technê">τέχνη</span>, art), and confined to the production of pleasing scenic +effects by means of fire and inflammable and explosive substances. +But the history of the evolution of such displays is bound up +with that of the use of such substances not only for scenic +display but for exciting fear and for military purposes; and it is +consequently complicated by our lack of exact knowledge as +to the materials at the disposal of the ancients prior to the +invention of gunpowder (see also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Fire</a></span>). For +the following historical account the term “fireworks” is therefore +used in a rather general sense.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—It is usually stated that from very ancient times +fireworks were known in China; it is, however, difficult to +assign dates or quote trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic +displays were certainly given in the Roman circus. While a +passage in Manilius,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who lived in the days of Augustus, seems +to bear this interpretation, there is the definite evidence of +Vopiscus<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> that fireworks were performed for the emperor +Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +writing in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set +piece, where whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire +were displayed upon the <i>pegma</i>, a species of movable framework +employed in the various spectacles presented in the circus. +After the fall of the Western empire no mention of fireworks +can be traced until the Crusaders carried back with them to +Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East, +and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> writing +in 1540, says that at an anterior period it had been customary +at Florence and Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast +of St John or at the Assumption, and that on these occasions +stage properties, including effigies with wooden bodies and +plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty pedestals, and that these +figures gave forth flames, whilst round about tubes or pipes were +erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but he adds that +these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome +when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy, +fire festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England +and France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen +Elizabeth,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> while De Frezier,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> writing in 1707, says it was commonly +adhered to in his time, and that on one occasion the king +of France himself set a light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals +of these curious rites have been noted quite recently in Scotland +and Ireland.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Early use also of fireworks was made in plays +and pageants. Hell or hell’s mouth was represented by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +gigantic head out of which flames were made to issue:<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> in the +river procession on the occasion of the marriage of Henry VII. +and Elizabeth (1487) the “Bachelors’ Barge” carried a dragon +spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne +Boleyn (1538) “there went before the lord mayor’s barge a +foyst or wafter full of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great +red dragon that spouted out wild fyre and round about were +terrible monstrous and wild men casting fire and making a hideous +noise.”<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> These individuals were known as “green men.” +Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic masks, and carried +“fire clubs.” They were sometimes employed to clear the way +at processions.<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and +fireworker came into existence; at first they were not soldiers, +but civilians who sometimes exercised military functions, and +part of their duties was intimately connected with the preparation +of fireworks both for peace and war. The emperor Charles V. +brought his fireworks under definite regulations in 1535,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and +eventually other countries did the same. The <i>ignes triumphales</i> +were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold poles were +erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around them +were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they presented +the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched +dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp +welcomed the archduke of Austria in 1550.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Then the “fire +combat” came into fashion. Helmets from which flames would +issue were provided for the performers; there were also swords +and clubs that would give out sparks at every stroke, lances +with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck gave forth a +detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons +such as these will be found in Hanzelet’s <i>Recueil de machines +militaires</i> (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be somewhat +of a scenic artist who could devise a romantic background +and fill it with shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to +make his castle, his cave or his rocky ravine, and people his +stage with distressed damsel, errant knight or devouring dragon. +Furthermore he had to give motion to the inanimate persons of +the drama; thus his dragon would run down an incline on +hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a rocket.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the daughter +of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the +king’s gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a +giant, a dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted +castle, jumbled up together after the approved fashion of the +Spenserian legends.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> As time went on a more refined taste +rejected the bizarre features of the old displays, artistic merit +began to creep into the designs, and an effort was made to +introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus Clarmer +of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture +of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend, +where Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion, +the monster Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquering +Louis XIII.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> In the first half of the 17th century many books<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +on fireworks appeared, which avoided the old grotesque ideas +and advocated skill and finesse. “It is a rare thing,” says Nye +(1648), “to represent a tree or fountain in the air.” The most +celebrated work of them all was the <i>Great Art of Artillery</i> by +Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be +translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly +eighty years after it had appeared.<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The classic façade now +came into fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic +figures, and disposed around were groups of rockets, Roman +candles, &c., musket barrels for projecting stars, and mortars +from which were fired shells called balloons, which were full of +combustibles. The figures were carved out of wood which was +soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mâché so that +a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts, +removed from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled +with fireworks.</p> + +<p>National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appearance, +and for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over +Europe in the public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph. +Representations and sometimes accounts will be found in the +British Museum<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a> of the more important English displays, +from the coronation of James II. down to the peace rejoicings +of 1856, during which period national fireworks were provided +by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of Ranelagh +and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private enterprise, +and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs +Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without +an official rival.</p> +<div class="author">(J. R. J. J.)</div> + +<p><i>Modern Fireworks.</i>—In modern times the art of pyrotechny +has been gradually improved by the work of specialists, who +have had the advantage of being guided by the progress of +scientific chemistry and mechanics. As in all such cases, however, +science is useless without the aid of practical experience and +acquired manual dexterity.</p> + +<p>Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with +oxygen, and will do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically +as to render the products of the combination (which may be +solid matter or gas) intensely hot and luminous. This is the +general cause of the phenomenon known as fire. Its special +character depends chiefly on the nature of the substances burned +and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to them. +As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted +with about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this +oxygen which supports the combustion of our coal and candles. +But it is not often that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon +atmospheric oxygen for his purposes; for the phenomena of +combustion in it are too familiar, and too little capable of variation, +to strike with wonder. Two cases, however, where he does +so may be instanced, viz. the burning of magnesium powder +and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the imitation of +lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort much +to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may +be produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled +with the gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in anything +like its present form had not certain solid substances +become known which, containing oxygen in combination with +other elements, are capable of being made to evolve large volumes +of it at the moment it is required. The best examples of these +solid <i>oxidizing agents</i> are potassium nitrate (nitre or saltpetre) +and chlorate; and these are of the first importance in the +manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these salts +be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity +of some suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder, +the resulting mixture is capable of burning with more or less +energy without any aid from atmospheric oxygen, since each +small piece of fuel is in close juxtaposition to an available and +sufficient store of the gas. All that is required is that the liberation +of the oxygen from the solid particles which contain it shall +be started by the application of heat from without, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the fundamental +fact of pyrotechny—that, with proper attention to the chemical +nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures (<i>compositions</i> +or <i>fuses</i>) may be prepared which contain within themselves +all that is essential for the production of fire.</p> + +<p>If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric +and chloric acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped +together as oxidizing agents, most of the other materials used +in making firework compositions may be classed as <i>oxidizable +substances</i>. Every composition must contain at least one +sample of each class: usually there are present more than one +oxidizable substance, and very often more than one oxidizing +agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the ingredients +of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much +importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of combustion. +The most important oxidizable substances employed +are charcoal and sulphur. These two, it is well known, when +properly mixed in certain proportions with the oxidizing agent +nitre, constitute gunpowder; and gunpowder plays an important +part in the construction of most fireworks. It is sometimes +employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but more +commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients +and with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur, +the following oxidizable substances are more or less employed:—many +compounds of carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c.; +certain metallic compounds of sulphur, such as the sulphides of +arsenic and antimony; a few of the metals themselves, such as +iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of these metals +iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the others. +They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings. +They do not contribute much to the burning power of the +composition; but when it is ignited they become intensely +heated and are discharged into the air, where they oxidize +more or less completely and cause brilliant sparks and +scintillations.</p> + +<p>Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances, +which neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes +employed as ingredients of the compositions in order to influence +the character of the fire. This may be modified in many ways. +Thus the rate of combustion may be altered so as to give anything +from an instantaneous explosion to a slow fire lasting many +minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or charged with glowing +sparks. But the most important characteristic of a fire—one +to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists—is its +<i>colour</i>, which may be varied through the different shades and +combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours +are imparted to the flame by the presence in it of the heated +vapours of certain metals, of which the following are the most +important:—sodium, which gives a yellow colour; calcium, +red; strontium, crimson; barium, green; copper, green or +blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of these metals +are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are +decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion. +Very often the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they +serve the double purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting +colour to the flame.</p> + +<p>The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great, +for the requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost +each size of each variety, are different. Moreover, every pyrotechnist +has his own taste in the matter of compositions. They +are capable, however, of being classified according to the nature +of the work to which they are suited. Thus there are rocket-fuses, +gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions, &c.; and, in +addition, there are a few which are essential in the construction +of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be. +Such are the <i>starting-powder</i>, which first catches the fire, the +<i>bursting-powder</i>, which causes the final explosion, and the <i>quick-match</i> +(cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of +gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more +complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another. +Of the general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the +following two examples, which are selected at hazard from +among the numerous recipes for making, respectively, tourbillion +fire and green stars:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Tourbillion</i>.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Green Stars</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meal gunpowder</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcc rb2">parts.</td> <td class="tcl">Potassium chlorate</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcc">parts.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitre</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcc rb2">”</td> <td class="tcl">Barium nitrate</td> <td class="tcr">48</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcc rb2">”</td> <td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcc rb2">”</td> <td class="tcl">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Steel filings</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcc rb2">”</td> <td class="tcl">Shellac</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl">Calomel</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl">Copper sulphide</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Although the making of compositions is of the first importance, +it is not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do; +for the construction of the <i>cases</i> in which they are to be packed, +and the actual processes of packing and finishing, require much +care and dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard, +and are generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary +greatly, according to the effect which it is desired to produce. +The relations of length to thickness, of internal to external +diameter, and of these to the size of the openings for discharge, +are matters of extreme importance, and must always be attended +to with almost mathematical exactness and considered in +connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be +used.</p> + +<p>There is one very important property of fireworks that is +due more to the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner +in which they are filled than to the precise chemical character +of the composition, <i>i.e.</i> their power of <i>motion</i>. Some are so +constructed that the piece is kept at rest and the only motion +possible is that of the flame and sparks which escape during +combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also fixed, +contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary compositions, +balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some +kind of varnish; and these <i>stars</i>, as they are called, shot into the +air, one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there +with striking effect. But in many instances motion is imparted +to the firework as a whole—to the case as well as to its contents. +This motion, various as it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two +kinds—<i>rotatory</i> motion round a fixed point, which may be in the +centre of gravity of a single piece or that of a whole system of +pieces, and <i>free ascending</i> motion through the air. In all cases the +cause of motion is the same, viz. that large quantities of gaseous +matter are formed by the combustion, that these can escape +only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure is necessarily +exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large +gun is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may +be regarded as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and +in them the recoil is therefore so much greater as to be the +most noticeable feature of the discharge; and it only requires +proper contrivances to make the piece fly through the air like +a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis like a Catherine +wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in pyrotechny +than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a brief description of some of the forms of firework +most employed:—</p> + +<p><i>Fixed Fires.</i>—<i>Theatre fires</i> consist of a slow composition which +may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at +the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured—green, +red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating +buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case, +the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous +fumes. <i>Bengal lights</i> are very similar, but are piled in saucers, +covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match. +<i>Marroons</i> are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind +cord and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud +report. They are generally used in <i>batteries</i>, or in combination with +some other form of firework. <i>Squibs</i> are straight cylindrical cases +about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a +strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little +bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that +the fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of +course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. <i>Crackers</i> are +characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards +several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine. +One end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a +hissing noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a +bend. If the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at +each report; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the +fixed fireworks. <i>Roman candles</i> are straight cylindrical cases filled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +with layers of composition and <i>stars</i> alternately. These stars are +simply balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic +filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required +size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are discharged +like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a +beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of differently +coloured fire in one case. <i>Gerbes</i> are choked cases, not unlike +Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire spreads +like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously coloured +stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. <i>Lances</i> are small straight cases +charged with compositions like those used for making stars. They +are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they are fixed +with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by +<i>leaders</i>, <i>i.e.</i> by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they +can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in detachments, +as may be desired. The devices and “set pieces” constructed +in this way are often of an extremely elaborate character; and they +include all the varieties of <i>lettered designs</i>, of <i>fixed suns</i>, <i>fountains</i>, +<i>palm-trees</i>, <i>waterfalls</i>, <i>mosaic work</i>, <i>Highland tartan</i>, <i>portraits</i>, <i>ships</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Rotating Fireworks.</i>—<i>Pin</i> or <i>Catherine wheels</i> are long paper +cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-wire +and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by +a pin, sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the +outer primed end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil +causes the wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with +considerable velocity. <i>Pastiles</i> are very similar in principle and +construction. Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and +made to revolve round its own centre point, it may be used as the +engine to drive a wheel or other form of framework round in a +circle. Many varied effects are thus produced, of which the <i>fire-wheel</i> +is the simplest. Straight cases, filled with some fire-composition, +are attached to the end of the spokes of a wheel or other +mechanism capable of being rotated. They are all pointed in the +same direction at an angle to the spokes, and they are connected +together by leaders, so that each, as it burns out, fires the one next +it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant effects of changing +colour are produced; or various fire-wheels of different colours may +be combined, revolving in different planes and different directions—some +fast and some slowly. <i>Bisecting wheels</i>, <i>plural wheels</i>, <i>caprice +wheels</i>, <i>spiral wheels</i>, are all more or less complicated forms; and +it is possible to produce, by mechanism of this nature, a model in +fire of the solar system.</p> + +<p><i>Ascending Fireworks.</i>—<i>Tourbillions</i> are fireworks so constructed +as to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful +spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the +centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the composition +occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by +six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the +end, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right +and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory +motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is +the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the +ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward +motion to the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion; +and the quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that combustion +begins at the two ends simultaneously and does not reach +the holes of ascension till after the rotation is fairly begun. The +<i>sky-rocket</i> is generally considered the most beautiful of all fireworks; +and it certainly is the one that requires most skill and science in its +construction. It consists essentially of two parts,—the body and the +head. The body is a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and +is choked at the lower end, so as to present only a narrow opening +for the escape of the fire. The composition does not fill up the case +entirely, for a central hollow conical bore extends from the choked +mouth up the body for three-quarters of its length. This is an +essential feature of the rocket. It allows of nearly the whole composition +being fired at once; the result of which is that an enormous +quantity of heated gases collects in the hollow bore, and the gases, +forcing their way downwards through the narrow opening, urge the +rocket up through the air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-of-Paris +plug. A hole passes through this and is filled with a fuse, +which serves to communicate the fire to the head after the body is +burned out. This head, which is made separately and fastened on +after the body is packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber +with a conical top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way +through the air and of holding the <i>garniture</i> of stars, sparks, crackers, +serpents, gold and silver rain, &c., which are scattered by bursting +fire as soon as the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A +great variety of beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of +ingenuity in the choice and construction of this garniture. Many of +the best results have been obtained by unpublished methods which +must be regarded as the secrets of the trade. The <i>stick</i> of the sky-rocket +serves the purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight; +and its size must be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case. +In <i>winged</i> rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act +like the feathers of an arrow. A <i>girandole</i> is the simultaneous discharge +of a large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two +hundred), which either spread like a peacock’s tail or pierce the +sky in all directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the +final feat of a great pyrotechnic display.</p> + +<p>See Chertier, <i>Sur les feux d’artifice</i> (Paris, 1841; 2nd ed., 1854); +Mortimer, <i>Manual of Pyrotechny</i> (London, 1856); Tessier, <i>Chimie +pyrotechnique, ou traité pratique des feux colorés</i> (Paris, 1858); +Richardson and Watts, <i>Chemical Technology, s.v.</i> “Pyrotechny” +(London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, <i>The Pyrotechnist’s Treasury</i> +(London, 1878); Websky, <i>Luftfeuerwerkkunst</i> (Leipzig, 1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Manilius, <i>Astronomica</i>, lib. v., 438-443.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Vopiscus, <i>Carus, Numerianus et Carinus</i>, ch. xix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Claudianus, <i>De consulatu Manlii Theodori</i>, 325-330.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Vanuzzio Biringuccio, <i>Pyrotechnia</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Strutts, <i>Sports and Pastimes of the English People</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> De Frezier, <i>Traité des feux d’artifice</i> (1707 and 1747).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8, vol. ii. +pp. 145 and 254.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> J.B. Nichols & Sons, <i>London Pageants</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Hall’s <i>Chronicles</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> J. Bate, <i>Mysteries of Nature and Art</i> (1635). This contains a +picture of a green man.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen</i> (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee +pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See “Fairholts’ Collection” bequeathed to the Royal Society of +Antiquaries.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Journal</i> of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Somers’ <i>Tracts</i>, vol. iii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> De Frezier.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Diego Ufano, <i>Artillery</i>, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner +Norton, <i>The Gunner</i> and <i>The Gunner’s Dialogue</i> (1628); F. de +Malthe (Malthus), <i>Artificial Fireworks</i>, in French and English +(1628); “Hanzelet,” <i>Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux +artificiels pour la guerre et récréation</i> (1620 and 1630); Furttenback, +master gunner of Bavaria, <i>Halinitro Pyrobolio</i>, in German (1627); (John +Babington Matross, <i>Pyrotechnia</i>, 1635); Nye, master gunner of +Worcester, <i>Art of Gunnery</i> (Worcester, 1648); Casimir Siemienowitz, +lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of Poland, <i>The Great Art of +Artillery</i>, in French (1650).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the surveyor-general +of the Ordnance.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> “Crace Collection” in the print-room; the King’s Prints and +Drawings in the library. See also “The Connection of the Ordnance +Department with National and Royal Fireworks,” <i>R. A. Journal</i>, +vol. xxii. No. 11.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRM,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an adjective originally indicating a dense or close +consistency, hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This +word, in M. Eng. <i>ferme</i>, is derived through the French, from Lat. +<i>firmus</i>. The medieval Latin substantive <i>firma</i> meant a fixed +payment, either in the way of rent, composition for periodic +payments, &c.; and this word, often represented by “firm” +in translations of medieval documents, has produced the English +“farm” (<i>q.v.</i>). From a late Latin use of <i>firmare</i>, to confirm +by signature, <i>firma</i> occurs in many Romanic languages for a +signature, and the English “firm” was thus used till the 18th +century. From a transferred use came the meaning of a business +house. In the Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered +into partnership with one another are called collectively a firm, +and the name under which their business is carried on is called +the firm-name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRMAMENT,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the +word <i>firmamentum</i>, which means in classical Latin a strengthening +or support (<i>firmare</i>, to make firm or strong) was used as the +equivalent of <span class="grk" title="stereôma">στερέωμα</span> (<span class="grk" title="stereoein">στερεόειν</span>, to make firm or solid) in +the LXX., which translates the Heb. rāqīya‘. The Hebrew +probably signifies literally “expanse,” and is thus used of the +expanse or vault of the sky, the verb from which it is derived +meaning “to beat out.” In Syriac the verb means “to make +firm,” and is the direct source of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="stereôma">στερέωμα</span> and the Lat. +<i>firmamentum</i>. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the +eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven +spheres of the planets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRMAN<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (an adaptation of the Per. <i>fermān</i>, a mandate or +patent, cognate with the Sanskrit <i>pramāna</i>, a measure, authority), +an edict of an oriental sovereign, used specially to designate +decrees, grants, passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey +and signed by one of his ministers. A decree bearing the sultan’s +sign-manual and drawn up with special formalities is termed a +<i>hatti-sherif</i>, Arabic words meaning a line, writing or command, +and lofty, noble. A written decree of an Ottoman sultan is also +termed an <i>irade</i>, the word being taken from the Arab. <i>irādā</i>, +will, volition, order.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a Latin writer, who lived in +the reign of Constantine and his successors. About the year +346 he composed a work entitled <i>De erroribus profanarum +religionum</i>, which he inscribed to Constantius and Constans, +the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. In the first +part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the +Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he discusses a number +of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries. The whole +tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than +argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the +eight books on astronomy (Libri VIII. <i>Matheseos</i>) bearing the +same author’s name, that the two works have usually been +attributed to different writers. Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i> vol. 29, +pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the astronomy—a work +interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit—was composed +about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add +to this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a +connexion with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming +the same author for the two books, though it shows that in the +4th century acceptance of Christianity did not always mean an +advance in ethical standpoint.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican +library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been +reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings +of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions +are those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his +<i>Minucius Felix</i> (<i>Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat.</i> ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The Neoplatonist +work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has +often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, <i>Gesch. der +chr. lat. Litt.</i>, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, <i>Patrologie</i>, +ed. 1901, p. 354.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRMINY,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of central France in the department of +Loire, 8 m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778. +It has important coal mines known since the 14th century and +extensive manufactures of iron and steel goods, including +railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy woollen +hosiery is also manufactured.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRST-FOOT,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> in British folklore, especially that of the north +and Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on +Christmas or New Year’s Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be +brought the house by First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is +regarded with dread. In Lancashire a light-haired man is as +unlucky as a woman, and it became a custom for dark-haired +males to hire themselves out to “take the New Year in.” In +Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first carol-singer +who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire +it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his +fairness is no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always +more elaborate than in England, involving a subsequent entertainment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRST OF JUNE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Battle of the</span>. By this name we call the +great naval victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of +Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place +name can be given to it, because the battle was fought 429 m. +to the west of Ushant.</p> + +<p>The French people were suffering much distress from the bad +harvest of the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant +ships laden with corn was expected from America. Admiral +Vanstabel of the French navy had been sent to escort it with +two ships of the line in December of 1793. He sailed with his +charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On the +previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet +Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept +the convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel +fleet. He sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail +of the line and 15 smaller vessels, having under his charge +nearly a hundred merchant ships which were to be seen clear of +the Channel. On the 4th, when off the Lizard, the convoy was +sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle ships and 6 or 7 +frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to accompany +them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral +Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to +cruise on the look-out for the French convoy between Cape +Ortegal and Belle Isle. These detachments reduced the force +under Lord Howe’s immediate command to 26 of the line and +7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant, and sent +frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to +him that the main French fleet, which was under the command +of Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at +anchor in the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which +the convoy was likely to be met with, knowing that if the French +admiral came out it would be to meet the ships with the food and +cover them from attack. To seek the convoy was therefore the +most sure way of forcing Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the +18th the British fleet continued cruising in the Bay of Biscay. +On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant and again reconnoitred +Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had gone +to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had +passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog. +On the 19th the French admiral was informed by the “Patriote” +(74) that Nielly had fallen in with, and had captured, the British +frigate “Castor” (32), under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together +with a convoy from Newfoundland. On the same day +Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch convoy of 53 sail +from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral Montagu +joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured +part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that +Nielly was to join Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined +force would be 9 sail of the line. Montagu himself had steered to +cruise on the route of the convoy between the 45th and 47th +degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to meet his subordinate +who, he considered, would be in danger from the main +French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch +ships taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that +on the 19th the French fleet had been in latitude 47° 46′ N. and in +longitude 11° 22′ N. and was steering westward. Judging that +Montagu was too far to the south to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse, +and considering him strong enough to perform the +duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to pursue +the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the +weather hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> that +the British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47° 34′ N. and +13° 39′ W.</p> + +<p>The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to +windward. Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m. +from the British, and then hauled to the wind on the port tack. +It was difficult for the British fleet to force an action from leeward +if the French were unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached +a light squadron of four ships, the “Bellerophon” (74), “Russel” +(74), “Marlborough” (74), and “Thunderer” (74) under +Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of the French +line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to +windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley’s +ships began to come up with the last of the French line, the +“Révolutionnaire” (110). A partial action took place which +went on till after dark; other British vessels joined. The +“Révolutionnaire” was so damaged that she was compelled +to leave her fleet, and the British “Audacious” (74) was also +crippled and compelled to return to port. The “Révolutionnaire” +was accompanied by another liner. During the night +the two fleets continued on the same course, and next day Howe +renewed his attempts to force an action from leeward. He +tacked his fleet in succession—his first ship tacking first and the +rest in order—in the hope that he would be able to cut through +the French rear and gain the weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse +then turned all his ships together and again headed in the same +direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer +the British fleet, and another partial action took place between +the van of each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not +disposed to charge home, Howe at noon once more ordered his +fleet to tack in succession. His signal was poorly obeyed by the +van, and his object, which was to cut through the French line, +was not at once achieved. But the admiral himself finally set +an example by tacking his flagship, the “Queen Charlotte” +(100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end +of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse, +seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together +to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable +confusion by these movements, but the British had gained the +weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships +cut off, but he had fallen to leeward and the power to force on a +battle had passed to Lord Howe. During the 30th the fleets +lost sight of one another for a time. The French, who had four +ships crippled, had been joined by four others, and were again +26 in number, including the “Patriote.”</p> + +<p>The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick +weather, but by the evening the British were close to windward +of the French. As Howe, who had not full confidence in all his +captains, did not wish for a night battle, he waited till the following +morning, keeping the French under observation by frigates. +On the 1st of June they were in the same relative positions, and +at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on the French, +throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end, with +orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to +place the British ships on the enemy’s line of retreat. It was a +very bold departure from the then established methods of +fighting, and most honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had +been trained in the old school. Its essential merit was that it +produced a close <i>mêlée</i>, in which the better average gunnery +and seamanship of the British fleet would tell. Lord Howe’s +orders were not fully obeyed by all his captains, but a signal +victory was won,—six of the French line of battle ships were +taken, and one, the “Vengeur,” sunk. The convoy escaped +capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the +20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span> +Brest on the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console +the French for their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten +in England in the pleasure given by the victory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James’s <i>Naval History</i>, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, <i>Batailles +navales de la France</i> (1867).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1857-  ), British historian, +was born at Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated +at Clifton College and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university +he took the Stanhope prize for an essay on the marquess +Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at Pembroke College in 1887, +and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He was Ford’s lecturer +in English history in 1900, and became regius professor of +modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in +1904. Firth’s historical work was almost entirely confined to +English history during the time of the Great Civil War and the +Commonwealth; and although he is somewhat overshadowed +by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the same field, his books are of +great value to students of this period. The chief of them are: +<i>Life of the Duke of Newcastle</i> (1886); <i>Scotland and the Commonwealth</i> +(1895); <i>Scotland and the Protectorate</i> (1899); <i>Narrative +of General Venables</i> (1900); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (1900); <i>Cromwell’s +Army</i> (1902); and the standard edition of <i>Ludlow’s Memoirs</i> +(1894). He also edited the <i>Clarke Papers</i> (1891-1901), and Mrs +Hutchinson’s <i>Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson</i> (1885), and wrote +an introduction to the <i>Stuart Tracts</i> (1903), besides contributions +to the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. In 1909 he published +<i>The Last Years of the Protectorate</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRTH, MARK<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and +philanthropist, was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819, +the son of a steel smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his +brother, left school to join their father in the foundry where he +was employed, and ten years later the three together started a +six-hole furnace of their own. The venture proved successful, +and besides an extensive home business, they soon established +a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works were +erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards +acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels +near Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance +was the principal feature of their business, and they produced +also shot and heavy forgings. They also installed a plant +for the production of steel cores for heavy guns, and for some +time they supplied nearly all the metal used for gun making +by the British government and a large proportion of that used +by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth +became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed +“Mark Firth’s Almshouses” at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in +1875, when mayor, he presented to his native place a freehold +park of thirty-six acres. He founded and endowed Firth College, +for lectures and classes in connexion with the extension of +university education, which was opened in 1879. He died on the +28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRŪZABAD,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m. +S. of Shiraz, in 28° 51′ N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated +in a fertile plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by +the river Khoja which flows through it from north to south. +The town is surrounded by a mud wall and ditch. Three or four +miles north-west of the town are the ruins of the ancient city +and of a large building popularly known as the fire-temple of +Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the gorge +through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian +bas-reliefs.</p> + +<p>The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern +end, and according to Persian history it was there that Alexander +the Great, when unable to capture the ancient city, built +a dike across the gorge, thus damming up the water of the river +and turning the plain into a lake and submerging the city and +villages. The lake remained until the beginning of the 3rd +century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained +it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gūr, +and made it the capital of one of the five great provinces or +divisions of Fars. Firuz (or Peroz, <i>q.v.</i>), one of Ardashir’s +successors, called the district after his name Firūzabad (“the +abode of Firuz”), but the name of the city remained Gūr until +Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982) changed it to its +present name. He did this because he frequently resided at Gūr, +and the name meaning also “a grave” gave rise to unpleasant +allusions, for instance, “People who go to Gūr (grave) never +return alive; our king goes to Gūr (the town) several times a +year and is not dead yet.”</p> + +<p>The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat +and rice. It is said that the rice of Firūzabad bears sixty-fold.</p> +<div class="author">(A. H.-S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIRŪZKŪH,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a small province of Persia, with a population +of about 5000, paying a yearly revenue of about £500. Its chief +place is a village of the same name picturesquely situated in a +valley of the Elburz, about 90 m. east of Teheran, at an elevation +of 6700 ft. and in 35° 46′ N. and 52° 48′ E. It has post and +telegraph offices and a population of 2500. A precipitous cliff +on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the ruins of an +ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISCHART, JOHANN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1545-1591), German satirist and +publicist, was born, probably at Strassburg (but according to +some accounts at Mainz), in or about the year 1545, and was +educated at Worms in the house of Kaspar Scheid, whom in the +preface to his <i>Eulenspiegel</i> he mentions as his “cousin and +preceptor.” He appears to have travelled in Italy, the Netherlands, +France and England, and on his return to have taken the +degree of <i>doctor juris</i> at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which +period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was +probably associated in the business of, his sister’s husband, +Bernhard Jobin, a printer at Strassburg, who published many +of his books. In 1581 Fischart was attached, as advocate to +the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of appeal) at Spires, +and in 1583, when he married, was appointed <i>Amtmann</i> (magistrate) +at Forbach near Saarbrücken. Here he died in the winter +of 1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names, +such as Mentzer, Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros, +Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold Alkofribas Wüstblutus, Ulrich +Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen Gilt’s Mischen; and it +is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt whether some of +the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50 satirical +works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic, +among which are—<i>Nachtrab oder Nebelkräh</i> (1570), a satire +against one Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the +Roman Catholic Church; <i>Von St Dominici des Predigermönchs +und St Francisci Barfüssers artlichem Leben</i> (1571), a poem with +the expressive motto “Sie haben Nasen <span class="correction" title="amended from vnd">und</span> riechen’s nit” +(Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the Protestants +against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that Luther +held communion with the devil; <i>Eulenspiegel Reimensweis</i> +(written 1571, published 1572); <i>Aller Praktik Grossmutter</i> +(1572), after Rabelais’s <i>Prognostication Pantagrueline</i>; <i>Flöh +Haz, Weiber Traz</i> (1573), in which he describes a battle between +fleas and women; <i>Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift +vom Leben, Rhaten und Thaten der ... Helden +und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und Pantagruel</i>, also after +Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified title, <i>Naupengeheurliche +Geschichtklitterung</i>, 1577); <i>Neue künstliche Figuren +biblischer Historien</i> (1576); <i>Anmahnung zur christlichen Kinderzucht</i> +(1576); <i>Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich</i> (1576, republished +1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland), +a poem commemorating the adventure of a company of +Zürich arquebusiers, who sailed from their native town to +Strassburg in one day, and brought, as a proof of this feat, a +kettleful of <i>Hirsebrei</i> (millet), which had been cooked in Zürich, +still warm into Strassburg, and intended to illustrate the proverb +“perseverance overcomes all difficulties”; <i>Podagrammisch +Trostbüchlein</i> (1577); <i>Philosophisch Ehzuchtbüchlein</i> (1578); the +celebrated <i>Bienenkorb des heiligen römischen Immenschwarms</i>, +&c., a modification of the Dutch <i>De roomsche Byen-Korf</i>, by +Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and reprinted +in 1847; <i>Der heilig Brotkorb</i> (1580), after Calvin’s <i>Traité des +reliques</i>; <i>Das vierhörnige Jesuiterhütlein</i>, a rhymed satire +against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +To Fischart also have been attributed some “Psalmen und +geistliche Lieder” which appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book +of 1576.</p> + +<p>Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also +those of Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He +was a lawyer, a theologian, a satirist and the most powerful +Protestant publicist of the counter-reformation period; in +politics he was a republican. Above all, he is a master of +language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His satire was +levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and private +life of his time—at astrological superstition, scholastic pedantry, +ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the +lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the +wildest witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all +this he did with a serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized +by the eloquence and picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical +language he employed. Thirty years after Fischart’s death +his writings, once so popular, were almost entirely forgotten. +Recalled to the public attention by Johann Jakob Bodmer and +Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his works +have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position +in German literature to be fully understood.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart’s +works has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin, +deals in his <i>Fischartstudien</i> (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist. +Fischart’s poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three +volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke +(Leipzig, 1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> +(Stuttgart, 1893); <i>Die Geschichtklitterung</i> and some minor +writings appeared in Scheible’s <i>Kloster</i>, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart, +1847-1848). <i>Das glückhafft Schiff</i> has been frequently reprinted, +critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical +details, Erich Schmidt in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, vol. 7; +A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Encyclopaedie</i>; W. Wackernagel, +<i>Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm</i> (2nd +ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, <i>Étude sur Jean Fischart</i> (Paris, 1889); +and A. Hauffen, “Fischart-Studien” (in <i>Euphorion</i>, 1896-1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISCHER, EMIL<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1852-  ), German chemist, was born at +Euskirchen, in Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852, +his father being a merchant and manufacturer. After studying +chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to Strassburg, where he graduated +as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as assistant to Adolf von +Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he was appointed +to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882) and +Würzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann +as professor of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted +himself entirely to organic chemistry, and his investigations +are characterized by an originality of idea and readiness of +resource which make him the master of this branch of experimental +chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too +complex to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more +intricate and involved the subjects of his investigations the more +strongly shown is the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were, +atom from atom, until the molecule stood revealed, and, this +accomplished, the same skill combined atom with atom until +the molecule was regenerated. His <i>forte</i> was to enter fields +where others had done little except break the ground; and his +researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in +hand, and where the solution was not entire, his methods and +results almost always contained the key to the situation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer, +he published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound +of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (<i>q.v.</i>). +He investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing +their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the +readiness with which they entered into combination with other +substances, giving origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds. +Of such condensation products undoubtedly the most important are +the hydrazones, which result from the interaction with aldehydes +and ketones. His observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones, +by treatment with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded +derivatives of indol, the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent +substance of indigo, were a valuable confirmation of the views +advanced by his master, von Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and +the many substances related to it. Of greater moment was his +discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted with the sugars to form +substances which he named osazones, and which, being highly +crystalline and readily formed, served to identify such carbohydrates +more definitely than had been previously possible. He next turned +to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H. Perkin), and in +collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852), then at Munich +and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since identified +himself mainly with the compounds of this and related groups, he +published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably established +that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl methane. Fischer’s +next research was concerned with compounds related to uric acid. +Here the ground had been broken more especially by von Baeyer, +but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group (the +word <i>purin</i> appears to have been suggested by the phrase <i>purum +uricum</i>) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which +established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine +and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work +in this field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great +series of papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all +referred to a nitrogenous base, purin (<i>q.v.</i>). The base itself was +obtained, but only after much difficulty; and an immense series of +derivatives were prepared, some of which were patented in view of +possible therapeutical applications.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> These researches were published +in a collected form in 1907 with the title <i>Untersuchungen in +der Puringruppe</i> (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work +successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here +the pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be +regarded as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may +be taken as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled +in importance in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical +complexity of these carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which +they could be got into a manageable form—they generally appeared +as syrups—occasioned much experimental difficulty; but these +troubles were little in comparison with the complications due to +stereochemical relations. However, Fischer synthesized fructose, +glucose and a great number of other sugars, and having showed +how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of the 16 stereoisomeric +glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides, thereby completing +a most brilliant experimental research, and simultaneously confirming +the van’t Hoff theory of the asymmetric carbon atom (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereo-Isomerism</a></span>). The study of the sugars brought in its train +the necessity for examining the nature, properties and reactions of +substances which bring about the decomposition known as fermentation +(<i>q.v.</i>). Fischer attacked the problem presented by ferments +and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this complex +subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important discovery, +viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical constitution +of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it down. The +magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by his +collected papers, <i>Untersuchungen über Kohlenhydrate und Fermente</i> +(1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909).</p> + +<p>From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject +of the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with +life processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a +subject which bids fair to be Fischer’s great lifework, presents +difficulties which are probably without equal in the whole field of +chemistry, partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity +of the substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar +manner in which chemical reactions are brought about in the living +organism. But by the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded +in breaking down the complex albuminoid substances into +amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions +of most of which have been solved; and by bringing about the recombination +of these units, appropriately chosen, he prepared +synthetic peptides which approximate to the natural products. +His methods led to the preparation of an octadeca-peptide of the +molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any other synthetic +compound; but even this compound falls far short of the simplest +natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from 2000 to 3000. +He considers, however, that the synthesis of more complex products +is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches made from 1899 +to 1906 have been published with the title <i>Untersuchungen über +Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine</i> (Berlin, 1907). The extraordinary +merit of his many researches has been recognized by all the +important scientific societies in the world, and he was awarded the +Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his control the laboratory +at Berlin became one of the most important in existence, and has +attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant pupils, many of whom +are to be associated with much of the experimental work indissolubly +connected with Fischer.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see +F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, <i>The Chemical Basis of +Pharmacology</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1824-1907), German +philosopher, was born at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of +July 1824. After studying philosophy at Leipzig and Halle, +he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg in 1850. The Baden +government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching owing to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse considerable +sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a professorship +at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the dignity +of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller’s removal to Berlin, +Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history +of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on +the 4th of July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian +and commentator, for which he was especially qualified by his +remarkable clearness of exposition; his point of view is in the +main Hegelian. His <i>Geschichte der neuern Philosophie</i> (1852-1893, +new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most accredited modern book +of its kind, and he made valuable contributions to the study of +Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing, Schiller +and Schopenhauer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some of his numerous works have been translated into English: +<i>Francis Bacon of Verulam</i>, by J. Oxenford (1857); <i>The Life and +Character of Benedict Spinoza</i>, by Frida Schmidt (1882); <i>A Commentary +on Kant’s Kritik of Pure Reason</i>, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866); +<i>Descartes and his School</i>, by J.P. Gordy (1887); <i>A Critique of Kant</i>, +by W.S. Hough (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, <i>Kuno Fischer und +die litterar-historische Methode</i> (1892); and bibliography in J.M. +Baldwin’s <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISH, HAMILTON<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1808-1893), American statesman, was +born in New York City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father, +Nicholas Fish (1758-1833), served in the American army during +the War of American Independence, rising to the rank of +lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia College in +1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only +a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in +Congress. He was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor +of New York in 1846, and was defeated by Addison Gardner +(Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was appointed a judge +of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected (November 1847) +to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor of +New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States +senator in 1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the +last part of his term. In 1861-1862 he was associated with John +A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, +John Jacob Astor, and other New York men, on the Union +Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to April 30, +1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising +and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million +dollars for the relief of New York volunteers and their families. +Fish was secretary of state during President Grant’s two administrations +(1869-1877). He conducted the negotiations with +Great Britain which resulted in the treaty of the 8th of May +1871, under which (Article 1) the “Alabama claims” were +referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article 34) +was made of the “San Juan Boundary Dispute,” concerning +the Oregon boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace +Conference at Washington between Spain and the allied republics +of Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the +formulation (April 12) of a general truce between those countries, +to last indefinitely and not to be broken by any one of them +without three years’ notice given through the United States; +and it was chiefly due to his restraint and moderation that a +satisfactory settlement of the “Virginius Affair” was reached +by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was vice-president-general +of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to 1854, +and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in +Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Nicholas Fish</span> (1846-1902), was appointed second +secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in +1874, and was <i>chargé d’affaires</i> at Berne in 1877-1881, and +minister to Belgium in 1882-1886, after which he engaged in +banking in New York City.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISH<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>fisc</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages, +cf. Dutch <i>visch</i>, Ger. <i>Fisch</i>, Goth. <i>fisks</i>, cognate with the Lat. +<i>piscis</i>), the common name of that class of vertebrate animals +which lives exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and +whose limbs take the form of fins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ichthyology</a></span>). The +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fisheries</a></span> deals with the subject from the economic and +commercial point of view, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angling</a></span> with the catching of +fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the zodiac known +as “the fishes” is treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisces</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval +Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters +of the names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. <span class="grk" title="Iêsous Christos, +Theou Huios, Sôtêr">Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Ὑιός, Σώτηρ</span>, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which +together spell the Greek word for “fish,” <span class="grk" title="ichthys">ἰχθύς</span>. The fish is +also said to be represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at +both ends, and formed by the intersection of two circles. This +figure, also known as the <i>vesica piscis</i>, is common in ecclesiastical +seals and as a glory or aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding +figures of the Trinity, saints, &c. The figure is, however, +sometimes referred to the almond, as typifying virginity; the +French name for the symbol is <i>Amande mystique</i>.</p> + +<p>The word “fish” is used in many technical senses. Thus +it is used of the purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor +to the bill-board; of a piece of wood or metal used to strengthen +a sprung mast or yard; and of a plate of metal used, as in railway +construction, for the strengthening of the meeting-place of two +rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but it is probably an +adaptation of the Fr. <i>fiche</i>, that which “fixes,” a peg. This +word also appears in the English form “fish,” in the metal, +pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used +for scoring points, &c., in many games.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHER, ALVAN<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1792-1863), American portrait-painter, +was born at Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792. +At the age of eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and +subsequently was employed by the village house painter, but at +the age of twenty-two he began to paint portrait heads, alternating +with rural scenes and animals, for which he found patrons +at modest prices. In ten years he had saved enough to go to +Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the galleries +of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized +group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty, +Harding and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his +work in Boston—perhaps the first joint display by painters +ever held in that city. Though he had considerable talent for +landscape, a lack of patronage for such work caused him to +confine himself to portraiture, in which he was moderately +successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the 16th of February +1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHER, GEORGE PARK<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1827-1909), American theologian, +was born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August +1827. He graduated at Brown University in 1847, and at the +Andover Theological Seminary in 1851, spent three years in +study in Germany, was college preacher and professor of divinity +at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street professor of +ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in 1861-1901, +when he was made professor <i>emeritus</i>. He was president of the +American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have +given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history. +They include <i>Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity</i> +(1865); <i>History of the Reformation</i> (1873), republished in several +revisions; <i>The Beginnings of Christianity</i> (1877); <i>Discussions +in History and Theology</i> (1880); <i>Outlines of Universal History</i> +(1886); <i>History of the Christian Church</i> (1887); <i>The Nature +and Method of Revelation</i> (1890); <i>Manual of Natural Theology</i> +(1893); <i>A History of Christian Doctrine</i>, in the “International +Theological Library” (1896); and <i>A Brief History of +Nations</i> (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHER, JOHN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of +Rochester, born at Beverly, received his first education at the +collegiate church there. In 1484 he went to Michael House, +Cambridge, where he took his degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491, +and, after filling several offices in the university, became master +of his college in 1499. He took orders; and his reputation for +learning and piety attracted the notice of Margaret Beaufort, +mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and chaplain. +In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when chancellor, +he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the beneficent +schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John’s and +Christ’s colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +and Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his +own benefactions took the form of scholarships, fellowships and +lectures. In 1503 he was the first Margaret professor at Cambridge; +and the following year was raised to the see of Rochester, +to which he remained faithful, although the richer sees of Ely +and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated as one of +the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did not +attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at +the legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence +of the brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of +display; and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the +cardinal’s demand for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A +great friend of Erasmus, whom he invited to Cambridge, whilst +earnestly working for a reformation of abuses, he had no sympathy +with those who attacked doctrine; and he preached at +Paul’s Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther’s books. +Although he was not the author of Henry’s book against Luther, +he joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply +to the scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained +the esteem of the king until the divorce proceedings began in +1527; and then he set himself sternly in favour of the validity +of the marriage. He was Queen Catherine’s confessor and her +only champion and advocate. He appeared on her behalf before +the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise against the +divorce that was widely read.</p> + +<p>Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform +brought forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only +moral force that could withstand the royal will, he energetically +opposed the reformation of abuses, which doubtless under +other circumstances he would have been the first to accept. +In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed (11th of +February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the +clergy “to be hissed out of the society of God’s holy Catholic +Church”; and it was his influence that brought in the saving +clause, <i>quantum per legem Dei licet</i>. By listening to the revelations +of the “Holy Maid of Kent,” the nun Elizabeth Barton +(<i>q.v.</i>), he was charged with misprision of treason, and was condemned +to the loss of his goods and to imprisonment at the king’s +will, penalties he was allowed to compound by a fine of £300 +(25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April) +to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he +was ready to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the +offspring of Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith, +trust and obedience to any foreign authority or potentate. +Refusing to take the oath, he was committed (15th of April) to +the Tower, where he suffered greatly from the rigours of a long +confinement. On the passing of the Act of Supremacy (November +1534), in which the saving clause of convocation was omitted, +he was attainted and deprived of his see. The council, with +Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of May +1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of +the church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher, +while driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the +admiration of the whole <span class="correction" title="amended from Christain">Christian</span> world, where he had been +long known as one of the most learned and pious bishops of the +time. Paul III., who had begun his pontificate with the intention +of purifying the curia, was unaware of the grave danger in which +Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the king with the +bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of St +Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate. +Henry, in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there +should be no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at +Westminster (17th of June 1535) on the charge that he did +“openly declare in English that the king, our sovereign lord, +is not supreme head on earth of the Church of England,” and +was condemned to a traitor’s death at Tyburn, a sentence +afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd +of June 1535, after saying the <i>Te Deum</i> and the psalm <i>In +te Domine speravi</i>. His body was buried first at All Hallows, +Barking, and then removed to St. Peter’s <i>ad vincula</i> in the Tower, +where it lies beside that of Sir Thomas More. His head was +exposed on London Bridge and then thrown into the river. As +a champion of the rights of conscience, and as the only one of +the English bishops that dared to resist the king’s will, Fisher +commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was +beatified by Pope Leo XIII.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fisher’s Latin works are to be found in the <i>Opera J. Fisheri quae +hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia</i> (Würzburg, 1595), and some of his +published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra +series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the +P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the +main sources for his biography are <i>The Life and Death of that renowned +John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester</i> (London, 1655), by an anonymous +writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893); +Bridgett’s <i>Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester</i> (London, +1880 and 1890); and Thureau, <i>Le bienheureux Jean Fisher</i> (Paris, +1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1841-  ), +British admiral, was born on the 25th of January 1841, +and entered the navy in June 1854. He served in the Baltic +during the Crimean War, and was engaged as midshipman on +the “Highflyer,” “Chesapeake” and “Furious,” in the Chinese +War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton, +and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on +the 25th of January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November +of the same year. The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars +at sea in which the British navy had to take a part, after 1860, +allowed few officers to gain distinction by actual services against +the enemy. But they were provided with other ways of proving +their ability by the sweeping revolution which transformed the +construction, the armament, and the methods of propulsion of +all the navies of the world, and with them the once accepted +methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a +commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French +“Gloire” had set going the long duel in construction between +guns and armour. He early made his mark as a student of +gunnery, and was promoted commander on the 2nd of August +1869, and post-captain on the 30th of October 1874. In this +rank he was chosen to serve as president of the committee +appointed to revise “The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet.” It +was his already established reputation which pointed Captain +Fisher out for the command of H.M.S. “Inflexible,” a vessel +which, as the representative of a type, had supplied matter for +much discussion. As captain of the “Inflexible” he took part +in the bombardment of Alexandria (11th July 1882). The +engagement was not arduous in itself, having been carried out +against forts of inferior construction, indifferently armed, and +worse garrisoned, but it supplied an opportunity for a display +of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the midst of a long naval +peace. The “Inflexible” took a prominent part in the action, +and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed in +Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded +it in various skirmishes with the enemy. After the +Egyptian campaign, he was, in succession, director of Naval +Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October 1886 to May 1891); +A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd August 1890, +at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral superintendent +of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord commissioner +of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and +vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the +North American and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he +acted as naval expert at the Hague Peace Conference, and on +the 1st of July 1899 was appointed commander-in-chief in the +Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command, Admiral +Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902, +and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st +of August 1903, from which post he passed to that of first sea +lord. Besides holding the foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh +orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and G.C.B. in 1902. As +first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John Fisher had +a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures of +naval development and internal reform; and he was also one +of the committee, known as Lord Esher’s committee, appointed +in 1904 to report on the measures necessary to be taken to +put the administration and organization of the British army on +a sound footing. The changes in naval administration made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +under him were hotly canvassed among critics, who charged him +with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue subservience +to the government’s desire for economy; and whatever +the efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact +was undeniable that for the first time for very many years the +navy suffered, as a service, from the party-spirit which was +aroused. It was notorious that Admiral Lord Charles Beresford +in particular was acutely hostile to Sir John Fisher’s administration; +and on his retirement in the spring of 1909 from the +position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he put his +charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry +was held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its +report, published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty, +though it encouraged the belief that some important suggestions +as to the organization of a naval “general staff” would take +effect. On the 9th of November Sir John Fisher was created +a peer as Baron Fisher of Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired +from the Admiralty in January 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHERIES,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a general term for the various operations engaged +in for the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man. +From time immemorial fish have been captured by various forms +of spears, nets, hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a +historical description of the methods and appliances that have +been used would comprise a considerable portion of a treatise +on the history of man. For the most part the operations of +fishing have been comparable with those of primitive hunting +rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible +account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality +has been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing +pressure on every source of food, and the enormous improvements +in the catching power of the engines involved, has made some +kind of regulation and control inevitable, with the result that +in practically every civilized country there exists some authority +for the investigation and regulation of fisheries.</p> + +<p>The annexed table shows the department of state and the +approximate expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries +of the world. The figures are only approximate and are based +on the expenditure for 1907. In the case of England and Wales +the expenditure is not complete, as under the Sea Fisheries +Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast of England and +Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees with +power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number +of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with +this addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that +undertaken by most of the countries of northern Europe, although +British fisheries are much more valuable than those of all the rest +of Europe together.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Administration of Fisheries.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Norway.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Denmark.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Holland.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Belgium.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of State</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade and Industry<br />  and Agriculture</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcl rb">Imperial Department<br />  of Interior</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />  Woods and Forests.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Approximate Annual Expenditure—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  1. Administration</td> <td class="tcc rb">£15,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£5,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10,200</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conducted by<br />  Maritime States.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£12,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  2. Scientific Fishery Research</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4,500</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6,300</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£27,750</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,500</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£1,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb">U.S. America.</td> <td class="tccm allb">England and<br />Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Scotland</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ireland</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of State</td> <td class="tcl rb">Marine and <br />  Fisheries.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bureau of Fisheries<br />  under Commerce<br />  and Labour.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />  Fisheries.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Fishery Board</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />  Technical Instruction.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Approximate Annual Expenditure—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  1. Administration</td> <td class="tcc rb">£159,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conducted by<br />  Costal States</td> <td class="tcc rb">£8,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£13,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  2. Scientific Fishery Research</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£141,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14,000<br />(expended<br />through agents)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">800</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great +expansion of the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The +herring fishery has been revolutionized partly by the successful +introduction of steam drifters, which have markedly increased +the aggregate catching power, and partly by the prosecution +of the fishery on one part or other of the British coasts during +the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish +vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries +in alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost +entirely to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad +fleets around all the coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian +drifters carry on their operations at different seasons of the +year from Shetland in the north (for herrings) to Newlyn in the +west (for mackerel). In Scotland the value of the nets employed +on steam drifters has increased from £3000 in 1899 to £61,000 +in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has increased +from about four to about five million cwts. during the past +ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings, +which reached a total of two million cwts. for the first time +in 1899, has exceeded three millions in each year from 1902 to +1905.</p> + +<p>In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In +1906 Messrs Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling +fleet of 50 vessels for working the North Sea grounds, and the +delivery of new steam trawlers at Grimsby was greater than +at any previous period, these vessels being designed more especially +to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the range of which +has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About 100 +vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve +months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length +and over 20 ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage, +the accommodation both for fish and crews being considerably +in excess of that provided in vessels of this class hitherto.</p> + +<p>Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief +European countries show the expanse of this industry, and the +enormous preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">224</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">239</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr">81</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Norway</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Spain</td> <td class="tcr">12-18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Scotland</td> <td class="tcr">292</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr">1317</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been +manifested in other maritime countries of Europe, particularly +in Germany and Holland, but the total number of steam trawlers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +belonging to those countries in 1905 scarcely exceeded the mere +additions to the British fishing fleet in 1906.</p> + +<p>The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be +gauged by a comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries +of other European countries. The following table is based upon +official returns and mainly derived from the <i>Bulletin Statistique</i> +of the International Council for the Study of the Sea. It represents +in pounds sterling the value of the produce of the various +national fisheries during the year 1904, except in the case of +France, for which country the latest available figures are those +for 1902.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Values in Thousands of £.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Other<br />Fish.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British Isles</td> <td class="tcr rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1015</td> <td class="tcr rb">1100</td> <td class="tcr rb">5496</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,481,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">352</td> <td class="tcr rb">834</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">443</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,629,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">571,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">220</td> <td class="tcr rb">64<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">40<a href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">512<a href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">836,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">575</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb">311</td> <td class="tcr rb">997,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">France (1902)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">635</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">851<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3562</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,048,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions +of the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the +official returns, was as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fish landed in</td> <td class="tccm allb">Excluding<br />Shellfish.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Including<br />Shellfish.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,200,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,502,768</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scotland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,649,148</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,719,810</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr rb">360,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">414,364</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">£10,210,369</td> <td class="tcr allb">£10,636,942</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures show an increase of £1,000,000 as compared +with the total value in 1900, and of more than £3,000,000 as +compared with 1895 (cf. Table I. at end).</p> + +<p>In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock, +and flat fish yielded about +three-quarters of the total, +and the drift fisheries for +herring and mackerel nearly +the whole of the remaining +quarter. The line fisheries in +England and Wales are now +relatively insignificant and +yield only about one-fortieth +of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).</p> + +<p>In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference +in the relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905 +herrings and other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half +of the total, the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and +the line fisheries one-eighth (cf. Table X.).</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Fishery.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Trawl and Line.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Drift and Stake-nets.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Shellfish.</td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales, 1905—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">6017</td> <td class="tcr rb">4713</td> <td class="tcr rb">3042</td> <td class="tcr rb">1145</td> <td class="tcr rb">202</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  South Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">303</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td> <td class="tcr rb">268</td> <td class="tcr rb">64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">1002</td> <td class="tcr rb">720</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scotland, 1906—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">2296</td> <td class="tcr rb">1202</td> <td class="tcr rb">2709</td> <td class="tcr rb">819</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Orkney and Shetland</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">1735</td> <td class="tcr rb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">591</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ireland, 1905—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  North Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  South and West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">577</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">28</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly +three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief +item in the south and west, and the herring on the north and +east coasts. The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the +trawl fisheries, the headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth +and Balbriggan on the east, and at Galway and Dingle on the +west coast.</p> + +<p>The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the +Scottish fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly £4,120,000. +Upon a moderate estimate, the total value of the boats and gear +employed in the fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot +be less than £12,000,000.</p> + +<p>The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the +separate coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of +landings from the latest data available.</p> + +<p>From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of +the east coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate +enormously over those of the western coasts, whether attention +be paid to the drift-net fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries +for bottom fish with trawls and lines.</p> + +<p>The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary +tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British +fishing industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity. +The community at large has benefited by the more plentiful +supply, and the merchant by the general lowering of prices at +the ports of landing (see Tables I.-IV. at end). But it is to be +noted that this wave of prosperity, as on previous occasions, +has been attained by the application of increased and more +powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new +fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase, +natural or artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,—unless +perhaps the abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to +the destruction of their enemies by trawling. British fisheries +are still pursued as a form of hunting rather than of husbandry. +In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay trawling banks were +discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich plaice grounds +in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a quarter +of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England +were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by Steam Trawlers on the East Coast +of England from Fishing Grounds within and beyond the North Sea respectively.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Within the North Sea.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Beyond the North Sea.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All Kinds.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All Kinds.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">729</td> <td class="tcc rb">2301</td> <td class="tcc rb">812</td> <td class="tcc rb">4776</td> <td class="tcc rb">470</td> <td class="tcc rb">389</td> <td class="tcc rb">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1189</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">637</td> <td class="tcc rb">2032</td> <td class="tcc rb">658</td> <td class="tcc rb">4228</td> <td class="tcc rb">447</td> <td class="tcc rb">429</td> <td class="tcc rb">284</td> <td class="tcc rb">1389</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">640</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1560</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">621</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3739</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">603</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">518</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1682</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries +have distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within +and beyond the North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers +and liners. Neglecting the catch of the liners as relatively +insignificant, and of the sailing trawlers +as relatively small and practically constant +during the three years in question, +we see from the board’s figures (see table +above) that the total catch of English +steam trawlers within the North Sea +during 1904 and 1905 was in each year +500,000 cwt. less than in the year +before, amounting to a gross decrease +of more than 25% in 1905 as compared +with 1903, and, in relation to the +catching power employed, to an average +decrease of 2½ cwt. per boat per diem. +This decrease may be largely explained +by the occurrence in 1903 of one of +those periodic “floods” of small cod +and haddock which take place in the North Sea from time +to time; but the steady decline in the number of North +Sea voyages by English steam trawlers—from 29,300 in 1903 +to 26,700 in 1905—affords a clear indication of the fact that +many of our trawling skippers are deserting the North Sea +for more profitable fishing grounds. The number of Scottish +steam trawlers “employed” at Scottish North Sea ports has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +also declined during the same period from 240 in 1903 to +228 in 1905.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the number of British and foreign +steam trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English +vessels the number of fishing voyages made within and beyond +the North Sea respectively:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Boats<br />Registered.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">English Steam Trawlers.<br />Voyages.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Scottish.<br />Employed.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">German,<br />Dutch and<br />Belgian.<br />Registered.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Within<br />North Sea.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Beyond<br />North Sea.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1060</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,328</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">1049</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,589</td> <td class="tcc rb">2120</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">199</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1064</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">26,670</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2671</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">228</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">228</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal +of British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled +year after year by increasing numbers of continental fishing +boats. The number of fishing steamers (practically all trawlers) +registered at North Sea ports in Germany and Holland was 159 +in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905, and 330 in 1907.</p> + +<p>It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased +attention which has been paid in recent years to the +acquisition of more exact knowledge upon the actual state of +the fisheries and upon the biological and other factors which +influence the supply.</p> + +<p>A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations, +both scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the +course of 1902 under the International Council for the Study +of the Sea (see below). The Fishery Board for Scotland and the +Marine Biological Association for England were commissioned +to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great Britain, and the +English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards with +the means for collecting more adequate statistics.</p> + +<p>Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of +fish eggs have located important spawning grounds of cod, +haddock, plaice, sole, eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod, +plaice and eel have thrown much light upon the migrations of +these fishes; and the rate of growth of plaice, cod and herring +has been elucidated in different localities. The percentage of +marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has been +found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a +significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions. +It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock +of plaice on the central grounds of the North Sea is mainly +attributable to the excessive rate of capture of plaice during +their annual off-shore migrations from the coast. On the other +hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of plaice on the +Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or six-fold +in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are +reared,—facts which open up the possibility of increasing the +permanent supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption +of some plan of commercial transplantation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisciculture</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—A brief review may now be given of the history +of the administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of +the steps which have been taken for the attainment of scientific +and statistical information in relation thereto.</p> + +<p>In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley, +Mr (afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards +Lord Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition +of the British sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise +of existing methods of fishing, and the necessity or otherwise +of the existing legislation. The important report of this commission, +issued in 1866, embodied the following main conclusions +and recommendations:—(1) the total supply of fish obtained +upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of further +augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a wastefully +destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament +which profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued +in the open sea should be repealed and “unrestricted freedom +of fishing be permitted hereafter”; (4) all fishing boats should +be lettered and numbered as a condition of registration and +licence.</p> + +<p>In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by +the passing of the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the +registration of fishing boats were issued by order in council in +the following year. (New regulations were introduced +in 1902.)</p> + +<p>In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland +and Walpole to inquire into the alleged +destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish, +especially by the use of the beam-trawl and +ground seine. Their report is an excellent summary +of the condition of the sea fisheries at the +time, and shows how little was then known with +regard to the eggs and spawning habits of our marine food +fishes.</p> + +<p>In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved +and the Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter +being empowered to take such measures for the improvement +of the fisheries as the funds under their administration might +admit of. Arrangements were made in the following year with +Professor M’Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the latter +to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of studies +on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed +greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning +the reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland) +Amendment Act of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth +and St Andrews Bay against trawlers as an experiment for the +purpose of ascertaining the result of such prohibition on the +supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The treasury also, +by a further grant of £3000, enabled the board to purchase the +steam-yacht “Garland” as a means of carrying out regular experimental +trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the +results of these experiments have been annually published, and +were summarized at the end of ten years’ closure in the board’s +report for 1895. Dr Fulton’s summary showed that “no very +marked change took place in the abundance of food-fishes +generally, either in the closed or open waters of the Firth of Forth +or St Andrews Bay,” as a consequence of the prohibition of trawling. +Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and lemon soles, +which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in +numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open, +while dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if +not quite universal, increase.</p> + +<p>The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the +presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have +now exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of +eggs and fry for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable; +and (2) that protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to +check the impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore. +(For critical examinations of Dr Fulton’s account see M‘Intosh, +<i>Resources of the Sea</i>, London, 1889; Garstang, “The Impoverishment +of the Sea,” <i>Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass.</i> vol. vi., 1900; and +Archer, <i>Report of Ichthyological Committee</i>, Cd. 1312, 1902.)</p> + +<p>A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established +by the board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen +in 1900.</p> + +<p>In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the +late earl of Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints +against the practice of beam-trawling on the part of line and +drift-net fishermen. A small sum of money (£200) was granted +to the commission for the purpose of scientific trawling experiments, +which were carried out by Professor M’Intosh.</p> + +<p>The report of this commission was an important one, and its +recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics +for England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).</p> + +<p>In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United +Kingdom was founded for the scientific study of marine zoology +and botany, especially as bearing upon the food, habits and +life-conditions of British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs. +Professor Huxley was its first president, and Professor Ray +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +Lankester, who initiated the movement, succeeded him. A large +and well-equipped laboratory was erected at Plymouth, and +formally opened for work in 1888. The work of the association +has been maintained by annual grants of £400 from the Fishmongers’ +Company and £1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the +subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a +half-yearly journal recording the results of its investigations.</p> + +<p>In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was +organized under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of +that year. The department publishes annually a return of +statistics of sea-fish landed, a report on salmon fisheries (transferred +from the home office), and a report on sea fisheries. It +consists of several inspectors under an assistant secretary of +the board; it has no power to make scientific investigations +or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries. In 1894 +the administration of the acts relating to the registration of +fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department.</p> + +<p>In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the +constitution (by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local +fisheries committees having, within defined limits, powers for +the regulation of coast fisheries in England and Wales. The +powers of district committees were extended under Part II. of +the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under the Fisheries (Shell +Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts have now been +created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales. +Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been +prohibited in nearly all the territorial waters of England and +Wales, and trawling by smaller boats has been placed under a +variety of restrictions. Local scientific investigations have been +initiated under several of the committees, especially in Lancashire +by Professor Herdman of Liverpool and his assistants.</p> + +<p>In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the +west coast of Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin +Society, with assistance from the government, and in the hands +of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the acquisition of much valuable +information concerning the spawning habits of fishes and the +distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.</p> + +<p>In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland) +Act of 1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole +of the Moray Firth—including a large tract of extra-territorial +waters—against trawling, in order to test experimentally the +effect of protecting certain spawning grounds in the outer parts +of the firth. The closure has given rise to a succession of protests +from the leaders of the trawling industry in Aberdeen and +England. It seems that the difficulty of policing so large an +area, as well as the absence of any power to enforce the restriction +on foreign vessels, have defeated the original intention; and +the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in deference +to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of whose +industry—from economic causes which have been alluded to +above—is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The +controversy has had the effect of causing the transference of a +number of English trawlers to foreign flags, especially the +Norwegian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Statistics.</i>—The following tables summarize the official statistics +of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and +Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of +fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.—<i>Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and +exported for the United Kingdom.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Fish landed<br />(excluding Shell-fish).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exports of<br />British Fish.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,774,010</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,361,487</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,315,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,795,267</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,068,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,168,025</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,453,676</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,282,406</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,671,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,242,491</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,937,486</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000,852</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20,164,276</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,210,369</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,250,259</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,164,869</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly +of salted or cured fish to the value of over £900,000 in 1905) are not +included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports +consist mainly of herrings.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.—<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes +landed on the Coasts of England and Wales</i> (<i>all caught with +Trawl-nets, except Halibut in part</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="10">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Sole.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Turbot.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Brill.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Halibut.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sole.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Turbot.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Brill.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Halibut.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">51.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">623</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">77.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">789</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">75.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">752</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">80.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">89.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1074</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">120</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">18</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">19</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.—<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes, +caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England +and Wales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="10">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hake.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sundries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Hake.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Ling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sundries.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">363</td> <td class="tcc rb">1585</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1151</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">. .</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">496</td> <td class="tcc rb">2433</td> <td class="tcc rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1013</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">589</td> <td class="tcc rb">2487</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">1190</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1423</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2148</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">484</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">165</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1425</td> <td class="tcr bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr bb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.—<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes +landed on the Coasts of England and Wales</i> (<i>caught with Drift-, +Seine-, and Stow-nets</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="8">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pilchard.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sprat.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Herring.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Pilchard.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sprat.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">509</td> <td class="tcc rb">1332</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">99</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">375</td> <td class="tcc rb">1437</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">91</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">321</td> <td class="tcc rb">2425</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">682</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3062</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">169</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcr bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> V.—<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed +on the Coasts of England and Wales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="8">Average Price.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Thousands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mills.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="6">Per Hundred.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Per Cwt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oysters.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sundries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Crabs.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Oysters.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sundries.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">£.</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£.</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">4808</td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">505</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">4501</td> <td class="tcc rb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">590</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">5177</td> <td class="tcc rb">654</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">539</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5106</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">503</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">423</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VI.—<i>Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish +landed in Scotland.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="9">In Thousands of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Number<br />(Thousands).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lemon<br />Sole.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Flounder,<br />Plaice,<br />and Brill.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Halibut.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Whiting.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Skate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mussels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oysters.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">3980</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">449</td> <td class="tcc rb">170</td> <td class="tcr rb">754</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td> <td class="tcc rb">2882</td> <td class="tcc rb">643</td> <td class="tcc rb">350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">4077</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">459</td> <td class="tcc rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">1001</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">194</td> <td class="tcc rb">2548</td> <td class="tcc rb">610</td> <td class="tcc rb">239</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">3520</td> <td class="tcc rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">434</td> <td class="tcc rb">157</td> <td class="tcr rb">761</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcc rb">143</td> <td class="tcc rb">3128</td> <td class="tcc rb">680</td> <td class="tcc rb">796</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5343</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">561</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">151</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">932</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">184</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1990</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">760</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">218</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VII.—<i>Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish +returned as landed on the Irish Coasts.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="9">In Thousands of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Number<br />(Thousands).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sole.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Turbot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Whiting.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hake.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oysters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lobsters.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">502</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">576</td> <td class="tcc rb">228</td> <td class="tcc rb">238</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">339</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">563</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb">276</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">278</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc rb">202</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">505</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">354</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">348</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">175</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">236</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing +to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for collecting +statistics over large sections of the coast.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VIII.—<i>Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers +and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Mode of<br />Fishing.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">England and Wales.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Scotland.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Ireland.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb rb">2nd Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1st cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2nd Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2nd Cl.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trawling</td> <td class="tcr rb">1173</td> <td class="tcr rb">904</td> <td class="tcr rb">586</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">283</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drift-nets</td> <td class="tcr rb">263</td> <td class="tcr rb">562</td> <td class="tcr rb">539</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lines</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">685</td> <td class="tcc rb">209</td> <td class="tcc rb">3403</td> <td class="tcr rb">2910</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">229</td> <td class="tcr rb">2776</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Various</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">2277</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">..</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">1513</td> <td class="tcr allb">1710</td> <td class="tcr allb">4087</td> <td class="tcc allb">453</td> <td class="tcc allb">3403</td> <td class="tcr allb">2978</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td> <td class="tcc allb">371</td> <td class="tcr allb">3059</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="list1"> +<p><i>Note.</i>—1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and other boats of at least 15 tons registered +tonnage (in Scotland exceeding 30 ft. keel).</p> + +<p>     2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from 18 to 30 ft. keel.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IX.—<i>Number</i> (<i>A</i>) <i>of Men and Boys constantly employed +and</i> (<i>B</i>) <i>of other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England and<br />Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Ireland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,503</td> <td class="tcc rb">9312</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,319</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,121</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,981</td> <td class="tcc rb">78,450</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,337</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,229</td> <td class="tcc rb">8995</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,044</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,329</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,692</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,218</td> <td class="tcc rb">73,090</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,589</td> <td class="tcc rb">7994</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,288</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,288</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,677</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,982</td> <td class="tcc rb">68,708</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,814</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">34,318</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8132</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29,064</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10,487</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,744</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17,079</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">73,293</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36,131</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> X.—<i>Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed +in Scotland.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Line-caught Fish.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Trawled Fish.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,577,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">£591,059</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,812</td> <td class="tcr rb">£203,620</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,479,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">548,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">531,695</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,165</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">757,416</td> <td class="tcr rb">371,173</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,077,082</td> <td class="tcr rb">703,427</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">735,654</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">348,610</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,745,431</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">948,117</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took +evidence as to the expediency of adopting measures for the +preservation of the sea-fisheries in the seas around the British +Islands, with especial reference to the alleged wasteful destruction +of under-sized fish. They recommended the adoption of a size-limit +of 8 in. for soles and plaice, and 10 in. for turbot and brill, +below which the sale of these fishes should be prohibited, on the +ground that these limits would approximate to those already +adopted by foreign countries.</p> + +<p>In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) +Act transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish +fisheries to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction +for Ireland. The department is provided with a steam +cruiser, the “Helga,” 375 tons, fully equipped for fishery research, +as well as with a floating marine laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly +of the Marine Biological Association, was appointed to take +charge of the scientific work.</p> + +<p>In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons +was appointed to consider and take evidence on the proposals of +the Sea Fisheries Bill, which had been framed in accordance with +the recommendations of the select committee of 1893, but had +failed to pass in several sessions of parliament. Owing to marked +divergencies of opinion on the question whether the low size-limits +proposed would be effectual in keeping the trawlers from +working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the +committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate +equipment of the government departments with means for +undertaking the necessary scientific investigations.</p> + +<p>In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all +the countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at +Christiania to revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm +in 1899 for a scientific exploration of these waters in the +interest of the fisheries, to be undertaken concurrently by all +the participating countries. The British government was +represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M G., with Professor +D’Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W. +Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were +subsequently accepted, with some restrictions, and an international +council of management +was appointed by +the participating governments. +The Fishery +Board for Scotland and +the Marine Biological +Association from England +were commissioned in +1902 to carry out the +work at sea allotted to +Great Britain, and a +special grant of £5500 +per annum was made to +each body by the Treasury +for this purpose. +Two steamers, the +“Huxley” and the “Goldseeker,” were chartered for the investigations +and began work in 1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft +and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the work of the first +five years were published in 1909.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the +Committee on Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report +as to the best means by which scientific fishery research could +be organized and assisted in relation to the state or local authorities. +The committee consisted of Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P. +(chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald Crawford, Rev. W.S. +Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham, +Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert +Maxwell resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn +up (September 1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. +The committee recommended the provision of more +complete statistics; the provision and maintenance of five special +steamers (where not already existing) to work in connexion with +as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of the three coasts +of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and Ireland; +the provision of three biological assistants at each laboratory; +the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries committees to +expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a fishery +council for England and Wales, and of a conference of representatives +of the central authorities in England, Scotland and +Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade +was transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer, +chief inspector of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of +the new Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.</p> + +<p>In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed +to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations carried +on in relation to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom. +The committee consisted of Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman), +Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms, +M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., +Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H. Rew +and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that +had already been done and urged its continuation and extension +under the direction of a central council composed of representatives +of the government departments concerned with fishery +matters in England, Scotland and Ireland, with a scientific +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +chairman and director, and further insisted on the need of +international co-operation in the investigations.</p> + +<p><i>United States Fisheries.</i>—The administration of the fisheries +of the United States of America is under the control of the +several coastal states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, +which reports to the secretary of commerce and labour, +conducts a vast amount of scientific fishery investigation, issues +admirable statistical and biological reports, and conducts on a +very large scale work on the replenishment of the fishing stations +by artificial means (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisciculture</a></span>). Although in recent +years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support +to the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an +amount actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great +Britain, the fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds +that of Canada. A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American +ships from the Newfoundland coasts and from those of other +British provinces, is landed at American ports, but as the following +recent table shows, it is much less than that taken from +American waters.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston +and Gloucester, Mass., in 1905.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Quantities.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(<i>a</i>) From fishing grounds off U.S. coasts</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,241,139</td> <td class="tcr rb">£669,640</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(<i>b</i>) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,165,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,145</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">(<i>c</i>) From fishing grounds off other British provinces</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32,608,343</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">192,517</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase +from year to year. There has been a decline in some important +branches owing to indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects +of civilization on certain kinds of animal life and in certain +restricted areas. Such diminution has been more than compensated +for by growth resulting from the invasion of new fishing +grounds made possible by increase in the sea-going capacity +of the vessels employed, by improvement in the preservation +and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization of +products which until comparatively recently were disregarded +or considered without economic value. The annual value of the +water products taken and sold by the United States fishermen +now amounts to over £11,000,000, and this sum does not include +the very large quantities taken by the fishermen for home +consumption or captured by sportsmen and amateurs. Between +two and three hundred thousand persons make a livelihood by +the industry, and the capital involved exceeds £16,000,000.</p> + +<p>The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output +of the United States industry exceeds the combined output of +all other countries in the world. The most notable feature of +this fishery is that nearly half the total yield now comes from +cultivated grounds, so that the business is being placed on a +secure basis. Virginia has now taken the first rank as an oyster-producing +state, oyster farming being now highly developed +with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.</p> + +<p>The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel, +herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity, +the annual value being between one and two million pounds. +The lobster fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the +diminution having been progressive since about 1890, and +being attributed to over-fishing and violation of the restrictive +regulations. At present a large part of the lobsters consumed +in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there is +evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural +operations now being carried out.</p> + +<p>The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry +of the country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific +and Arctic oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain +and often unremunerative. The annual value of the +take is now under £200,000.</p> + +<p>The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon, +shad, alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the +rivers from the ocean) has continued to provide an increasing +source of income to fishermen, the combined value of the catch +on the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards now amounting to over +£3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of the Great Lakes yield +about £600,000 annually.</p> +<div class="author">(W. Ga.; P. C. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For fisheries in the cases of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coral</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oyster</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pearl</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salmon</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sponges</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Whale</a></span>, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angling</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Including the Newfoundland fishery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply +London by means of carriers.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHERY<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Law of</span>). This subject has (1) its international +aspect; (2) its municipal aspect. On the high seas outside +territorial waters the right of fishery is now recognized as common +to all nations. Claims were made in former times by single +nations to the exclusive right of fishing in tracts of open sea; +such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the North Sea, as +lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland, against +England in the 17th century, and against England and Holland +in the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing +within 15 German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland. +This claim, however, was always effectively resisted on the +ground stated in Queen Elizabeth’s remonstrance to Denmark +on the subject in 1602, that “the law of nations alloweth of +fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas where a nation hath +propertie of command.” The enunciation of this principle is +to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court which +decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in 1894. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bering Sea Arbitration</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration, International</a></span>.) +The right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be +restrained or regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain +has entered into conventions with other nations with regard to +fishing in certain parts of the sea. The provisions of such +conventions are made binding on British subjects by statutes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between +Great Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern +coasts of British North America and the United States within certain +limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the +treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France +in 1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these +countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of +the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the Newfoundland +fisheries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newfoundland</a></span>); the convention of 1882 +between Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and +Holland, regarding the North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between +the same parties concerning the liquor traffic in the North Sea; +and the declaration regarding the same waters made between +Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement of differences between +their fishermen subjects in such extra-territorial waters. At the +instance of the Swedish government the British parliament also +passed an act in 1875 to establish a close time for the seal fishery in +the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts of Greenland.</p> +</div> + +<p>Cases have come before British courts with regard to the +whale fishery in northern and southern seas; and the customs +proved to exist among the whaling ships of the nations engaged +in a particular trade have been upheld if known to the parties +to the action. In territorial waters, on the other hand, fishery +is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects of the country +owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there except by +convention.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Tidal Waters.</i>—-In British territorial waters, it may be +stated, as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental +to the soil covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows, +and of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown; and +therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale’s words, “the right of the +fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally +lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged +in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of fishing +belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland river.” +“But,” he continues, “though the king is the owner of this great +waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary right +of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the common +people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein as a +public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their right +be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable rivers +where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a +propriety exclusive of that common liberty.” (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. iv.).</p> +</div> + +<p>This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the +seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when +taken in territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee, +though caught by another person. These are whales, sturgeons +and porpoises; and grampuses are also sometimes added (whales, +porpoises and grampuses being “fishes” only in a legal sense). +In Scotland only whales which are of large size can be so claimed; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in public and +private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing, except +in private rivers, are <i>inter regalia</i>, and are only enjoyable by the +crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was +formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the +mussel and oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the +shore, the opinion was held at one time that angling for salmon +was a public right, but the later decisions have established that +the right of salmon fishing by whatever means is a <i>jus regale</i> in +Scotland. In England the crown in early times made frequent +grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal waters, and instances of +such fisheries belonging to persons and corporations are very +common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the crown +declared that “no rivers shall be defended from henceforth, +but such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our +grandfather, by the same places and the same bounds as they +were wont to be in his time”; and thus bound itself not to +create a private fishery in any navigable tidal river. Judicial +decision and commentators having interpreted this statute +according to the spirit and not the letter, at the present day the +right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs to the public, +and they can only be excluded by a particular person or corporation +on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in its +origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to +prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant’s +predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or +prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant +may be presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either +a franchise derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of +ownership of the soil covered by the waters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In Lord Hale’s words: “Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily, +viz. fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the +soil, or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the +soil or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing +that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil,—such are <i>gurgites</i>, +wears, fishing-places, <i>borachiae</i>, <i>stachiae</i>, which are the very soil +itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such as these a +subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many religious +houses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors, as both +corporations and others have had; and this not only in navigable +rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and havens, yea, +and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to the shore. +And these kinds of fishings are not only for small sea-fish, such as +herrings, &c., but for great fish, as salmons, and not only for them +but for royal fish.... Most of the precedents touching such rights +of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks thereof belonging by +usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the propriety of the +very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some of them even +within parts of the seas” (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. v.)</p> +</div> + +<p>An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the +old case of <i>Royal Fishery of the River Bann</i> (temp. James I., +Davis 655), and the modern one of <i>Wilson</i> v. <i>Crossfield</i>, 1885, +1 T.L.R. 601, where a right of fishery in gross was established; +but the latter kind, as Hale says, is much more common, and the +presumption is always in its favour; <i>à fortiori</i> where the fishing +is proved to have been carried on by means of engines or structures +fixed in the soil. In England the public have not at common +law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal waters, +the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes incidental +to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them, +landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so +by proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed); +but statutes relating to particular parts of the realm, such as +Cornwall for the pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In +Scotland a right of salmon fishing separate from land implies +the right of access to and use of the banks, foreshores or beach +for the purposes of the fishing; and so does white fishing by +statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, <i>e.g.</i> in a public +river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to Irish +fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There +is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first +taker; and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken +or not, <i>e.g.</i> in the whale fishery the question whether a fish is +“loose” or not has come before English courts.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Fresh Waters.</i>—In non-tidal waters in England and +Ireland, for the reason given above, the presumption is in favour +of the fishery in such waters belonging to the owners of the adjacent +lands; “fresh waters of what kind soever do of common +right belong to the owners of the soil adjacent, so that the owners +of the one side have of common right the property of the soil, and +consequently the right of fishing <i>usque ad filum aquae</i>, and the +owners of the other side the right of soil or ownership and fishing +unto the <i>filum aquae</i> on their side; and if a man be owner of +the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of +the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the +extent of his land in length” (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar +presumption that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive +right of fishery there, and this is so even though he does not own +the banks; but these presumptions may be displaced by proof +of a different state of things, <i>e.g.</i> where the banks of a stream +are separately owned the owner of one bank may show by acts +of ownership exercised over the whole stream that he has the +fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never it +seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a +subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a +subject, nor has it any right <i>de jure</i> to the soil or fisheries of an +inland lake such as Lough Neagh (<i>Bristow</i> v. <i>Cormican</i>, 1878, +3 App. Cas. 641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish +in fresh waters by prescription or otherwise although they are +navigable; such a right is unknown to law, because a profit +<i>à prendre in alieno solo</i> is neither to be acquired by custom nor +by prescription under the Prescription Act. It has been decided +that the “dwellers” in a parish cannot acquire such a right, +being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may +have it by custom; and the “free inhabitants of ancient tenements” +in a borough have been held capable of acquiring a +right to dredge for oysters in a fishery belonging to the corporation +of the borough on certain days in each year by giving proof +of uninterrupted enjoyment of it from time immemorial, on the +presumption that this was a condition to which the grant made +to the corporation was subject.</p> + +<p>In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout +in private streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and +owners of opposite banks may fish <i>usque ad medium filum aquae</i>; +and where two owners own land round a private loch, both have +a common of fishing over it. The public cannot prescribe for it, +for a written title either to adjacent lands or to the fishery is +necessary. A right of way along the bank of a river or loch +does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be on or +at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing +carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in +the same way.</p> + +<p>In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided +into (<i>a</i>) several (<i>separalis</i>), (<i>b</i>) free (<i>libera</i>), (<i>c</i>) common of piscary +(<i>communis</i>), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction +between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain. +Blackstone’s opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in +right of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined +to a public river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil. +He is supported by later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson. +On the other hand, the opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed +to this view. “A man may prescribe to have a several fishery +in such a water, and the owner shall not fish there; but if he +claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the owner of the +soil shall fish there” (Co Littl. 122 A); “one man may have +the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the +river and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in +that river” (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one +instance he distinguished them, in a later case thought that +they were “all one.” Later decisions have established the latter +view, and it is now settled that although the owner of the several +fishery is prima facie owner of the soil of the waters, this presumption +may be displaced by showing that the terms of the grant +only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and that the words +“sole and exclusive fishery” give a several fishery <i>in alieno solo</i>. +In the words of Mr Justice Willes, “the only substantial distinction +is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +’several,’ and sometimes ‘free,’ as in ‘free warren,’ and a right +in common with others, usually called ‘common of fishery,’ +and sometimes ‘free,’ as in ‘free port.’ A several fishery means +an exclusive right to fish in a given place, either with or without +the property in the soil” (<i>Malcolmson</i> v. <i>O’Dea</i>, 1863, 10 H.L.). +A common of piscary, or “a right to fish in common with certain +other persons in a particular stream,” is usually found in manors, +the commoners of which may have the right to enjoy it to an +extent sufficient for the sustenance of their tenements; but +they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription, exclude +the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the +soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of “fishery” +will prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered +by water or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery +therein; a several fishery will not merge on being resumed by +the crown; and a fishery situate within a manor is presumed +to belong to the owners of adjacent land, and not to the lord. +A several fishery, as already seen, being an incorporeal hereditament, +can only be transferred by deed, and therefore cannot +be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on proof that +the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the right +of fishing in the <i>locus in quo</i> to the knowledge of and without +interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish +a title to a several fishery, a “paper title,” <i>i.e.</i> one founded on +documentary evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be supported +by evidence of acts of ownership in recent times, for +otherwise it will be presumed that a person other than the alleged +owner is the real owner. If the waters of a tidal river leave their +old channel and flow into another, the owner of a several fishery +in the old channel cannot claim to have it in the new one; but, +on the other hand, the owner of a several fishery can take +advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon and +into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are +ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal +or fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and +may do so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that +in navigable waters he does not interfere with the right of +navigation, and that in navigable and other waters he does not +interfere with the fishing rights of his neighbours or infringe the +provisions made by old or modern statutes as to the methods +of taking the fish, <i>e.g.</i> by weirs. These were forbidden in rivers +by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the seashore by a +statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh waters +traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful, +for the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable +waters. It seems, however, that at common law any fixed +structures put up by the owner of a fishery in his part of a river, +which at all prevent the free passage of fish to the waters above +or below, give the owners of fisheries therein a right of action +against him. So the grantee of an exclusive fishery with rod +and line in an unnavigable river can prevent any person from +polluting the river higher up and so damaging the fishery. At +common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their +natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they +are caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of +salmon by statute.</p> + +<p>Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in +territorial or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England, +the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it +took it over from the Board of Trade) power by order to create +sea fisheries districts, comprising any part of the sea within +which British subjects have, by international law, the exclusive +right of fishing, and to provide for the constitution of a local +fisheries committee to regulate the sea fisheries in such district, +which can make by-laws for that purpose. It appoints fishery +officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for sea fish +(which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act), +has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea +coast or at sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of +summary jurisdiction, can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or +regulate, protect and develop fisheries for all or any kind of shell +fish. Special provision is also made by statute for the oyster +fishery and herring fishery (applicable also to Scotland), and that +of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs (applicable to all the +United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board can constitute +sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to those in +England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea +fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring, +mussel and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of +money intended to relieve local distress and taxation towards +the encouragement of sea fisheries, and marine superintendence +and enforcement of Scottish sea fisheries laws. In Ireland the +sea fisheries are under the direction of the inspectors of Irish +fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery commissioners +and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special statutes, +besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom, +deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is +also appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical +instruction. In all three component parts of the United Kingdom +there are also special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater +fish: for England, the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts +1861-1907, and the Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for +Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those of 1862-1868, and for +trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for Ireland, the +Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is adopted +in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are +set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish +by fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection +and the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of +summary jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case +are—for England the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for +Scotland the Fishery Board, and for Ireland the inspectors of +fisheries, and in England a certain official number of conservators +on such boards are appointed by the county councils. The +Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the Board +of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders +for the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries +within any area on the application of any board of conservators, +or of a county council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value +of private fisheries. There are also special acts dealing with the +fishing in certain rivers, such as the Thames, Medway, Severn, +Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907 applies, however, to the Esk, +but not otherwise to Scotland nor to Ireland.) Throughout the +United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other explosive substance +to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is prohibited, as it +is also in England in any private waters subject to the Salmon +and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also forbidden +to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish. +Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to +kill fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant +it. There are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the +protection of fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the +acts already mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.</p> + +<p>Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts +1894-1906 for sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the +colonies), relating to their registration, carrying official papers, +carrying boats in proportion to their tonnage, the punishment +of offences on board, the wages of their crews, and keeping record +of all casualties, punishments and the like on board. As regards +trawlers, especially in the case of those of 25 tons and upwards, +a statutory form of agreement with the crew is prescribed, as +well as accounts of wages and discharges; and skippers and +second hands must have certificates of competency, which are +granted under similar conditions to those required in the case +of sea-going ships and are registered with the Board of Trade. +Scottish fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886 +(except as regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits, +dealt with by the above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868, +which applies to all British fishing boats. Particular lights must +be carried by fishing boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The +Cran Measures Act) legalized the use of cran measures in connexion +with trading in fresh herrings in England and Wales, the Board +of Agriculture and Fisheries being empowered to make regulations +under the act.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Green, <i>Encyclopaedia of Scots Law</i> (Edinburgh, +1896); Stewart, <i>Law of Fishing in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1869); +Woolrych, <i>Waters</i> (London, 1851); Paterson, <i>Fishery Laws of the +United Kingdom</i> (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore, +<i>Foreshore</i> (London, 1888); Phillimore, <i>International Law</i> (3rd ed., +London, 1879); Martens, <i>Causes célèbres du droit des gens</i> (Leipzig, +1827); Selwyn, <i>Nisi Prius</i>, <i>Fishery</i> (London, 1869).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. G. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHGUARD<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (<i>Abergwaun</i>), a market town, urban district, +contributory parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembrokeshire, +Wales, near the mouth of the river Gwaun, which here +flows into Fishguard Bay of St George’s Channel. Pop. (1901) +2002. Its railway station, which is the chief terminus of the +South Wales system of the Great Western railway, is at the hamlet +of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the south-west. +Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save +those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has +long been recognized. After many years of labour and at a great +expenditure of money the Great Western railway has constructed +a fine breakwater and railway pier at Goodwick across the lower +end of the bay, and an important passenger and goods traffic with +Rosslare on the opposite Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.</p> + +<p>The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and +the excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure. +The chief historical interest of the town centres round the so-called +“Fishguard Invasion” of 1797, in which year on the +22nd of February three French men-of-war with troops on board, +under the command of General Tate, an Irish-American adventurer, +appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the adjoining +parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a +body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated, +practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the +local militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and +John Campbell, Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile +sailing away towards Ireland. For many years the castles and +prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke were filled to overflowing +with French prisoners of war. Close to the banks of the +Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years the +residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated antiquary +and historian of Pembrokeshire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISHKILL LANDING,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fishkill-on-the-Hudson</span>, a village +of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A., +about 58 m. N. of New York City, on the E. bank of the Hudson +river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890) 3617; (1900) 3673, +of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910) 3902, +of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905) +13,183; (1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages +of Matteawan (<i>q.v.</i>), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing +is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the +New York, New Haven & Hartford railways; by railway ferry +and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the West +Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway +to Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is +the village of Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579. +In this village are two notable old churches, Trinity (1769), +and the First Dutch Reformed (1731), in which the New York +<span class="correction" title="amended from Provinical">Provincial</span> Congress met in August and September 1776. +At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the Society +of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manufactures +of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss) +and other machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile. +The village of Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The +first settlement in the township was made about 1690. The +township of Fishkill was, like Newburgh, an important military +post during the War of Independence, and was a supply depot +for the northern Continental Army.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISK, JAMES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1834-1872), American financier, was born at +Bennington, Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief +period in school he ran away and joined a circus. Later he became +a hotel waiter, and finally adopted the business of his father, +a pedlar. He then became a salesman for a Boston dry goods +firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning for him a share +in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts during +the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling, +he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in +speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York +and was employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew +in his war against Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway, +and as a result of the compromise that was reached he and Jay +Gould became members of the Erie directorate. The association +with Gould thus began continued until his death. Subsequently +by a well-planned “raid,” Fisk and Gould obtained control +of the road. They carried financial “buccaneering” to extremes, +their programme including open alliance with the Tweed “ring,” +the wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges. +Their attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the +fateful Black Friday of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was +shot and killed in New York City by E.S. Stokes, a former +business associate, on the 6th of January 1872.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISK, WILBUR<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1792-1839), American educationist, was +born in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 1792. +He studied at the university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then +entered Brown University, where he graduated in 1815. He +studied law, and in 1817 came under the influence of a religious +revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the following year he +was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to the New +England conference. His influence with the conference turned +that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral +in tendency to the establishment of secondary schools and +colleges. Upon the removal in 1824 of the conference’s academy +at New Market, New Hampshire, to Wilbraham, Massachusetts, +Fisk became one of its agents and trustees, and in 1826 its +principal. He drafted the report of the committee on education +to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined +the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president +of Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in +1831 until his death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middletown, +Connecticut. His successful administration of the Wesleyan +Academy at Wilbraham and of Wesleyan University were remarkable. +He was an able controversialist, and in the interests +of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism and +Unitarianism; he published in 1837 <i>The Calvinistic Controversy</i>. +He also wrote <i>Travels on the Continent of Europe</i> (1838).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk</i> (New York, 1842), edited by +Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston, +1890), in the <i>American Religious Leaders Series</i>; also a sketch in +<i>Memoirs of Teachers and Educators</i> (New, York, 1861), edited by +Henry Barnard.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISKE, JOHN<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical +and scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the +30th of March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on +the 4th of July 1901. His name was originally Edmund Fiske +Green, but in 1855 he took the name of a great-grandfather, +John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a grandmother in +Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college he +had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed +most boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had +studied several modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in +1863, continuing to study languages and philosophy with zeal; +spent two years in the Harvard law school, and opened an office +in Boston; but soon devoted the greater portion of his time +to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one year, +he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his +graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures +at Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was +history tutor; in 1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the +Doctrine of Evolution, afterwards revised and expanded as +<i>Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy</i> (1874); and between 1872 and +1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that time he devoted +himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly all +of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures +or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general +title, such as <i>Myths and Myth-Makers</i> (1872), <i>Darwinism and +Other Essays</i> (1879), <i>Excursions of an Evolutionist</i> (1883), and +<i>A Century of Science</i> (1899). He did much, by the thoroughness +of his learning and the lucidity of his style, to spread a knowledge +of Darwin and Spencer in America. His <i>Outlines of Cosmic</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +<i>Philosophy</i>, while Setting forth the Spencerian system, made +psychological and sociological additions of original matter, in +some respects anticipating Spencer’s later conclusions. Of one +part of the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of +one of his later books (<i>Through Nature to God</i>, 1899): “The +detection of the part played by the lengthening of infancy in the +genesis of the human race is my own especial contribution to the +Doctrine of Evolution.” In <i>The Idea of God as affected by +Modern Knowledge</i> (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic problem, +and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an +illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great +immanent cause includes and controls both physical and moral +forces. More original, perhaps, is the argument in the immediately +preceding work, <i>The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of +his Origin</i> (1884), which is, in substance, that physical evolution +is a demonstrated fact; that intellectual force is a later, higher +and more potent thing than bodily strength; and that, finally, +in most men and some “lower animals” there is developed a +new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line of +thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical +that it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards, +and may or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.</p> + +<p>It is principally, however, through his work as a historian +that Fiske’s reputation will live. His historical writings, with +the exception of a small volume on <i>American Political Ideas</i> +(1885), an account of the system of <i>Civil Government in the +United States</i> (1890), <i>The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War</i> +(1900), a school history of the United States, and an elementary +story of the American Revolution, are devoted to studies, in a +unified general manner, of separate yet related episodes in +American history. The volumes have not appeared in chronological +order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial +history, as follows: <i>The Discovery of America, with some Account +of Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest</i> (1892, 2 vols.); +<i>Old Virginia and her Neighbours</i> (1897, 2 vols.); <i>The Beginnings +of New England</i>; or, <i>The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to +Civil and Religious Liberty</i> (1889); <i>Dutch and Quaker Colonies +in America</i> (1899); <i>The American Revolution</i> (1891, 2 vols.); +and <i>The Critical Period of American History</i>, 1783-1789 (1888). +Of these the most original and valuable is the <i>Critical Period</i> +volume, a history of the consolidation of the states into a government, +and of the formation of the constitution.</p> +<div class="author">(C. F. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1865-  ), American actress, +was born in New Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As +a child she played, under her mother’s name of Maddern, with +several well-known actors. In 1882 she first appeared as a +“star,” but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske and was +absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared +in <i>Hester Crewe</i>, a play written by her husband, and afterwards +acted a number of Ibsen’s heroines, and in <i>Becky Sharp</i>, a +dramatization of Thackeray’s <i>Vanity Fair</i>. In 1901 she opened, +in opposition to the American theatrical “trust,” an independent +theatre in New York, the Manhattan. She won a considerable +reputation in the United States as an emotional actress.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FISTULA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to +designate an abnormal communication leading either from +the surface of the body to a normal cavity or canal, or from one +normal cavity or canal to another. These communications are +the result of disease or injury. They receive different names +according to their situation: <i>lachrymal fistula</i> is the small +opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of +the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; <i>salivary fistula</i> is an +opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; <i>anal fistula</i>, or +<i>fistula in ano</i>, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the +bowel; <i>urethral fistula</i> is the result of a giving way of the tissues +behind a stricture. These are examples of the variety of the +first kind of fistula; while <i>recto-vesical fistula</i>, a communication +between the rectum and bladder, and <i>vesico-vaginal fistula</i>, a +communication between the bladder and vagina, are examples +of the second. The abnormal passage may be straight or tortuous, +of considerable diameter or of narrow calibre. Fistulae may +be caused by an obstruction of the normal channel, the result +of disease or injury, which prevents, for example, the tears, +saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their retention +gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an +exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which +bursts, for example, into the gut or through the skin; the +cavity does not close, and a fistula is the result. The fistulous +channel remains open as long as the contents of the cavity or +canal with which it is connected can pass through it. To obliterate +the fistula one must remove the obstruction and encourage +the flow along the natural channel; for example, one must +open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to reach the nasal +cavity, and the <i>lachrymal fistula</i> will close; and so also in the +<i>salivary</i> and <i>urethral</i> fistulae. Sometimes it may be necessary +to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy +material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from +its deepest part, as in <i>anal fistula</i>; in other cases it may be +necessary to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch +them together.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIT,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division +of a poem, a canto, in this sense often spelled “fytte.” (2) A +sudden but temporary seizure or attack of illness, particularly +one with convulsive paroxysms accompanied by unconsciousness, +especially an attack of apoplexy or epilepsy, but also applied to +a transitory attack of gout, of coughing, fainting, &c., also of an +outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper. In a transferred +sense, the word is also used of any temporary or irregular periods +of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions as “by +fits and starts.” (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper, +becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications +for a specific purpose, “a fit and proper person”; and also +as prepared for, or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The +verb “to fit” is thus used intransitively and transitively, to be +adapted for, to suit, particularly to be of the right measurement +or shape, of a dress, of parts of a mechanism, &c., and to make +or render a thing in such a condition. Hence the word is used +as a substantive.</p> + +<p>The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one +in origin, or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and +spelling but with different origin in each different meaning. +In Skeat’s <i>Etymological Dictionary</i> (ed. 1898) (1) and (2) are +connected and derived from the root of “foot,” which appears +in Lat. <i>pes</i>, <i>pedis</i>. The evolution of the word is: step, a part +of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word of Scandinavian +origin, with the idea of “knitted together” (cf. Ice. <i>fitja</i>, to +knit together, Goth, <i>fetjan</i>, to adorn); the ultimate origin is a +Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. “fetch”). The <i>New English +Dictionary</i> suggests that this last root may be the origin of all +the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting; +the early use of “fit” (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed +out that the meanings of “fit,” suitable, proper, have been +modified by “feat,” which comes through Fr. <i>fait</i>, from Lat. +<i>factum</i>, <i>facere</i>, to do, make.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITCH, JOHN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam navigation, +was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January +1743. He was the son of a farmer, and received the usual +common school education. At the age of seventeen he went to +sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a few voyages and +became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a silversmith. +During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the +American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum +of money, with which he bought land in Virginia. He was +appointed deputy-surveyor for Kentucky in 1780, and when +returning to Philadelphia in the following year he was captured +by the Indians, but shortly afterwards regained his liberty. +About this time he began an exploration of the north-western +regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district; and +while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to +him that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured +by the sale of his map to find money for the carrying out of his +projects, but was unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance +to the legislatures of different states, but though each reported +in favourable terms of his invention, none of them would agree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +to grant him any pecuniary assistance. He was successful, +however, in 1786, in forming a company for the prosecution of +his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a steam-packet of his +invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to be the +inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey +of Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-navigation +in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar +privilege was granted to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and +New York. A steam-boat built by Fitch conveyed passengers +for hire on the Delaware in the summer of 1790, but the undertaking +was a losing one, and led to the dissolution of the company. +In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into France, +but met with no success. On his return to America he found his +property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention +nothing but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide +at Bardstown, Kentucky, on the 2nd of July 1798.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes, +“inscribed to his children and future posterity”; and from this a +biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia, +1857.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1824-1903), English educationist, +second son of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was +born in Southwark, London, in 1824. His parents were poor but +intellectually inclined, and at an early age Fitch started work +as an assistant master in the British and Foreign School Society’s +elementary school in the Borough Road, founded by Thomas +Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous +reading and attending classes at University College; he was +made headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850 +he took his B.A. degree at London University, proceeding MA. +two years later. In 1852 he was appointed by the British and +Foreign School Society to a tutorship at their Training College +in the Borough Road, soon becoming vice-principal and in 1856 +principal. He had previously done some occasional teaching +there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the Lancasterian +system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of +schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which +he was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-1867) +on the Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commissioner +(1869), and as an assistant commissioner under the +Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was transferred in 1877 +to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief inspector, +to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief inspector +of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894. In the +course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique +acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a +recognized authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures +and books having a great influence on the development of +education in England. He was a strong advocate and supporter +of the movement for the higher education of women, and he was +constantly looked to for counsel and direction on every sort of +educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe judgment and +amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional value, +and after he retired from official life his services were in active +request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896 +he was knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinctions +as the LL.D. degree from St Andrews University, he was +made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour in 1889. He +was a constant contributor to the leading reviews; he published +an important series of <i>Lectures on Teaching</i> (1881), <i>Educational +Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and Colleges</i> +(1887), and an authoritative criticism of <i>Thomas and Matthew +Arnold, and their Influence on English Education</i> (see also the +article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arnold, Matthew</a></span>) in 1901; and he wrote the article +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span> in the supplementary volumes (10th edition) +of this encyclopaedia (1902). He died on the 14th of July 1903 +in London. A civil list pension was given to his widow, whom, +as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Sir Joshua Fitch</i>, by the Rev. A.L. Lilley (1906),</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITCH, RALPH<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of +the earliest English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the +Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China. +In January 1583 he embarked in the “Tiger” for Tripoli and +Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare, <i>Macbeth</i>, Act I. sc. 3), together +with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two other merchants or employees +of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he reached the +Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed +southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris +to Basra (May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to +trade, while Fitch and the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf +to Ormuz, where they were arrested as spies (at Venetian instigation, +as they believed) and sent prisoners to the Portuguese +viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the sureties +procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly +of New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have +reached India by the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends +regained their liberty, and escaping from Goa (April 1584) +travelled through the heart of India to the court of the Great +Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In September 1585 +Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore (he +disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while +Fitch descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares, +Patna, Kuch Behar, Hugli, Chittagong, &c. (1585-1586), and +pushed on by sea to Pegu and Burma. Here he visited the +Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some distance, acquired +a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even penetrated +to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588 +he visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his +homeward travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast, +touching at Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian +Gulf to Basra and up the Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally +via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates, Aleppo and Tripoli, to the +Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the 29th of April +1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of +the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian +affairs (<i>e.g.</i> 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 31st +of December 1606).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hakluyt, <i>Principal Navigations</i> (1599), vol. ii. part i. pp. +245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, <i>Voyages</i> (<i>Itineraris</i>), part i. +ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &c., Hakluyt Soc. edition); Stevens and +Birdwood, <i>Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603</i> (1886), +esp. pp. 26, 123; <i>State Papers, East Indies</i>, &c., <i>1513-1616</i> (1862), +No. 36; Pinkerton, <i>Voyages and Travels</i> (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITCHBURG,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester +county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying +from about 433 ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester +and about 45 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429; +(1890) 22,037; (1900) 31,531, of whom 10,917 were foreign-born, +including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English Canadians, +2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg +is traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served +by the Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railways, and by three interurban electric lines. The +city area (27.7 sq.m.) is well watered, and is very uneven, with +hill spurs running in all directions, affording picturesque scenery. +The court house and the post office (in a park presented by the +citizens) are the principal public buildings. Fitchburg is the +seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and training +schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace library +and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home +for old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which +is a fine fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg +has large mercantile and financial interests, but manufacturing +is the principal industry. The principal manufactures are +paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen goods, yarn and silk, +machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and firearms (the +Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In +1905 the city’s total factory product was valued at $15,390,507, +of which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp +product, $2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and +$1,202,421 was the value of the foundry and machine shop +products. The municipality owns and operates its (gravity) +water works system. Fitchburg was included in Lunenburg +until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure +incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.A. Emerson, <i>Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present</i> +(Fitchburg, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITTIG, RUDOLF<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1835-  ), German chemist, was born +at Hamburg on the 6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry +at Göttingen, graduating as Ph.D. with a dissertation on +acetone in 1858. He subsequently held several appointments at +Göttingen, being privat docent (1860), and extraordinary +professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at Tübingen, +and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were +erected from his designs. Fittig’s researches are entirely in +organic chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The +aldehydes and ketones provided material for his earlier work. +He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in +neutral, alkaline, and sometimes acid solution to secondary +and tertiary glycols, substances which he named pinacones; +and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute +sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines. +The unsaturated acids, also received much attention, and he +discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones. +In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In +1855 Adolph Wurtz had shown that when sodium acted upon +alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex +hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method by showing that a +mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment, +yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin’s +reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which +appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question, +however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the +reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally +solved the constitution of coumarin, the odoriferous principle +of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann’s observation that phenyl +isocrotonic acid readily yielded α-naphthol by loss of water was +of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to +the constitution of naphthalene. They also investigated certain +hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the +coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of phenanthrene. +We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to +Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its +constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used +text-books; he edited several editions of Wohler’s <i>Grundriss +der organischen Chemie</i> (11th ed., 1887) and wrote an <i>Unorganische +Chemie</i> (1st ed., 1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been +recognized by many scientific societies and institutions, the Royal +Society awarding him the Davy medal in 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITTON, MARY<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1578-1647), identified by some writers +with the “dark lady” of Shakespeare’s sonnets, was the daughter +of Sir Edward Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized +on the 24th of June 1578. Her elder sister, Anne, married John +Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth year. About 1595 Mary +Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. Her father +recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys, comptroller +of the queen’s household, who promised to defend the “innocent +lamb” from the “wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the +tame beasts of this place.” Sir William was fifty and already +married, but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the +speedy death of the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have +received considerable encouragement. There is no hint in her +authenticated biography that she was acquainted with Shakespeare. +William Kemp, who was a clown in Shakespeare’s +company, dedicated his <i>Nine Daies Wonder</i> to Mistress Anne +(perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, “Maid of Honour to Elizabeth”; +and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous +volume, <i>A Woman’s Woorth defended against all the Men in the +World</i> (1599). In 1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivities +at which William Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known +to have been present; and shortly afterwards she became his +mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke was sent to the Fleet +in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton, whose child +died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been dismissed +from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister, Lady +Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on +Mary Fitton by George Ormerod, author of <i>History of Cheshire</i>, +in a MS. quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (<i>Academy</i>, 27th Sept. 1884). +Ormerod asserted, on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter +Leycester, that she had two illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard +Leveson, the friend and correspondent of her sister Anne. He +also gives the name of her first husband as Captain Logher, and +her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom she had a son and +daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three years +after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order +of Mary Fitton’s husbands, for her second husband, Logher, +died in 1636. Her own will, which was proved in 1647, gives +her name as “Mary Lougher.” In Gawsworth church there is +a painted monument of the Fittons, in which Anne and Mary +are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated that +from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman, +which is of course essential to her identification with the lady +of the sonnets, but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady +Newdigate-Newdegate in her <i>Gossip from a Muniment Room</i> +(1897) she has brown hair and grey eyes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was challenged +by Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their +remarks see an appendix by C.G.O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition +of Lady Newdigate-Newdegate’s book.</p> + +<p>The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false +mistress of Shakespeare’s sonnets rests on a very thin chain of +reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory +that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of +course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William +Archer (<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, December 1897) found some support +for Mary Fitton’s identification with the “dark lady” in the fact +that Sir William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three +“Wills” among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpretation, +whether right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy ‘Will,’</p> +<p class="i05">And ‘Will’ to boot, and ‘Will’ in overplus.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle +will be found in Mr Thomas Tyler’s <i>Shakespeare’s Sonnets</i> (1890, pp. +73-92), and in the same writer’s <i>Herbert-Fitton Theory of Shakespeare’s +Sonnets</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1780-1861), British geologist +was born in Dublin in January 1780. Educated at Trinity +College, in that city, he gained the senior scholarship in 1798, +and graduated in the following year. At this time he began to +take interest in geology and to form a collection of fossils. Having +adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 to Edinburgh, +where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and +thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in +geology steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809, +where he further studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he +brought before the Geological Society of London a description +of the geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin, with an +account of some rare minerals found in Ireland. He took a +medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some years +the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted +M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of +means, he settled in London, and devoted himself to the science +of geology with such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon +became a leading authority, and in the end, as Murchison said, +“one of the British worthies who have raised modern geology to +its present advanced position.” His “Observations on some of the +Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite, in the South-east +of England” (<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. iv.) embodied a series +of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and form the classic +memoir familiarly known as Fitton’s “Strata below the Chalk.” +In this great work he established the true succession and relations +of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and +Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure. +He had been elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the +Geological Society of London 1827-1829. His house then +became a meeting place for scientific workers, and during his +presidency he held a conversazione open on Sunday evenings +to all fellows of the Geological Society. From 1817 to 1841 he +contributed to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> many admirable essays on +the progress of geological science; he also wrote “Notes on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +Progress of Geology in England” for the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i> +(1832-1833). His only independent publication was <i>A Geological +Sketch of the Vicinity of Hastings</i> (1833). He was awarded the +Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1852. He died +in London on the 13th of May 1861.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Obituary by R.I. Murchison in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. +xviii., 1862, p. xxx.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZBALL, EDWARD<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1792-1873), English dramatist, +whose real patronymic was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, +in 1792. His father was a well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball, +after receiving his schooling at Newmarket, was apprenticed +to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced some dramatic +pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked success +of his <i>Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber</i> (1820), +together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at the +Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in +London. During the next twenty-five years he produced a +great number of plays, most of which were highly successful. +He had a special talent for nautical drama. His <i>Floating Beacon</i> +(Surrey theatre, 19th of April 1824) ran for 140 nights, and his +<i>Pilot</i> (Adelphi, 1825) for 200 nights. His greatest triumph in +melodrama was perhaps <i>Jonathan Bradford, or the Murder at the +Roadside Inn</i> (Surrey theatre, 12th of June 1833). He was at +one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at Covent Garden, +and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable reputation +as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years of +his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on +the 27th of October 1873.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His autobiography, <i>Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author’s Life</i> +(2 vol., 1859), is a naïve record of his career. Numbers of his plays +are printed in <i>Cumberland’s Minor British Theatre, Dick’s Standard +Plays</i> and <i>Lacy’s Acting Edition of Plays</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> the name of an historic Irish house, which +descends from Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the +Domesday Survey (1086) was castellan of Windsor and a tenant-in-chief +in five counties. From his eldest son William, known +as “de Windsor,” descended the Windsors of Stanwell, of whom +Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a +Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which +barony is now vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant +in the female line. Of Walter’s younger sons, Robert was given +by Henry I. the barony of Little Easton, Essex; Maurice +obtained the stewardship (<i>dapiferatus</i>) of the great Suffolk abbey +of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry I.’s +queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a <i>dapifer</i>) became the ancestor +of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that +Arnulf de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened +his position in Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince +of South Wales, who bore to him famous children, “by whom +the southern coast of Wales was saved for the English and the +bulwarks of Ireland stormed.” Of these sons William, the eldest, +was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as “de Carew,” +from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke +peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh. +The descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford, +Berks, and some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the +wild claims of Sir Peter Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast +Irish estates, including half of “the kingdom of Cork,” were +based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de Carew’s brothers, +Reimund “Fitz William” (known as “Le Gros”) and Griffin +“Fitz William,” took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.</p> + +<p>Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David “Fitz Gerald” +became bishop of St David’s (1147-1176), and their daughter +Angharat mother of Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, <i>q.v.</i>), +the well-known historian and the eulogist of his mother’s family. +A third son, Maurice, obtained from his brother the stewardship +(<i>dapiferatus</i>) of St David’s, c. 1174, and having landed in Ireland +in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod, founded the fortunes +of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford, where he died +and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however, was +the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which +Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were +forced to give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded +him as baron of the Naas and steward of St David’s, but William’s +granddaughter carried the Naas to the Butlers and so to the +Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of Maurice, who obtained +lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice “Fitz Gerald,” who +held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to 1245. +In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal, +Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king +against the Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257. +He held Maynooth Castle, the seat of his descendants.</p> + +<p>Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the +justiciar leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son +Gerald) and a younger son Maurice, of whom the latter was +justiciar for a year in 1272, while the former, as heir male and +head of the race, inherited the Ophaley lands, which he is said +to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John “Fitz Thomas,” +whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle and +town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the +heirs male of his body (May 14th, 1316), Dying shortly after, +he was succeeded by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard +(de Burgh) the “red earl” of Ulster, who received the hereditary +shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar +of Ireland for a year. His younger son Maurice “Fitz Thomas,” +4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed justiciar, and +was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl (1427-1477), who +between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the government +of Ireland as “deputy,” and who founded the “brotherhood +of St George” for the defence of the English Pale. He was also +made lord chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the +8th earl (1477-1513), called “More” (the Great), was deputy +governor of Ireland from 1481 for most of the rest of his life, +though imprisoned in the Tower two years (1494-1496) on +suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while fighting +the Irish as “deputy.” Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1534), +followed in his father’s steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till +the enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his +house, brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of temporary +restorations he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.</p> + +<p>In his anger at his rival’s successes the 9th earl had been led, +it was suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in +England his son Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, “Silken Thomas,” +broke out into open revolt (1534), and declared war on the +government; his followers slew the archbishop of Dublin and +laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made overtures to +the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the +Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege +to his castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by +a long struggle in the field, the earl, deserted by O’Conor, had +eventually to surrender himself to the king’s deputy. He was +sent to the Tower, where he was subsequently joined by his +five uncles, arrested as his accomplices. They were all six +executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of attainder +completed the ruin of the family.</p> + +<p>But the earl’s half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth +was the earl of Surrey’s “fair Geraldine”), a mere boy, had +been carried off, and, after many adventures at home and abroad, +returned to England after Henry VIII.’s death, and to propitiate +the Irish was restored to his estates by Edward VI. (1552). +Having served Mary in Wyat’s rebellion, he was created by her +earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May 1554, but +the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained under +attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion +under Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their +Spanish allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of +treason in 1583. But the acts attainting his family had been +repealed in 1569, and the old earldom was thus regained. In +1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry (“of the Battleaxes”), +who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone rebels +in 1597. On the death of his brother in 1599 the earldom passed +to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by +Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the +ancestral castle of Geashill with its territory and was recognized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span> +in 1620 as Lady Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-1660), +had his castle of Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics +in 1642, and after its subsequent occupation by them in 1646 +it was finally abandoned by the family.</p> + +<p>The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful, +save for the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth +became the seat of the family, until James the 20th earl (1722-1773), +who obtained a viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built +Leinster House in Dublin, and formed a powerful party in the +Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made lord deputy; in 1760 +he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery; and in 1766 he +received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only +Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His +wealth and connexions secured him a commanding position. +Of his younger children one son was created Lord Lecale; +another was the well-known rebel, Lord Edward Fitzgerald; +another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a daughter +was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke +(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received +nearly £30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1883 the +family was still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but, +after a tenure of nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to +sell them to the tenants under the recent Land Purchase Acts. +In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b. 1887) succeeded his father Gerald, +the 5th duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke of Leinster.</p> + +<p>The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond, +who were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent +from Maurice, the founder of the family in Ireland, through a +younger son Thomas. It would seem that Maurice, grandson +of Thomas, was father of Thomas “Fitz Maurice” <i>Nappagh</i> +(“of the ape”), justice of Ireland in 1295, who obtained a grant +of the territory of “Decies and Desmond” in 1292, and died +in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting +vast estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marrying +a daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created +earl of Desmond (<i>i.e.</i> south Munster) on the 22nd of August +1329, and Kerry was made a palatine liberty for him. The +greatest Irish noble of his day, he led the Anglo-Irish party +against the English representatives of the king, and was attacked +as the king’s enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He surrendered in +England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually regained +favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died, +however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in +turn, Gerald, the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar +(<i>i.e.</i> viceroy) in 1367, despite his adopting his father’s policy +which the crown still wished to thwart. But he was superseded +two years later, and defeated and captured by the native king +of Thomond shortly after. Yet his sympathies were distinctly +Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the south-west of +Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native lines, +and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422. +His son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland +as deputy from 1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English +rule by stubborn conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who superseded +him, procured his attainder with that of the earl of Kildare, +on the charge of alliance with the Irish, and he was beheaded on +the 14th of February 1468, his followers in Munster avenging his +death by invading the Pale. His younger son Maurice, earl +from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck’s Irish supporters, +and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James (1520-1529) +was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the +French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession +reverted to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man, at +whose death there was a contest between his younger brother +Sir John “of Desmond” and his grandson James, a court page +of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured possession till his death +(1536), when his son James succeeded <i>de facto</i>, and <i>de jure</i> on the +rightful earl being murdered by the usurper’s younger brother +in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains had by this time +classed the earls among them, but although this James looked +to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent +a part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary +foes of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and +kept Munster quiet and in order for the English till his death +in 1558. His four marriages produced a disputed succession +and a break-up of the family. His eldest son Thomas “Roe” +(the Red) was disinherited, and failed to obtain the earldom, +which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother Gerald +“the rebel earl” (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in +his uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially, +the famous James “Fitz Maurice” Fitz Gerald. Gerald’s +turbulence and his strife with the Butlers led to his detention +in England (1562-1564) and again in 1565-1566. In 1567 +Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence, with his brother, +Sir John “of Desmond,” he was sent to England and the Tower, +and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the +above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas “Roe,” had +usurped his position in his absence and induced the natives to +choose him as “captain” or chieftain of Desmond. He formed +a strong Irish Catholic party and broke into revolt in 1569. +Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled again, till crushed by Perrot +in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return would not join James in +revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But Gerald himself, +after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574), though he +soon submitted to the queen’s forces. On the continent James +Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France +and to Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII. +With the papal nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in +Kerry (June 1579) and called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond +to join him, but the latter assured the English government of +his loyalty, and James was killed in a skirmish. Yet Desmond +was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by being proclaimed +as a traitor (Nov. 1st, 1579), into a miserable rebellion. His +castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a fugitive, +till surprised and beheaded on the 11th of November 1583, after +long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His +ruin is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled +policy. The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres, +were forfeited by act of parliament.</p> + +<p>But the influence of his mighty house was still great among +the Irish. The disinherited Thomas “Roe” left a son James +“Fitz Thomas,” who, succeeding him in 1595 and finding that +the territory of the earls would never be restored, assumed the +earldom and joined O’Neill’s rebellion in 1598, at the head of +8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the fidelity +of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his kinsman +the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he +had married, and sent to the Tower. The “sugan” (sham) +earl lingered there obscurely as “James M’Thomas” till his +death. In consequence of his rebellion and the devotion of the +Irish to his race, James, son of Gerald “the rebel earl,” who +had remained in the Tower since his father’s death (1583), was +restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to Munster in 1600, but +he, known as “the queen’s earl,” could, as a Protestant, do +nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The “sugan” earl’s +brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into Spain, +and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title +and was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the +service of the emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin +of the earls of Desmond and of Kildare had never been forgotten, +and intermarriage had cemented the bond. Just before his +death the exile wrote as “Desmond <i>alias</i> Gerratt Fitz Gerald” +to his “Most Noble Cosen” the earl of Kildare, that “wee must +not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably +observed betweene our antenates and elders.”</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also +of this stock, although their actual origin, in the 12th century, +is doubtful. From a very early date they were feudal lords of +Kerry, and their dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry +VII. in 1489. The isolated position of their territory (“Clanmaurice”) +threw them even more among the Irish than the earls +of Desmond, and they often adopted the native form of their +name, “MacMorrish.” Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry +narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +of Thomas in the rebellion of James “Fitz Maurice” was +suspicious, and his sons joined in that of the earl of Desmond, +while he himself was a rebel in 1582. Patrick, his successor +(1590-1600), was captured in rebellion (1587), and when free, +joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and heir Thomas, who +continued in the field till he obtained pardon and restoration in +1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson withdrew +to France with James II., but the next peer became a +supporter of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir +William Petty, and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From +him descend the family of Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the +marquessate of Lansdowne (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1818, and still hold among +their titles the feudal barony of Kerry together with vast estates +in that county.</p> + +<p>From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of +Desmond’s ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights, +Knights of Glin and Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities +having, it is said, been bestowed upon them by their father, +as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin Castle, county Limerick, +is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of Glin. Valencia +Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who received a +baronetcy in 1880.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Calendars of Irish documents and state papers and +Carew papers; Gilbert’s <i>Viceroys of Ireland</i>; Lord Kildare’s <i>Earls +of Kildare</i>; G.E. C[okayne]’s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; Haymond Graves, +<i>Unpublished Geraldine Documents</i>; <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>; +Calendar of the duke of Leinster’s MSS. in 9th <i>Report on Historical +MSS.</i>, part ii.; Ware’s <i>Annals</i>; J.H. Round’s “Origin of the +Fitzgeralds” and “Origin of the Carews” in the <i>Ancestor</i>; his +“Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley” in <i>Genealogist</i>, ix., +and “Barons of the Naas” in <i>Genealogist</i>, xv.; and his “Decies +and Desmond” in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> xviii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, EDWARD<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1809-1883), English writer, the +poet of Omar Khayyám, was born as <span class="sc">Edward Purcell</span>, at +Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on the 31st of March 1809. His +father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss FitzGerald, assumed +in 1818 the name and arms of his wife’s family. From 1816 to +1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in +the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds. +In 1826 he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where, +some two years later, he became acquainted with Thackeray +and W.H. Thompson. With Tennyson, “a sort of Hyperion,” +his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to live in +Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of +Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly +stationary and rustic life, presently moving into his native +county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a +week or two. Until 1835 the FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; +from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near +Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until 1873 in the +town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house +hard by, <span class="correction" title="amended from ealled">called</span> Little Grange.</p> + +<p>During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost +without interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature. +He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to +push on far before him, and long showed no disposition to +emulate their activity. In 1851 he published his first book, +<i>Euphranor</i>, a Platonic dialogue, born of memories of the old +happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared <i>Polonius</i>, a collection +of “saws and modern instances,” some of them his own, the rest +borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald +began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with +Professor E.B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford +in 1853. In the latter year he issued <i>Six Dramas of Calderon</i>, +freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in +1856 he anonymously published a version of the <i>Salámán and +Absál</i> of Jámi in Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with +which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald’s +correspondence—“Hafiz and <i>Omar Khayyám</i> ring like true +metal.” On the 15th of January 1859 a little anonymous +pamphlet was published as <i>The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám</i>. +In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald’s particular +friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. +The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even +(as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls. +But in 1860 Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord +Houghton quickly followed. The <i>Rubáiyát</i> became slowly +famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged +to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he +had produced in 1865 a version of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, and two more +plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately translations +of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was +<i>Readings in Crabbe</i>, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of +Attar’s <i>Mantic-Uttair</i> under the title of <i>The Bird Parliament</i>.</p> + +<p>From 1861 onwards FitzGerald’s greatest interest had centred +in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a yacht, “The Scandal,” +and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the +“Meum and Tuum.” For some years, till 1871, he spent the +months from June to October mainly in “knocking about +somewhere outside of Lowestoft.” In this way, and among his +books and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. +On the 14th of June 1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep. +He was “an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more +like loves.” In 1885 a stimulus was given to the steady advance +of his fame by the fact that Tennyson dedicated his <i>Tiresias</i> +to FitzGerald’s memory, in some touching reminiscent verses +to “Old Fitz.” This was but the signal for that universal +appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English dress, which has +been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years. +The melody of FitzGerald’s verse is so exquisite, the thoughts +he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the +general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is +so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal +favour which the poem has met with among critical readers. +But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it is now +probably better known to the general public than any single +poem of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers +have almost transcended common sense in the extravagance +of their laudation. FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the +daughter of Bernard Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald +as a man practically nothing was known until, in 1889, Mr W. +Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published +his <i>Letters and Literary Remains</i> in three volumes. This was +followed in 1895 by the <i>Letters to Fanny Kemble</i>. These letters +constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that +FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic letter-writer. +One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived, +FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary +individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English +<i>belles-lettres</i>, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and +1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Works of Edward FitzGerald</i> appeared in 1887. See also +a chronological list of FitzGerald’s works (Caxton Club, Chicago, +1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. W.F. Prideaux, in <i>Notes +and Queries</i> (9th series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901; +<i>Letters and Literary Remains</i> (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903); +and the <i>Life of Edward FitzGerald</i>, by Thomas Wright (1904), +which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of +sources (vol. i. pp. xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the +“English Men of Letters” series is by A.C. Benson. The FitzGerald +centenary was celebrated in March 1909. See the <i>Centenary +Celebrations Souvenir</i> (Ipswich, 1909) and <i>The Times</i> for March 25, +1909.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1763-1798), Irish conspirator, +fifth son of James, 1st duke of Leinster, by his wife +Emilia Mary, daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond, +was born at Carton House, near Dublin, on the 15th of October +1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died, and his widow soon +afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended Lord +Edward’s early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord +Edward served with credit in America on the staff of Lord +Rawdon (afterwards marquess of Hastings), and at the battle +of Eutaw Springs (8th of September 1781) he was severely +wounded, his life being saved by a negro named Tony, whom +Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his life. In +1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the duke +of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament +as member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +Opposition group led by Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>), but took no prominent +part in debate. After spending a short time at Woolwich to +complete his military education, he made a tour through Spain +in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love for his cousin +Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for New +Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major. +The love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young +Irishman found congenial soil in the wild surroundings of unexplored +Canadian forests, and the enthusiasm thus engendered +for the “natural” life of savagery may have been already +fortified by study of Rousseau’s writings, for which at a later +period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In February +1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically +unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling +in with Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in +a subsequent expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit +by the Bear tribe of Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his +way down the Mississippi to New Orleans, whence he returned to +England.</p> + +<p>Finding that his brother had procured his election for the +county of Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independence, +Lord Edward refused the command of an expedition against +Cadiz offered him by Pitt, and devoted himself for the next few +years to the pleasures of society and his parliamentary duties. +He was on terms of intimacy with his relative C.J. Fox, with +R.B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According to Thomas +Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous +suitors of Sheridan’s first wife whose attentions were received +with favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been +its limits, a warm mutual affection subsisted between the two. +His Whig connexions combined with his transatlantic experiences +to predispose Lord Edward to sympathize with the doctrines of +the French Revolution, which he embraced with ardour when +he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged with Thomas Paine, +and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a convivial +gathering on the 18th of November he supported a toast to “the +speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions,” +and gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own +title—a performance for which he was dismissed from the army. +While in Paris Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl +whom he chanced to see at the theatre, and who is said to have +had a striking likeness to Mrs Sheridan. Procuring an introduction +he discovered her to be a <i>protégée</i> of Madame de Sillery, +comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl, whose name was +Pamela (?1776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is some +evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela +was born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims, +the common belief that she was the daughter of Madame de +Genlis herself by Philippe (Égalité), duke of Orleans, was probably +well founded. On the 27th of December 1792 Fitzgerald +and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the witnesses +being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in +January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.</p> + +<p>Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous, +and was finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen, +and in the Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few +years previously, chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare, +to watch the interests of the Catholics. French revolutionary +doctrines had become ominously popular, and no one sympathized +with them more warmly than Lord Edward Fitzgerald, +who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris, returned +to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively +into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he +denounced in the House of Commons a government proclamation, +which Grattan had approved, in language so violent that he +was ordered into custody and required to apologize at the bar +of the House. As early as 1794 the government had information +that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but it was not till +1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after the +recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establishment +of an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald +Wolfe Tone was in Paris endeavouring to obtain French assistance +for an insurrection in Ireland. In the same month Fitzgerald +and his friend Arthur O’Connor proceeded to Hamburg, +where they opened negotiations with the Directory through +Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke +of York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way +through London with her husband, had told her that “all was +known” about his plans, and advised her to persuade him not +to go abroad. The proceedings of the conspirators at Hamburg +were made known to the government in London by an informer, +Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband’s +secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and +she appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her, +though there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled +prudence. The result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche’s +abortive expedition to Bantry Bay in December 1796. In +September 1797 the government learnt from the informer +MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing the +conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly +maturing. He was specially concerned with the military organization, +in which he held the post of colonel of the Kildare +regiment and head of the military committee. He had papers +showing that 280,000 men were ready to rise. They possessed +some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the leaders were +hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency and to +give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving +dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided +in opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without +waiting for foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates +of the bolder course. His opinions and his proposals for action +were alike violent. He was on intimate terms with apologists +for assassination; there is some evidence that he favoured a +project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in procession +to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May +1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that +converted Thomas Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer; +at all events, by him and several others the authorities were kept +posted in what was going on, though lack of evidence producible +in court delayed the arrest of the ringleaders. But on the 12th +of March 1798 Reynolds’ information led to the seizure of a +number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond. Lord +Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them. +The government were anxious to save him from the consequences +of his own folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family, +“for God’s sake get this young man out of the country; the ports +shall be thrown open, and no hindrance whatever offered.” +Fitzgerald with chivalrous recklessness refused to desert others +who could not escape, and whom he had himself led into danger. +On the 30th of March a proclamation establishing martial law +and authorizing the military to act without orders from the civil +magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting cruelty in +several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.</p> + +<p>The government had now no choice but to secure if possible +the person of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position +more than his abilities made him the most important factor +in the conspiracy. On the 11th of May a reward of £1000 was +offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was the date +fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond’s, Fitzgerald +had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a feather +dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in +disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and +generally observed less caution than his situation required. +The conspiracy was honeycombed with treachery, and it was +long a matter of dispute to whose information the government +were indebted for Fitzgerald’s arrest; but it is no longer open +to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was disclosed by a +Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated reward +was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer. +On the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to +Murphy’s house with Major H.C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord +Edward was discovered in bed. A desperate scuffle took place, +Ryan being mortally wounded by Fitzgerald with a dagger, +while Lord Edward himself was only secured after Sirr had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He was +conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare +he was visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his +wound on the 4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed +in 1819) was passed, confiscating his property; and his wife—against +whom the government probably possessed sufficient +evidence to secure a conviction for treason—was compelled +to leave the country before her husband had actually +expired.</p> + +<p>Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward +himself, and whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression +on Robert Southey, repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she +married J. Pitcairn, the American consul. Since her marriage +with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved and esteemed +by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her second +marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient +evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct +as open to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately +devoted to the memory of her first husband; and she died in +Paris in November 1831. A portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre. +She had three children by Lord Edward Fitzgerald: Edward +Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of General Sir Guy +Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon, R.N.</p> + +<p>Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome +features. His character and career have been made the subject +of eulogies much beyond their merits. He had, indeed, a winning +personality, and a warm, affectionate and generous nature, +which made him greatly beloved by his family and friends; +he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic, adventurous. +But he was entirely without the weightier qualities requisite +for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs. Hotheaded +and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as conspicuously +deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratorical +genius of such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of +his associates in conspiracy described him as “weak and not fit +to command a sergeant’s guard, but very zealous.” Reinhard, +who considered Arthur O’Connor “a far abler man,” accurately +read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald as that of a young +man “incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank, energetic, and +likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no +experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be +chief of a great party or leader in a difficult enterprise.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thomas Moore, <i>Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i> +(2 vols., London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled <i>The Memoirs +of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i>, edited with supplementary particulars +by Martin MacDermott (London, 1897); R.R. Madden, <i>The +United Irishmen</i> (7 vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C.H. Teeling, +<i>Personal Narrative of the Irish Rebellion of 1798</i> (Belfast, 1832); +W.J. Fitzpatrick, <i>The Sham Squire, The Rebellion of Ireland and the +Informers of 1798</i> (Dublin, 1866), and <i>Secret Service under Pitt</i> +(London, 1892); J.A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth +Century</i> (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of +England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vols. vii. and viii. (London, +1896); Thomas Reynolds the younger, <i>The Life of Thomas Reynolds</i> +(London, 1839); <i>The Life and Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox</i>, +edited by the countess of Ilchester and Lord Stavordale (London, +1901); Ida A. Taylor, <i>The Life of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i> (London, +1903), which gives a prejudiced and distorted picture of Pamela. +For particulars of Pamela, and especially as to the question of +her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, <i>Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald</i> +(London, 1904); <i>Memoirs of Madame de Genlis</i> (London, +1825); Georgette Ducrest, <i>Chroniques populaires</i> (Paris, 1855); +Thomas Moore, <i>Memoirs of the Life of R.B. Sheridan</i> (London, +1825).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, RAYMOND,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Redmond</span> (d. <i>ca.</i> 1182), +surnamed Le Gros, was the son of William Fitzgerald and brother +of Odo de Carew. He was sent by Strongbow to Ireland in 1170, +and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford, where he was +besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and Ostmen, +whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow’s second in command, +and had the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the +successful assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to +hand over Strongbow’s conquests to Henry II., but was back +in Dublin in July 1171, when he led one of the sallies from the +town. Strongbow offended him later by refusing him the +marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de Quenci, constable +of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and Hervey +de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak +of a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned +with his uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of +marriage with Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a +series of successes, and with the fall of Limerick in October +1175 order was restored. Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained +Raymond’s recall on the ground that his power threatened the +royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a fresh outbreak +at Limerick, the earl’s troops refusing to march without +him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until +the arrival of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over +the royal fortresses. He was deprived of his estates near Dublin +and Wexford, but the Geraldines secured the recall of Fitz +Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their power and influence. +In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen, who was +besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to +be 1182, is not known.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (10th earl of Kildare), +(1513-1537), the eldest son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of +Kildare, was born in London in 1513. He spent much of his +youth in England, but in 1534 when his father was for the +third time summoned to England to answer for his maladministration +as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held at +Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the +Ormond faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been +executed in the Tower, and that his son’s life was to be attempted. +Inflamed with rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode +at the head of his retainers<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> into Dublin, and before the council +for Ireland (the 11th of June 1534) formally renounced his +allegiance to the king and proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies, +including Archbishop John Allen (of Dublin), who had been set +by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took refuge in Dublin +Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was taken +by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by +Fitzgerald’s servants in his presence, but whether actually by +his orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for +absolution, but was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish +Church. Leaving part of his army (with the consent of the +citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle, Fitzgerald himself went against +Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and succeeded at first in making +a truce with him. But the citizens of Dublin now rose against +him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of an English +army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the English +army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but +taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir +William Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth +ravaged Kildare and Meath throughout the winter. He had now +succeeded to the earldom of Kildare, his father having died in +the Tower on the 13th of December 1534, but he does not seem +to have been known by that title. In March Skeffington +stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which was +defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese, +Fitzgerald’s foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535, +and most of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved +the final blow to the rebellion. The news of what is known as +the “pardon of Maynooth” reached Fitzgerald as he was +returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his men fell +away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail +for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months +in raids against the English and their allies, but his party gradually +deserting him, on the 18th of August 1535 he surrendered +himself to Lord Leonard Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he +made some conditions, but what they were is very uncertain. +He was taken to England and placed in the Tower. In February +1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with great injustice, +seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were hanged +at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder +against them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +Irish and English parliaments; but the family estates were +restored by Edward VI. to Gerald, 11th earl of Kildare (stepbrother +of Thomas), and the attainder was repealed by Queen +Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances, youngest +daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Richard Stanihurst, <i>Chronicles of Ireland</i> (vol. ii. +of <i>Holinshed’s Chronicles</i>); Sir James Ware, <i>Rerum Hibernicarum +annales</i> (Dublin, 1664); <i>The Earls of Kildare</i>, by C.W. Fitzgerald, +duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, <i>Ireland under +the Tudors</i> (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); <i>Calendar State Papers, +Hen. VIII., Irish</i>; G. E. C.’s <i>Peerage</i>; John Lodge, <i>Peerage of +Ireland</i>, ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of “Silken Thomas,” +either from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished +manners.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1470-1538), English jurist, +was born at Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford, +he was called to the English bar, and in 1523 became justice of +the Court of Common Pleas, the duties of which office he continued +to discharge till within a short time of his death in 1538. +As a judge he left behind him a high reputation for fairness and +integrity, and his legal learning is sufficiently attested by his +published works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He is the author of <i>La Graunde Abridgement</i>, a digest of important +legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; <i>The Office +and Authority of Justices of the Peace</i>, first printed in 1538 (last ed. +1794); the <i>New Natura Brevium</i> (1534, last ed. 1794), with a +commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are +sometimes attributed the <i>Book of Husbandry</i> (1523), the first published +work on agriculture in the English language, and the <i>Book of Surveying +and Improvements</i> (1523) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZHERBERT, THOMAS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1552-1640), English Jesuit, +was the eldest son and heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton +in Staffordshire, and grandson of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, +judge of the common pleas. He was educated at Oxford, where, +at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy. On +his release he went to London, where he was a member of the +association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits +Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew +to the continent, where he was active in the cause of Mary, +queen of Scots. He married in this year Dorothy, daughter of +Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire. After the death +of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the recommendation +of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king. He +continued his intrigues against the English government, and in +1598 he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen +Elizabeth. After this he was for a short while in the service of +the duke of Feria at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was +ordained priest (1601-1602) and became agent for the English +clergy. He was unpopular with them, however, owing to his +subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the agency in 1607 +owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest George +Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was +appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616, +and in 1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held +this post to within a year of his death, which occurred at Rome +on the 7th of August (O.S.) 1640.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Father Fitzherbert, who is described as “a person of excellent +parts, a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous +spirit,” wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in +the article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the <i>Dictionary of +National Biography</i>, together with authorities for his life.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ NEAL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> or (<span class="sc">Fitz Nigel</span>), <b>RICHARD</b> (d. 1198), treasurer +of Henry II. and Richard I. of England, and bishop of London, +belonged to a great administrative family whose fortunes were +closely linked with those of Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I. +The founder of the family was Roger, bishop of Salisbury, the +great minister of Henry I. Before the death of that sovereign +(1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his nephew, +Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the +whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a +partisan of the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession +of her son, Henry II., who made him at first chancellor and +then treasurer. Nigel’s son, Richard, who was born before his +father’s elevation to the episcopate (1133), succeeded to the +office of treasurer in 1158, and held it continuously for forty +years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant justices for +1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which he +exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln, +and was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among +three select candidates for the vacant see. The king passed +him over in favour of Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this +occasion to make a disinterested appointment. Richard I., +however, rewarded the treasurer’s services with the see of London +(1189).</p> + +<p>Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked +the broad statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided +any connexion with political parties; he is only once mentioned +as taking part in a debate of the Great Council (1193), and then +spoke, in his character as a bishop, to support a royal demand for +a special aid. But his work <i>De necessariis observantiis Scaccarii +dialogus</i>, commonly called the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>, is of unique +interest to the historian. It is an account, in two books, of the +procedure followed by the exchequer in the author’s time. +Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm because, +as he explains, the “course” of the exchequer was largely the +creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the +Pipe Rolls the <i>Dialogus</i> furnishes a most faithful and detailed +picture of English fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The +speakers in the dialogue are Richard himself and an anonymous +pupil. The latter puts leading questions which Richard answers +in elaborate fashion. The date of the conversation is given +in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks the date +at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178 +or 1179. Soon after the author’s death we find it already recognized +as the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was +frequently transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians +of every period. Hence it is the more necessary to insist that +the historical statements which the treatise contains are sometimes +demonstrably erroneous; the author appears to have +relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as the work is only +known to us through transcripts, it is possible that some of the +blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected zeal +of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years +a register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three +parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the +time when he wrote the <i>Dialogus</i>, but has since disappeared. +Stubbs’ conjectural identification of this <i>Liber tricolumnis</i> with +the first part of the <i>Gesta Henrici</i> (formerly attributed to +Benedictus Abbas) is now abandoned as untenable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Madox’s edition in his <i>History of the Exchequer</i> (1769); and +that of A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902). +F. Liebermann’s <i>Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario</i> (Göttingen, +1875) contains the fullest account of the author.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom +of Hereford and the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in +1071. He did not keep on good terms with William the Conqueror, +and in 1075, disregarding the king’s prohibition, married +his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, at the famous +bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two earls +rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west +to join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the +Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought +into the field against him. On the collapse of his confederate’s +rising, Roger was tried before the Great Council, deprived of +his lands and earldom, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; +but he was released, with other political prisoners, at the death +of William I. in 1087.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> Earl of Hereford (d. 1071), +was an intimate friend of William the Conqueror, and the +principal agent in preparing for the invasion of England. He +received the earldom of Hereford with the special duty of pushing +into Wales. During William’s absence in 1067, Fitz-Osbern +was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from +the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also +acted as William’s lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069. +In 1070 William sent him to assist Queen Matilda in the government +of Normandy. But Richilde, widow of Baldwin VI. of +Flanders, having offered to marry him if he would protect her +son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern accepted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed, +fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vols. iii. and iv.; Sir James +Ramsay, <i>Foundations of England</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (d. 1196), was a Londoner of good +position who had served in the Third Crusade, and on his return +took up the cause of the poorer citizens against the magnates +who monopolized the government of London and assessed the +taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It is affirmed that +he entered on this course of action through a quarrel with his +elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears +to be mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives +Fitz Osbert a high character, and he was implicitly trusted by +the poorer citizens. He attempted to procure redress for them +from the king; but the city magistrates persuaded the justiciar +Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and his followers meditated +plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were sent to seize +the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St +Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily +dragged to execution at Tyburn.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief +justiciar of England, began his official career in the later years +of Henry II., whom he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and +a justice of the forest. During Richard’s absence on Crusade +he was one of the five justices of the king’s court who stood next +in authority to the regent, Longchamp. It was at this time +(1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of Essex, in the +right of his wife, who was descended from the famous Geoffrey +de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights +over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Longchamp, +and revenged himself by taking an active part in the +baronial agitation through which the regent was expelled from +his office. The king, however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share +in these proceedings; and, though refusing to give him formal +investiture of the Essex earldom, appointed him justiciar in +succession to Hubert Walter (1198). In this capacity Fitz +Peter continued his predecessor’s policy of encouraging foreign +trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter +received, during his administration, charters of self-government. +He was continued in his office by John, who found him a useful +instrument and described him in an official letter as “indispensable +to the king and kingdom.” He proved himself an able +instrument of extortion, and profited to no small extent by the +spoliation of church lands in the period of the interdict. But +he was too closely connected with the baronage to be altogether +trusted by the king. The contemporary <i>Histoire des ducs</i> +describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of disgrace and +confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured to act +as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his +mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I. +(at the council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz +Peter died a few weeks later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed +to Peter des Roches, one of the unpopular foreign favourites. +Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted nor a disinterested statesman; +but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert Walter, and maintained +the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the first and +second Henries had founded.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I. +and John. Also Miss K. Norgate’s <i>Angevin England</i>, vol. ii. (1887), +and <i>John Lackland</i> (1902); A. Ballard in <i>English Historical Review</i>, +xiv. p. 93; H.W.C. Davis’ <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i> +(1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZROY, ROBERT<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1805-1865), English, vice-admiral, +distinguished as a hydrographer and meteorologist, was born +at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the 5th of July 1805, being a grandson, +on the father’s side, of the third duke of Grafton, and on the +mother’s, of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered the +navy from the Royal Naval College, then a school for cadets, +on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of September 1824 +was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in the +“Thetis” frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South +America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain +Bingham, he was in August 1828 appointed to the “Ganges,” +as flag-lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the +commander-in-chief on the South American station; and on the +death of Commander Stokes of the “Beagle,” on the 13th of +November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The +“Beagle,” a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had +been for the two previous years, employed on the survey of the +coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of +Commander King in the “Adventure,” and, together with the +“Adventure,” returned to England in the autumn of 1830. +Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one of whom +died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the +others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a +rudimentary knowledge of religion and of some useful handicrafts; +and, as he had pledged himself to restore them to their +native country, he was making preparations in the summer of the +following year to carry them back in a merchant ship bound to +Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to the “Beagle,” +to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The “Beagle” +sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying +as a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous +naturalist. After an absence of nearly five years, and having, +in addition to the survey of the Straits of Magellan and a great +part of the coast of South America, run a chronometric line round +the world, thus fixing the longitude of many secondary meridians +with sufficient exactness for all the purposes of ordinary navigation, +the “Beagle” anchored at Falmouth on the 2nd of October +1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the rank of captain +and was now for the next few years principally employed in +reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he +was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; +and in 1839 he published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative +of the voyage of the “Adventure” and “Beagle,” 1826-1830, +and of the “Beagle,” 1831-1836, with a third volume by Darwin—a +book familiarly known as a record of scientific travel. Of +Fitzroy’s work as a surveyor, carried on under circumstances +of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit that +was semi-officially denounced as “shabby,” Sir Francis Beaufort, +the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the +House of Commons, 10th of February 1848, that “from the +equator to Cape Horn, and from thence round to the river +Plata on the eastern side of America, all that is <i>immediately</i> +wanted has been already achieved by the splendid survey of +Captain Robert Fitzroy.” This was written before steamships +made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The +survey that was sufficient then became afterwards very far +from sufficient.</p> + +<p>In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of +Ipswich, and in the following year was returned to parliament +as member for Durham. About the same time he accepted the +post of conservator of the Mersey, and in his double capacity +obtained leave to bring in a bill for improving the condition and +efficiency of officers in the mercantile marine. This was not +proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the “voluntary +certificate” instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and +furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act +of 1850.</p> + +<p>Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-in-chief +of New Zealand, then recently established as a colony. +He arrived in his government in December, whilst the excitement +about the Wairau massacre was still fresh, and the questions +relating to the purchase of land from the natives were in a very +unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were greedy and unscrupulous; +Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret of +his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant +elements agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the +governor; the governor did not conciliate the settlers, who +denounced his policy as adverse to their interests, as unjust +and illegal; colonial feeling against him ran very high; petition +after petition for his recall was sent home, and the government +was compelled to yield to the pressure brought to bear on it. +Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in November 1845.</p> + +<p>In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +of the dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the +command of the “Arrogant,” one of the early screw frigates +which had been fitted out under his supervision, and with +which it was desired to carry out a series of experiments and +trials. When these were finished he applied to be superseded, +on account at once of his health and of his private affairs. In +February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor +did he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by +seniority to the ranks of rear-and vice-admiral on the retired +list (1857, 1863). In 1851 he was elected a fellow of the Royal +Society, and in 1854, after serving for a few months as private +secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then commander-in-chief +of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological department +of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the peculiar +title of “Meteorological Statist.”</p> + +<p>From the date of his joining the “Beagle” in 1828 he had +paid very great attention to the different phenomena foreboding +or accompanying change of weather, and his narratives of the +voyages of the “Adventure” and “Beagle” are full of interesting +and valuable details concerning these. Accordingly, when +in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal Society, +was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its +newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without +hesitation, nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became +from that time identified with the progress of practical meteorology. +His <i>Weather Book</i>, published in 1863, embodies in broad +outline his views, far in advance of those then generally held; +and in spite of the rapid march of modern science, it is still +worthy of careful attention and exact study. His storm warnings, +in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of empiricism, were +gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and gave a high +percentage of correct results. They were continued for eighteen +months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and +though stopped when the department was transferred to the +management of a committee of the Royal Society, they were +resumed a few months afterwards; and under the successive +direction of Dr R.H. Scott and Dr W.N. Shaw, have been +developed into what we now know them. But though it is +perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy’s name has been +most generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of +gratitude, not only for his labours in reducing to a more practical +form the somewhat complicated wind charts of Captain Maury, +but also for his great exertions in connexion with the life-boat +association. Into this work, in its many ramifications, he threw +himself with the energy of an excitable temperament, already +strained by his long and anxious service in the Straits of Magellan. +His last years were fully and to an excessive degree occupied +by it; his health, both of body and mind, threatened to give +way; but he refused to take the rest that was prescribed. In +a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence on the +30th of April 1865.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his works already named mention may be made of <i>Remarks +on New Zealand</i> (1846); <i>Sailing Directions for South America</i> (1848); +his official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865); and occasional +papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the +Royal United Service Institution.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. K. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZROY,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, +2 m. by rail N.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901) +31,610. It is a prosperous manufacturing town, well served with +tramways and containing many fine residences.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh +princess and former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable +of Cardigan, whom Robert succeeded in that office, took service +with Dermot of Leinster when that king visited England (1167), +In 1169 Robert led the vanguard of Dermot’s Anglo-Welsh +auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford, which he was then +allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald. Taken +prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to +Henry II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of +Ireland, Hugh de Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the +troubles of 1173, and was rewarded by receiving, jointly with +Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177). He had difficulty in maintaining +his position and was nearly overwhelmed by a rising of +Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is uncertain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1190), biographer of Thomas +Becket and royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered +Becket’s service at some date between 1154 and 1162. The +chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in legal work, made him +sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a confidant. Fitz +Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of Northampton +(1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to the +world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined +Becket’s household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the +tragedy in Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most +valuable among the extant biographies of his patron. Though +he writes as a partisan he gives a precise account of the differences +between Becket and the king. This biography contains +a description of London which is our chief authority for the +social life of the city in the 12th century. Despite his connexion +with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial preferment +from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171 +to 1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-1190.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his “Vita S. Thomae” in J.C. Robertson’s <i>Materials for the +History of Thomas Becket</i>, vol. iii. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T.D. +Hardy, in his <i>Catalogue of Materials</i>, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865), +discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W.H. +Hutton, <i>St Thomas of Canterbury</i>, pp. 272-274 (1889), gives an +account of the author.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (d. 1274), London chronicler and +merchant, was born in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both +his parents were of German extraction. The family of his mother +migrated to England from Cologne in the reign of Henry II.; +his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of Bremen who had +been attracted to London by the privileges which the Plantagenets +conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in +time to his father’s wealth and position. He held an honourable +position among the Hanse traders, and became their “alderman.” +He was also, as he tells us himself, alderman of a London ward +and an active partisan in municipal politics. In the Barons’ +War he took the royal side against the populace and the mayor +Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party planned, in 1265, to +try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he was saved by the +news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very day +appointed for the trial. Even after the king’s triumph Arnold +suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that +he should be unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon +the city. He appealed for help to Henry III., and again to +Edward I., with the result that his liability was diminished. +In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to whose keeping the +muniments of the city were entrusted. To this circumstance +we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. <i>Chronica +Maiorum et Vicecomitum</i>, which begins at the year 1188 and is +continued to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of +curious information. Though municipal in its outlook, it is +valuable for the general history of the kingdom, owing to the +important part which London played in the agitation against +the misrule of Henry III. We have the king’s word for the fact +that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent from +the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means +blind to the faults of Henry’s government, but preferred an +autocracy to the mob-rule which Simon de Montfort countenanced +in London. Arnold died in 1274; the last fact recorded of him +is that, in this year, he joined in a successful appeal to the king +against the illegal grants which had been made by the mayor, +Walter Hervey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum</i>, with the other contents of +Arnold’s common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society +by T. Stapleton (1846), under the title <i>Liber de Antiquis Legibus</i>. +Our knowledge of Arnold’s life comes from the <i>Chronica</i> and his +own biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited +in G.H. Pertz’s <i>Mon. Germaniae historica, Scriptores</i>, vol. xxviii. +See also J.M. Lappenberg’s <i>Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen +Stahlhofes zu London</i> (Hamburg, 1851).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZWALTER, ROBERT<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (d. 1235), leader of the baronial +opposition against King John of England, belonged to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +official aristocracy created by Henry I. and Henry II. He +served John in the Norman wars, and was taken prisoner by +Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was +implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his +own statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest +daughter; but Robert’s account of his grievances varied from +time to time. The truth seems to be that he was irritated by +the suspicion with which John regarded the new baronage. +Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to France. He was outlawed, +but returned under a special amnesty after John’s reconciliation +with the pope. He continued, however, to take the lead in the +baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak of +hostilities was elected “marshal of the army of God and Holy +Church” (1215). To his influence in London it was due that his +party obtained the support of the city and used it as their base +of operations. The famous clause of Magna Carta (§ 39) prohibiting +sentences of exile, except as the result of a lawful trial, +refers more particularly to his case. He was one of the twenty-five +appointed to enforce the promises of Magna Carta; and his +aggressive attitude was one of the causes which contributed to +the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent leadership +made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of France. +He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and +was the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered +London. Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his +natural lord, he served Louis with fidelity until captured at the +battle of Lincoln (May 1217). Released on the conclusion of +peace he joined the Damietta crusade of 1219, but returned at an +early date to make his peace with the regency. The remainder of +his career was uneventful; he died peacefully in 1235.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The <i>Histoire des +ducs de Normandie et des rois d’Angleterre</i> (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840) +gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K. +Norgate’s <i>John Lackland</i> (1902), W. McKechnie’s <i>Magna Carta</i> +(1905), and Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897), +should also be consulted.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1526-1599), lord deputy of +Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576) +of Milton, Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson +of another Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and +sheriff of London, who was also treasurer and chamberlain to +Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton in 1506. On his +mother’s side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell, 1st earl of +Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to +Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a +member of the Irish House of Commons; and between this date +and 1571 he was (during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe, +earl of Sussex, and of his successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times +lord justice of Ireland. In 1571 Fitzwilliam himself was appointed +lord deputy, but like Elizabeth’s other servants he received little +or no money, and his period of government was marked by +continuous penury and its attendant evils, inefficiency, mutiny +and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy quarrelled with +the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton (1527-1579), +but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He +disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he +had a further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness +he was allowed to resign his office. Returning to England in +1575 he was governor of Fotheringhay Castle at the time of +Mary Stuart’s execution. In 1588 Fitzwilliam was again in +Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and ill he displayed +great activity in leading expeditions, and found time to quarrel +with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of +Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later +he died at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne, +daughter of Sir William Sidney, were descended the barons and +earls Fitzwilliam.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, vol. ii. (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> +<span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1748-1833), English statesman, was the son of the +1st earl (peerage of the United Kingdom), who died in 1756. +The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed descent from a natural +son of William the Conqueror, and among its earlier members +were a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of London, +who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in Northamptonshire, +and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see +above). The latter’s grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620; +and in later generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and +Earl Fitzwilliam (1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton +(1742) and Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were +added. These were all in the English house of the Fitzwilliams +of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the Irish Fitzwilliams +of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English family +who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the 12th +century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam +died out with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these +was Richard, 7th viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam +library and a fund for creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to +Cambridge University.</p> + +<p>The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in +Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the +marquess of Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth +estates in Yorkshire, and thus became one of the wealthiest +noblemen of the day. He had been at Eton with C.J. Fox, +and became an active supporter of the Whig party; and in 1794, +with the duke of Portland, Windham and other “old Whigs” +he joined Pitt’s cabinet, becoming president of the council. At +the end of the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy. +Fitzwilliam, however, had set his face against the jobbery of the +Protestant leaders, and threw himself warmly into Grattan’s +scheme for admitting the Catholics to political power; and in +March 1795 he was recalled, his action being disavowed by Pitt, +the result of a series of misunderstandings which appeared to +Fitzwilliam to give him just cause of complaint. The quarrel +was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam was appointed +lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He continued +to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president +of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in +opposition. He died in February 1833, his son, Charles William +Wentworth, the 3rd earl (1786-1857), and later earls, being +notable figures in the politics and social life of the north of +England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIUME<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Slav. <i>Rjeka</i>, <i>Rieka</i> or <i>Reka</i>, Ger. <i>St Veit am Flaum</i>), +a royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern +extremity of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and +on a small stream called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m. +by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop. (1900) 38,955; including 17,354 +Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs and Slovenes), 2482 Hungarians +and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume belongs to +Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7 sq. m., +became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque +old town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst; +while the modern town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric +light and electric trams, is crowded into the amphitheatre left +between the hills and the shore. On the north-west there is a +fine public garden. The most interesting buildings are the +cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377, and completed +with a modern façade copied from that of the Pantheon +in Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria +della Salute in Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with +offerings from shipwrecked sailors, and approached by a stairway +of 400 steps. In the old town is a Roman triumphal arch, said +to have been erected during the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> in honour +of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a theatre and +a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian emperor; +a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of +commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an +industrial home for boys; and several large schools, including +the marine academy (1856) and the school of seamanship (1903). +Municipal affairs are principally managed by the Italians, who +sympathize with the Hungarians against the Slavs.</p> + +<p>Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country +it was connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through +Karlstadt. It has two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch +of the southern railway from Vienna to Trieste, the other of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +Hungarian state railway from Karlstadt. There are several +harbours, including the <i>Porto Canale</i>, for coasting vessels; the +<i>Porto Baross</i>, for timber; and the <i>Porto Grande</i>, sheltered by +the <i>Maria Theresia</i> mole and breakwater, besides four lesser +moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators. +The development of the <i>Porto Grande</i>, originally named the +<i>Porto Nuovo</i>, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals +as trade increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the +construction of a new mole and an enlargement of the quays +and breakwater; these works to be completed within 5 years, +at a cost of £420,000. The exports, worth £6,460,000 in 1902, +chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and horses; the +imports, worth £3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine, rice, +fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large +share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-Croat +and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized +by the state. A steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian +emigrants, officially numbered in 1902 at 7500, passes through +Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of 1,963,000 tons, entered +at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000, cleared. Foremost +among the industrial establishments are Whitehead’s torpedo +factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie’s paper-mill, the royal tobacco +factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries +and rope manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard +was closed. The soil of the surrounding country is stony, but +the climate is warm, and wine is extensively produced. The +Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply of fish, and the tunny +trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable importance. +Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort +of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of +Veglia and Cherso.</p> + +<p>Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian +town <i>Tersatica</i>; later it received the name of <i>Vitopolis</i>, and +eventually that of <i>Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen</i>, from which its +present name is derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne +in 799, from which time it probably long remained under the +dominion of the Franks. It was held in feudal tenure from the +patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and afterwards, +in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the end +of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts +of Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor +Frederick III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the +house of Austria. From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by +imperial governors. In 1723 it was declared a free port by Charles +VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by the empress Maria Theresa, and +in 1779 declared a <i>corpus separatum</i> of the Hungarian crown. +In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it was retaken +by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the following +year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the revolution +of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under +the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian +control in 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIVES,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a ball-game played by two or four players in a court +enclosed on three or four sides, the ball being struck with the +hand, usually protected by a glove, whence the game is known +in America as “handball.” The origin of the game is probably +the French <i>jeu de paume</i>, tennis played with the hand, the hand +in that case being eventually superseded by the racquet. Fives +and racquets are probably both descended from the <i>jeu de paume</i>, +of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may be +derived from <i>la longue paume</i>, in which five on a side played, or +from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be +made by the winners (in modern times the game consists of +fifteen points). Fives is played in Great Britain principally +at the schools and universities, although its encouragement is +included in the functions of the Tennis Racquets and Fives +Association, founded in 1908. In America it is much affected +for training purposes by professional athletes and boxers. There +are two forms of fives—the Eton game and the Rugby game—which +require separate notice, though the main features of +the two games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the +service, the necessity of hitting the ball before the second +bounce, and of hitting it above a line and within the limits of +the court.</p> + +<p><i>Eton Fives.</i>—The peculiar features of the Eton court arose +from the fact that in early times the game was played against +the chapel-wall, so that buttresses formed side walls and the +balustrade of the chapel-steps projected into the court, while +a step divided the court latitudinally. These were reproduced +in the regular courts, the buttress being known as the “pepper-box” +and the space between it and the step as the “hole.” +The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved; +there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as +the “line,” 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted; +3 ft. 8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play, +two against two; one of each pair plays in the forward court, +the other in the back court. The server stands on the left of +the forward court, his partner in the right-hand corner of the back +court; the taker of the service by the right wall of the forward +court, his partner at the left-hand corner of the back court. The +forward court is known as “on-wall,” the other as “off-wall.” +The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall, +above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls +on the “off-wall,” but the server’s object is not, as at tennis +and racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At +fives he must send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed +hand-out can refuse to take any service that he does not like, and +if he fails to return the ball above the line no stroke is counted. +After the service has been returned either of the opponents +returns the ball if he can, and so on, each side and either member +of it returning the ball above the line alternately till one side +or the other hits it below the line or out of court. Only hand-in +can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores a point; +if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner becomes +server, unless he has already served in this round, in which case +the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points. +If the score is “13 all,” the out side may “set” the game to +5 or 3; <i>i.e.</i> the game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at “14 all” +it may be set to three. The game and its terminology being +somewhat intricate, can best be learnt in the court. No apparatus +is required except padded gloves and fives-balls, which are +covered with white leather tightly stretched over a hard foundation +of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls are +1¾ in. in diameter and weigh about 1¼ oz. apiece.</p> + +<p><i>Rugby Fives</i> is much less complicated owing to the simpler +form of the court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &c., +are the same as in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The +courts are larger, measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may +be roofed or open. The side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft. +Some courts have a dwarf back wall, some have none. The +back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in. in height. In some +courts the side walls are plain; in others, where there is no +back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right angles +to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the <i>tambour</i> +of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall about 10 ft. +from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court. +The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its +upper edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.</p> + +<p><i>Handball</i>, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played +in the United States, is practically identical with fives, though +there are minor differences. The usual American court is about +60 ft. long, 24½ ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to +33 ft. at the back wall. The front wall is of brick faced with +marble, the sides of cement and the floor of white pine laid on +beams 10 in. apart. These are the dimensions of the Brooklyn +court of the former American champion, Phil Casey (d. 1904), +which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces constitute +a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball +is a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a “red +ace” when made of solid red rubber, and “black ace” when +made of black rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his +prime about 1855, was the most celebrated Irish handball player. +In his day nearly every village tavern in Ireland had a court. +Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish championship in 1885, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +were his most prominent successors. In America Phil Casey +and Michael Egan are the best-known names.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Tait’s <i>Fives</i> in the All England Series: “Fives” in the +<i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; and <i>Official Handball Guide</i> in Spalding’s +Athletic Library.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIX, THÉODORE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1800-1846), French journalist and economist, +was born at Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His +father was a French physician whose ancestors had been expatriated +by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. At first a +land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the <i>Bulletin +universal des sciences</i>, to which he contributed most of the +geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the <i>Revue mensuelle +d’économie politique</i>, which he edited during the three years +of its existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work, +till his essay on <i>L’Association des douanes allemandes</i> won him a +prize from the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in +1840, and also procured him work on the report on the progress +of sciences since the Revolution, which the Institute was preparing. +A few months before his death he published <i>Observations +sur les classes ouvrières</i>, in which he argued against all attempts +to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and attributed the +condition of the working classes to their own thriftlessness and +intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st of July +1846.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIXTURES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Lat. <i>figere</i>, to fix), in law, chattels which have +been so fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law, +“so annexed to the freehold”), as to become, in contemplation +of law, a part of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction +for certain purposes, between immovables and movables, between +real and personal property, between land and all other things. +In the case of fixtures the question arises under which set of +rights they are to fall—under those of real or of personal property. +The general rule of English law is that everything attached to +the land goes with the land—<i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i>. +This, like many other rules of English law, is all in favour of the +freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large +number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the +courts as occasion arose.</p> + +<p>In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree +of annexation to the land, or to a building which forms part of it. +Thus it has been held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but +not fixed to the ground itself, is not a fixture; and the onus +of showing that articles not otherwise attached to the land than +by their own weight have ceased to be chattels, rests with those +who assert the fact. On the other hand, an article, even slightly +affixed to the land, is to be considered part of it, unless the +circumstances show that it was intended to remain a chattel. +The question is one of fact in each case—depending mainly on +the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possibility +of the removal of the article without injury to itself or the +freehold. In certain cases the courts have recognized a constructive +annexation, when the articles, though not fixed to the soil, +pass with the freehold as if they were, <i>e.g.</i> the keys of a house, +the stones of a dry wall, and the detached or duplicate portions +of machines.</p> + +<p>Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise—(1) +between landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor, +(3) between executor and remainder-man or reversioner, (4) +between seller and buyer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the +freehold during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the +permission of his landlord. But an exception was established in +favour of <i>trade fixtures</i>. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that +a soap-boiler might, <i>during his term</i>, remove the vats he had set up +for trade purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom, +but “by the common law in favour of trade, and to encourage +industry,” and it may be stated as a general rule that things which +a tenant has fixed to the freehold for the purpose of trade or manufacture +may be taken away by him, whenever the removal is not +contrary to any prevailing practice, or the particular terms of the +contract of tenancy, and can be effected without causing material +injury to the estate or destroying the essential character of the +articles themselves (<i>Lambourn</i> v. <i>M<span class="sp">c</span>Lellan</i>, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agricultural +tenants are not entitled, at common law, to remove trade +fixtures. But the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such +a right of removal in the case of buildings or machinery erected by a +tenant at his own expense, and with his landlord’s consent in writing, +provided that the freehold was not injured or that any injury was +made good, and that before removal a month’s written notice was +given to the landlord, who had an option of purchase. Under the +Agricultural Holdings Act 1883 the tenant might, under similar +conditions, remove fixtures, although the landlord had not consented +to their erection. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1900 extended +this provision to fixtures or buildings acquired, although not annexed +or erected, by the tenant. Similar rights were created by the Allotments +Compensation Act 1887, and by the Market Gardeners’ +Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were re-enacted by +the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.</p> + +<p>Again, <i>ornamental</i> fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and +convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry, iron-backs +to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble chimney-pieces, +are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable without the +landlord’s consent. Here again the extent of the privilege has been a +matter of some uncertainty.</p> + +<p>In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term. +If the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing +the fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a +gift of them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could +not be rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His +right to the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry +of the term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once +left the premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In +one case where the fixtures had actually been severed from the freehold +after the end of the term, it was held that the tenant had no +right to recover them.</p> + +<p>2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question +of fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person +owning land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures, +set up for the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental +objects, the rule <i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i> was in early times +somewhat relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701, +it was held that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the +executor; and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently +cut down, it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming +the executor’s right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for +life to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment +as chattels (<i>Leigh</i> v. <i>Taylor</i>, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same +has been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in +the grounds of a mansion house.</p> + +<p>3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures +arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to +the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man +is not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to +fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the +preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor’s +fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor’s fixtures +against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to +be that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life +would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures +are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.</p> + +<p>4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes +a purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties +is of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases, +<i>e.g.</i> as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged +the fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in +the conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the +subject of a hire purchase agreement (<i>Reynolds</i> v. <i>Ashby</i>, 1903, +1 K.B. 87). Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises. +Bills of sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mortgages, +the possession remaining with the person selling them. To +make them valid they must be registered, and so the question has +arisen whether deeds conveying fixtures ought not to have been +registered as bills of sale. Unless it was the intention of the parties +to make the fixtures a distinct security, it seems that a deed of +mortgage embracing them does not require to be registered as a bill +of sale. The question of what is or is not a fixture must also often +be considered in questions of rating or assessment.</p> + +<p>The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England. +The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900 +(as to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal. +The law of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation +sketched in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>. The French Code +Civil recognizes the right of the usufructuary to remove articles +attached by him to the subject of his estate on the expiry of his term, +on making good the place from which they were taken (Art. 599); +and there are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art. +495), Spain (Arts. 487, 489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany +(Arts. 1037, 1049).</p> + +<p>The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical +with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexation +is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law +rule <i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i>) as regards trade fixtures, and +ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.</p> + +<p>In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without +modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St +Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory +right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and +Tenant Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or +settlement (<i>e.g.</i> New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act +1851 is in force.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—English law: Amos and Ferard, <i>Law of Fixtures</i> +(3rd ed., London, 1883); Brown, <i>Law of Fixtures</i> (3rd ed., London, +1875); Ryde, on <i>Rating</i> (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law: +Hunter, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i>; Erskine’s <i>Principles</i> (20th ed., +Edin., 1903). American Law: Bronson, <i>Law of Fixtures</i> (St Paul, +1904); Reeves, <i>Real Property</i> (Boston, 1904); <i>Ruling Cases</i> (London +and Boston, 1894-1901), Tit. “Fixtures” (American Notes).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1819-1896), French +physicist, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819. +His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photographic +processes; and then, in association with J.B.L. Foucault, +he engaged in a series of investigations on the interference of +light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results obtained +by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Light</a></span>), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity +of electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser +as a means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil. +Subsequently he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and +applied the phenomena of interference of light to the measurement +of the dilatations of crystals. He died at Venteuil on the +18th of September 1896. He became a member of the French +Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FJORD,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fiord</span>, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long +narrow arm of the sea running far inland, with more or less +precipitous cliffs on each side. These “sea-lochs,” as they are +sometimes called, present many peculiar features. They differ +entirely from an estuary in the fact that they are bounded seawards +by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and they deepen +inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up to +the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water. +It is pointed out by Dr H.R. Mill that Loch Morar on +the west coast of Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep, +with its surface 30 ft. above sea-level, which is connected with +the sea by a short river, is exactly similar in configuration to +Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled with sea-water which pours +over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the retreating tide; +that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill 8 fathoms +below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway, +more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum +depth of 700 fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch +Morar would become a fjord if the seaward portion sank below +sea-level. The origin of these rock basins has not yet been +satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon somewhat similar +basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering of surface +rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where material +is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls +in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations +in such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the +Yosemite Valley, where there is frequently a “reversed grade” +similar to that near the seaward end of rock basins and fjords, +seem to show, in some cases at least, that such a formation may +be due to the “gouging” effect of a glacier coming down the +valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and +the supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several +causes, but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys. +The mass of sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected +by the seasonal changes in surface temperature, which +in Norway penetrate no deeper than 200 fathoms, or else, as in +Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water responds quickly to +seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer penetrates +so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months +to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found +that where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the +temperature may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from +the surface. When the surface is warmest, on the other hand, +the depths are coldest.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLACCUS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the +most illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that +the family came from Tusculum, where some were still living in +the middle of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Of the Fulvii Flacci the most +important were the following:</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Quintus Fulvius Flaccus</span>, son of the first of the family, +Marcus, who was consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264. +He especially distinguished himself during the second Punic +War. He was consul four times (237, 224, 212, 209), censor (231) +pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215). During his +first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, Gauls +and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum, +and with his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege +of Capua. The capture of this place was considered so important +that their imperium was prolonged, but on condition that they +should not leave Capua until it had been taken. Hannibal’s +unexpected diversion against Rome interfered with the operations +for the moment, but his equally unexpected retirement enabled +Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to protect the city, +to return, and bring the siege to a successful conclusion. He +punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in excuse +that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He +was nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which +he was himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command +of the army in Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further +attempts at rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The +chief authority for his life is the part of Livy dealing with the +period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>).</p> + +<p>His brother <span class="sc">Gnaeus</span> was convicted of gross cowardice against +Hannibal near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile +at Tarquinii. His son, <span class="sc">Quintus</span>, waged war with signal success +against the Celtiberians in 182-181, and the Ligurians in 179. +Having vowed to build a temple to Fortuna Equestris, he +dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium of its marble +slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to +restore them, though they were never put back in their places. +Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Marcus Fulvius Flaccus</span>, grandnephew of the first Quintus, +lived in the times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong +supporter. After the death of Tiberius Gracchus (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +he was appointed in his place one of the commission of three +for the distribution of the land. He was suspected of having +had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129), +but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul +in 125, he proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the +allies, and to allow even those who had not acquired it the right +of appeal to the popular assembly against penal judgments. +This proposal, though for the time successfully opposed by the +senate, eventually led to the Social War. The attack made upon +the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the Salluvii (Salyes) +afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out of Rome. +After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this time +with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not +remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates +and the party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities, +during which Flaccus was killed, together with Gracchus and a +number of his supporters. It is generally agreed that Flaccus was +perfectly honest in his support of the Gracchan reforms, but his +hot-headedness did more harm than good to the cause. Cicero +(<i>Brutus</i>, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate powers, but +a diligent student.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6; +Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, <i>C. Gracchus</i>, 10. 13; +also A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i> (1904), and authorities quoted +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gracchus</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1846-  ), French jurist and +historian, was born at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February +1846, of a family known at least as early as the 16th century, when +Sigismond Flach was the first professor of law at Strassburg +University. G.J. Flach studied classics and law at Strassburg, +and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of law. In his theses as +well as in his early writings—such as <i>De la subrogation réelle, +La Bonorum possessio</i>, and <i>Sur la durée des effets de la minorité</i> +(1870)—he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time. +The Franco-German War engaged Flach’s activities in other +directions, and he spent two years (described in his <i>Strasbourg +après le bombardement</i>, 1873) at work on the rebuilding of the +library and the museum, which had been destroyed by Prussian +shells. When the time came for him to choose between Germany +and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he completed +his scientific training at the École des Chartes and the École des +Hautes Études. Having acted for some time as secretary to +Jules Sénard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he +published an original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as +possible resumed the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant +to the jurist Edouard Laboulaye at the Collège de France, and +succeeded him in 1884 in the chair of comparative legislation. +Since 1877 he had been professor of comparative law at the free +school of the political sciences. To qualify himself for these +two positions he had to study the most diverse civilizations, +including those of the East and Far East (<i>e.g.</i> Hungary, Russia +and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other +Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published, +particularly those concerning Ireland: <i>Histoire du régime +agraire de l’Irlande</i> (1883); <i>Considérations sur l’histoire politique +de l’Irlande</i> (1885); and <i>Jonathan Swift, son action politique +en Irlande</i> (1886).</p> + +<p>His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history +of ancient French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded +by his friend and compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his +interest by reviving the question of the origin of the feudal +laws, and gradually led him to study the formation of those +laws and the early growth of the feudal system. His great work, +<i>Les Origines de l’ancienne France</i>, was produced slowly. In the +first volume, <i>Le Régime seigneurial</i> (1886), he depicts the triumph +of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after Charlemagne’s +great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle of +sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the +various functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity +disappeared; and how the only living organisms were vassalage +and clientship. The second volume, <i>Les Origines communales, la +féodalité et la chevalerie</i> (1893), deals with the reconstruction of +society on new bases which took place in the 10th and 11th +centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman <i>villa</i> gave place to +the village, with its fortified castle, the residence of the lord; +how new towns were formed by the side of old, some of which +disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations; and +how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument +of cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism +from the germs of the Gallo-Roman personal <i>comitatus</i>; and +shows how the bond that united the different parties was the +contract of the fief; and how, after a slow growth of three +centuries, feudalism was definitely organized in the 12th century. +In 1904 appeared the third volume, <i>La Renaissance de l’état</i>, +in which the author describes the efforts of the Capetian kings +to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the whole +of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the +imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords +of the kingdom (the “princes,” as Flach calls them), whether as +allies or foes, pursued the same end; and how, before the close +of the 12th century, the Capetian kings were in possession of +the organs and the means of action which were to render them +so powerful and bring about the early downfall of feudalism.</p> + +<p>In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals, +the author’s theories are not always in complete harmony, nor +are they always presented in a very luminous or coherent manner, +but they are marked by originality and vigour. Flach gave +them a solid basis by the wide range of his researches, utilizing +charters and cartularies (published and unpublished), chronicles, +lives of saints, and even those dangerous guides, the <i>chansons +de geste</i>. He owed little to the historians of feudalism who knew +what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He pursued the +same method in his <i>L’Origine de l’habitation et des lieux habités +en France</i> (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories +circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubainville +ville in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F.C. +von Savigny, Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle +ages and the Renaissance, and produced <i>Cujas, les glossateurs +et les Bartolistes</i> (1883), and <i>Études critiques sur l’histoire du +droit romain au moyen âge, avec textes inédits</i> (1890).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLACIUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Flach</i>; Slav. <i>Vlakich</i>), <b>MATTHIAS</b> (1520-1575), +surnamed <span class="sc">Illyricus</span>, Lutheran reformer, was born at +Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd of March 1520. Losing his father +in childhood, he was in early years self-educated, and made +himself able to profit by the instructions of the humanist, +Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he +decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. +His intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, provincial +of the Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation, +who induced him to enter on a university career, from 1539, +at Basel, Tübingen and Wittenberg. Here he was welcomed +(1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from Tübingen, +and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In +1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. +He married in the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the +festivities. He took his master’s degree on the 24th of February +1546, ranking first among the graduates. Soon he was prominent +in the theological discussions of the time, opposing strenuously +the “Augsburg Interim,” and the compromise of Melanchthon +known as the “Leipzig Interim” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adiaphorists</a></span>). Melanchthon +wrote of him with venom as a renegade (“aluimus in sinu +serpentem”), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He +removed to Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with +Melanchthon was patched up. On the 17th of May 1557 he was +appointed professor of New Testament theology at Jena; but +was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his colleague, on +the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in +conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he unwittingly +fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean +view of sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in +its substance, since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure, +he left Jena (Feb. 1562) to found an academy at Regensburg. +The project was not successful, and in October 1566 he accepted +a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he +was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and betook +himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces +against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received +by the superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an +asylum. But here also his religious views stood in his way; +the authorities eventually ordering him to leave the city by Mayday +1573. Again betaking himself to Frankfort, the prioress, +Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White Ladies, +harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities. +He fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to +leave by Mayday 1575; but death released him on the 11th +of March 1575. His first wife, by whom he had twelve children, +died in 1564; in the same year he remarried and had further +issue. His son Matthias was professor of philosophy and +medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the literary +fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over; +he stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church +history, and—if we except, a great exception, the work of +Laurentius Valla—of hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling +motive was to prove popery to be built on bad history and bad +exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the extirpation of bad +history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal interest to +all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value of +the principles embodied in Flacius’ <i>Catalogus testium veritatis</i> +(1556; revised edition by J.C. Dietericus, 1672) and his <i>Clavis +scripturae sacrae</i> (1567), followed by his <i>Glossa compendiaria +in N. Testamentum</i> (1570). His characteristic formula, “historia +est fundamentum doctrinae,” is better understood now than +in his own day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Ritter, <i>Flacius’s Leben u. Tod</i> (1725); M. Twesten, <i>M. +Flacius Illyricus</i> (1844); W. Preger, <i>M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine +Zeit</i> (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1607-1660), French governor +of Madagascar, was born at Orleans in 1607. He was named +governor of Madagascar by the French East India Company +in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the French soldiers, +who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives he was +less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in +continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he +returned to France. Not long after he was appointed director +general of the company; but having again returned to Madagascar, +he was drowned on his voyage home on the 10th of June +1660. He is the author of a <i>Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar</i> +(1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Malotet, <i>Ét. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation +française à Madagascar (1648-1661)</i>, (Paris, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAG<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (or “<span class="sc">Flagge</span>,” a common Teutonic word in this sense, +but apparently first recorded in English), a piece of bunting +or similar material, admitting of various shapes and colours, +and waved in the wind from a staff or cord for use in display +as a standard, ensign or signal. The word may simply be derived +onomatopoeically, or transferred from the botanical “flag”; +or an original meaning of “a piece of cloth” may be connected +with the 12th-century English “flage,” meaning a baby’s garment; +the verb “to flag,” <i>i.e.</i> droop, may have originated in the idea +of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the +O. Fr. <i>flaguir</i>, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as +soon as men began to collect together for common purposes +some kind of conspicuous object was used, as the symbol of the +common sentiment, for the rallying point of the common force. +In military expeditions, where any degree of organization and +discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be necessary +to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep +in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In +addition, it cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents +have often served, by reminding men of past resolves, past deeds +and past heroes, to arouse to enthusiasm those sentiments of +<i>esprit de corps</i>, of family pride and honour, of personal devotion, +patriotism or religion, upon which, as well as upon good leadership, +discipline and numerical force, success in warfare depends.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Among the remains of the people which has left +the earliest traces of civilization, the records of the forms of +objects used as ensigns are frequently to be found. From their +carvings and paintings, supplemented by ancient writers, it +appears that several companies of the Egyptian army had +their own particular standards. These were formed of such +objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the +minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred +animals, boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king’s +name, fan and feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end +of a staff as standards, and the office of bearing them was looked +upon as one of peculiar privilege and honour (Fig. 1). Somewhat +similar seem to have been the customs of the Assyrians and +Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by Layard and others +at Nineveh, only two different designs have been noticed for +standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on +a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite directions +(Fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and +peace which were attached to the yoke of Darius’s chariot. +They are borne upon and attached to chariots; and this method +of bearing such objects was the custom also of the Persians, +and prevailed during the middle ages. That the custom survived +to a comparatively modern period is proved from the fact that +the “Guns,” which are the “standards” of the artillery, have +from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours +prescribed by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol +of authority. In days comparatively recent there was a “flag +gun,” usually the heaviest piece, which emblemized authority +and served also as the “gun of direction” in the few concerted +movements then attempted. No representations of Egyptian +or Assyrian naval standards have been found, but the sails of +ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices, another +custom which survived into the middle ages.</p> + +<p>In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the +emblem is frequently ornamented immediately below with +flag-like streamers. Rabbinical writers have assigned the +different devices of the different Jewish tribes, but the authenticity +of their testimony is extremely doubtful. Banners, +standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the Bible. +“Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard, +with the ensign of their father’s house” (Num. ii. 2). “Who +is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear +as the sun, terrible as an army with banners?” (Cant. vi. +10. See also Num. ii. 10, x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, lx. 4; Cant. ii. 4; +Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer. iv. 21).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:424px" src="images/img454a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Egyptian Standards.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the +sun, as their divinity, was also represented upon their standards, +which appear to have been formed of some kind of textile, and +were guarded with the greatest jealousy by the bravest men of +the army. The Carian soldier who slew Cyrus, the brother of +Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of carrying a golden cock +at the head of the army, it being the custom of the Carians to +wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North American +Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of +eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other +semi-savage peoples.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:445px" src="images/img454b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Assyrian Standards.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early +times; afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +letters chosen for their particular associations—the Athenians +the olive and the owl, the Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans +a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the Messenians their initial +M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was placed on +the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians carried +a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon +was the military sign of many peoples—of the Chinese, Dacians +and Parthians among others—and was probably first used by +the Romans as the ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:454px" src="images/img455.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Roman Standards.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The question of the <i>signa militaria</i> of the Romans is a wide +and very important one, having direct bearing on the history +of heraldry, and on the origin of national, family and personal +devices. With them the custom was reduced to system. “Each +century, or at least each maniple,” says Meyrick, “had its +proper standard and standard-bearer.” In the early days of the +republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence probably +came the name <i>manipulus</i> (Lat. <i>manus</i>, a hand). The forms +of standards in later times were very various; sometimes a +cross piece of wood was placed at the end of a spear and surmounted +by the figure of a hand in silver, below round or oval +discs, with figures of Mars or Minerva, or in later times portraits +of emperors or eminent generals (Fig. 3). Figures of animals, +as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were borne, and it was not +till a later period that the eagle became the special standard +of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius who, in +his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should +only have the eagle for their standard; “for before that time +the eagle marched foremost with four others—wolves, minotaurs, +horses and bears—each one in its proper order. Not many years +passed before the eagle alone began to be advanced in battle, +and the rest were left behind in the camp. But Marius rejected +them altogether, and since this it is observed that scarcely is +there a camp of a legion wintered at any time without having +a pair of eagles.”</p> + +<p>The <i>vexillum</i>, which was the cavalry flag, is described by +Livy as a square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed +crosswise to the end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval +<i>gonfalon</i>. Examples of these vexilla are to be seen on various +Roman coins and medals, on the sculptured columns of Trajan +and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus. The <i>labarum</i>, which +was the imperial standard of later emperors, resembled in shape +and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly embroidered +with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum +from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags, +that is to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff. +After Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ +(fig. 5, A). It is supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval +days was often attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop, +was derived from the labarum of the first Christian emperor, +Constantine the Great. The Roman standards were guarded +with religious veneration in the temples at Rome; and the +reverence of this people for their ensigns was in proportion to +their superiority to other nations in all that tends to success in +war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to be +cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of +his soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps +the most sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier +swore by his ensign.</p> + +<p>Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for +standards, and was often appended as ornament to those of +other material, it was probably not until the middle ages that +it became the special material of military and other ensigns; +and perhaps not until the practice of heraldry had attained to +definite nomenclature and laws does anything appear which is in +the modern sense a flag.</p> + +<p>Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In +Bede’s description of the interview between the heathen king +Æthelberht and the Roman missionary Augustine, the followers +of the latter are said to have borne banners on which silver +crosses were displayed. The national banner of England for +centuries—the red cross of St George—was a religious one; in +fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been sought to give +sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be traced +to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme +of France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the +legend runs that King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops +to battle against the enemy in 1219, saw at a critical moment +a cross in the sky. This was at once taken as an answer to his +prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It was forthwith +adopted as the Danish flag and called the “Dannebrog,” <i>i.e.</i> the +strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag undoubtedly +dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is +therefore the oldest now in existence.</p> + +<p>The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin +upon their standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally +in the keeping of the monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the +right to take this blue flag into battle with them was claimed +by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore this banner against Alaric +in 507, for victory was promised him by a verse of the Psalms +which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered the church +of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the battle +of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At +what precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply +the banner of the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de +St Martin as the sacred banner of all France is not known. +Probably, however, it gradually became the national flag after +the kings of France had transferred the seat of government to +Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was held in high +honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in the +abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals +of the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his +quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner +from the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having +been the first French king to have taken the banner to war, and +it appeared for the last time on the field of fight at Agincourt +in 1415. The accounts also of its appearance vary considerably. +Guillaume Guiart, in his <i>Chronicle</i> says:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Oriflambe est une bannière</p> + <p class="i2">De cendal voujoiant et simple</p> +<p class="i05">Sans portraiture d’autre affaire.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst +an English authority states “the celestial auriflamb, so by the +French admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner.” +The <i>Chronique de Flandres</i> describes it as having three points +with tassels of green silk attached. The banner of William the +Conqueror was sent to him by the pope, and the early English +kings fought under the banners of Edward the Confessor and +St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St Andrew +and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron +saints they severally were.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:430px; height:440px" src="images/img456a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4—Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest +of England, contains abundant representations of the flags of +the period borne upon the lances of the knights of William’s +army. They appear small in size, and pointed, frequently +indented into three points and bearing pales, crosses and roundels. +One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly indented into +four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed, and +bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent +the raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4). +In all, thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights +are represented in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight +have triple points, whilst others have two, four or five. The +devices on these pennons are very varied and distinctive, although +the date is prior to the period in which heraldry became definitely +established. In fact, the flags and their charges are probably +not really significant of the people bearing them; for, even +admitting that personal devices were used at the time, the +figures may have been placed without studied intention, and +so give the general figure only of such flags as happened to have +come under the observation of the artists. The figures are +probably rather ornamental and symbolic than strictly heraldic,—that +is, personal devices, for the same insignia do not appear +on the shields of the several bearers. The dragon standard +which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold; but +similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which +fact has induced a writer in the <i>Journal of the Archaeological +Association</i> (vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of +the Saxons they represent only trophies torn from the shields +of the Normans, and that they are not ensigns at all. Standards +in form much resembling these dragons appear on the Arch of +Titus and the Trajan column as the standards of barbarians.</p> + +<p>At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard +was formed of the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the +top and bearing three sacred banners, dedicated severally to +St Peter, St John of Beverley and St Wilfrid of Ripon, the +whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle. Representations +of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on seals of +as early date as the Norman era, and the warriors in the first +crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the +three points with the three roundels and cross, which so often +appear on these banners, have some reference to the faith of +the bearers in the Trinity and in the Crucifixion, for in contemporary +representations of Christ’s resurrection and descent +into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with cross above. +The triple indentation so common on the flags of this period has +been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable ordinaries—the +pile. The “pile,” it may be explained, is in the form of a +wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies +the central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle +chief. It may, however, issue from any other extremity of the +shield, and there may be more than one. More secular characters +were, however, not uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order +for a “dragon to be made in fashion of a standard of red silk +sparkling all over with fine gold, the tongue of which should be +made to resemble burning fire and appear to be continually +moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones.” +<i>The Siege of Carlaverock</i>, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th +century, describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the +knights at the siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the +writer says:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“En sa bannière trois luparte</p> + <p class="i2">De or fin estoient mis en rouge;”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may +be supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one +of Sir Christopher Barker’s heraldic collection, Harl. 4632) +gives drawings of the standards of English kings from Edward +III. to Henry VIII., which are roughly but artistically +coloured.</p> + +<p>The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle +ages were the pennon, the banner and the standard. The +“guydhommes” or “guidons,” “banderolls,” “pennoncells,” +“streamers” or pendants, may be considered as minor varieties. +The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign, sometimes +pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the +end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart +from the knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged +with his personal armorial bearings so displayed that they +stood in true position when he couched his lance for action. +A MS. of the 16th century (Harl. 2358) in the British Museum, +which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape and bearings +of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes, pennoncells, +&c., says “a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made +round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner,” +and warns that “from a standard or streamer a man may flee +but not from his banner or pennon bearing his arms.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:431px" src="images/img456b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B, Medieval +Pennon; C. Medieval Banner; D., Standard of Henry V.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried +by the esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on +any special occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state +funerals. For instance, we find “XII. doz. penselles” amongst +the items that figured at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in +1554, and in the description of the lord mayor’s procession in the +following year we read of “ij goodly pennes (state barges) deckt +with flages and stremers, and a m (1000) penselles.” Amongst +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of Oliver Cromwell +up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of thirty dozen +of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a dozen, +and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a +dozen.</p> + +<p>The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag, +though at a later date it is often found greater in length than in +depth, precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of +to-day. In some very early examples it is found considerably +longer in the depth on the staff than in its outward projection +from the staff. The banner was charged in a manner exactly +similar to the shield of the owner, and it was borne by knights +banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough guide it may +be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of a +king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount +or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to +display the armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the +right to carry it, it is evident that the square form was the most +convenient and akin to the shield of primal heraldry. In fact, +flags were originally heraldic emblems, though in modern devices +the strict laws of heraldry have often been departed from.</p> + +<p>The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary +knights, and they could be created on the field of battle only. +To create a knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief +in person tore off the fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight, +thus turning it roughly into the square flag or banner, and so +making the knight a banneret. The date in which this dignity +originated is uncertain, but it was probably about the period of +Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret +by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the 3rd +of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the +reign of Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the +Scottish king, at the battle of Durham. In more modern times +Captain John Smith, of Lord Bernard Stuart’s troop of the +King’s Guards, who saved the royal banner from the parliamentary +troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by +Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights +banneret ceased until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen +in 1743, when the dignity was again conferred. It is true, however, +that, when in 1763 Sir William Erskine presented to George III. +sixteen stands of colours captured by his regiment [now the +15th (king’s) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he was raised to the dignity +of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was not performed on +the field of battle, the creation was considered irregular, and his +possession of the rank was not generally recognized.</p> + +<p>The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it +also denoted that he who bore it was the leader of a military +force, large or small according to his degree or estate. It was, +in fact, the battle flag of the leader who controlled the particular +force that followed it into the fight. Every baron who in time +of war had furnished the proper number of men to his liege was +entitled to charge with his arms the banner which they followed. +There could indeed be at present found no better representative +of the medieval “banner” than what we now term the “royal +standard”; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of +the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other +royal and imperial standards have now become “standards,” +inasmuch as they are to-day used for display in the same fashion, +and for the same purposes as was the “standard” of old. The +“gonfalon” or “gonfannon” was a battle flag differing from +the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to the pole but +hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape +but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The +gonfalon was in action borne close to the person of the commander-in-chief +and denoted his position. In certain of the Italian +cities chief magistrates had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon, +and for this reason were known as “gonfaloniere.”</p> + +<p>The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering +towards the fly (the “fly” is that portion of the flag farther +from the pole, the “hoist” the portion of the flag attached to +the pole), the edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with +the ends split and rounded off. The shape was not, however, by +any means uniform during the middle ages nor were there any +definite rules as to its charges. It varied in size according to +the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS. mentioned above says +of the royal standard of that time—“the Standard to be sett +before the king’s pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in +battayle; to be in length eleven yards.” A MS. of the time +of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions for standards: +“The King’s had a length of eight yards; that of a duke, seven; +a marquis, six and a half; an earl, six; a viscount, five and a +half; a baron, five; a knight banneret, four and a half; and +a knight four yards.” The standard was, in fact, from its size, +and as its very name implies, not meant to be carried into action, +as was the banner, but to denote the actual position of its possessor +on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the tilting ground, +and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his following +when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle. +It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner +was the rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its +uses are now fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the +“banner” which has now become the “royal standard,” and +which floats over the palace where the king is in residence, is +hoisted at the saluting point when he reviews his troops, and is +broken from the mainmast of any ship in his navy the moment +that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition of the +standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George +conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately contiguous +to the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided +fesse-wise by two or more stripes of colours exactly as the +heraldic “ordinary” termed “fesse” crosses the shield horizontally. +The colours used as stripes, as also those used in the fringe +or bordering of the standard, were those which prevailed in the +arms of the bearer or were those of his livery. The standard +here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours white +and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and +in the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the +Harleian MS. above mentioned: “Every standard and guidon +to have in the chief the cross of St George, the beast or crest with +his devyce and word, and to be slitt at the end.” The motto +indeed usually figured on most standards, though occasionally +it was missing. An excellent type of the old standard is that +of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion, the crescent, +and the fetterlock—all badges of the family—whilst, as tokens +of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan +and Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were +respectively displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto, +<i>Espérance en Dieu</i>. No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess +more than one banner, since it displayed his heraldic arms, which +were unchangeable. A single individual, however, might possess +two or three standards since this flag displayed badges that he +could multiply at discretion, and a motto that he could at any +time change. For example, the standards of Henry VII., mostly +green and white—the colours of the Tudor livery—had in one +“a red firye dragon,” in another “a donne kowe,” in a third +“a silver greyhound and two red roses.” The standard was +always borne by an eminent person, and that of Henry V. at +Agincourt is supposed to have been carried upon a car that +preceded the king. At Nelson’s funeral his banner and standard +were borne in the procession, and around his coffin were the +banderolls—square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms +of his family lineage. Nelson’s standard bore his motto, <i>Palmam +qui meruit ferat</i>, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the +union of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick, +the medieval England having expanded into the United Kingdom +of Great Britain and Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke +of Wellington we find amongst the flags his personal banner +and standard, and ten banderolls of the duke’s pedigree and +descent.</p> + +<p>The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. <i>Guyd-homme</i>, was +somewhat similar to the standard, but without the cross of St +George, rounded at the end, less elongated and altogether less +ornate. It was borne by a leader of horse, and according to a +medieval writer “must be two and a half yards or three yards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +long, and therein shall no armes be put, but only the man’s +crest, cognisance, and devyce.”</p> + +<p>The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known +as the pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was +directed “shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle, +and therein be put no armes, but the man’s cognisance or devyce, +and may be of length twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and +is slitt as well as a guidon or standard.” Amongst the fittings +of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, to France in +the reign of Henry VII. was a “grete stremour for the shippe +xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede.” In the hoist was +“a grete bere holding a raggid staffe,” and the rest of the fly +“powdrid full of raggid staves.”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">National Flags.</span>—<i>British.</i> The royal standard of England +was, when it was hoisted on the Tower on the 1st of January +1801, thus heraldically described:—“Quarterly; first and +fourth, gules, three lions passant gardant, in pale, or, for England; +second, or, a lion rampant, gules, within a double tressure flory +counter flory of the last, for Scotland; third, azure, a harp or, +stringed argent, for Ireland.” The present standard connects +in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror. These were +two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same +until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for +leopards, and a third added. The next change that took place +was in the reign of Edward III. when the royal arms were for +the first time quartered; <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> in the first and fourth +quarters, and the three lions of England in the second and third. +The <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were assumed in token of the monarch’s claim +to the throne of France. In the “coats” of Edward III. and +the two monarchs that succeeded him, the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were +powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> +were reduced in number to three, and the “coat” so devised +remained the same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion +of Scotland and the Irish harp were added to the flag on the +accession of James I., and the flag then had the French and +English arms quartered in the first and fourth quarters, the lion +of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the second quarter, and +the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the third quarter. +With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to +which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until +the accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart +standard a central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen +Anne made further alterations; the first and fourth quarters were +subdivided, the three lions of England being in one half, the lion of +Scotland in the other. The <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were in the second quarter; +the Irish harp in the third. Under George I. and George II. +the first, second and third quarters remained the same, the arms +of Hanover being placed in the fourth quarter, and this continued +to be the royal standard until 1801, when the standard was rearranged +as first described with the addition of the Hanoverian +arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the accession of +Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the +flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however, +that in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in +the chapel of St George at Windsor, the ordinary “winged +woman” form of the harp in the Irish third quartering is altered +to a harp of the old Irish pattern. At King Edward’s accession +this banner replaced that of Queen Victoria which for sixty-two +years had hung in this, the chapel of the order of the Garter.</p> + +<p>Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of +the lord high admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly +the royal standard as deputy of the sovereign. When royalty +ceased to be, a new flag was devised by the council of state for +the Commonwealth, which comprised the “arms of England +and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red flag within a +compartment.” In other words, it was a red flag containing +two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white +ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the +shields was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these +flags is still in existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept +in a wooden chest which was taken out of a Spanish galleon at +Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke in 1704. When Cromwell +became protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland +and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This +had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the +cross of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the +second, and the Irish harp in the third. His own arms—a lion +on a black shield—were imposed on the centre of the flag. No +one but royalty has a right to fly the royal standard, and though +it is constantly seen flying for purposes of decoration its use is +irregular. There has, however, always been one exception, +namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command +of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard. +For example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the +“Ark Royal” when he defeated the Spanish Armada; the +duke of Buckingham flew it as lord high admiral in the reign +of Charles I., and the duke of York fought under it when he +commanded during the Dutch Wars.</p> + +<p>The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack, +in which are combined in union the crosses of St George, St +Andrew and St Patrick. St George had long been a patron +saint of England, and his banner, argent, a cross gules, its +national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the patron +saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the +national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns +James I. issued a proclamation ordaining that “henceforth all +our subjects of this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and +the members thereof, shall bear in their main-top the red cross +commonly called St George’s cross, and the white cross commonly +called St Andrew’s cross, joined together according to a form +made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be published +to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects +of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont, +and our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white +cross only as they were accustomed.” This was the first Union +Jack, as it is generally termed, though strictly the name of the +flag is the “Great Union,” and it is only a “Jack” when flown +on the jackstaff of a ship of war. Probably the name of the +Stuart king “Jacques,” which James I. always signed, gave +the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was hoisted. +At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being dissolved, +the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of St +George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became +protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the +Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original +union flag was restored, and continued as described until the +year 1801, when, on the legislative union with Ireland, the cross +of St Patrick, a saltire gules, on a field argent, was incorporated +in the union flag. To so combine these three crosses without +losing the distinctive features of each was not easy; each cross +must be distinct, and retain equally distinct its fimbriation, or +bordering, which denotes the original ground. In the first +union flag, the red cross of St George with the white fimbriation +that represented-the original white field was simply imposed +upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To +place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St +Andrew would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the +red saltire have its proper bordering denoting its original white +field; even were the red saltire narrowed in width the portion +of the white saltire that would appear would not be the St +Andrew saltire, but only the fimbriation appertaining to the +saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty has been got over by making +the white broader on one side of the red than the other. In fact, +the continuity of direction of the arms of the St Patrick red +saltire has been broken by its portions being removed from the +centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew’s saltire. +Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distinguished +from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white +fimbriation.</p> + +<p>The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns, +and is flown by representatives of the empire all the world over. +It flies from the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy. +With the Irish harp on a blue shield displayed in the centre, it is +flown by the lord-lieutenant of Ireland. When flown by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +governor-general of India the star and device of the order of +the Star of India are borne in the centre. Colonial governors fly +it with the badge of their colony displayed in the centre. Diplomatic +representatives use it with the royal arms in the centre. +As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and headquarters, +and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at the +mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the +fleet.</p> + +<p>Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours, +and flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will +here be only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty +flags.</p> + +<p>The origin of the three ensigns—the red, white, and blue—had +its genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as +prevailed in the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides +the admiral in supreme command, a vice-admiral as second in +command, and a rear-admiral as third in command, each controlling +his own particular group or squadron. These were +designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost invariably +being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the +van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any +vessel in any group could distinguish its own admiral’s ship, +the flagships of centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain +red, white, or blue flag, and so came into being those naval +ranks of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral of the red, white, +and blue which continued down to as late as 1864. As the +admiral in supreme command flew the union at the main, there +was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until November +1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy +as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so +that each individual ship in the squadron should be distinguishable +as well as the flagships, each vessel carried a large red, +white, or blue flag according as to whether she belonged to the +centre, van, or rear, each flag having in the left-hand upper +corner a canton, as it is termed, of white bearing the St George’s +cross. These flags were called ensigns, and it is, of course, due +to the fact that the union with Scotland was for the time dissolved +that they bore only the St George’s cross. Even when the +restoration of the Stuarts restored the <i>status quo</i> the cross of St +George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered +until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland +passed the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined +the Union, the flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All +these three ensigns belonged to the royal navy, and continued +to do so until 1864, but as far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile +marine were instructed to fly the red ensign. As ironclads +replaced the wooden vessels and fleets became smaller the +inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest, and in 1864 +the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral, vice-admiral, +and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use +of the red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as +its distinctive flag. The mercantile marine retained the red +ensign which they were already using, whilst the blue ensign +was allotted to vessels employed on the public service whether +home or colonial.</p> + +<p>The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal +navy. It should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion +except by a ship (or shore establishment) of the royal navy, +with but one exception. By a grant of William IV. dating from +1829 vessels belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, the chief +of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the white ensign. From +1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red ensign, as that of +highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant ships, they +then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more +distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when +the privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some +oversight the order was not conveyed to the Royal Western +of Ireland, whose ships flew the white ensign until in 1857 the +usage was stopped. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron +has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any sort flying the +white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a grave +offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His +Majesty’s service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the +authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or +both. The penalty incurred is £500 fine for each offence, as +laid down in the 73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. +In 1883 Lord Annesley’s yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht +Squadron, was detained at the Dardanelles in consequence of +her flying the white ensign of the royal navy which brought her +under the category of a man-of-war, and no foreign man-of-war +is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first obtaining an +imperial <i>irade</i>. Since then owners belonging to the squadron +have been warned that they must either sail their ships through +the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British +owned, or obtain imperial permission if they wish to display +the white ensign.</p> + +<p>Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer +from the maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a +pennant, is flown only by ships in commission; it is, in fact, +the sign of command, and is first hoisted when a captain commissions +his ship. The pennant, which was really the old +“pennoncell,” was of three colours for the whole of its length, +and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and so +continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however, +the pennant is a long white streamer with the St George’s cross +in the inner portion close to the mast. Pennants have been +carried by men-of-war from the earliest times, prior to 1653 at +the yard-arm, but since that date at the maintopgallant masthead.</p> + +<p>The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service +other than the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal +naval reserve. It is flown also by certain authorized vessels +of the British mercantile marine, the conditions governing this +privilege being that the captain and a certain specified portion +of the officers and crew shall belong to the ranks of the royal +naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to British +government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed +in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow +anchor in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade +has in the fly the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph +branch of the post-office shows in the fly a device representing +Father Time with his hour-glass shattered by lightning; the +ordnance department displays upon the fly a shield with a +cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are also +authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign. +Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinctive +badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular +agents also have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing +badge in their case being the royal arms.</p> + +<p>The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant +service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen +Anne in 1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order +of Queen Anne directed that merchant vessels should fly a red +flag “with a Union Jack described in a canton at the upper +corner thereof next the staff,” and this is probably the first +time that the term “Union Jack” was officially used. In some +cases those yacht clubs which fly the red ensign change it slightly +from that flown by the merchant service, for they are allowed +to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial merchantmen +usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they +have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can +use the ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.</p> + +<p>In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they +are purely maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured +in the breach than in the observance, the only flag that a private +individual or a corporation has a right to display on shore is the +national flag, the Union Jack, in its plain condition and without +any emblazonment.</p> + +<p>There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of +brief notice. These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the +master of Trinity House. The admiralty flag is a plain red +flag with a clear anchor in the centre in yellow. In a sense it is +a national flag, for the sovereign hoists it when afloat in conjunction +with the royal standard and the Union Jack. It would +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +appear to have been first used by the duke of York as lord high +admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had the +royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of commissioners +was appointed to execute the office of lord high +admiral this was the flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the +admiralty, minuting the navy board, then a subordinate department, +“requiring and directing it to cause a fitting red silk +flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be provided against +Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this board.” +In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable +in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It +was thus made into a “foul anchor,” the thing of all others that +a sailor most hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord +at the time, the earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The +anchor retained its unseamanlike appearance, and was not +“cleared” till 1815, and even to this day the buttons of the +naval uniform bear a “foul anchor.” The “anchor” flag is +solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does not carry +the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the +royal standard, the union or an admiral’s flag, but on two +occasions it has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719 +the earl of Berkeley, who at the time was not only first lord +of the admiralty, but vice-admiral of England, obtained the +special permission of George I. to hoist it at the main instead of +the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr Childers, then first +lord, accompanied by some members of his board, went on +board the “Agincourt” he hoisted the admiralty flag and took +command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons, +thus superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who +at the time were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly +necessary to add that throughout the navy there was a very +distinct feeling of dissatisfaction at the innovation. When the +admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it is hoisted at the fore, +his own standard being of course at the main, and the union at +the mizzen.</p> + +<p>The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross +of St George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on +the waves in each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a +precisely similar device and surmounted by a lion.</p> + +<p>The sign of a British admiral’s command afloat is always +the same. It is the St George’s cross. Of old it was borne +on the main, the fore, or the mizzen, according as to whether +the officer to whom it pertained was admiral, vice-admiral, +or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded wooden ships, +and a single pole mast took the place of the old three masts, +a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day +the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George’s +cross. When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the +white ground in the upper canton next to the staff; if flown +by a rear-admiral there is a red ball in both the upper and lower +cantons. As nowadays most battleships have two masts, the +admiral’s flag is hoisted at the one which has no masthead +semaphore. The admiral’s flag is always a square one, but that +of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St George’s +cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of +the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next +to the staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails +in most navies, though very often a star takes the place of the ball. +In some cases, however, the indications of rank are differently +shown. For instance, both in the Russian and Japanese navies +the distinction is made by a line of colour on the upper or lower +edges of the flag.</p> + +<p>The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the +mother country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony +being placed in the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or +in the fly if it be the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are +shown in the Plate, where the blue ensign illustrated is that of +New Zealand, the device of the colony being the southern cross +in the fly. Precisely the same flag, with a large six-pointed +star, emblematic of the six states immediately under the union, +forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of Australia. +The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the +device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion. +As the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty, +flies the Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy +of India flies the same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the +order of the Star of India, so too colonial governors or high +commissioners fly the union flag with the arms of the colony +they preside over on a white shield in the centre and surrounded +by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the wreath, however, +is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special emblem of the +Dominion.</p> + +<p><i>French.</i>—To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have +historical events caused so much change in the standards and +national ensigns of a country as in the case of France. The +oriflamme and the Chape de St Martin were succeeded at the +end of the 16th century, when Henry III., the last of the house +of Valois, came to the throne, by the white standard powdered +with <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>. This in turn gave place to the famous tricolour. +The tricolour was introduced at the time of the Revolution, but +the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed question. +Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag +the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme, +and the white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are +said to be those of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities +assert that the flag is copied from the shield of the Orleans family +as it appeared after Philippe Égalité had knocked off the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>. +The tricolour is divided vertically into three parts of equal +width—blue, white and red, the red forming the fly, the white +the middle, and the blue the hoist of the flag. During the first +and second empires the tricolour became the imperial standard, +but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the eagle, whilst +all three stripes were richly powdered over with the golden bees +of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of France.</p> + +<p><i>American.</i>—Before the Declaration of Independence the +flags of those colonies which now form the United States of +America were very various. In the early days of New England +the Puritans objected to the red cross of St George, not from +any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a conscientious +objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the +year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish +their vessels from those of England and of each other. In the +early stages of the revolution each state adopted a flag of its +own; thus, that of Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South +Carolina displayed a rattlesnake, New York had a white flag +with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white flag with a blue +anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of Independence, +and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter underwent +many changes in the manner of their arrangement before +taking the position at present established. In 1775 a committee +was appointed to consider the question of a single flag for the +thirteen states. It recommended that the union be retained +in the upper corner next to the staff, the remainder of the field +of the flag to be of thirteen horizontally disposed stripes, alternately +red and white. This flag, curiously enough, was precisely +the same as the flag of the old Honourable East India Company. +On the 14th of June 1777 congress resolved “that the flag +of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and +white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, +representing a new constellation.” This was the origin of the +national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were +unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven +white and six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six +white, and it was not for some considerable time that it was +authoritatively laid down that the latter arrangement was the +one to be adopted. It has also been held that the stars and +stripes of the American national flag, as well as the eagle, were +suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington family. +The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a +raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two +horizontal red bars, and above these a row of three red stars. +This might, by a stretch of imagination, be supposed to have +inspired the original idea of the flag which was that each state +in the Union should be represented in the national flag by a star +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +and stripe. Naturally other states coming into the Union +expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and +Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes +were changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other +states joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars +and stripes. It was, however, found objectionable to be constantly +altering the national flag, and in the year 1818 it was +determined to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but to +place a star for each state in the blue union canton in the top +corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the stars always show the +exact number of states that are in the Union, whilst the stripes +denote the original number of the states that formed the union.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The presidential flag of the president of the United States is +an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield displaying +stripes, and above the national motto <i>E pluribus unum</i>, and a +design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union.</p> + +<p><i>Other Countries.</i>—The most general and important of the +various national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line +representing Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the +Union Jack (the national flag), the white ensign of the royal +navy, the blue ensign of government service, and the red ensign +of the commercial marine, colonial flags being shown in the case +of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese flags shown are the +man-of-war ensign—a rising sun, generally known as the sun-burst—and +the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red ball +is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white +field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum +on a red field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should +invariably have sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler +character than that of Europe, and is practically limited to the +employment of “Mon,” which correspond very nearly to the +“crests” of European heraldry. The great families of Japan +possess at least one, and in many cases even three, “Mon.” +The imperial family use two, the one <i>Kiku no go Mon</i> (the august +chrysanthemum crest) and <i>Kiri no go Mon</i> (the august Kiri +crest). The first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum, +and, although the use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge +is not necessarily confined to the imperial family, they alone +have the right to use the sixteen-petalled form. If used by any +other family, or society or corporation, it must be with a number +of petals less or more than sixteen. The second imperial “Mon” +is composed of three leaves and three flower spikes of the Kiri +(<i>Paulownia imperialis</i>). This, however, is not displayed as an +official emblem, that being reserved for the chrysanthemum. +The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example, the +chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri +“Mon” adorns the harness of the emperor’s horses. It is very +probable that the chrysanthemum crest did not originally represent +the chrysanthemum flower at all but the sun with sixteen +rays, and it will be noticed that in the “sun-burst” flag the +sun’s rays are sixteen in number. The use of the number sixteen +is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next +depicted. The “iron cross” in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic +Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five +centuries black and white have been the Hohenzollern colours, +and the first verse of the German war song, <i>Ich bin ein Preusse</i>, +runs:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?</p> + <p class="i2">Before me floats my flag of black and white!</p> +<p class="i05">My fathers died for freedom, ’twas their manner,</p> + <p class="i2">So say these colours floating in your sight.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is emblematic +of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with +the red and white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League. +This flag came into being when the North German Confederacy +was established (November 25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-Prussian +War.</p> + +<p>The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white +border displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four +quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the +cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown, +and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the +four arms of the crown are the legend <i>Gott mit uns</i> 1870. The United +States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt +with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-war +and ships of the mercantile marine.</p> + +<p>The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile +marine flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the +introduction of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the +Austrian red, white and red with the Hungarian red, white and +green. The shields with which the flag is charged contain respectively +the arms of Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is +borne on the man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of +the ancient dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191. +The Austrian imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black +double-headed eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed +shields bearing the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag +is bordered all round, the border being composed of equal-sided +triangles with their apices alternately inwards and outwards, those +with their apices pointing inwards being alternately yellow and +white, the others alternately scarlet and black.</p> + +<p>The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805, +when Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted +again in 1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the +king of Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it +became the flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely +similar to that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of +the former the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal +standard is a blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and +displaying on its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded +by the collar of the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all +European orders. In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.</p> + +<p>For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are parti-coloured. +It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the arms of +Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same both +in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal +standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the +royal arms, as shown in the national flag.</p> + +<p>In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours, +and here again the arrangement differs from that generally used. +The navy flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below. +To be correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each +of the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central +yellow stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing +the arms of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown. +In the mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon, +and is one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds +being divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above +in the upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal +standards that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarterings +of the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as +much an anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day +to be quartered with the <i>fleur-de-lis</i>. In all, the quarterings displayed +are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy, +Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The flag is +usually depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We +believe, however, that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre +of which the quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted +by a crown and encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden +Fleece.</p> + +<p>The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour +of white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white +and red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by +Peter the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the +flag then stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to +make it more distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places, +leaving the tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian +navy is the blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew +is the patron saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial +standard is of a character akin to that of Austria; the ground is +yellow, and the centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a +badge that dates back to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a +niece of Constantine Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek +empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon charged with +the emblem of St George and the Dragon on a red ground, and this +is surrounded by the collar of the order of St Andrew. On the splayed +wings of the eagle are small shields bearing the arms of the various +provinces of the empire.</p> + +<p>The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes +vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a +horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the lower +white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the royal +arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro is +a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the lowermost +white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white, green +and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war ensign +there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is a golden +lion on a red ground.</p> + +<p>The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat +similar in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already +alluded to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +navy. The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangular +instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cross +on a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as +in the Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but +pointed, thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the +mercantile marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated +from Denmark in 1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it, +and the arms of Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this +was found to resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross +with a white border was substituted for the white cross. This, it +will be seen, is the Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the +white one. For a man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of +Sweden in shape; that is to say, converted from the rectangular +into the three-pointed design. While Sweden and Norway remained +united the flag of each remained distinct, but each bore in the top +canton of the hoist a union device, being the combination of the +Norwegian and Swedish national colours and crosses. In each of the +three above nationalities the flag used for a royal standard is the +man-of-war flag with the royal arms imposed on the centre of the +cross.</p> + +<p>The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the +hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the Netherlands +is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre and +blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy +and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard +the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black, +yellow and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of +Brabant, and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded. +The original Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its +independence were orange, white and blue, the colours of the house +of Orange, and when and how the orange became red is not quite clear, +though it was certainly prior to 1643.</p> + +<p>The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag +shown in our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria, +and were adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected +to the throne of Greece. The stripes are nine in number—five blue +and four white—with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton +bearing a white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy +is similar to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception +that it has the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross. +The royal standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre +of which the royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar +to that in the Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are +not of equal length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.</p> + +<p>The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for +it was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably +considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss +confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each +case the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance, +is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red, +black and white, &c., &c.</p> + +<p>The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by +Mahomet II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally +they were the symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and +were adopted by the Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always +been the special emblem of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow +and elsewhere the crescent emblem and the cross may be seen +combined in Russian churches, the crescent badge, of course, indicating +the Byzantine origin of the Russian church. The symbol originated +at the time of the siege of Constantinople by Philip the father +of Alexander the Great, when a night attempt of the besiegers to +undermine the walls was betrayed by the light of a crescent moon, +and in acknowledgment of their escape the Byzantines raised a +statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol of the city. Both +the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the same, but the +imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in its centre +the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known as the +“Tughra,” and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of khan, +and the epithet <i>al-Muzaffar Daima</i>, which means “the ever victorious.” +The origin of the “Tughra” is that the sultan Murad I., +who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open +hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and +third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth +finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the +scribes wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above +quoted. The “Tughra” dates from the latter part of the 14th +century. The smaller characters in the “Tughra” change, of course, +on the accession of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the +device always remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left +denoting the thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little +finger made impression, and three upright lines indicating the other +fingers.</p> + +<p>The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the +crescent and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where +they use an ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate +having the British union in the centre of the red field.</p> + +<p>The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge +of the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge. +On the white ground are the lion and sun.</p> + +<p>The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of +Korea, a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue, +the colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely +as if two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue, +were united to form a complete circle.</p> + +<p>The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the +dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag, +but an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with +the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red +with a yellow ball in the centre.</p> + +<p>Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar +inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto.</p> + +<p>Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in +the case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe +with the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war +ensign.</p> + +<p>The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when +used by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central +white stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.</p> + +<p>The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the +mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of +the state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner +near the hoist, as in the naval flag.</p> + +<p>The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and +vessels in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of +the president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the +centre of the flag.</p> + +<p>The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the mercantile +marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged +on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our illustration. +In fact, in nearly every case with the South American +republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the +war navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is +used in the same way as a presidential flag.</p> + +<p>In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics +are tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no +means such combinations as would meet with the approval of European +heralds. All flag devising should be in accordance with +heraldic laws, and one of the most important of these is that colour +should not be placed on colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry +being the equivalent of gold and white of silver. Hence, properly +devised tricolours are such as, for example, those of France, where +the red and blue are divided by white, or Belgium, where the black +and red are divided by yellow. On the other hand, the yellow, blue, +red of Venezuela is heraldically an abomination.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses.</i>—Flags, the manufacture, +of which is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made +from bunting, a very light, tough and durable woollen material. +The regulation bunting as used in the navy is made in 9 in. +widths, and the flag classes in size according to the number of +breadths of bunting of which it is composed. The great centre +of the manufacture of flags, as far as the royal navy is concerned, +is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks are made in +different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by 16½ ft. +in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft. wide.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be +either square or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this +latter dimension that is used in the navy and generally.</p> + +<p>Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Signal</a></span>), and here +it will only be necessary to make brief allusion to some international +customs with regard to the use of flags to indicate +certain purposes. For long a blood-red flag has always been +used as a symbol of mutiny or of revolution. The black flag +was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate; to-day, in the only +case in which it survives, it is flown after an execution to indicate +that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out. +All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of infectious illness. +A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on board suffering +from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious malady, and +it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This flag +is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is universally +used as a flag of truce.</p> + +<p>At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the +flag of one country is placed over that of another the victory of +the former is denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an +insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation above that of another. +If such were done by mistake, say in “dressing ship” for instance, +an apology would have to be made. This custom of hoisting +the flag of the vanquished beneath that of the victor is of comparatively +modern date, as up to about a century ago the sign of +victory was to trail the enemy’s flag over the taffrail in the water. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff, and this +is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are +in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour +and respect a flag is “dipped.” Ships at sea salute each other +by “dipping” the flag, that is to say, by running it smartly +down from the masthead, and then as quickly replacing it. +When troops parade before the sovereign the regimental flags +are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying half-mast high is +the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to make +the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national ensign +reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to accentuate +the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag into a +“weft,” that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of +showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval +works written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the +“weft” mentioned as a method of showing distress.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting +nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many +other purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held +on board any ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court +is sitting, its hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun. +In a fleet in company the ship that has the guard for the day +flies it. With a white border it forms the signal for a pilot, and +in this case is known as a Pilot Jack. In all combinations of +signalling flags which denote a ship’s name the Union Jack +forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor or +soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours +at his funeral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See <i>Flags: Some Account of their History and +Uses</i>, by A. MacGeorge (1881); <i>National Banners: Their History +and Construction</i>, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic +Tracts, 1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this +pamphlet gives the design of the national banners of St George, +St Andrew and St Patrick, and illustrates and tells the story of the +composition of the three flags into the great union flag, commonly +known as the Union Jack); <i>Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions</i>, +by Rear-Admiral S. Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise, +historical and narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; <i>A +History of the Flag of the United States</i> (Boston, 1872), by G.H. +Preble; <i>Flags of the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations</i>, +by Edward Hulme, F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete monograph +on the subject, illustrated with a very complete series of plates; +<i>Admiralty Book of Flags of all Nations</i>, printed for H.M. Stationery +office, 1889, kept up to date by the publication periodically of Errata, +officially issued under an admiralty covering letter; <i>Flags of Maritime +Nations</i>, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of +the navy, printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two +works have no letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale, +delineations of all the flags at present used officially by all nations. +Between the two there are no discrepancies, and the delineation +of a flag taken from either may be assumed as absolutely correct. +Both are respectively the guides for flag construction in the royal +navy and the United States navy.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. L. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of +stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus: +8, 7, 8, 7, 8, 8 = 46.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAGELLANTS<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>flagellare</i>, to whip), in religion, +the name given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged, +by way of discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a +form of exalted devotion, occurs in almost all religions. According +to Herodotus (ii. 40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient +Egyptians to beat themselves during the annual festival in +honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta children were flogged +before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood flowed (Plutarch, +<i>Instit. Laced.</i> 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese, women were +flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The +priests of Cybele, or <i>archigalli</i>, submitted to the discipline in the +temple of the goddess (Plutarch, <i>Adv. Colot.</i> p. 1127; Apul., +<i>Metam.</i> viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were +flogged by the celebrants to avert sterility or as a purificatory +ceremony (W. Mannhardt, <i>Mythol. Forsch.</i>, Strassburg, 1884, +p. 72 seq.).</p> + +<p>Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according +to Buxtorf (<i>Synagoga judaica</i>, Basel, 1603), was one of the +ceremonies of the day of the Great Pardon. In the Christian +church flagellation was originally a punishment, and was +practised not only by parents and schoolmasters, but also by +bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St +Augustine, <i>Ep. 159 ad Marcell.</i>; cf. <i>Conc. Agd.</i> 506, can. ii.). +Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the +<i>libri poenitentiales</i> as a very efficacious means of penance. In +the 11th century this new form of devotion was extolled by some +of the most ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west, +such as Abbot Popon of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so +called from his practice of wearing next his skin an iron <i>lorica</i>, +or cuirass of thongs), and especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani. +Damiani advocated the substitution of flagellation for the recitation +of the penitential psalms, and drew up a scale according +to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten psalms, and 15,000 +to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers exemplified +their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained +great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six +days. The custom of collective flagellation was introduced into +the monastic houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday +after confession.</p> + +<p>The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with characteristic +rigour, and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan, +St Anthony of Padua, preaching the praises of this means of +penance. It is incorrect, however, to suppose that St Anthony +took any part in the creation of the flagellant fraternities, which +were the result of spontaneous popular movements, and later +than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri, a monk of +Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities +has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant +brotherhood in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were +distributed over the greater part of northern Italy. The contagion +spread very rapidly, extending as far as the Rhine provinces, +and, across Germany, into Bohemia. Day and night, +long processions of all classes and ages, headed by priests carrying +crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in double file, +reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies with +leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns, +and especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled the flagellants +with threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders +of the 14th century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and +the Black Death, which had spread over the greater part of +Europe, produced a condition of ferment and mystic fever which +was very favourable to a recrudescence of morbid forms of +devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state of +religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between +the papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the +spring of 1349 bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary, +began their propaganda in the south of Germany. Each band +was under the command of a leader, who was assisted by two +lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was enjoined upon +every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants +paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed +to accept board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted +33½ days, during which they flogged themselves with thongs +fitted with four iron points. They read letters which they said +had fallen from heaven, and which threatened the earth with +terrible punishments if men refused to adopt the mode of penance +taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they incited +the populations of the towns through which they passed against +the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propaganda. +Many towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite +of discouragement, they spread from Poland to the Rhine, and +penetrated as far as Holland and Flanders. Finally, a band +of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the court of Pope +Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by +several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a +menace to the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement +published a bull commanding the bishops and inquisitors to +stamp out the growing heresy, and in pursuance of the pope’s +orders numbers of the sectaries perished at the stake or in the +cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal justices. In 1389 the +leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the <i>bianchi</i> was burned +by order of the pope, and his following dispersed. In 1417, +however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded +the cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council +of Constance, and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +(<i>Epistola ad Vincentium</i>), who declared that the flagellants were +showing a tendency to slight the sacramental confession and +penance, were refusing to perform the <i>cultus</i> of the martyrs +venerated by the church, and were even alleging their own +superiority to the martyrs.</p> + +<p>The justice of Gerson’s protest was borne out by events. +In Germany, in 1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic +of flagellation, which then became a clearly-formulated heresy. +A certain Conrad Schmidt placed himself at the head of a community +of Thuringian flagellants, who took the name of Brethren +of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the incarnation of +Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church of +Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph +of flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of +Beghards joined the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects +were confounded in the rigorous persecution conducted in +Germany by the inquisitor Eylard Schöneveld, who almost +annihilated the flagellants. This mode of devotion, however, +held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic piety. In +the 16th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern France. +Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to +acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into +various orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The +king and his courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of +penitents, and scourged themselves with ostentation. The +king’s encouragement seemed at first to point to a successful +revival of flagellation; but the practice disappeared along with +the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at the time of +the league, and Henry III.’s successor suppressed the Paris +brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a +means of salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the +18th century, and also, towards the end of the 18th century, +by a little Jansenist sect known as the Fareinists, founded by +the brothers Bonjour, <i>curés</i> of Fareins, near Trévoux (Ain). +In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared during a procession at +Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season of great +festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents flagellating +themselves before the assembled faithful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, <i>Cultes, +mythes et religions</i> (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a bibliography +of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in medieval +times, see M. Röhricht, “Bibliographische Beiträge zur Gesch. der +Geissler” in <i>Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, i. 313.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAGELLATA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the name given to the Protozoa whose +dominant phase is a “flagellula,” or cell-body provided with +one, few or rarely many long actively vibratile, cytoplasmic +processes. Nutrition is variable:—(1) “Holozoic”; food +taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either unspecialized +or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an aperture +(mouth); (2) “Saprophytic”; food taken in in solution through +the general surface of the body; (3) “Holophytic”; food-material +formed in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon +from the medium, with liberation of oxygen, in presence of light, +as in green plants. Fission in the “active” state occurs and is +usually longitudinal. Multiple fission rarely occurs save in a +sporocyst, and produces microzoospores, which in some cases +may conjugate with others as isogametes or with larger forms +(megagametes). “Hypnocysts” to tide over unfavourable +conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to +reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard +shell: again a distinct cell-wall of chitin or cellulose may be +formed: finally, an open cup, “theca,” of firm or gelatinous +material may be present, with or without a stalk: such a cup +and stalk are often found in colonial species, and are subject +to much the same conditions as in Infusoria. The nucleus is +simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates it is connected +with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate relation +with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the “tropho-nucleus,” +the latter the “kineto-nucleus.”</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:1053px" src="images/img464.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Flagellata.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. <i>Chlamydomonas pulvisculus</i>, +Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>) free-swimming +individual.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = starch corpuscle.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = cellulose investment.<br /> +    <i>e</i> = stigma (eye-spot).</p> + +<p>2. Resting stage of the same, +with fourfold division of the +cell-contents. Letters as before.</p> + +<p>3. Breaking up of the cell-contents +into minute biflagellate +swarm-spores, which escape, and +whose history is not further +known.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Syncrypta volvox</i>, Ehr. +(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>). A colony +enclosed by a common gelatinous +test c.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = stigma.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = vacuole (non-contractile).</p> + +<p>5. <i>Uroglena volvox</i>, Ehr. +(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>). Half of a +large colony, the flagellates embedded +in a common jelly.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Chlorogonium euchlorum</i>, +Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>).<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = starch grain.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = eye-spot.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Chlorogonium euchlorum</i>, +Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>). Copulation +of two liberated microgonidia.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = eye-spot (so-called).</p> + +<p>8. Colony of <i>Dinobryon sertularia</i>, +Ehr. (<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>).</p> + +<p>9. <i>Haematococcus palustris</i>, +Girod (= <i>Chlamydococcus</i>, Braun, +<i>Protococcus</i>, Cohn), one of the +<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>; ordinary individual +with widely separated +test.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus (pyrenoid).</p> + +<p>10. Dividing resting stage of +the same, with eight fission products +in the common test e.</p> + +<p>11. A microgonidium of the +same.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Phalansterium consociatum</i>, +Cienk. (<i>Choanoflagellata</i>); × 325. +Disk-like colony.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Euglena viridis</i>, Ehr.; +× 300 (<i>Euglenidae</i>).<br /> +    <i>a</i> = pigment spot (stigma).<br /> +    <i>b</i> = clear space.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = paramylum granules.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = chromatophor (endochrome plate).</p> + +<p>14. <i>Gonium pectorale</i>, O. F. +Müller (<i>Volvocineae</i>). Colony +seen from the flat side; × 300.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Dinobryon sertularia</i>, Ehr. +(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>).<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = free colourless flagellates, probably not belonging to Dinobryon.<br /> +    <i>e</i> = stigma (eye-spot).<br /> +    <i>f</i> = chromatophors.</p> +</td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>16. <i>Peranema trichophorum</i>, +Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping individual +seen from the back; +× 140.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = pharynx.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = mouth.</p> + +<p>17. Anterior end of <i>Euglena +acus</i>, Ehr., in profile.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = mouth.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = vacuoles.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = pharynx.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = stigma (eye-spot).<br /> +    <i>e</i> = paramylum-body.<br /> +    <i>f</i> = chlorophyll corpuscles.</p> + +<p>18. Part of the surface of a +colony of <i>Volvox globator</i>, L. +(<i>Volvocidae</i>), showing the intercellular +connective fibrils.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = starch granule.</p> + +<p>19. Two microgametes (spermatozoa) +of <i>Volvox globator</i>, L.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.</p> + +<p>20. Ripe asexually produced +daughter-individual of <i>Volvox +minor</i>, Stein, still enclosed in the +cyst of the partheno-gonidium.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = young, partheno-gonidia.</p> + +<p>21. 22. <i>Trypanosoma sanguinis</i>, +Gruby (<i>Haematoflagellates</i>), from +the blood of <i>Rana esculenta</i>.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus; × 500.</p> + +<p>23-26. Reproduction of <i>Bodo +caudatus</i>, Duj. (<i>Bodonidae</i>), after +Dallinger and Drysdale:—23, +fusion of several individuals (plasmodium); +24, encysted fusion-product +dividing into four; 25, +later into eight; 26, cyst filled +with swarm-spores.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Distigma proteus</i>, Ehbg., +O.F. Müller (<i>Euglenidae</i>); × 440. +Individual with the two flagella, +and strongly contracting hinder +region of the body.</p> + +<p>28. The same devoid of flagella.<br /> +    <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> = the two dark pigment spots (so-called eyes) near the mouth.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Oicomonas termo</i> (<i>Monas +termo</i>) Ehr. (one of the <i>Oicomonadidae</i>).<br /> +    <i>c</i> = food-ingesting vacuole.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = food-particle; × 440.</p> + +<p>30. The food-particle <i>d</i> has +now been ingested by the vacuole.</p> + +<p>31. <i>Oicomonas mutabilis</i>, Kent +(<i>Oicomonadidae</i>), with adherent +stalk.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = food-particle in food + vacuole.</p> + +<p>32, 33. <i>Cercomonas crassicauda</i>, +Duj. (<i>Oicomonadidae</i>), showing +two conditions of the pseudo-podium-protruding +tail.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuoles.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = mouth.</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum, +leucosin (a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful composition), +proteid granules. In the holophytic forms the cytoplasm +contains specialized parts of more or less definite form, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +known generally as “plastids” or “chromatophores” impregnated +with a lipochrome pigment, whether green (chlorophyll), +yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or again red +(chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of +such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one +anterior “eye-spot,” of a refractive globule embedded behind +in a collection of red pigment granules. The single anterior +“flagellum tractellum” of so many of the larger forms acts +by the bending over of its free end in consecutive meridians, +so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex backwards: we +may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling round +and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to +push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body +forwards, the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves +on (Y. Delage). An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may +modify this axial rotation, and help in steering. When the animal +is at rest—attached by its base or with its body so curved as +to resist onward motion—the current produced by the tractellum +will bring suspended particles up against the protoplasm at its +base of insertion. As noted by E.R. Lankester, the posterior +flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the spermatozoon +of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind; +he terms it a “pulsellum.” Such flagellar motion is distinct +from that of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards, +with a swift downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane; +though where the flagella are numerous they may behave in this +way, and indeed flagella agree with cilia in being mere vibratory +extensions of cytoplasm. Symmetrically placed flagella may +have a symmetrical reciprocating motion like that of cilia.</p> + +<p>Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic); +the majority live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in +sea and fresh waters, but are not known to be active as agents +of putrefaction. Dallinger and Drysdale have shown that the +spores of <i>Bodo</i> and others will survive an exposure to a higher +temperature than do any known Schizomycetes (Bacteria), +viz. 250° to 300° Fahr., for ten minutes, although the adults are +killed at 180°.</p> + +<p>The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Protomastigopoda +rarely exceeding 20 μ in length. The Euglenaceae +contain the largest species, up to 130 μ in length, exclusive of +the flagellum.</p> + +<p>Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler +and Prantl, <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>) and Hartog (in <i>Cambridge Natural +History</i>).</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<p class="pt2 center">I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA)</p> + +<p>Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Order 1.—<b>HOLOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Body homaxial with uniform +flagella. <i>Multicilia</i> (Cienkowski); <i>Grassia</i> (Fisch, in frog’s blood +and gastric mucus).</p> + +<p>Order 2.—<b>RHIZOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Flagellum 1, 2 or few, diverging +from anterior end. <i>Mastigamoeba</i> (F.E. Schulze).</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt1 center">II. EUFLAGELLATA</p> + +<p>Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true +mouth, or by absorption; or nutrition holophytic.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Order 1.—<b>PROTOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Contractile vacuole simple, one +or more, or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-spot +(or 2 or more), saprophytic, or parasitic.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 1.—<span class="sc">Oicomonadidae</span>. Flagellum 1, sometimes with +a tail-like posterior prominence passing into a temporary +flagellum, but without other cytoplasmic processes. +<i>Oicomonas</i> (Kent); <i>Cercomonas</i> (Dujardin) (Fig. 1, <i>32, 33</i>); +<i>Codonoeca</i> (James-Clark), with a gelatinous theca.</p> + +<p>Family 2.—<span class="sc">Bicoecidae</span>. Differs from <i>Oicomonadidae</i> in a unilateral +proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often +thecate and stalked, forming branched colonies, like +Choanoflagellates in habit. <i>Bicoeca</i> (J.-Cl.), <i>Poteriodendron</i>.</p> + +<p>Family 3.—<span class="sc">Choanoflagellidae</span> (Choanoflagellata, Kent; +Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but +with flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical +rim of cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive +area. The cells of this group have the morphology of the +flagellate cells (choanocytes) of sponges. They are often +colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of <i>Proterospongia</i>, +the more internal cells (Fig. 2, <i>15</i>) pass into a definite +“reproductive state.” Many stalked forms are epizoic on +Entomostracan Crustacea.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list3"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Naked forms often stalked: <i>Monosiga</i> (Kent), stalked +solitary; <i>Codosiga</i> (Kent) (Fig. 2, <i>3</i>), stalked social; +<i>Desmarella</i> (Kent), unstalked, and <i>Astrosiga</i> (Kent), +stalked, form floating colonies.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: <i>Salpingoeca</i> (J.-Cl.); +(Fig. 2, <i>1, 6, 7</i>) recalling the habit of <i>Monosiga</i> +and <i>Cod siga</i>; <i>Polyoeca</i> forming a branched free +swimming colony.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath: <i>Proterospongia</i> +(Kent) (Fig. 2, <i>15</i>); <i>Phalansterium</i> (Cienk.) +(Fig. 1, <i>12</i>), has a slender cylindrical collar, and a +branching tubular stalk.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 4.—<span class="sc">Haemoflagellidae</span>. Forms with a complex nuclear +apparatus, and a muscular undulating membrane with +which one or two flagella are connected, parasitic in Metazoa +(often in the blood). <i>Trypanosoma</i> (Gruby) (Fig. 1, <i>21, 22</i>), +<i>Herpetomonas</i>(Kent), <i>Treponema</i> (Vuillemin)(= <i>Spirochaete</i>, +auctt., nec. Ehrbg.).</p> + +<p>Family 5.—<span class="sc">Amphimonadidae</span>. Flagella 2 anterior, both directed +forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &c., often +recalling Choanoflagellata, <i>Amphimonas</i> (Kent), <i>Diplomitus</i> +(Kent); <i>Spongomonas</i> (St.), with thick branching gelatinous +sheath.</p> + +<p>Family 6.—<span class="sc">Monadidae</span>. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed +forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short.<br /> + +<i>Monas</i> (St.); <i>Anthophysa</i> (Bory) (Fig. 2, <i>12, 13</i>), with the +stalk composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder +end of the cells of the colony.</p> + +<p>Family 7.—<span class="sc">Bodonidae</span>. Flagella 2 (or 3) 1 anterior, the other +(1 or 2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the +end to form a temporary anchor.<br /> + +<i>Bodo</i> (Ehrb.) (figs. 1, <i>23-26</i> and 2, <i>10</i>). <i>B. lens</i> is the +“hooked” and <i>B. saltans</i> the “springing monad” of +Dallinger and Drysdale; <i>Dallingeria</i> (Kent) with a pair of +antero-lateral flagella; <i>Costia necatrix</i> (Leclerq) is also 3-flagellate; +causes destructive epidemics in fish-hatcheries.</p> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span></p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:1044px" src="images/img466a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Flagellata.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. <i>Salpingoeca fusiformis</i>, S. +Kent (Choanoflagellata). The +protoplasmic body is drawn together +within the goblet-shaped +shell, and divided into numerous +spores.</p> + +<p>2. Escape of the spores of the +same as monoflagellate and +swarm-spores.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Codosiga umbellata</i>, Tatem +(Choanoflagellata); adult colony +formed by dichotomous growth.</p> + +<p>4. A single zooid of the same.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = the characteristic “collar” of naked streaming protoplasm.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Hexamita inflata</i>, Duj.(<i>Distomatidae</i>); +normal adult.</p> + +<p>6, 7 <i>Salpingoeca urceolata</i>, S +Kent (<i>Choanoflagellata</i>)—6, +with collar extended; 7, with +collar retracted within the +stalked cup.</p> + +<p>8 <i>Polytoma uvella</i>, Mull. sp. +(<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>).</p> + +<p>9. <i>Lophomonas blattarum</i>, +Stein (<i>Trichonymphidae</i>) from +the intestine of <i>Blatta orientalis</i>.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Bodolens</i>, Mull. (<i>Bodonidae</i>), +the wavy filament is a +tractellum, the straight one is +a trailing thread.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Tetramitus sulcatus</i>, Stein +(<i>Tetramitidae</i>)</p> +</td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>12. <i>Anthophysa vegetans</i>, O.F. +Müller (<i>Monadidae</i>). A typical, +erect, shortly-branching colony +stock with four terminal +monad-clusters.</p> + +<p>13. Monad cluster of the +same in optical section, showing +the relation of the individual +monads or flagellate zooids to the +stem <i>d</i>.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Tetramitus rostratus</i>, Perty +(<i>Tetramitidae</i>).<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Proterospongia Haeckeli</i>, +Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata); +A social colony of about forty +flagellate zooids.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br /> +    <i>c</i> = amoebiform cell sunk within the colonial gelatinous + test compared by S. Kent to a mesoderm cell of the sponges.<br /> +    <i>d</i> = similar cell reproducing by transverse fission.<br /> +    <i>e</i> = normal cells, with their collars contracted.<br /> +    <i>f</i> = substance of test.<br /> +    <i>g</i> = individual reproducing by multiple fission, producing + microzoospores, comparable to the spermatozoa of sponges.</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:525px" src="images/img466b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>1. <i>Trichonympha agilis</i>, Leidy, from +gut of White Ant (Termite).</p> + +<p>2. <i>Opalina ranarum</i>, Purkinje parasitic +in frog rectum multinucleate +adult.</p> + +<p>3, 4. Binary fissions of same, 1-nucleat +individual at final stage of fission.</p> + +<p>5. Same encysted dejected from +rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.</p> + +<p>6. Young 1-nucleate individual +emerged from cyst, destined to grow, +proliferating its nuclei to adult form.<br /> +    <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br /> +    <i>b</i> = food (?) particles in Fig. 1.</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<div class="f90"> +<div class="list1"> +<p class="pt2">Family 8.—<span class="sc">Tetramitidae</span>. Body pyriform, the pointed end +posterior; flagella 4 anterior.</p> + +<p><i>Tetramitus</i> (Perty) (<i>T. calycinus</i> of Kent, Fig. 2, <i>11, 14</i>), +is the “calycine monad” of Dallinger and Drysdale; +<i>Trichomonas</i>, Donné, possesses a longitudinal undulating +membrane, and is an innocuous human parasite; it is +possibly related to +Haemoflagellates +on one hand and +to <i>Trichonymphidae</i> +on the other.</p> + +<p>Family 9.—<span class="sc">Distomatidae</span>. +Mouth-spots +two, or one, +with a distinct +construction; flagella +symmetrically +arranged; +nucleus bilobed +or geminate. <i>Hexamitus</i> +(Duj.) (Fig. +2, <i>5</i>), saprophytic +and parasitic; <i>Trepomonas</i> +(Duj.), +freshwater; <i>Megastoma</i> +(Grassi) (= +<i>Lamblia</i> of Blanchard), +with constricted +mouth-spot +and blepharoplast +(kineto-nucleus) +parasitic +in the small intestine +of Mammals, +including Man.</p> + +<p>Family 10.—<span class="sc">Trichonymphidae</span>. +Flagella +numerous, +sometimes accompanied +by one or +more undulating +membranes; cytoplasm +highly +differentiated; +contractile vacuole +absent; all +parasitic in insects +(all except +<i>Lophomonas</i> in +Termites—the so-called +White +Ants.)<br /> + +<i>Lophomonas</i>(St.) +(Fig. 2, <i>9</i>); parasitic +in the cockroach; +<i>Dinenympha</i> (Leidy), <i>Pyrsonympha</i> (Leidy); <i>Trichenympha</i> +(Leidy) (Fig. 3, <i>1</i>).</p> + +<p>Family 11.—<span class="sc">Opalinidae</span>. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform. +uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small, +numerous, uniform.<br /> + +Only genus, <i>Opalina</i> (Purkinje and Valentin) (Fig. 3, <i>2-6</i>), +in bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an +aberrant ciliate, but E.R. Lankester expressed doubts as +to its position in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Order 2.—<b>CHRYSOMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole simple (in +fresh-water forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always +present; reserves fat.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 1.—<span class="sc">Chrysomonadidae</span>. Body naked, often amoeboid +in active state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gelatinous +investment, a firm cuticle, or silicified shell; reserves +fat or leucosin (starch in <i>Zooxanthella</i>); eye-spot present. +<i>Chromulina</i> (Cienk.) often forms a golden scum on tanks; +<i>Chrysamoeba</i> (Klebs); <i>Hydrurus</i> (Agardh), theca of colony +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +forming branching tubes, simulating a yellow Conferva in +mountain torrents; <i>Dinobryon</i> (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>8, 15</i>); +<i>Stylochrysalis</i> (St.); <i>Uroglena</i> (Ehrb.); <i>Syncrypta</i> (Ehrb.), +and <i>Synura</i> (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>5</i>) form floating spherical +colonies; <i>Zooxanthella</i> (Brandt), symbiotic as “yellow +cells” in Radiolaria <i>Foraminifera</i>, <i>Millepora</i>, and many +Actinozoa.</p> + +<p>Family 2.—<span class="sc">Coccolithophoridae</span>. Body invested in a spherical +test strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential +circular plates, “coccoliths,” “discoliths,” “cyatholiths,” +or radiating rods “rhabdoliths.” These are often found in +Foraminiferal ooze and its fossil condition, chalk; when +coherent as in the complete test, they are known as “coccospheres” +and “rhabdospheres.” <i>Coccolithophora</i> (Lohmann), +<i>Rhabdosphaera</i> (Haeckel).</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Order 3.—<b>CRYPTOMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole (in freshwater +forms) simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or +absent; reserves starch; holophytic or saprophytic. <i>Cryptomonas</i> +(Ehrb.); <i>Paramoeba</i> (Greeff) has yellow plastids and +shows two cycles, in the one amoeboid, finally encysting to produce +a brood of flagellulae; in the other flagellate, and multiplying +by longitudinal fission (it differs from <i>Mastigamoeba</i> in possessing +no flagellum in the amoeboid state, though it takes in food +amoeba-fashion); <i>Chilomonas</i> (Ehrb.).</p> + +<p>Order 4.—<b>CHLOROMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a +complex of variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids discoid +chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in +active state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior +blind tubular depression simulating a pharynx. <i>Coelomonas</i> (St.), +<i>Vacuolaria</i> (Cienk.).</p> + +<p>Order 5.—<b>EUGLENACEAE.</b> Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or +more accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface +by a canal (“pharynx”) in which are planted one or two strong +flagella; pellicle strong often striated; nucleus large, chromatophores +green, complex or absent; reserves paramylum granules +of definite shape, and oil; nutrition variable; body stiff or +“metabolic,” never amoeboid. Among the true Flagellates these +are the largest, few being below 40 μ and several attaining 130 μ +in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum). Encysted condition +common; the green forms sometimes multiply in this state and +simulate unicellular Algae.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 1.—<span class="sc">Euglenidae</span>. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition +saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1) +Chromatophore large; eye-spot conspicuous. <i>Euglena</i> +(Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>13, 17</i>), with flexible cuticle and metabolic +movements (this is probably Priestley’s “green matter” +through which he obtained oxygen gas)—a very common +genus; <i>Colacium</i> (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic on +Copepoda, which it colours green; <i>Eutreptia</i> (Perty), biflagellate; +<i>Ascoglena</i> (St.); <i>Trachelomonas</i> (Ehrb.), with +a hard brown cuticle; <i>Phacus</i> (Nitszche), with a firm rigid +pellicle, often symmetrically flattened; <i>Cryptoglena</i> (Ehbg.). +(2) Chromatophores absent. <i>Astasia</i> (Duj.), body metabolic; +<i>Menoidium</i> (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat +inflected and crescentic; <i>Sphenomonas</i> (Stein), with a short +accessory trailing flagellum in front peeled; <i>Distigma</i> +(Ehbg.) (Fig. 1, <i>27, 28</i>), very metabolic, with two unequal +flagella and two dark pigment spots.</p> + +<p>Family 2.—<span class="sc">Peranemidae</span>. Bilaterally symmetrical, often +creeping, pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like +skeleton, sometimes protrusible; nutrition saprophytic +and holozoic. <i>Peranema</i> (Ehbg.) and <i>Urceolus</i> (Mereschowsky), +uni-flagellate creeping, very metabolic. <i>Petalomonas</i> +(St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep ventral +groove, not metabolic; <i>Heteronema</i> (Duj.) and <i>Tropidoscyphus</i> +(St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing +flagellum; <i>Anisonema</i> (Duj.) and <i>Entosiphon</i> (St.), with +the trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much +longer.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Order 6.—<b>VOLVOCACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole simple anterior; +cell always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous) +perforated by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior +flagella; reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present, +except in <i>Polytoma</i>, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutrition +usually holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic. +Brood-division in active state common, radial.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 1.—<span class="sc">Chlamydomonadidae</span>. Cell-wall firm not +gelatinous, rarely forming colonies. Fore-end of the body +with two or four (seldom five) flagella. Almost always +green in consequence of the presence of a very large single +chromatophore. Generally a delicate shell-like envelope +of membranous consistence. 1 to 2 simple contractile +vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one eye-speck. +Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may +produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may +occur in the swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more +continuous fission microgametes of various sizes are +formed. Conjugation is frequent.</p> +</div> + +<p>Genera.—<i>Chlorangium</i> (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll; +<i>Chlorogonium</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>6, 7</i>); <i>Polytoma</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 2, <i>8</i>); +<i>Chlamydomonas</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>1, 2, 3</i>); <i>Haematococcus</i> (Agardh) +(= <i>Chlamydococcus</i>, A. Braun, Stein); <i>Protococcus</i> (Conn, Huxley +and Martin); <i>Chlamydomonas</i> (Cienkowski), causes red snow and +“bloody rain”; <i>Carteria</i> (Diesing), quadri-flagellate; <i>Spondytomorum</i> +(Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; <i>Coccomonas</i> (St.); +<i>Phacotus</i> (Perty); <i>Zoochlorella</i> (Brandt), is the name given to undetermined +Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state +within and in symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the freshwater +sponge, <i>Ephydatia</i>, <i>Hydra viridis</i>, and to the Turbellarian, +<i>Convoluta viridis</i> (in which last species the active form has been +recognized as a <i>Carteria</i>).</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Family 2.—<span class="sc">Volvocidae</span>. Cell-wall gelatinous; always associated +in colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number +of individuals united to form a colony varies very much, +as does the shape of the colony. Reproduction by the +continuous division of all or of only certain individuals of +the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter colony +(from each such individual). In some, probably in all, +at certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct +sexual colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation +of the colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female. +The result of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also +called zygote or oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a +time develops itself into one or more new colonies.</p> +</div> + +<p>Genera.—<i>Gonium</i> (O.F. Müller) (Fig. 1, <i>14</i>); <i>Stephanosphaera</i> +(Cohn); <i>Pandorina</i> (Bory de Vine); <i>Eudorina</i> (Ehr.); <i>Volvox</i> +(Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>18, 20</i>).</p> + +<p>The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one +of the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In +some families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid, +fuse, encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop +simply to the parental form (Fig. 1, <i>23</i> to <i>26</i>). In the <i>Chlamydomonadidae</i> +a single adult individual by division produces small individuals, +so-called “microgametes.” These conjugate with one another or +with similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chlorogonium, +Fig. 1, <i>7</i>); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete +conjugates with an ordinary individual megagamete. The result +in either case is a “zygote,” a cell formed by fusion of two which +divides in the usual way to produce new individuals. The microgamete +in this case is the male element and equivalent to a spermatozoon; +the megagamete is the female and equivalent to an egg-cell. +The zygote is a “fertilized egg,” or oosperm. In some colony-building +forms we find that only certain cells produce by division +microgametes; and, regarding the colony as a multicellular individual, +we may consider these cells as testis-cells and their microgametes +as spermatozoa.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Cystoflagellata</span>(<span class="sc">Rhynchoflagellata</span> of E.R. Lankester) and +<span class="sc">Dinoflagellata</span> are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata; +but, following O. Bütschli, we describe them separately; the three +groups being united into his <span class="sc">Mastigophora</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Further Remarks on the Flagellates.</i>—Besides the work of special +Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Bütschli, F. v. Stein, F. +Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &c., the Flagellates have been a +favourite study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite +N. Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W.C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P.A. Dangeard, +G. Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schütt; the reason for this is obvious. They +present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera +to the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex +colonies of <i>Proterospongia</i> and <i>Volvox</i>. By some they are regarded +as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa—a position which +may perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa; but they seem +undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as +well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the +only distinction between the <i>Chlamydomonadidae</i> and the true green +Algae or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting +condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older cell-walls +(<i>Palmella</i> state), they round off and separate, while the latter +divide by a “party wall” so as to give rise either to a cylindrical +filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of growth +constant (<i>Conferva</i> type), or to a plate of tissue when the directions +alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the Chrysomonadaceae +and Cryptomonadaceae, so that these little groups are included in +all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores of +the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae, +Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the <i>Bodonidae</i>. Thus in +two directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Probably +also the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the +Conjugatae in the widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the +Diatomaceae; both groups of obscure affinity, since even the reproductive +bodies have no special organs of locomotion. For these +reasons the Volvocaceae, Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae +and Cryptomonadaceae have been united as Phytoflagellates; and +the Euglenaceae might well be added to these. It is easy to understand +the relation of the saprophytic and the holophytic Flagellates +to true plants. The capacity to absorb nutritive matter in solution +(as contrasted with the ingestion of solid matter) renders the encysted +condition compatible with active growth, and what in holozoic forms +is a true hypnocyst, a state in which all functions are put to sleep, +is here only a rest from active locomotion, nutrition being only +limited by the supply of nutritive matter from without, and—in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +case of holophytic species—by the illumination: this latter condition +naturally limits the possible growth in thickness in holophytes +with undifferentiated tissues. The same considerations apply +indeed to the larger parasitic organisms among Sporozoa, such as +Gregarines and Myxosporidia and Dolichosporidia, which are giants +among Protozoa.</p> +</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—W.S. Kent, <i>Manual of the Infusoria</i>, vol. i. Protozoa +(1880-1882); O. Bütschli, <i>Die Flagellaten</i> (in Bronn’s <i>Thierreich</i>, vol. +i. Protozoa, 1885); these two works contain full bibliographies of the +antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on Chlamydomonads) +in <i>Bull. Soc. Nat.</i> (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G. Klebs, “Flagellatenstudien” +in <i>Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool.</i> lv. (1892); Doflein, <i>Protozoen +als Krankheitserreger</i> (1900); Senn, “Flagellaten,” in Engler and +Prantl’s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, 1 Teil, Abt. 1a (1900); R. Francé, <i>Der +Organismus der Craspedomonaden</i> (1897); Grassi and Sandias, “Trichonymphidae,” +in <i>Quart. J. Micr. Sci.</i> xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzenberger, +“Opa inidae” in <i>Arch. Protist</i>, iii. (1903); Marcus Hartog, +“Protozoa,” in <i>Cambridge Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAGEOLET,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> in music, a kind of <i>flute-à-bec</i> with a new +fingering, invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and +in vogue in England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of +the 19th century. The instrument is described and illustrated +by Mersenne,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who states that the most famous maker and +player in his day was Le Vacher. The flageolet differed from +the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in front and two +thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in front +and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived +in the French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in +small orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the +holes was as follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near +mouthpiece; 2 and 3, finger-holes stopped by the left hand; +4, finger-hole stopped by right hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back; +6, hole near the open end. According to Dr Burney (<i>History +of Music</i>) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur Juvigny, who +played it in the <i>Ballet comique de la Royne</i>, 1581. Dr Edward +Browne,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June +1673, relates, “We have with us here one ... and Mr Hadly +upon the flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to +invent large ones and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever +upon any other instrument.” About the same time was +published Thomas Greeting’s <i>Pleasant Companion; or New +Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet</i> (London, 1675 or 1682), +a rare book of which the British Museum does not possess a +copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the beginning +of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and +triple flageolets.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The three tubes were bored parallel through +one piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which +was common to all three. The lowest notes of the respective +tubes were <img style="width:141px; height:47px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img468.jpg" alt="" /></p> + +<p>The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval +Fr. <i>flajol</i>, the primitive whistle-pipe.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sir Thomas Browne’s Works, vol. i. p. 206.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Capt. C.R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments</i> +(London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also <i>Complete Instructions for +the Double Flageolet</i> (London, 1825); and <i>The Preceptor, or a Key +to the Double Flageolet</i> (London, 1815).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAGSHIP,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the +symbol of authority of an admiral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1785-1870), French general and statesman, +son of Alexandre Sébastien de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte +de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793, and his wife +Adélaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in +Paris on the 21st of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally +recognized to be the offspring of his mother’s liaison with Talleyrand, +with whom he was closely connected throughout his life. +His mother took him with her into exile in 1792, and they +remained abroad until 1798. He entered the army as a volunteer +in 1800, and received his commission after the battle of Marengo. +He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was wounded at the +battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne Poniatowski, +Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became intimate. +After the battle of Friedland he received the Legion of +Honour, and returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in +1808, and then in Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka +had established herself in Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by +this time entered on his liaison with Hortense de Beauharnais, +queen of Holland. The birth of their son was registered in Paris +on the 21st of October 1811 as Charles Auguste Louis Joseph +Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought +with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813 +became general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and, +after the battle of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon’s +abdication in 1814 he submitted to the new government, but +was placed on the retired list in September. He was assiduous +in his attendance on Queen Hortense until the Hundred Days +brought him into active service again. A mission to Vienna to +secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was +present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II. +on the throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand’s influence, +but was placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected +to retire to Germany, and thence to England, where he married +Margaret, daughter of Admiral George Keith Elphinstone, +Lord Keith, and after the latter’s death Baroness Keith in her +own right. The French ambassador opposed the marriage, and +Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter, Emily +Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts +returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the +count the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of +France. He remained intimately associated with Talleyrand’s +policy, and was, for a short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin. +He was afterwards attached to the household of the duke of +Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, where +he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and retired from +the army. After the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 he was again actively +employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court +of St James’s. He died on the 1st of September 1870. The +comte de Flahaut is perhaps better remembered for his exploits +in gallantry, and the elegant manners in which he had been +carefully trained by his mother, than for his public services, +which were not, however, so inconsiderable as they have sometimes +been represented to be.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. de Haricourt, <i>Madame de Souza et sa famille</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAIL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>flagellum</i>, a whip or scourge, but used in +the Vulgate in the sense of “flail”; the word appears in Dutch +<i>vlegel</i>, Ger. <i>Flegel</i>, and Fr. <i>fléau</i>), a farm hand-implement formerly +used for threshing corn. It consists of a short thick club called +a “swingle” or “swipple” attached by a rope or leather thong +to a wooden handle in such a manner as to enable it to swing +freely. The “flail” was a weapon used for military purposes +in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as a threshing-flail +but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It also +took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end +swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was +known as the “morning star” or “holy water sprinkler.” +During the panic over the Popish plot in England from 1678 +to 1681, clubs, known as “Protestant flails,” were carried by +alarmed Protestants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Green Ribbon Club</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMBARD, RANULF,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ralph</span> (d. 1128), bishop of Durham +and chief minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman +parish priest who belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating +at an early age to England, the young Ranulf entered the +chancery of William I. and became conspicuous as a courtier. +He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed him Flambard +in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he acquired +the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played +an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey. +In that record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as +holding land both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death +of the old king he became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London, +under whom he had formerly served in the chancery. But +early in the next reign Ranulf returned to the royal service. +He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he seems in +that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the +custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +and there can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a +fiscal character. His name is regularly connected by the +chroniclers with the ingenious methods of extortion from which +all classes suffered between 1087 and 1100. He profited largely +by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion +of the ecclesiastical preferments which were <span class="correction" title="amended from illegaly">illegally</span> kept vacant, +and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099). +His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of Henry I., +by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry. +A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard +soon <span class="correction" title="amended from succeded">succeeded</span> in effecting his escape from the Tower of London. +A popular legend represents the bishop as descending from the +window of his cell by a rope which friends had conveyed to him +in a cask of wine. He took refuge with Robert Curthose in +Normandy and became one of the advisers who pressed the +duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger brother; +Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the administration +of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai +(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with +Henry, and was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham +he passed the remainder of his life. His private life was lax; +he had at least two sons, for whom he purchased benefices before +they had entered on their teens; and scandalous tales are told +of the entertainments with which he enlivened his seclusion. +But he distinguished himself, even among the bishops of that +age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but completed +the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef, had +begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the +priory of Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch, +Hampshire. As a politician he ended his career with his submission +to Henry, who found in Roger of Salisbury a financier +not less able and infinitely more acceptable to the nation. Ranulf +died on the 5th of September 1128.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Orderic Vitalis, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, vols. iii. and iv. (ed. +le Prévost, Paris, 1845); the first continuation of Symeon’s <i>Historia +Ecclesiae Dunelmensis</i> (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury +in the <i>Gesta pontificum</i> (Rolls ed., 1870); and the <i>Peterborough +Chronicle</i> (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E.A. Freeman in +his <i>William Rufus</i> (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also +T.A. Archer in the <i>English Historical Review</i>, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs’s +<i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.H. +Round’s <i>Feudal England</i> (London, 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMBOROUGH HEAD,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a promontory on the Yorkshire +coast of England, between the Filey and Bridlington bays of +the North Sea. It is a lofty chalk headland, and the resistance +it offers to the action of the waves may be well judged by contrast +with the low coast of Holderness to the south. The cliffs of the +Head, however, are pierced with caverns and fringed with rocks +of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata is seen +at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on +the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54° 7′ N., 0° 5′ W.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMBOYANT STYLE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> the term given to the phase of Gothic +architecture in France which corresponds in period to the +Perpendicular style. The word literally means “flowing” or +“flaming,” in consequence of the resemblance to the curved +lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest examples of +flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of the +Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the +enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the +foliations resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form +and hence the term flowing tracery. In the minster and the +church of St Mary at Beverley, dating from 1320 and 1330, are +the earliest examples in England; in France its first employment +dates from about 1460, and it is now generally agreed that the +flamboyant style was introduced from English sources. One of +the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in France is +that known as “interpenetration,” in which the base mouldings +of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which +the faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was +in a sense a <i>tour de force</i> of French masons, was carried to such +an extent that in a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating +the base-mould would be found to be those of a diagonal buttress +situated 20 to 30 ft. above it. It was not limited, however, to +internal work; in late 15th and early 16th century ecclesiastical +architecture it is found on the façades of some French +cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in later +times.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAME<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flamma</i>; the root <i>flag</i>-appears in <i>flagrare</i>, to +burn, blaze, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="phlégein">φλέγειν</span>). There is no strict scientific +definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be +regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in +consequence of chemical action. It is well known that the +luminosity of gases can be induced by the electrical discharge, +and with rapidly alternating high-tension discharges in air an +oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced which is long and flickering, +can be blown out, yields nitrogen peroxide, and is in fact indistinguishable +from an ordinary flame except by its electrical +mode of maintenance. The term “flame” is also applied to +solar protuberances, which, according to the common view, +consist of gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even +with the restricted definition given above, difficulties present +themselves. It is found, for example, with a hydrogen flame +that the luminosity diminishes as the purity of the hydrogen +is increased and as the air is freed from dust, and J.S. Stas +declared that under the most favourable conditions he was only +able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it, +an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum +of the flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand, +there are many examples of chemical combination between gases +where the attendant radiation is below the pitch of visibility, +as in the case of ethylene and chlorine. It will be obvious from +these facts that a strict definition of flame is hardly possible. +The common distinction between luminous and non-luminous +flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and only corresponds to a +rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.</p> + +<p>The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may +be liberated during combination or decomposition. A single +substance like gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and +gives gaseous products, will produce a bright flame of decomposition +if a single piece be heated in an evacuated flask. Combination +is the more common case, and this means that we have +two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed <i>en +masse</i> before combination, the one which flows as a current into +the other is called conventionally the “combustible,” but the +simple experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show +the unreality of this distinction between combustible and supporter +of combustion, which, in fact, is only one of the many +partial views that are explained and perhaps justified by the +dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.</p> + +<p>Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most +interesting, it will be well to consider simpler flames first in +order to discuss some fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon +flames the complexity of the combustible, its susceptibility +to change by heating, and the possibilities of fractional oxidation, +create special difficulties. In the flame of hydrogen and oxygen +or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have simpler conditions, +though here, too, things may be by no means so simple as they +seem from the equations 2H<span class="su">2</span> + O<span class="su">2</span> = 2H<span class="su">2</span>O and 2CO + O<span class="su">2</span> = 2CO<span class="su">2</span>. +The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well +known, and the molecular transactions may in reality be complicated. +We shall, however, assume for the sake of clearness +that in these cases we have a simple reaction taking place throughout +the mass of flame. There are various ways in which a pair +of gases may be burned, and these we shall consider separately. +Let us first suppose the two gases to have been mixed <i>en masse</i> +and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If the +mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which +vary for each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light +is applied, and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame +may be very slow in its progress or it may attain a velocity of +the order of one or two thousand metres per second. Until +comparatively recent times great misunderstanding prevailed +on this subject. The slow rate of movement of flame in short +lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity of +explosion, but more recent researches by M.P.E. Berthelot, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +E. Mallard and H.L. le Chatelier and H.B. Dixon have shown +that a distinction must be made between the slow <i>initial rate +of inflammation</i> of gaseous mixtures and the <i>rapid rate of detonation</i>, +or rate of the <i>explosive wave</i>, which in many cases is subsequently +set up. We shall here deal only with the slow movements +of flame. The development of a flame in such a gaseous mixture +requires that a small portion of it should be raised to a temperature +called the <i>temperature of ignition</i>. Here again considerable +misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature of ignition +has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical +combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at +which combination has reached a certain rate. The combination +of hydrogen and oxygen begins at temperatures far below that +of ignition. It may indeed be supposed that the combination +occurs with extreme slowness even at ordinary temperatures, +and that as the temperature is raised the velocity of the reaction +increases in accordance with the general expression according +to which an increase of 10°C. will approximately double the rate. +However that may be, it has been proved experimentally by +J.H. van’t Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination +of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below +the temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be +greatly influenced by the solid surfaces which are present; thus +in a plain glass vessel the combination only began to be perceptible +at 448°, whilst in a silvered glass vessel it would be +detected at 182°C.</p> + +<p>The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances, +including ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the +application of heat to a combustible mixture as resulting in an +increase of the rate of combination locally. Let us suppose +that we are dealing with a stratum of the mixture in small +contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature of the first +section <i>a</i>°C., an increased rate of combination is set up. The +heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduction +and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite +suffice to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to <i>a</i>°C. The +combination in that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in +the first one, and so evidently the impulse to combination will +go on abating as we pass along the stratum. Suppose now we +start again and heat the first section of the mixture to a temperature +<i>c</i>°C., such that the rate of combination is very rapid and the +heat developed by combination suffices to raise the adjacent +section of the mixture to a temperature higher than <i>c</i>°C. The +rate of combination will then be greater than in the first section, +and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the same +way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum +temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a +temperature of <i>b</i>°C. between <i>a</i>° and <i>c</i>° which will satisfy this +condition, that the heat which results from the combination +stimulated in the first section just suffices to raise the temperature +of the second section to <i>b</i>°. This temperature <i>b</i>° is the temperature +of ignition of the mixture; so soon as it is attained by a +portion of the mixture the combustion becomes self-sustaining +and flame spreads through the mixture. Ignition temperature +may be defined briefly as the temperature at which the initial +loss of heat due to conduction, &c., is equal to the heat evolved +in the same time by the chemical reaction (van’t Hoff). From +the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition +will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the +proportions of the same gases are varied, and also when the +pressure is varied. We can see also that outside certain limiting +proportions a mixture of gases will have no practicable ignition +temperature, that is to say, the cooling effect of the gas which +is in excess will carry off so much heat that no attainable initial +heating will suffice to set up the transmission of a constant +temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and air, mixtures +containing less than 5 and more than 72% of hydrogen are not +inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us +to understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric +spark may not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will +indeed take place in the path of the spark, but the amount of it +is not sufficient to meet the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It +must be added that the theory of ignition temperatures given +above does not explain all the observed facts. F. Emich states +that the inflammability of gaseous mixtures is not necessarily +greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions theoretically +required for complete combination, and the influence of foreign +gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence +of a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence +on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of +ethylene to hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a +mixture of methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature +a sensible interval (about 10 seconds) elapses before inflammation +occurs.</p> + +<p>The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases +which has been ignited depends on the proportions in which the +gases are mixed. Fig. 1 (Bunte) represents this relationship +for several common gases.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:287px" src="images/img470a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with air.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 100px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:47px; height:263px" src="images/img470b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the production +of a steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and +ignited at the end; it is obvious that the velocity of efflux must +be greater than the initial rate of inflammation of the mixture, +for otherwise the mixture would fire back down the tube. If +the velocity of efflux be considerably greater than the rate of +inflammation, the flame will be separated from the end of the tube, +and only appear as a flickering crown where the velocity and +inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by +admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux +the flame will be blown out. J.B.A. Dumas used to show the +experiment of blowing out a candle with electrolytic gas. A +steady flame formed by burning a ready-made gaseous mixture +at the end of a tube of circular section has the form shown in +fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower limiting surface +of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the velocity of +efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation, +and its conical form is explained by the fact that the +rate of efflux of gas is greatest in the vertical axis of +the tube where the flow is not retarded by friction +with the walls, as well as by the further fact that +the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards, +the inflammation proceeding directly against it. The +flame, it will be seen, is of considerable thickness. +If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen, or +carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious +features of structure beyond those shown in the figure; +that is to say, the shaded region of burning gas has +the appearance of homogeneity and uniform colour +which might be expected to accompany a uniform +chemical condition. Some admixture of the external +air will, of course, take place, especially in the upper +parts of the flame, and detectable quantities of oxides of nitrogen +may be found in the products of combustion, but this is an +inconsiderable feature. The flame just described is essentially +that of a blowpipe.</p> + +<p>A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of +allowing one gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases +as before, hydrogen or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +again that the flame is conical in form and uniform in colour, +but in this case, if the velocity of efflux be not immoderate, +the burning gas only extends over a comparatively thin shell, +limited on the inside by the pure combustible and on the outside +by a mixture of the products of combustion with oxygen. The +combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with +the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of +gas to be burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned +gas thus becomes thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a +point. The external surface of a flame of this kind will for +the same consumption of gas be larger than that of a flame where +the ready-made mixture of gases is used. If a jet of one gas be +sent with a sufficient velocity into another, turbulent admixture +takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame of uniform colour is +obtained.</p> + +<p>A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one +gas, mixed with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient +for complete combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the +second. This is the case with what are generally known as +atmospheric burners, of which the Bunsen burner is the prototype. +The development of a flame of this kind can be well studied in +the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon monoxide is +fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the burner-tube +being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a +cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now +the air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same +blue colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered +through the air-valve (“primary” air) has become mixed with +the carbon monoxide and so oxidizes its quota in an internal +cone, the rest of the carbon monoxide (diluted now, of course, +with carbon dioxide and nitrogen) wandering into the external +atmosphere to burn (with “secondary” air) in a second cone. +The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent thermal +effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If +the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion +can take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement +of the inner cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of +inflammation of the mixture, and the inner cone (which only +maintains its stability because the rate of efflux of the mixture is +greater than the velocity of inflammation) contracts, and will, as +the proportion of primary air is increased, soon evince a tendency +to enter the burner-tube. At this stage an interesting phenomenon +is to be noticed. When we have reached the point of +aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture +just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the +burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion +checks the suction flow of air through the valve at the base of +the burner, whilst it does not appreciably check the pressure +flow of the carbon monoxide through the gas nozzle. The +result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor in air, and therefore +of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when the descending +disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the disk +returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The +full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated. +This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely +long if the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant. +With still more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires +back to the burner nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have +enough air entering to produce a flame of the blast blowpipe +type, namely, one where the carbon monoxide mixed with an +<i>excess</i> of primary air burns with a single cone in a steady +flame.</p> + +<p>By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells +a two-coned flame of the kind described may be resolved into +its components. The apparatus is like a half-extended telescope +made of two glass tubes, and it is evident that the velocity of +a mixture of gases flowing through it must be greater in the +narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of the narrower +tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at the +end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a +certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and +attach itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs +when the velocity of inflammation is just greater than the +upward velocity of the gaseous stream in the wide tube and less +than the upward velocity in the narrow tube. If the outer +tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame burns at the end +of the inner tube; if the outer tube <span class="correction" title="amended from he">be</span> slid up again, it +detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus +has been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in +various flames.</p> + +<p><i>Temperature of Flames.</i>—The term “flame-temperature” is +used very vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by +some description. It <span class="correction" title="amended from it">is</span> least ambiguous when used in reference +to flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical +proportions before issuing from the burner. The flame in such +a case has considerable thickness and uniformity, and, though +the temperature is not constant throughout, flames of this +type given by different combustibles admit of comparison. In +other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop +large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how +temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will +not, from the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient +temperature for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum +wire may be melted at the edge of the lower part of such a flame. +The maximum temperature of the flame is therefore not in any +serious sense an available temperature. It will suffice to point +out here that in order to burn a gas so that it may have the +highest available temperature, we must burn it with the smallest +external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the combining +gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner. +Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the +Bunsen type, and arrange matters so that a large amount of +primary air is supplied. It is in this direction that modern +improvements have been made with a view to obtaining hot +flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern burner, +for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where +much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being +well mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be +produced with a great tendency to light back. The burner head +is therefore usually provided with a mixing chamber and the +mixture issues through a slit or a mesh. A great many modified +Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim in all of them being +to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness with the +smallest attainable external surface.</p> + +<p>To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have +been employed. The method of calculation, based on the +supposition that the whole heat of combustion is localized in +the product (or products) of combustion and heats it to a temperature +depending on its specific heat, cannot be applied in a +simple way. Apart from the assumption (which there is reason +to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy assumes +the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change +of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation +and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of temperature +must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules +and not to a single one, and therefore any influence which means +delay in combination will result in reduction of temperature by +radiation and conduction. It can hardly be maintained that +in the present state of knowledge we have the requisite data for +the calculation of flame temperature, though good approximations +may be made. Many attempts have been made to determine +flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples +and by radiation pyrometers. The couple most employed is that +known as H.L. le Chatelier’s, consisting of two wires, one of +platinum and the other an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of +rhodium. When all possible precautions are taken it is possible +by means of such thermo-couples to measure local flame temperatures +with a considerable degree of accuracy. Subjoined are +some results obtained at different times and by different observers +with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896)</td> <td class="tcl">1770° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”   ”    ”    ”   (Berkenbusch, 1899)</td> <td class="tcl">1830°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”   ”    ”    ”   (White & Traver, 1902)</td> <td class="tcl">1780°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”   ”    ”    ”   (Féry, 1905)</td> <td class="tcl">1871°</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span></p> + +<p>The following are given by Féry:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Acetylene</td> <td class="tcl">2548° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alcohol</td> <td class="tcl">1705°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen (in air)</td> <td class="tcl">1900°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oxy-hydrogen</td> <td class="tcl">2420°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oxy-coal gas blowpipe</td> <td class="tcl">2200°</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Source of Light in Flames.</i>—We may consider first those +flames where solid particles are out of the question; for example, +the flame of carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the +luminosity was due to the thermal glow of the highly heated +product of combustion has been challenged independently by a +number of observers, and the view has been advanced that the +emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a kind of +discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules. +E. Wiedemann proposed the name “chemi-luminescence” +for radiation of this kind. The fact is that colourless gases +cannot be made to glow by any purely thermal heating at present +available, and products of combustion heated to the average +temperature of the flames in which they are produced are non-luminous. +On the other hand, it must be remembered that in a +mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules +are engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination, +and that the energy liberated in such individual transactions, +if localized momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules +a unique condition of temperature far transcending that of the +average, and the distribution of heat in a flame would be very +different from that existing in the same mixture of gases heated +from an external source to the same average temperature. The +view advocated by Smithells is that in the chemical combination +of gases the initial phase of the formation of the new molecule +is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and that the +damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the +source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat. +This, it will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.</p> + +<p>The view of Sir H. Davy that “whenever a flame is remarkably +brilliant and dense it may always be concluded that some solid +matter is produced in it” can be no longer entertained. The +flames of phosphorus in oxygen and of carbon disulphide in +nitric oxide contain only gaseous products, and Frankland +showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide became +highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frankland +was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames +is associated with high density of the gases, and he does +not draw a distinction in this respect between high density due +to high molecular weight and high density due to the close +packing of lighter molecules. The increased luminosity of a +compressed flame is not difficult to understand from the kinetic +theory of gases, but no explanation has appeared of the luminosity +considered by Frankland to be due merely to high molecular +weight. It is possible that the electron theory may ultimately +afford a better understanding of these phenomena.</p> + +<p><i>Structure of Flame.</i>—The vagueness of the term structure, +as applied to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting +accounts which are current as to the number of differentiated +parts in different flames. Unless this term is restricted to +sharp differences in appearance, there is no limit to the number +of parts which may be selected for mention. The flame of carbon +monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before it issues +from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure, but is +a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity—a hollow cone if +the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas +not immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have +a slit or two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas +to spread each other out. Such a flame has but one single +distinct feature, and this is not surprising, as there is no reason +to suppose that there is any difference in the chemical process +or processes that are occurring in different quarters of the flame. +The amount of materials undergoing this transformation in +different parts of the flame may and does vary; the gases +become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular +vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a +variation in the intensity of the light in different quarters, but +the differences induced are not sharp or in any proper sense +structural. A flame of this kind may develop a secondary +feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be burnt in oxygen +which is mixed or combined with another element there may +be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in +air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a +greenish cast, apparently associated with the combination of +nitrogen with oxygen (H.B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being +strongly heated begins to dissociate into carbon and carbon +dioxide; if the unburnt carbon monoxide within a flame of +that gas were so highly heated by its own burning walls as to +reach the temperature of dissociation, we might expect to see +a special feature of structure due to the separated carbon. Such +a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.</p> + +<p>Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published +in reference to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is +of peculiar interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists +of an almost crimson shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue. +Investigations have shown that these two colours correspond +to two steps in the progress of the combustion, in the first of +which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized to carbon monoxide +and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to carbon +dioxide.</p> + +<p>The inversion of combustion may bring new features of +structure into existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt +in oxygen no solid carbon can be found in the flame, but when +a jet of oxygen is burnt in cyanogen solid carbon separates on +the edge of the flame.</p> + +<p><i>Hydrocarbon Flames.</i>—As already stated the flames of carbon +compounds and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more +studied than any other kind, as is natural from their common +use and practical importance. The earliest investigations were +made with coal gas, vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite +and complex nature of these substances led to difficulties and +confusion in the interpretation of results. One such difficulty +may be illustrated by the fact, often overlooked, that when a +mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the individual component +gases will separate spontaneously in accordance with +their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer +edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.</p> + +<p>The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of +course on the manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme +cases are (i.) when the issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the +burner with sufficient air for complete combustion, as in the +blast blowpipe, in which case we have a sheet of blue undifferentiated +flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to find all the air it +requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate stage is +when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with +a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame +is produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already +been discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one +kind of flame into the others can be effected gradually, and this +is seen with particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene +vapour admixed with gradually increasing quantities of air. +The key to the explanation of the structure of an ordinary +luminous flame, such as that of a candle, is to be found, according +to Smithells, by observing the changes undergone by a well-aerated +Bunsen flame as the “primary” air is gradually cut off by +closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It is then seen +that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the two +recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst +the appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes +increasingly emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper +part of the blue sheath. There are thus three recognizable +features of structure in an ordinary luminous flame, each region +being as it were a mere shell and the interior of the flame filled +with gas which has not yet entered into active combustion. +If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame +are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the chemistry +of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What +happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen +burner? The air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +combustion so that the inner cone of the flame may be considered +as air burning in an excess of coal gas. What will be the products +of this combustion? This question has been answered at +different times in very different ways. There are many conceivable +answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be wholly oxidized +and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air and burn +as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has +been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner +cone whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon +set free or oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon +might be oxidized to carbon dioxide or monoxide and the +hydrogen set free. There might of course be other intermediate +kinds of action. Now it is important at this point to insist upon +a distinction between what can be found by direct analysis as +to the products of partial combustion, and what can be imagined +or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of which +the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We +shall consider only in the first instance what substances are +found by analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner +in which coal gas was used, and the gases withdrawn directly +from the flame by aspiration, gave no very clear results, but the +introduction of the cone-separating apparatus and the use of +single hydrocarbons led to more definite conclusions. The +analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene flame gave +the following numbers:—carbon dioxide = 3.6; water = 9.5; +carbon monoxide = 15.6; hydrocarbons = 1.3; hydrogen = 9.4; +nitrogen = 60.6.</p> + +<p>It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a +considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst +practically all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide. +As the gases have cooled down before analysis and as the reaction +CO + H<span class="su">2</span>O ⇄ CO<span class="su">2</span> + H<span class="su">2</span> is reversible, it may be objected that the +inter-conal gases may have a composition when they are hot +very different from what they show when cold. Experiments +made to test this question have not sustained the objection. +Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons +have made it appear undesirable to use the expression “preferential +combustion” or “selective combustion” in connexion +with the facts just stated; but for the purpose of describing in +brief the chemistry of a hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say +that in the inner cone of a Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon +monoxide are the result of the limited oxidation, and that the +combustion of these gases with the external air generates the +outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the limited +oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable +work has been carried out by W.A. Bone and his collaborators. +Different hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated +continuously through a vessel heated to various temperatures, +beginning with that (about 250° C.) at which the rate of oxidation +is easily appreciable. Proceeding in this way, Bone, without +effecting a complete transformation of the hydrocarbon into +partially oxidized substances, has isolated large quantities of +such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a hydrocarbon +involves nothing in the nature of a selective or preferential +oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He maintains +that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which oxygen +enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule, +forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are +alcohols and aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and +ethylene with an equal volume of oxygen would be represented +as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:498px; height:199px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img473.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2 noind">The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high +temperature is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is +sufficient to carry the oxidation as far as the second stage, +practically no decomposition of the monohydroxy molecule +formed in the first stage occurs. This is especially the case +with unsaturated hydrocarbons.</p> + +<p>As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential +carbon oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture +of equal volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb. +In such a case a lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a +black cloud of carbon particles and considerable condensation +of water. About 10% of methane is also found. It is impossible +within the limits of this article to give a more extended account +of these later researches on the oxidation of hydrocarbons. +They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of carbon +and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the +combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view +that hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference +from the behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own +volume of oxygen, viz. that carbon is the more oxidizable element +in hydrocarbons, are not in harmony with experimental facts.</p> + +<p>The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is +due “to the deposition of solid charcoal” was first put forward +by Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. In explaining the origin of +this charcoal, Davy used somewhat ambiguous language, stating +that it “might be owing to a decomposition of a part of the gas +towards the interior of the flame where the air was in smallest +quantity.” This statement was interpreted commonly as +implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential +combustion of the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was +given explicitly by Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy’s +view with regard to this part of the theory, his conclusion that +finely divided carbon was the cause of luminosity in hydrocarbon +flames was not questioned until 1867, when E. Frankland, in +connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained that +the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important +degree to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of +dense hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced +against this view the most decisive is furnished by the optical +test first used by J.L. Soret. If the image of the sun be focussed +upon the glowing part of a hydrocarbon flame the scattered +light is found to be polarized, and it is indisputable that the +luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of finely divided solid +matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by H.H.C. Bunte +to be 0.1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft. per hour) +is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy’s original +view may be said to be now universally accepted.</p> + +<p>The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a +hydrocarbon flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is +set free. The fact-that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in +absence of air will deposit carbon has long been known and is +daily evident in the operation of coal-gas making, when gas +carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the highly-heated +crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing therefore +that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon +within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls +of the flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm +this view. It is sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire +be so disposed in a small flame as to make a girdle within the +blue walls towards the base, the withdrawal of heat is rapid +enough to prevent the maintenance of a temperature sufficient +to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright luminosity +disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed +through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral +gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of +the burning gas and the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great +that the temperature of separation is not attained, no carbon is +separated and the flame consists of a single blue shell.</p> + +<p>Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon +becomes separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to +trace the processes by which the carbon becomes separated in +the case of a given hydrocarbon. According to M.P.E. +Berthelot, who made prolonged and elaborate researches on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons, these compounds +only liberate carbon by a process of the continual coalescence +of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen, +until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly distinguishable +from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot +of flames.</p> + +<p>V.B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a +study of the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on temperature +measurements of flames and analysis of their gases, has +more recently developed a theory of flame luminosity in which +the formation and sudden exothermic decomposition of acetylene +are regarded as the essential incidents productive of carbon +separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed the evidence +on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained no +adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but +as it has not been formally disavowed by the author and has +found its way into some text-books, it is mentioned here.</p> + +<p>W.A. Bone and H.F. Coward (<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1908) +published the results of a very careful study of the decomposition +of hydrocarbons when heated in a stationary condition and when +continually circulated through hot vessels. Their results disclose +once more the great difficulty of tracing the processes of decomposition +and of arriving at a generalization of wide applicability, +but they appear to be conclusive against the views both of +Berthelot and of Lewes.</p> + +<p>They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons +can be adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations +owing to the complexity of the changes which really take place. +Methane, which is the most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears +to be resolved at high temperatures directly into carbon and +hydrogen, but the phenomenon is dependent mainly on surface +action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene undergo decomposition +throughout the body of the gas (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 1197 et seq.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the +<i>primary</i> effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of +hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond +between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution) +residues such as : CH<span class="su">2</span> and ∶ CH. These residues, which can only +have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (<i>a</i>) form +H<span class="su">2</span>C : CH<span class="su">2</span> and HC ∶ CH, as the result of encounters with other +similar residues, or (<i>b</i>) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen, +or (<i>c</i>) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in +hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simultaneously +in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent +on the temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present. +The whole process may be represented by the following scheme, the +dotted line indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the +carbon atoms which becomes actually effective at higher temperatures:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:385px; height:114px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img474a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + + +<p class="pt2">“In the ease of acetylene, the main primary change may be either +one of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature, +and if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down +across the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to +2(∶ CH), and that these residues are subsequently either resolved into +carbon and hydrogen or “hydrogenized” according to circumstances, +thus:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:399px; height:56px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img474b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">“Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of polymerization +at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas +initially heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decomposition +of another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an +extent dependent on temperature.”</p> +</div> + +<p>We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to +the genesis of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:—</p> + +<p>The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick, +let us suppose, in a cylindrical column. This column is not +sharply marked off from the air but is so penetrated by it that +we must suppose a gradual transition from the pure hydrocarbon +in the centre of column to the pure air on the outside. Let us +take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the lower part of +the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral distance +from the centre will combustion begin? Clearly, where enough +oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combustion +as takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This +then defines the blue region. Outside this the combustion of +the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which +pass from the blue region takes place in a faintly luminous +fringe. These two layers form a sheath of active combustion, +surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed hydrocarbons +in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise +and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They +are accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the +higher parts of the flame, giving the region of bright yellow +luminosity. There remains a central core in which neither is +there any oxygen for combustion nor a sufficiently high temperature +to cause carbon separation. This constitutes the dark +interior region of the flame. We thus account for the different +parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the bright +blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst +the pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame. +The flame also is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing +explanation is therefore not quite complete. Let us suppose +that the changes have gone on in the small section of the flame +exactly as described and consider how the processes will differ +in parts above this section. The central core of unburned gases +will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new cylindrical +column which will undergo changes just as the original one, +leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other +words, each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller +diameter. This gives us the conical form of the flame. Again, +the higher we ascend the flame the greater proportionally is the +amount of separated carbon, for we have not only the heat of +laterally outlying combustion to effect decomposition, but also +that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower part of a luminous +flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than the upper. +Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion +we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in +the upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades +away. The luminous fringe would, however, be continued, +for the separated hydrogen has still to burn. In this way +then we may reasonably account for the existence, position +and relative sizes of the four regions of an ordinary luminous +flame.</p> +<div class="author">(A. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMEL, NICOLAS<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist +and scrivener to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or +Pontoise about 1330, and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the +bulk of his property to the church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, +where he was buried. During his life he contributed freely to +charitable and religious purposes from the considerable wealth +he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or, as some surmise +without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or money +lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a document +purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in +Waite’s <i>Lives of the Alchemystical Philosophers</i>, London, 1888), +there fell into his hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book +on alchemy by Abraham the Jew, which taught in plain words +the transmutation of metals. It did not, however, explain the +<i>materia prima</i>, but merely figured or depicted it, and for more +than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find out the secret. Then, +returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with a Christian +Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after +three more years’ work he succeeded in preparing the <i>materia +prima</i>, thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into +both silver and gold. But this fantastic story was disposed +of by the facts, derived from parish records, set forth in Vilain’s +<i>Essai sur l’histoire de Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie</i>, 1758, and his +<i>Histoire critique de Nicolas Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme, +recueillie d’actes anciens qui justifient l’origine et la médiocrité de +leur fortune contre les imputations des alchimistes</i>, 1761.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibliothèque, <i>Le Trésor de philosophie</i>, +professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises bearing +his name, such as the <i>Sommaire philosophique de Nicolas Flamel</i>, +published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises entitled <i>Transformation +métallique</i>, are certainly spurious.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMEN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (from <i>flare</i>, “to blow up” the altar fire), a Roman +sacrificial priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (<i>q.v.</i>) +maximus, and were consecrated to the service of some particular +deity. The highest in rank were the <i>flamen Dialis</i>, <i>flamen +Martialis</i> and <i>flamen Quirinalis</i>, who were always selected +from among the patricians. Their institution is generally +ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens was raised +from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled +<i>majores</i>, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were +called <i>minores</i>, as connected with less important deities, and were +chosen from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the +number of the lesser flamens seems to have diminished. The +flamens were held to be elected for life, but they might be compelled +to resign office for neglect of duty, or on the occurrence +of some ill-omened event (such as the cap falling off the head) +during the performance of their rites. The characteristic dress +of the flamens in general was the <i>apex</i>, a white conical cap, the +<i>laena</i> or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official insignia +of the <i>flamen Dialis</i> (of Jupiter), the highest of these priests, +were the white cap (<i>pileus, albogalerus</i>), at the top of which was +an olive branch and a woollen thread; the <i>laena</i>, a thick woollen +<i>toga praetexta</i> woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a +rod to keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice. +He was never allowed to appear without these emblems of office, +every day being considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his +office he was entitled to a seat in the senate and a curule chair. +The sight of fetters being forbidden him, his toga was not allowed +to be tied in a knot but was fastened by means of clasps, and the +only kind of ring permitted to be worn on his finger was a broken +one. If a person in fetters took refuge in his house he was +immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal on his +way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself +at his feet he was respited for that day. The <i>flamen Dialis</i> was +not allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even +touch a horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the +consulship), to swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything +unclean, or to look upon people working. His marriage, +which was obliged to be performed with the ceremonies of +<i>confarreatio</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), was dissoluble only by death, and on the death +of his wife (called <i>flaminica Dialis</i>) he was obliged to resign his +office. The <i>flaminica Dialis</i> assisted her husband at the sacrifices +and other religious duties which he performed. She wore long +woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her hair being +plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (<i>tutulus</i>); and +shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband, +she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens +was the offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of October the +three major flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to <i>Fides +Publica</i> (the Honour of the People). Some of the municipal +towns in Italy had flamens as well as Rome.</p> + +<p>We may mention, as distinct from the above, the <i>flamen +curialis</i>, who assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the +religious affairs of each curia (<i>q.v.</i>); the flamens of various +sacerdotal corporations, such as the Arval Brothers; the <i>flamen +Augustalis</i>, who superintended the worship of the emperor in +the provinces.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336, +473; H. Dessau, in <i>Ephemeris epigraphica</i>, iii. (1877); and the +exhaustive article by C. Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMINGO<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (Port. <i>Flamingo</i>, Span. <i>Flamenco</i>), one of the +tallest and most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright +flame-coloured or scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known +by its classical name <i>Phoenicopterus</i>, as an inhabitant of most +of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos +have a very wide distribution, and the sole genus comprises +only a few species. <i>Ph. roseus</i> or <i>antiquorum</i>, white, with a rosy +tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the remiges +are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde Islands +to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards +through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as <i>P. minor</i>. <i>P. ruber</i>, +entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the +Galapagos; <i>P. chilensis</i> s. <i>ignipalliatus</i>, from Peru to Patagonia, +more resembles the classical species; while <i>P. andinus</i>, the tallest +of all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the +elevated desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and +Argentina. Fossil remains of flamingos have been described +from the Lower Miocene of France as <i>P. croizeti</i>, and from the +Pliocene of Oregon. From the Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene +of France are known several species of <i>Palaelodus</i>, <i>Elornis</i> and +<i>Agnopterus</i>, which have relatively shorter legs, longer toes and a +complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier family, less +specialized although not directly ancestral to the flamingos. +<i>Palaelodidae</i> and <i>Phoenicopteridae</i> together form the larger group +Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly intermediate +between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact that +T.H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as <i>Amphimorphae</i>. +However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos +obviously reveal themselves as much nearer related to the +<i>Ciconiae</i>, especially to <i>Platalea</i> and <i>Ibis</i>, than to the Anseres. This +is the opinion arrived at by W.F.R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer +and Gadow, while others prefer the goose-like voice and the +webbed toes as reliable characters. (For a detailed analysis of this +instructive question see Bronn’s <i>Thierreich</i>, Aves Syst. p. 146.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:466px; height:683px" src="images/img475.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Flamingo.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small +aquatic invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons, +for instance Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low +salt-water algae. Whilst feeding, the bird wades about, stirs +up the mud with its feet, and, reversing the ordinary position +of its head so as to hold the crown downwards and to look +backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is abruptly +bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather +flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished +with numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +large tongue, act like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the +considerable movability of the upper jaw. Then the bird +erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. When flying, +flamingos present a striking and beautiful sight, with legs and +neck stretched out straight, looking like white and rosy or scarlet +crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock of these +sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with +their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable +position.</p> + +<p>The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat +conical structure rising above the water according to the depth, +of which the cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as +often happens, the water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher. +On the top is a shallow cup for the reception of the one or two +eggs, which have a bluish-white shell with chalky incrustation. +Of course the hen sits with her legs doubled up under her, as +does any other long-legged bird. It seems strange that many +ornithologists should have given credence to W. Dampier’s +statement of the mode of incubation (<i>New Voyage round the +World</i>, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): “And when they lay their +eggs, or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock, +but close by it with their legs on the ground and in the water, +resting themselves against the hillock, and covering the hollow +nest upon it with their rumps,” &c. P.S. Pallas (<i>Zoograph. +Rosso-Asiatica</i>, ii. p. 208) tried to improve upon this by stating +that the standing bird leans upon the nest with its breast! The +young, which are hatched after about four weeks’ incubation, +look very different from the adult. The small bill is still quite +straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered with +a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour. +These <i>neossoptiles</i> or first feathers bear no resemblance to those +of the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills, +the young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking +extent, but they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift +for themselves like ducks and geese.</p> +<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMINIA, VIA,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> an ancient high road of Italy, constructed +by C. Flaminius during his censorship (220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It led from +Rome to Ariminum, and was the most important route to the +north. We hear of frequent improvements being made in it +during the imperial period. Augustus, when he instituted a +general restoration of the roads of Italy, which he assigned for +the purpose among various senators, reserved the Flaminia for +himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except the Pons Mulvius, by +which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built by M. Scaurus +in 109 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal +arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at +Ariminum, the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian +constructed a new tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern +Furlo, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 77 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cales</a></span>), and Trajan, as inscriptions show, +repaired several bridges along the road.</p> + +<p>The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable +remains of its pavement being extant in the modern high road, +passing slightly E. of the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through +Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it crossed the Nar by a splendid +four-arched bridge to which Martial alludes (<i>Epigr.</i> vii. 93, 8), one +arch of which and all the piers are still standing; and went on, +followed at first by the modern road to Sangemini which passes +over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past Carsulae to +Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more +circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted, +passing by Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which +a branch diverged to Perusia), and increasing the distance by +12 m. The road thence went on to Nuceria (whence a branch +road ran to Septempeda and thence either to Ancona or to +Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed +the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus +standing at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to +Cales (where it turned N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa +to Forum Sempronii (Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae, +when it reached the coast of the Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W. +through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total distance from Rome +was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer. The road +gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was +at first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under +Augustus it had formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after +Constantine was always administered with Picenum.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 228-174 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman +general and statesman. He began his public life as a military +tribune under M. Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse. +In 199 he was quaestor, and the next year, passing over the +regular stages of aedile and praetor, he obtained the consulship.</p> + +<p>Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the +rising school of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow +patriotism of which Cato was the type, the disciples of Greek +culture, and the advocates of a wide imperial policy. His +winning manners, his polished address, his knowledge of men, +his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge of Greek, +all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in the +East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct +of the war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years, +Rome had as yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him. +Flamininus modified both the policy and tactics of his predecessors. +After an unsuccessful attempt to come to terms, he +drove the Macedonians from the valley of the Aous by skilfully +turning an impregnable position. Having thus practically +made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece, +where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean +League (<i>q.v.</i>) at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis, +the tyrant of Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome; +Acarnania and Boeotia submitted in less than a year, and, with +the exception of the great fortresses, Flamininus had the whole +of Greece under his control. The demand of the Greeks for the +expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from Demetrias, Chalcis and +Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of Greece, was +refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were +renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field +supported by nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae +the Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legion for the first time +met in open fight, and the day decided which nation was to be +master of Greece and perhaps of the world. It was a victory of +superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman army was retiring +in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip in person, +when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged +the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights. +Before the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon +them, and a massacre rather than a fight ensued. This defeat +was turned into a general rout by a nameless tribune, who +collected twenty companies and charged in the rear the victorious +Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left the Roman +right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome, +but Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands. +Philip lost all his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian +kingdom almost entire. He was required to reduce his army, +to give up all his decked ships except five, and to pay an indemnity +of 1000 talents (£244,000). Ten commissioners arrived from +Rome to regulate the final terms of peace, and at the Isthmian +games a herald proclaimed to the assembled crowds that “the +Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having conquered +King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states +which had been subject to the king henceforward free and +independent.” Flamininus’s last act before returning home +was characteristic. Of the Achaeans, who vied with one another +in showering upon him honours and rewards, he asked but one +personal favour, the redemption of the Italian captives who had +been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic War. These, +to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of his +departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his +triumph.</p> + +<p>In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III. +the Great, Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil +representative of Rome. His personal influence and skilful +diplomacy secured the wavering Achaean states, cemented the +alliance with Philip, and contributed mainly to the Roman +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook an embassy +to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up Hannibal, +who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is +known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his +end was peaceful and happy.</p> + +<p>There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a +genuine love of Greece and its people. To attribute to him a +Machiavellian policy, which foresaw the overthrow of Corinth +fifty years later and the conversion of Achaea into a Roman +province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more force in +the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from +seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek +states of that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay +in submitting to the protectorate of the Roman republic. But +if the event proved that the liberation of Greece was a political +mistake, it was a noble and generous mistake, and reflects +nothing but honour on the name of Flamininus, “the liberator +of the Greeks.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by +F.D. Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, <i>Hist. of Rome</i> (Eng. tr.), +bk. iii. chs. 8, 9.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMINIUS, GAIUS,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> Roman statesman and general, of +plebeian family. During his tribuneship (232 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in spite of +the determined opposition of the senate and his own father, he +carried a measure for distributing among the plebeians the <i>ager +Gallicus Picenus</i>, an extensive tract of newly-acquired territory +to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, <i>De senectute</i>, 4, <i>Brutus</i>, 14). +As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting gratitude of the people +of his province (Sicily) by his excellent administration. In 223, +when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the field against the +Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his agrarian +law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at +first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate. +Reinforced by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the +banks of the Addua. He had previously been recalled by the +optimates, but ignored the order. The victory seems to have +been due mainly to the admirable discipline and fighting qualities +of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a triumph only +after the decree of the senate against it had been overborne by +popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly +limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). His +name is further associated with two great works. He erected +the Circus Flaminius on the Campus Martius, for the accommodation +of the plebeians, and continued the military road from +Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto only reached as far as +Spoletium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flaminia, Via</a></span>). He probably also instituted +the “plebeian” games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic +opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the +measure brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which +prohibited senators and senators’ sons from possessing sea-going +vessels, except for the transport of the produce of their own +estates, and generally debarred them from all commercial +speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective support of this measure +vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius with his own order, +and secured his second election as consul in the following year +(217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus at the +Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of +the western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the +Apennines, but was defeated and killed at the battle of the +Trasimene lake (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)—no +friendly critics—shows that Flaminius was a man of ability, +energy and probity. A popular and successful democratic +leader, he cannot, however, be ranked among the great statesmen +of the republic. As a general he was headstrong and self-sufficient +and seems to have owed his victories chiefly to personal +boldness favoured by good fortune.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Gaius Flaminius</span>, was quaestor under P. Scipio +Africanus the elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture +of New Carthage. Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he +distributed large quantities of grain among the citizens at a very +low price. In 193, as praetor, he carried on a successful war +against the insubordinate populations of his recently constituted +province of Hispania Citerior. In 187 he was consul with M. +Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the warlike Ligurian tribes. +In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia connecting +Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he +founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life +is the portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAMSTEED, JOHN<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1646-1719), English astronomer, was +born at Denby, near Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The +only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a maltster, he was educated at +the free school of Derby, but quitted it finally in May 1662, in +consequence of a rheumatic affection of the joints, due to a +chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved of no +avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be “stroked” by Valentine +Greatrakes, but “found not his disease to stir.” Meanwhile, +he solaced his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Beginning +with J. Sacrobosco’s <i>De sphaera</i>, he read all the books +on the subject that he could buy or borrow; observed a partial +solar eclipse on the 12th of September 1662; and attempted the +construction of measuring instruments. A tract on the equation +of time, written by him in 1667, was published by Dr John Wallis +with the <i>Posthumous Works</i> of J. Horrocks (1673); and a paper +embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon, +which appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> (iv. 1099), +signed <i>In Mathesi a sole fundes</i>, an anagram of “Johannes +Flamsteedius,” secured for him, from 1670, general scientific +recognition.</p> + +<p>On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became +acquainted with Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name +at Jesus college, and took, four years later, a degree of M.A. +by letters-patent. An essay composed by him in 1673 on the +true and apparent diameters of the planets furnished Newton +with data for the third book of the <i>Principia</i>, and he fitted +numerical elements to J. Horrocks’s theory of the moon. In +1674, and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas +Moore, governor of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in +a private observatory at Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated +by the determination of Charles II. to have the tables of the +heavenly bodies corrected, and the places of the fixed stars +rectified “for the use of his seamen,” and Flamsteed was appointed +“astronomical observator” by a royal warrant dated +4th of March 1675. His salary of £100 a year was cut down by +taxation to £90; he had to provide his own instruments, and to +instruct, into the bargain, two boys from Christ’s hospital. +Sheer necessity drove him, in addition, to take many private +pupils; but having been ordained in 1675, he was presented by +Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in Surrey; and his +financial position was further improved by a small inheritance +on his father’s death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense of +£120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began +to observe systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The latter part of Flamsteed’s life +passed in a turmoil of controversy regarding the publication of +his results. He struggled to withhold them until they could be +presented in a complete form; but they were urgently needed +for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a public +servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting +of his lunar theory upon “places of the moon” reluctantly +doled out from Greenwich, led the movement for immediate +communication; whence arose much ill-feeling between him +and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince George of Denmark +undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the Royal +Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed, +protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only +partially through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of +October 1708, and its completion devolved upon a board of +visitors to the observatory endowed with ample powers by a +royal order of the 12th of December 1712. As the upshot, the +<i>Historia coelestis</i>, embodying the first Greenwich star-catalogue, +together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705, was +issued under Edmund Halley’s editorship in 1712. Flamsteed +denounced the production as surreptitious; he committed to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +the flames three hundred copies, of which he obtained possession +through the favour of Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of +bodily infirmities, vigorously prosecuted his designs for the +entire and adequate publication of the materials he continued +to accumulate. They were but partially executed when he died +on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his monumental +work, <i>Historia coelestis Britannica</i> (3 vols. folio, 1725), +was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by +Abraham Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of +Flamsteed’s observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third +contained the <i>British Catalogue</i> of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous +errors in this valuable record having been detected by Sir William +Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up a list of 560 stars observed, +but not catalogued, while 111 of those catalogued proved to have +never been observed (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> lxxxvii. 293; see also F. +Baily, <i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, iv. 129). The appearance +of the <i>Atlas coelestis</i>, corresponding to the <i>British Catalogue</i>, +was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by +Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society. +The extent and quality of his performance were the more remarkable +considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened +means, and the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable +in private life, he was highly susceptible in professional matters, +and hence failed to keep on terms with his contemporaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Francis Baily’s <i>Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed</i> (1835) is the +leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical +narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of +Flamsteed’s letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the <i>British +Catalogue</i>, besides authoritative and detailed introductory discussions. +Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame +for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell +vindicated his character in <i>Flamsteed and Newton</i> (1836).</p> + +<p>See also <i>General Dictionary</i>, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied +by James Hodgson, Flamsteed’s nephew-in-law; <i>Biographia Britannica</i>, +iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud’s <i>Correspondence of Scientific Men</i>; +Cunningham’s <i>Lives of Eminent Englishmen</i>, iv. 366 (1835); Mark +Noble’s Continuation of James Granger’s Biog. <i>Hist. of England</i>, +ii. 132; R. Grant’s <i>Hist. of Phys. Astronomy</i>, p. 467; W. Whewell’s +<i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. 162; J.S. Bailly’s <i>Hist. de +l’astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre’s <i>Hist. de +l’astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 93; <i>Observatory</i>, xv. 355, 379, +382.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLANDERS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Vlaanderen</i>), a territorial name for part of +the Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges +and the immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries +it was gradually extended to the whole of the coast region from +Calais to the Scheldt. In the middle ages this was divided into +two parts, one looking to Bruges as its capital, and the other to +Ghent. The name is retained in the two Belgian provinces of +West and East Flanders.</p> + +<p>1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and +its coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for +a little over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns +of the province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agriculture +is the chief occupation of the population, and the country +is under the most careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration +of the foreign observer for the Belgian system of market gardening +is not diminished on learning that the subsoil of most of this +tract is the sand of the “dunes.” Fishing employs a large +proportion of the coast population. The area of West Flanders +is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1263 sq. m. In 1904 the +population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.</p> + +<p>2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western +province, and extends northwards to the neighbourhood of +Antwerp. It is still more productive and richer than Western +Flanders, and is well watered by the Scheldt. The district of +Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory of man, is +supposed to be the most productive district of its size in Europe. +The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St +Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is +given at 749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population +was 1,073,507, showing an average of 916 per sq. m.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not +only the modern provinces known as East and West Flanders, +but the southernmost portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland +and a considerable district in north-western France. In the time +of Caesar it was inhabited by the Morini, Atrebates and other +Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that followed the land was +repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally became +a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the +Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun +(843) made the line of division between the kingdom of East +Francia (Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the +kingdom of West Francia (Neustria) under Charles the Bald. +In virtue of this compact Flanders was henceforth attached to +the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus acquired a +position unique among the provinces of the territory known in +later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that +northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor +Lothaire (855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called +Lotharingia or Lorraine.</p> + +<p>The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record +is Baldwin, surnamed <i>Bras-de-fer</i> (Iron-arm). This man, a brave +and daring warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with +the king’s daughter Judith, the youthful widow of two English +kings, married her, and fled with his bride to Lorraine. Charles, +though at first very angry, was at last conciliated, and made +his son-in-law margrave (<i>Marchio Flandriae</i>) of Flanders, which +he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at this time +continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was +entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the +west Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders. +He was the first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date +early in the 10th century exchanged the title of margrave for +that of count. His son, Baldwin II.—the Bald—from his stronghold +at Bruges maintained, as did his father before him, a +vigorous defence of his lands against the incursions of the Northmen. +On his mother’s side a descendant of Charlemagne, he +strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by marrying +Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918 +his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the +Elder and Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time +and Arnulf succeeded to the whole inheritance. His reign was +filled with warfare against the Northmen, and he took an active +part in the struggles in Lorraine between the emperor Otto I. +and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the government in the +hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the count of +Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very +short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial +progress of the country, establishing the first weavers and +fullers at Ghent, and instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges +and other places.</p> + +<p>On Baldwin III.’s death in 961 the old count resumed the +control, and spent the few remaining years of his life in securing +the succession of his grandson Arnulf II.—the Younger. The +reign of Arnulf was terminated by his death in 989, and he was +followed by his son Baldwin IV., named <i>Barbatus</i> or the Bearded. +This Baldwin fought successfully both against the Capetian +king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found himself +obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the burgraveship +of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count +of Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of +the French crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish +history as Crown Flanders (<i>Kroon-Vlaanderen</i>), the German fiefs +as Imperial Flanders (<i>Rijks-Vlaanderen</i>). Baldwin’s son—afterwards +Baldwin V.—rebelled in 1028 against his father at +the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter of Robert II. of +France; but two years later peace was sworn at Oudenaarde, +and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036. +Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the +people the surname of <i>Débonnaire</i>. He was an active enterprising +man, and greatly extended his power by wars and +alliances. He obtained from the emperor Henry IV. the territory +between the Scheldt and the Dender as an imperial fief, and the +margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become that the +Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060 +was appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>). Before his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda +(d. 1083) sharing the English throne with William the Conqueror, +his eldest son Baldwin of Mons in possession of Hainaut in right +of his wife Richilde, heiress of Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow +of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hainaut</a></span>), and his second +son Robert the Frisian regent (<i>voogd</i>) of the county of Holland +during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude of +Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had +married (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holland</a></span>). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin +of Mons, already count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship +of Flanders. Baldwin V. had granted to Robert the Frisian +on his marriage in 1063 his imperial fiefs. His right to these was +disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out between the two +brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert now +claimed the tutelage of Baldwin’s children and obtained the +support of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin’s +widow, appealed to Philip I. of France. The contest was decided +at Ravenshoven, near Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071, +where Robert was victorious. Richilde was taken prisoner and +her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain. Robert obtained from +Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and from Henry IV. +the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.</p> + +<p>The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hainaut</a></span>), which was thus after a brief union separated from +Flanders. Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son +Robert II., who acquired great renown by his exploits in the +first crusade, and won the name of the Lance and Sword of +Christendom. His fame was second only to that of Godfrey +of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1100. He fought +with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English, +and was drowned in 1111 by the breaking of a bridge. His son +and successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also +fought against the English in France. He died at the age of +twenty-seven from the wound of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no +heir. He nominated as his successor his cousin Charles, son of +Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of Robert the +Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and to +promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname +of “the Good.” His determination to enforce the right made +him many enemies, and he was foully murdered on Ash +Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died childless, and there +were no less than six candidates to the countship. The contest +lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of +Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda +of Flanders, and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother +Gertrude was a daughter of Robert the Frisian. William Clito, +through the support of Louis of France, was at first accepted by +the Flemish nobles as count, but he gave offence to the communes, +who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued and William +was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without +further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good, +Marguerite of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise +and prudent prince, encouraging the growth of popular liberty +and of commerce. In 1146 he took part in the second crusade +and distinguished himself by his exploits. In 1157 he resigned +the countship to his son Philip of Alsace and betook himself +once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East twenty +years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own +land.</p> + +<p>Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did +much to promote the growth of the municipalities for which +Flanders was already becoming famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, +Lille and Douai under him made much progress as flourishing +industrial towns. He also conferred rights and privileges on +a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel, +Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the +development of the communes and “free towns,” Philip sternly +repressed any spirit of independence or attempted uprisings +against his authority. This count was a powerful prince. He +acted for a time as regent in France during the minority of his +godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his niece +Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third +crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence +in 1191.</p> + +<p>As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of +Hainaut, who had married Philip’s sister Margaret. The countships +of Flanders and Hainaut were thus united under the same +ruler. Baldwin did not obtain possession of Flanders without +strong opposition on the part of the French king, and he was +obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin and a great part +of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of Portugal, +the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in right of +her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following +year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both countships. +Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the +Latin empire at Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in +1206. The emperor’s two daughters were both under age, and +the government was carried on by their uncle Philip, marquess +of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent on his departure +to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his charge, and +he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip Augustus, +who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his +nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to +the French king’s supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as +governor in the name of his wife, joined himself to the confederacy +formed by Germany, England, and the leading states of the +Netherlands against Philip Augustus. Ferdinand was, however, +taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of Bouvines (1214) and +was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre. The countess +Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and courage. +On Ferdinand’s death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died +in 1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities +by her younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly +known amongst her contemporaries as “Black Meg” (<i>Zwarte +Griet</i>). Margaret had been twice married. Her first husband +was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the first of Hainaut’s +nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally destined +for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by +Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with +the result that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him. +She married in second wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre. +Two sons were the issue of the first marriage, three sons and three +daughters of the second.</p> + +<p>When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and +Hainaut, she wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknowledged +as her successor. John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly +protested against this and was supported by the French king. +A civil war ensued, which ended in a compromise (1246), the +succession to Flanders being granted to William of Dampierre, +that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however, ruled +with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons, +dying at the age of eighty in 1280. On her death her grandson, +John II. of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut: Guy of Dampierre, +her second son by her second marriage, count of Flanders.</p> + +<p>The two counties were once more under separate dynasties. +The government of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was +the interest of the Flemish weavers to be on good terms with +England, the wool-producing country, and Guy entered into an +alliance with Edward I. against France. This led to an invasion +and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his sons +and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris, +and Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though +in the principal towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a +powerful French faction—known as <i>Leliaerts</i> (adherents of the +lily)—the arbitrary rule of the French governor and officials +stirred up the mass of the Flemish people to rebellion. The +anti-French partisans (known as <i>Clauwaerts</i>) were strongest at +Bruges under the leadership of Peter de Conync, master of +the cloth-weavers, and John Breydel, master of the butchers. +The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May 19th, 1302), +and on the following 11th of July a splendid French army of +invasion was utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was concluded +in 1305, but owing to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading +Flemish nobles being in the hands of the French king, on terms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very shortly afterwards the +aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair. Robert of +Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties with +France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a +stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence. +Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers. +Louis had been brought up at the French court, and had married +Margaret of France. His sympathies were entirely French, and +he made use of French help in his contests with the communes.</p> + +<p>Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the +status of a French province. In his time the long contest between +Flanders and Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland +was brought to an end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March +1323, by which West Zeeland was assigned to the count of Holland, +the rest to the count of Flanders. The latter part of the reign of +Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the successful revolt of the +Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to great material +prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artevelde, Jacob +van</a></span>). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in +his contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while +Louis of Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle +of Crécy (1346). He was followed in the countship by his son +Louis II. of Mâle. The reign of this count was one long struggle +with the communes, headed by the town of Ghent, for political +supremacy. Louis was as strong in his French sympathies as +his father, and relied upon French help in enforcing his will +upon his refractory subjects, who resented his arbitrary methods +of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon them by +his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with +their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their +opposition to the count’s despotism, they would have proved +successful, but Ghent and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out +into open feud. The power of Ghent reached its height under +Philip van Artevelde (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artevelde, Philip van</a></span>) in 1382. +He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made <i>ruward</i> of Flanders. +But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular party was +called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382 +Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at +Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years +later, leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in +1369 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.</p> + +<p>Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian +domain, which in the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret’s +grandson, had absorbed almost the whole of the Netherlands +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). The history of Flanders as +a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of the +countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts +from time to time of great towns against the exactions even of +these powerful princes, but they were in vain. The conquest +and humiliation of Bruges by Philip the Good in 1440, and the +even more relentless punishment inflicted on rebellious Ghent +by the emperor Charles V. exactly a century later are the most +remarkable incidents in the long-continued but vain struggle of +the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their privileges. +The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of +Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders +and its rich commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished +to them no small part of their resources, but for this very reason, +while fostering the development of Flemish industry and trade, +they were the more determined to brook no opposition which +sought to place restrictions upon their authority.</p> + +<p>The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of +Dutch Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders. +Albert and Isabel on their accession to the sovereignty of the +southern Netherlands in 1599 found “the great cities of Flanders +and Brabant had been abandoned by a large part of their inhabitants; +agriculture hardly in a less degree than commerce +and industry had been ruined.” In 1633 with the death of +Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty +of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known +as States (or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the +United Provinces (1648). By a succession of later treaties—of +the Pyrenees (1659), Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679) +and others—a large slice of the southern portion of the old county +of Flanders became French territory and was known as French +Flanders.</p> + +<p>From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic +provinces, was incorporated in France, and was divided into +two departments—<i>département de l’Escaut</i> and <i>département de la +Lys</i>. This division has since been retained, and is represented +by the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders in the +modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of Flanders +was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son, +Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905).</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1809-1864), French painter, +was born at Lyons in 1809. His father, though brought up to +business, had great fondness for art, and sought himself to follow +an artist’s career. Lack of early training, however, disabled +him for success, and he was obliged to take up the precarious +occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the second +of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third +son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern +landscape school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest, +passed the greater part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he +died. After studying for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and +Paul, who had long determined on the step and economized for +it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to place themselves under the +tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to enter the atelier of +Ingres, who became not only their instructor but their friend for +life. At first considerably hampered by poverty, Hippolyte’s +difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832, the +Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the “Recognition +of Theseus by his Father.” This allowed him to study five years +at Rome, whence he sent home several pictures which considerably +raised his fame. “St Clair healing the Blind” was done +for the cathedral of Nantes, and years after, at the exhibition of +1855, brought him a medal of the first class. “Jesus and the +Little Children” was given by the government to the town of +Lisieux. “Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck +with Blindness,” and “Euripides writing his Tragedies,” belong +to the museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in +1838 he soon received a commission to ornament the chapel of +St John in the church of St Séverin at Paris, and reputation +increased and employment continued abundant for the rest of +his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above, and others of a +similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits. The works, +however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his monumental +decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those +executed in the following churches:—in the sanctuary of St +Germain des Prés at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same +church (1846-1848), in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-1849), +of St Vincent de Paul at Paris (1850-1854), in the church +of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave of St Germain des Prés +(1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was elected to the +Académie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health, rendered +worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts +of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of smallpox +at Rome on the 21st of March 1864. As might naturally +be expected in one who looked upon painting as but the vehicle +for the expression of spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too +little pride in the technical qualities of his art. There is shown +in his works much of that austerity and coldness, expressed in +form and colour, which springs from a faith which feels itself in +opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life. He has been +compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long processions +of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity of +souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted +life which shines from the work of the early master.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Delaborde, <i>Lettres et pensées de H. Flandrin</i> (Paris, 1865); +Beulé, <i>Notice historique sur H. F.</i> (1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLANNEL,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and +fineness, made usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of +the word is uncertain, but in the 16th century flannel was a +well-known production of Wales, and a Welsh origin has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +suggested. The French form <i>flanelle</i> was used late in the 17th +century, and the Ger. <i>Flanell</i> early in the 18th century. Baize, +a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to have been first +introduced to England about the middle of the 16th century +by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture +of flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases, +deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture +of silk or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become +the predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine +quality from a Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was +principally in favour with the flannel manufacturers of Rochdale, +who also used largely the wool from the Norfolk breed, a cross +between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In Wales the short +staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in Ireland that +of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the New +Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively +employed, and English wools are not commonly used alone. +Over 2000 persons are employed in flannel manufacture in +Rochdale alone, which is the historic seat of the industry, and a +good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen Valley district, +Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch of the +flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and +Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation, +and make an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There +are also flannel manufactories in Ireland.</p> + +<p>A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain. +The following table gives the quantities exported during three +years:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">1904.</td> <td class="tcc">1905.</td> <td class="tcc">1906.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Yards</td> <td class="tcc">9,758,300</td> <td class="tcc">9,220,500</td> <td class="tcc">8,762,200</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this +trade has varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel +are not very large.</p> + +<p>Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture +of cotton, but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something +to limit the indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the +development of the flannel trade has been checked by the great +increase in the production of flannelettes, the better qualities +of which have become formidable competitors with flannel. +There must, however, be a regular and large demand for flannel +while theory and experience confirm its value as a clothing +particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLANNELETTE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel. +The word seems to have been first used in the early ’eighties, +and there is a reference in the <i>Daily News</i> of 1887 to “a poverty-stricken +article called flannelette.” Now it is used very extensively +for underclothing, night gear, dresses, dressing-gowns, +shirts, &c. It is usually made with a much coarser weft than +warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained by the raising +or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing processes. +Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may +be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is +required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed, +and also in woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any +heavy or coarse cotton cloth can be made into flannelette. It is +now largely used by the poorer classes of the community, and +the flimsier kinds have been a frequent source of accident by +fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in a fair quality, +a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented under the +title of “Non-flam,” has been made with fire-resisting properties, +but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in the lower +and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the +continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great +Britain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLASK,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for +carrying liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applications +in current usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood, +formerly of horn, used for carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-necked, +round-bodied glass vessel, usually covered with plaited +straw or maize leaves, containing olive or other oil or Italian +wines—it is often known as a “Florence flask”: similarly +shaped vessels are used for experiments, &c., in a laboratory; +(3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine or other +liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster, usually +covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance, +and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup. +“Flask” is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or +case to contain part of the mould. The word “flagon,” which +is by derivation a doublet of “flask,” is usually applied to a +larger type of vessel for holding liquor, more particularly to a +type of wine-bottle with a short neck and circular body with +flattened sides. The word is also used of a jug-shaped vessel +with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be decanted +from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped vessel +to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the chalice. +“Flask” (in O. Eng. <i>flasce</i> or <i>flaxe</i>) is represented both in Teutonic +and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in +Med. Lat. <i>flasco</i>, <i>flasconis</i>, whence come Ital. <i>fiascone</i>, O. Fr. +<i>flascon</i> (mod. <i>flacon</i>), adapted in the Eng. “flagon.” Another +Lat. form is <i>flasca</i>, this gave a Fr. <i>flasque</i>, which in the sense of +“powder flask” remained in use till later than the 16th century. +In Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the +common one for “bottle,” so in Ger. <i>Flasche</i>, Dutch <i>flesch</i>, &c. +If the word is of Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized +form of the Lat. <i>vasculum</i>, diminutive of <i>vas</i>, vessel. There is +no very satisfactory etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin; +the New English Dictionary considers a connexion with “flat” +probable phonetically, but finds no evidence that the word was +used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAT<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (a modification of O. Eng. <i>flet</i>, an obsolete word of +Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term +commonly used as an adjective, signifying level in surface, level +with the ground, and so, figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate, +tasteless, dull; or, by another transference, downright; or, in +music, below the true pitch. In a substantival form, the term is +used in physical geography for a level tract.</p> + +<p>The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a +self-contained residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the +term <i>flatted house</i> is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which +form a portion, usually on a single floor, of a larger building, +called the tenement house, the remainder being similarly divided. +The approach to it is over a hall, passage and stairway, which +are common to all residents in the building, but from which each +private flat is divided off by its own outer door (Clode, <i>Tenement +Houses and Flats</i>, pp. 1, 2).</p> + +<p>There is in England a considerable body of special law applicable +to flats. The following points deserve notice:—(i.) The +occupants of distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into +flats are generally, and subject, of course, to any special terms +in their agreements, not lodgers but tenants with exclusive +possession of separate dwelling-houses placed one above the +other. They are, therefore, liable to distress by the immediate +landlord, and each flat is separately rateable, though as a general +rule by the contract of tenancy the rates are payable by the +landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes are exempt +from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878 +(see <i>Grant</i>, v. <i>Langston</i>, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue +Act 1903 (s. 11), provision is made for excluding from assessment +or for assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate +dwellings at rents not exceeding £60 a year. It appears that +tenants of a flat would not come within the meaning of “lodger” +for the purposes of the Lodgers’ Goods Protection Act 1871. +(ii.) The owner of an upper storey, without any express grant or +enjoyment for any given time, has a right to the support of the +lower storey (<i>Dalton</i> v. <i>Angus</i>, 1881, 6 A.C. 740, 793). The owner +of the lower storey, however, so long as he does nothing actively +in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to repair, +in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation +upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of +the owner of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in +law entitled to enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing +the necessary repairs. It appears, however, that there is an +implied obligation by the landlord to the tenants to keep the +common stair and the lift or elevator in repair, and, for breach +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span> +of this duty, he will be liable to a third party who, while visiting +a tenant in the course of business, is injured by its defective +condition (<i>Miller</i> v. <i>Hancock</i>, 1893, 2 Q.B. 177). No such +liability would be involved in a mere licence to the tenants to +use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of their +flats. (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the rent +abates <i>pro tanto</i> and an apportionment is made; <i>pari ratione</i>, +where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether +(Clode, p. 14); unless the tenant has entered into an express +and unqualified agreement to pay rent, when he will remain +liable till the expiration of his tenancy. (iv.) Where the agreements +for letting the flats in a single building are in common +form, an agreement by the lessor not to depart from the kind of +building there indicated may be held to be implied. Thus an +injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion into a +club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in +residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an +agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules +suitable only for residential purposes (<i>Hudson</i> v. <i>Cripps</i>, 1896, +1 Ch. 265). (v.) The porter is usually appointed and paid by +the landlord, who is liable for his acts while engaged on +his general duties; while engaged on any special duty for any +tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who is liable for +his conduct within the scope of his employment.</p> + +<p>In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and +lessees of flats, or—as they are called—“flatted houses,” spring +partly from the exclusive possession by each lessee of his own +flat, partly from the common interest of all in the tenement as a +whole. The “law of the tenement” may be thus summed up. +The <i>solum</i> on which the flatted house stands, the area in front +and the back ground are presumed to belong to the owner of the +lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally, subject to +the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury +to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external +walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat; +but the other owners can prevent operations on them which +would endanger the security of the building. The roof and +uppermost storey belong to the highest owner or owners, but +he or they may be compelled to keep them in repair and to refrain +from injuring them. The gables are common to the owner of +each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner of +the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building +have cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the +stability of the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are +divided in ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle +of the joists; they may be used for ordinary purposes, but may +not be weakened or exposed to unusual risk from fire. The +common passages and stairs are the common property of all to +whose premises they form an access, and the walls which bound +them are the common property of those persons and of the owners +on their farther side.</p> + +<p>In the United States the term “apartment-house” is applied +to what in England are called flats. The general law is the same +as in England. The French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that +where the different storeys of a house belong to different owners +the main walls and roof are at the charge of all the owners, +each one in proportion to the value of the storey belonging +to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible for his own +flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the staircase +which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning from +where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and +so on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium +(Art. 664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<span class="sc">English Law</span>: Clode, <i>Law of Tenement-Houses +and Flats</i> (London, 1889); Daniels, <i>Manual of the Law of Flats</i> +(London, 1905). <span class="sc">Scots Law</span>: Erskine, <i>Principles of the Law of +Scotland</i> (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, <i>Principles of the Law +of Scotland</i> (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899). <span class="sc">American Law</span>: Bouvier, +<i>Law Dicty.</i> (Boston and London, 1897). <span class="sc">Foreign Laws</span>: Burge, +<i>Foreign and Colonial Laws</i> (2nd ed., London, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLATBUSH,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> formerly a township of Kings county, Long +Island, New York, U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and +after the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of Brooklyn, +New York City. The first settlement was made here by the +Dutch about 1651, and was variously called “Midwout,” “Midwoud” +and “Medwoud” (from the Dutch words, <i>med</i>, “middle” +and <i>woud</i>, “wood”) for about twenty years, when it became more +commonly known as Vlachte Bos (<i>vlachte</i>, “wooded”; <i>bos</i>, +“plain”) or Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the +present name. Farming was the chief occupation of the early +settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776 the village was occupied +by General Cornwallis’s division of the invading force under Lord +Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous battle of Long Island +(or “battle of Flatbush,” as it is sometimes called), “Flatbush +Pass,” an important strategic point, was vigorously defended by +General Sullivan’s troops.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAT-FISH<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (<i>Pleuronectidae</i>), the name common to all those +fishes which swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill, +plaice, flounder, sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the +bottom, and in some kinds is the right, in others the left, is +generally colourless, and called “blind,” from the absence of an +eye on this side. The opposite side, which is turned upwards and +towards the light, is variously, and in some tropical species even +vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this side of the head. +All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more strongly +developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these +fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are symmetrical +like other fishes.</p> + +<p>Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes, +the question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans +may be regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old +notion that they are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was +the result of the artificial classification of the past and is now +generally abandoned. The condition of the caudal fin, which +in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that of ordinary +Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing the idea +of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the Anacanthini, +and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks against +such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as +noticed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dory</a></span>, that considerable, deep-seated +resemblances exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the +more generalized of the Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish +from the Upper Eocene, <i>Amphistium paradoxum</i>, evidently +allied to the Zeidae, appears to realize in every respect the +prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they had assumed the +asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In accordance +with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G.A. Boulenger +in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called <i>Zeorhombi</i>. +The three families included in that division can be traced back +to the Upper Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably +be found in the Upper Cretaceous associated with the <i>Berycidae</i>, +to which they will no doubt prove to be related. The very young +are transparent and symmetrical, with an eye on each side, and +swim in a vertical position. As they grow, the eye of one side +moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes the upper +eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the frontal +region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the profile, +temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some +of the less modified genera, such as <i>Psettodes</i>; in other genera, +the dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the +migration takes place, and the eye, passing between the frontal +bone and the tissues supporting the fin, appears to make its +way from side to side through the head, as was believed by some +of the earlier observers.</p> + +<p>About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a +few species allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters +of South America, West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago, +whilst a few others, such as the English flounder, ascend streams, +though still breeding in the sea. They range from the Arctic +Circle to the southern coasts of the southern hemisphere and +may occur at great depths.</p> +<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLATHEADS,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan +stock. They formerly occupied the mountains of north-western +Montana and the country around. They have always been +friendly to the whites. Curiously enough they have not the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +custom, so general among American tribes, of flattening the +heads of their infants. Father P.J. de Smet in 1841 founded +among them a mission which proved the most successful in +the north-west. With the Pend d’Oreille tribe and some +Kutenais they are on a reservation in Montana, and number +a few hundreds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1821-1880), French novelist, was +born at Rouen on the 12th of December 1821. His father, +of whom many traits are reproduced in Flaubert’s character of +Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at Rouen; his mother +was connected with some of the oldest Norman families. He was +educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840, when +he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at +school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age +of eleven. Flaubert in his youth “was like a young Greek,” +full of vigour of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, +intensely individual, and apparently without any species of +ambition. He loved the country, and Paris was extremely +distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo, +and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees and +Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre +dreams, living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left +quite alone through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline, +Flaubert gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law +together, to make a home for her at Croisset, close to Rouen. +This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down +to the Seine, became Flaubert’s home for the remainder of his +life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations with the poetess, +Mlle Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved, and according +to M. Émile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode +of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. +His principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with +whom he travelled in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in +1849. Greece and Egypt made a profound impression upon the +imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occasional +visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.</p> + +<p>On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the composition +of <i>Madame Bovary</i>. He had hitherto scarcely written +anything, and had published nothing. The famous novel took +him six years to prepare, but was at length submitted to the +<i>Revue de Paris</i>, where it appeared in serial form in 1857. The +government brought an action against the publisher and against +the author, on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted; +and when <i>Madame Bovary</i> appeared in book-form it met with +a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in +1858, and now settled down to the archaeological studies which +were required to equip him for <i>Salammbô</i>, which, however, in +spite of the author’s ceaseless labours, was not finished until +1862. He then took up again the study of contemporary +manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth +and childhood, wrote <i>L’Éducation sentimentale</i>, the composition +of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869. +Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert +had been comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather +around him. He felt the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly +that the break-up of his health has been attributed to it; he +began to suffer greatly from a distressing nervous malady. His +best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal misunderstanding; +in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances +became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by +his niece, Mme Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of +friendship with George Sand, with whom he carried on a correspondence +of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw +his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet, Tourgenieff, the +Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert’s life +from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, +to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. <i>La Tentation +de Saint-Antoine</i>, of which fragments had been published as early +as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In +that year he was subjected to a disappointment by the failure +of his drama <i>Le Candidat</i>. In 1877 Flaubert published, in one +volume, entitled <i>Trois contes, Un Cœur simple, La Légende de +Saint-Julien-l’Hospitalier and Hérodias</i>. After this something of +his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the remainder of +his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the futility of +human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he +left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering <i>Bouvard +et Pécuchet</i> (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious +irony, he believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly +and prematurely aged since 1870, and he was quite an old man +when he was carried off by a stroke of apoplexy at the age of only +58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died at Croisset, but was buried +in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful +monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of +Rouen in 1890.</p> + +<p>The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. +He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed +from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The +same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the +build of a guardsman, with a magnificent Viking head, but his +health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to +the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by misanthropy +and disgust of life. His hatred of the “bourgeois” +began in his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania. +He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, +their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has +been compared to that of an ascetic monk. Flaubert’s curious +modes of composition favoured and were emphasized by these +peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying +a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what +he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best +turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot +be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His +private letters show that he was not one of those to whom +easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his +extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow. +One of the most severe of academic critics admits that “in all his +works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be considered +a model of style.” That he was one of the greatest writers +who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his +greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour +and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other +writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields +admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression +which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition. +He never allowed a <i>cliché</i> to pass him, never indulgently or +wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which “almost” +expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost +equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous +propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both +schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which +he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his +work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in +his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since +his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting +chapter of literary history. The publication of <i>Madame Bovary</i> +in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration; +it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning +of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. +Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to +crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as +a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised +an extraordinary influence over É. de Goncourt, Alphonse +Daudet and M. Zola. But even since the decline of the realistic +school Flaubert has not lost prestige; other facets of his genius +have caught the light. It has been perceived that he was not +merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost +boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more clearly than +the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who +must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at +large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of +perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated +the lax felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most +sacred procedures of the literary artist.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original +manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, +the two plays, <i>Le Candidat</i> and <i>Le Château des cœurs</i>. Another +edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert’s correspondence +with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by +Guy de Maupassant. Other posthumous works are <i>Par les champs +et par les grèves</i> (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four +volumes of <i>Correspondance</i> (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget, +<i>Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1883); Émile Faguet, <i>Flaubert</i> +(1899); Henry James, <i>French Poets and Novelists</i> (1878); Émile Zola, +<i>Les Romanciers naturalistes</i> (1881); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries +du lundi</i>, vol. xiii., <i>Nouveaux lundis</i>, vol. iv.; and the <i>Souvenirs +littéraires</i> (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVEL, JOHN<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine, +was born at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627. +He was the elder son of Richard Flavel, described in contemporary +records as “a painful and eminent minister.” After +receiving his early education, partly at home and partly at the +grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered University +College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he +obtained a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the +vicar he was appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he removed +in 1656 to Dartmouth. He was ejected from his living +by the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, but continued +to preach and administer the sacraments privately till the Five +Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away. He +then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth, +where he laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four +times. He was a vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without +a play of fine fancy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are his <i>Navigation Spiritualized</i> (1671); <i>The +Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons</i> (1672); <i>The Method of Grace</i> +(1680); <i>Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man</i> (1698); <i>A +Token for Mourners</i>; <i>Husbandry Spiritualized</i> (1699). Collected +editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles +Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN I.<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was +born about 320, most probably in Antioch. He inherited great +wealth, but resolved to devote his riches and his talents to the +service of the church. In association with Diodorus, afterwards +bishop of Tarsus, he supported the Catholic faith against the +Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius as bishop of +Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside +the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion; +and, according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the +practice of antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services +of the church. When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch +in 361 he raised Flavian to the priesthood, and on the death of +Meletius in 381 Flavian was chosen to succeed him. The +schism between the two parties was, however, far from being +healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt refused to +acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme Eustathians +had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius, +still exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the +death of Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor, +but after the death of Evagrius (<i>c.</i> 393) Flavian succeeded in +preventing his receiving a successor, though the Eustathians still +continued to hold separate meetings. Through the intervention +of Chrysostom, soon after his elevation to the patriarchate of +Constantinople (398), and the influence of the emperor Theodosius, +Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate bishop of Antioch +by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was not +finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is +venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article +“Flavianus von Antiochien” by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Real-encyklop.</i> +(ed. 3). For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack’s, +<i>Hist. of Dogma</i>, iv. 95.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN II.<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was +chosen by the emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most +probably in 498. He endeavoured to please both parties by +steering a middle course in reference to the Chalcedon (<i>q.v.</i>) +decrees, but was induced after great hesitation to agree to the +request of Anastasius that he should accept the Henoticon, +or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing so, +while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of +Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who +in 511 found in the riots which were occurring between the rival +parties in the streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian, +and banishing him to Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was +soon after his death enrolled among the saints of the Greek +Church, and after some opposition he was also canonized by the +Latin Church.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent +of the Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided +at the council which deposed Eutyches (<i>q.v.</i>) in 448, but in the +following year he was deposed by the council of Ephesus (the +“robber synod”), which reinstated Eutyches in his office. +Flavian’s death shortly afterwards was attributed, by a pious +fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his theological opponents. +The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a martyr, and in the +Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of February.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVIGNY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the department of +Côte-d’Or, situated on a promontory overlooking the river +Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725. +Among its antiquities are the remains of an abbey of the 8th +century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the manufacture +of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as the +17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th +centuries, containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine +rood-screen (early 16th century). A Dominican convent, some +old houses and ancient gateways are also of interest. About +3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont Auxois, the probable +site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52 defeated the +Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been erected +on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman +period have been discovered on the hill.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAVIN<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flavus</i>, yellow), the commercial name for an +extract or preparation of quercitron bark (<i>Quercus tinctoria</i>), +which is used as a yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered +bark (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quercitron</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAX.<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> The terms flax or lint (Ger. <i>Flachs</i>, Fr. <i>lin</i>, Lat. +<i>linum</i>) are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and +the plant from which it is prepared. The flax plant (<i>Linum +usitatissimum</i>) belongs to the natural order <i>Linaceae</i>, and, like +most plants which have been long under cultivation, it possesses +numerous varieties, while its origin is doubtful. As cultivated +it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a height of from +20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly lance-shaped leaves, +branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet ending in a +bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical, +having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin, +five petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing +five distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five +cells, each of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten +divisions, each of which contains a single seed. The seeds of the +flax plant, well known as linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and +of a bright greenish-brown colour. They are oval in section, +but their maximum contour represents closely that of a pear +with the stalk removed. The contents are of an oily nature, +and when liquefied are of great commercial value.</p> + +<p>The earliest cultivated flax was <i>Linum angustifolium</i>, a smaller +plant with fewer and narrower leaves than <i>L. usitatissimum</i>, +and usually perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by +the inhabitants of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild +in south and west Europe (including England), North Africa, +and western Asia. The annual flax (<i>L. usitatissimum</i>) has been +cultivated for at least four or five thousand years in Mesopotamia, +Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the districts included between +the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. This +annual flax appears to have been introduced into the north of +Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by +the western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians; +lastly, into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after +their separation from the European Aryans. (De Candolle, +<i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>.)</p> + +<p>The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most +ancient of all textile industries, very distinct traces of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +existence during the stone age being preserved to the present +day. “The use of flax,” says Ferdinand Keller (<i>Lake Dwellings +of Switzerland</i>, translated by J.E. Lee), “reaches back to the +very earliest periods of civilization, and it was most extensively +and variously applied in the lake-dwellings, even in those of the +stone period. But of the mode in which it was planted, steeped, +heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we can form +no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by +the settlers in its cultivation.... Rough or unworked flax is +found in the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what are +technically called heads, and, as much attention was given to +this last operation, it was perfectly clean and ready for use.” +As to its applications at this early period, Keller remarks: +“Flax was the material for making lines and nets for fishing and +catching wild animals, cords for carrying the earthenware vessels +and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly imagine how +navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings themselves +be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the erection +of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to +whatever people these monuments may belong, would be altogether +impracticable without the use of strong ropes.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:509px" src="images/img485.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Flax Plant (<i>Linum usitatissimum</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Manufacture.</i>—That flax was extensively cultivated and was +regarded as of much importance at a very early period in the +world’s history there is abundant testimony. Especially in +ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a most important place, linen +having been there not only generally worn by all classes, but it +was the only material the priestly order was permitted to wear, +while it was most extensively used as wrappings for embalmed +bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are +told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph “in vestures of fine linen” +(Gen. xlii. 42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail +destroyed the flax and barley crops, “for the barley was in the +ear, and the flax was bolled” (Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous +pictorial representations of flax culture and preparation exist +to the present day on the walls of tombs and in Egypt. Sir J. +G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt shows clearly +the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing flax. +“At Beni Hassan,” he says, “the mode of cultivating the plant, +in the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much +resembling our salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and +making them into ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth +are distinctly pointed out.” The preparation of the fibre as +conducted in Egypt is illustrated by Pliny, who says: “The +stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed by the +heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon +them, for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind, +becoming loose is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated. +They are then taken out and repeatedly turned over in the sun +until perfectly dried, and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone +slabs. That which is nearest the rind is called <i>stupa</i> [’tow’], +inferior to the inner fibres, and fit only for the wicks of lamps. +It is combed out with iron hooks until the rind is all removed. +The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality. Men are not +ashamed to prepare it” (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xix. 1). For many ages, +even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax +occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent +into all regions with which open intercourse was maintained. +Among Western nations it was, without any competitor, the +most important of all vegetable fibres till towards the close of +the 18th century, when, after a brief struggle, cotton took its +place as the supreme vegetable fibre of commerce.</p> + +<p>Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture +resting upon a moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or +potatoes, as it requires the soil to be in fresh condition without +being too rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it +well, as these are generally freer from weeds than those that have +been long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply +manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is to +produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of the +fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason +it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall, +slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been +ploughed in autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with +the grubber, harrow and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained. +On the smooth surface the seed is sown broadcast by hand or +machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, and covered in the +same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to +hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all +stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants. +When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully +hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and +hence the importance of sowing the crop on land as free as +possible from weeds of all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind, +move slowly on hands and knees, and should remove every vestige +of weed in order that the flax plants may receive the full benefit +of the land. When flax is cultivated primarily on account of +the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before the capsules are +quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from a green +to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have +become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.</p> + +<p>The various operations through which the crop passes from +this point till flax ready for the market is produced are—(1) +Pulling, (2) Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling, +(6) Scutching.</p> + +<p><i>Pulling</i> and <i>rippling</i> may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is +always pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it +cut or shorn like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in +dry clear weather; and care is to be taken in this, as in all the +subsequent operations, to keep the root-ends even and the stalks +parallel. At the same time it is desirable to have, as far as +possible, stalks of equal length together,—all these conditions +having considerable influence on the quality and appearance +of the finished sample. As a general rule the removal of the +“bolls” or capsules by the process of rippling immediately +follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the field; +but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the +Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into +sheaves, dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the +early part of the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or +apparatus for separating the seed capsules from the branches, +consists of a kind of comb having, set in a wooden frame, iron +teeth made of round-rod iron <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>ths of an inch asunder at +the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in. long, to +allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The +points should begin to taper 3 in, from the top. A sheet or other +cover being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the +middle of it, and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +the machine between them, work at the same time. It is unadvisable +to ripple the flax so severely as to break or tear the +delicate fibres at the upper part of the stem. The two valuable +commercial products of the flax plant, the seeds and the stalk, +are separated at this point. We have here to do with the latter +only.</p> + +<p><i>Retting</i> or <i>rotting</i> is an operation of the greatest importance, +and one in connexion with which in recent years numerous +experiments have been made, and many projects and processes +put forth, with the view of remedying the defects of the primitive +system or altogether supplanting it. From the earliest times +two leading processes of retting have been practised, termed respectively +water-retting and dew-retting; and as no method +has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these +operations, they will first be described.</p> + +<p><i>Water-retting.</i>—For this—the process by which flax is generally +prepared—pure soft water, free from iron and other materials +which might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much +impregnated with lime is also specially objectionable. The dams +or ponds in which the operation is conducted are of variable size, +and usually between 4 and 5 ft. in depth. The rippled stalks +are tied in small bundles and packed, roots downwards, in the +dams till they are quite full; over the top of the upper layer +is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with the grassy +side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to +keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a +process of fermentation should immediately be set up, which +soon makes itself manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles. +After a few days the fermentation subsides; and generally in +from ten days to two weeks the process ought to be complete. +The exact time, however, depends upon the weather and upon +the particular kind of water in which the flax is immersed. +The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies in +deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain +under water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed +“over-retting,” a condition which increases the amount of +codilla in the scutching process; whilst “under-retting” leaves +part of the gummy or resinous matter in the material, which +hinders the subsequent process of manufacture. As the steeping +is such a critical operation, it is essential that the stalks be +frequently examined and tested as the process nears completion. +When it is found that the fibre separates readily from the woody +“shove” or core, the beets or small bundles are ready for removing +from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly and +equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes +from a week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the +fibres may spin equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is +necessary to turn the material over several times during the +process. It is ready for gathering when the core cracks and +separates easily from the fibre. At this point advantage is +taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax, which is now +ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stooking +and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching +mill.</p> + +<p><i>Dew-retting</i> is the process by which all the Archangel flax +and a large portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are prepared. +By this method the operation of steeping is entirely +dispensed with, and the flax is, immediately after pulling, spread +on the grass where it is under the influence of air, sunlight, +night-dews and rain. The process is tedious, the resulting fibre +is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly liable to undergo +heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of the flax) if +exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little access of +air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in +structure, although in all probability water-retting would result +in a fibre as good or even better in quality.</p> + +<p>The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb, +is that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence +of heat and moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular +substance—pectose or an analogue of that body—into pectin +and pectic acid. The former, being soluble, is left in the water; +but the latter, an insoluble body, is in part attached to the +fibres, from which it is only separated by changing into soluble +metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline ley in the +subsequent process of bleaching.</p> + +<p>To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the +primitive fashions above described, although numerous and +persistent attempts have been made to improve upon it, or to +avoid the process altogether. The uniform result of all experiments +has only been to demonstrate the scientific soundness +of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all the proposed +improvements of recent times seek to obviate the tediousness, +difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on in the +open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention +was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by +Mr James Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely +mechanical means without any retting whatever; but after the +Irish Linen Board had expended many thousands of pounds +and much time in making experiments and in erecting his +machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete failure. About +the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a process of +“cottonizing” flax—a method of proceeding which had been +suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen’s process +consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours +in a weak solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two +hours in a similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution +containing 5% of carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed +in a vat containing water acidulated with ½% of sulphuric +acid. The action of the acid on the carbonate of soda with which +the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre to split up into a +fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to manufacture in +the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax into +bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recommend +it to public acceptance; and Claussen’s process therefore +remains only as an interesting and suggestive experiment.</p> + +<p>The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto +endured the test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm +position as a distinct improvement, is the warm-water retting +patented in England in 1846 by an American, Robert B. Schenck. +For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes large wooden vats +under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in an upright +position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and +maintained at a temperature of from 75° to 95° F. during the +whole time the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermentation +is set up, gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently +becoming very repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy +scum over the surface of the water. The whole process occupies +only from 50 to 60 hours. A still further improvement, due +to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at this point, which +consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are taken +out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream +of pure water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all +the slimy glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but +the subsequent processes of breaking and scutching are much +facilitated.</p> + +<p>A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of +Glasgow in 1852, and subsequently modified and improved by +J. Buchanan. The system possessed the advantages of rapidity, +being completed in about ten hours, and freedom from any +noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh, ill-spinning fibre, +and consequently failed to meet the sanguine expectations of +its promoters.</p> + +<p>In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael +Andrews, secretary of the Belfast Flax Supply Association, +made some suggestions and experiments which deserve close +attention. In a paper contributed to the International Flax +Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details regarding an +experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of imitating +by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary +methods. In brief, Mr Andrews’ method consists in introducing +water at the proper temperature into the retting vat, and maintaining +that temperature by keeping the air of the chamber +at a proper degree of heat. By this means the flax is kept at a +uniform temperature with great certainty, since even should the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span> +heat of the air vary considerably through neglect, the water in the +vat only by slow degrees follows such fluctuations. “It may be +remarked,” says Mr Andrews, “that the superiority claimed +for this method of retting flax over what is known as the +’hot-water steeping’ is uniformity of temperature; in fact +the experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control +can be exercised over the means adopted to produce the +artificial climate in which the vats containing the flax are +situated.”</p> + +<p>Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtaining +a quick and practical method of retting flax. The one by +Messrs Doumer and Deswarte appears to have been well received +in France, but in Ireland the invention of Messrs Loppens and +Deswarte has recently received the most attention. The +apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the partition +being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and +covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other. +Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately +under the perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters +the upper chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams, +the latter being prevented from rising too high. The soluble +substances are dissolved by the water, and the liquid thus formed +being heavier than water, sinks to the bottom of the tank +where it is allowed to escape through an outlet. By this arrangement +the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh water, a +condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids, +in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow, +and hence the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the +operation is completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the +flax remains on the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly +before being removed to dry.</p> + +<p>The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for +Ireland, and the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly +made some experiments with this method, and the following +extract from the Association’s report for 1905 shows the success +which attended their efforts:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“By desire of the department (which has taken up the position +of an impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was +divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the +patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to +Courtrai and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched +were examined by an inspector of the department and by several +flax spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced +superior to the other” ...</p> + +<p>“To summarise results up to date—</p> + +<div class="list1"> + +<p> 1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in + the field in Ireland.</p> + +<p> 2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.</p> + +<p> 3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte’s + patent) is at least equal to the Lys, as to quality and + yield of fibre produced.”</p> +</div></div> + +<p>Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to +expect further attempts with the same object of supplanting +the ordinary steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical +or other method would probably be the means of reviving the +flax industry in the remote parts of the British Isles.</p> + +<p><i>Scutching</i> is the process by which the fibre is freed from its +woody core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-retted +flax two operations are required, first breaking and then +scutching, and these are done either by hand labour or by means +of small scutching or lint mills, driven either by water or steam +power. Hand labour, aided by simple implements, is still much +used in continental countries; also in some parts of Ireland +where labour is cheap or when very fine material is desired; +but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these being +more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks +between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these +rollers, of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes +arranged to work alternately forwards and backwards in order to +thoroughly break the woody material or “boon” of the straw, +while the broken “shoves” are beaten out by suspending the +fibre in a machine fitted with a series of revolving blades, which, +striking violently against the flax, shake out the bruised and +broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching machines +and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view +of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of +fibre, both in respect of cleanness and in producing the least +proportion of codilla or scutching tow.</p> + +<p>The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable +staple in the market, on account of its fineness, strength and +particularly bright colour. There the flax is dried in the field, +and housed or stacked during the winter succeeding its growth, +and in the spring of the following year it is retted in crates sunk +in the sluggish waters of the river Lys. After the process has +proceeded a certain length, the crates are withdrawn, and the +sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter once more tied +up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to complete the +retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably +practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in +cones, instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored +for some time previous to undergoing the operation of scutching. +In all operations the greatest care is taken, and the cultivators +being peculiarly favoured as to soil, climate and water, Courtrai +flax is a staple of unapproached excellence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb +of air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he +separated 1946 ℔ of bolls which yielded 910 ℔ of seed. The 5824 lb +(52 cwt.) of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving +39 cwt. of retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. 1 qr. 2 ℔ (702 ℔) of +finished flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal +to about 9% of the dried flax with the bolls, 12% of the boiled straw, +and over 16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by +Schenck’s method gave 33 tons bolls, with 27.50 tons of loss in steeping; +32.13 tons were separated in scutching, leaving 5.90 tons of +finished fibre, with 1.47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following +analysis of two varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo +Müller (Hoffmann’s <i>Berichte über die Entwickelung der chemischen +Industrie</i>):—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ash</td> <td class="tcr">0.70</td> <td class="tcr">1.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td class="tcr">8.65</td> <td class="tcr">10.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Extractive matter</td> <td class="tcr">3.65</td> <td class="tcr">6.02</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fat and wax</td> <td class="tcr">2.39</td> <td class="tcr">2.37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cellulose</td> <td class="tcr">82.57</td> <td class="tcr">71.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Intercellular substance and pectose bodies</td> <td class="tcr">2.74</td> <td class="tcr">9.41</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (<i>Die Rohstoffe +des Pflanzenreiches</i>), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140 centimetres, +the length of the individual cells being from 2.0 to 4.0 +millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0.012 and 0.025 mm., +the average being 0.016 mm.</p> +</div> + +<p>Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement +both in the growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till +comparatively recent times, the whole industry was conducted +only on a domestic scale has had much influence. At no very +remote date it was the practice in Scotland for every small +farmer and cotter not only to grow “lint” or flax in small +patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven, +bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own +premises, and all by members or dependents of the family. +The same practice obtained and still largely prevails in other +countries. Thus the flax industry was long kept away from the +most powerful motives to apply to it labour-saving devices, +and apart from the influence of scientific inquiry for the improvement +of methods and processes. As cotton came to the front, +just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving +were being introduced, the result was that in many localities +where flax crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually +drooped and ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by +degrees ceased to be a domestic industry, and began to centre +in and become the characteristic factory employment of special +localities, which depended, however, for their supply of raw +material primarily on the operations of small growers, working, +for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote thinly +populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the +preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day, +not come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities) +of scientific knowledge and experience.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation.</i>—The approximate number of acres (1905) under +cultivation in the principal flax-growing countries is as +follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td> <td class="tcc">acres.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Caucasia</td> <td class="tcr">450,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Austria</td> <td class="tcr">175,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Italy</td> <td class="tcr">120,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poland</td> <td class="tcr">95,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr">80,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">75,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">65,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">53,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr">50,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr">46,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">38,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably +the combined quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned +countries, the quality of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is cultivated +in the Russian provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia, +Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka, +Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or Jaroslav, while the bulk of the +material is exported through the Baltic ports. Riga and St +Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal ports, but +flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau, +Narva and Königsberg. Sometimes it is exported from +Archangel, but this port is frost-bound for a great period +of the year; moreover, most of the districts are nearer to the +Baltic.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the Change in Price + of a few well-known Varieties.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc lb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1906.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Riga—</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   SPK</td> <td class="tcc rb">23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">21 to 22</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 to 32</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 to 32</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  XHDX</td> <td class="tcc rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">26½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½ to 33</td> <td class="tcc rb">43½</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">    W<br />St Petersburg—</td> <td class="tcc rb">16 to 16¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">15½ to 16</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½ to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">18 to 19</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Bajetsky</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 to 29</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 to 27</td> <td class="tcc rb">32 to 32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Jaropol<br />Tows—</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 25</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 to 23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Mologin</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 24¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">23 to 23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">24½ to 25</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Novgorod<br />Archangel—</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>23½ to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>23</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>26 to 26½</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">34½</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ½ and ½ tow</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 24½</td> <td class="tcc rb">26 to 27</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  2nd Codilla</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24 to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25½ to 26</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as +the district in which it is grown, and it is further classified by +special marks. The following names amongst others are given to +the fibre:—Archangel, Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher, +Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin, Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz, +Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol, Jaroslav, Kama, +Kashin, Königsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns, Krasnoholm, +Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Malmuish, +Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky, +Nolinsk, Novgorod, Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy, +Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel, Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg, +Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk, Sytcheffka, Taroslav. +Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni, Vologda, +Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk.</p> + +<p>These names indicate the particular district in which the flax +has been grown, but it is more general to group the material +into classes such as Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs, +Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens, Pernau, Archangel, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one +or other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not +necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October +1906 quotations appeared as under:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Livonian</td> <td class="tcc">basis</td> <td class="tcl">K</td> <td class="tcl">£26 to £27</td> <td class="tcc">per ton,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hoffs</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">HD</td> <td class="tcl">£21 to £22</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pernau</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">D</td> <td class="tcl">£28 to £28 : 10</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dorpat</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">D</td> <td class="tcl">£32 to £32 : 10</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tcc" colspan="2">cleaned.</td><td> </td><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to +variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and +demand.</p> + +<p>The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">K</td> <td class="tcc">means</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="4">Crown and is usually the base mark.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">H</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="4">Light and represents a rise of about</td> <td class="tcl">£1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">P</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Picked</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">£3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">G</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Grey</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">£3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">S</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Superior</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">£4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">W</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">White</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">£4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Z</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Zins</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">”</td> <td class="tcl">£10</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be +understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two +letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more, +since every mark has not the same value.</p> + +<p>If we take £25 as the value of the base mark, the value per ton for +the different groups would be:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">K</td> <td class="tcl">£25</td> <td class="tcr">HSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">HK</td> <td class="tcl">£26</td> <td class="tcr">GSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">PK</td> <td class="tcl">£28</td> <td class="tcr">WSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">HPK</td> <td class="tcl">£29</td> <td class="tcr">ZK</td> <td class="tcl">£35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">GPK</td> <td class="tcl">£31</td> <td class="tcr">HZK</td> <td class="tcl">£36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">SPK</td> <td class="tcl">£32</td> <td class="tcr">GZK</td> <td class="tcl">£38, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for +Hoffs, D for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and +R for Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before, +after or in both places. With £20 as base mark we have:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">HD</td> <td class="tcc">£20</td> <td class="tcc">per</td> <td class="tcc">ton.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">PHD</td> <td class="tcc">£23</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">FPHD</td> <td class="tcc">£26</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">SFPHD</td> <td class="tcc">£29</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">XHDX</td> <td class="tcc">£32</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">XRX</td> <td class="tcc">£35</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named;</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">W,</td> <td class="tcl">Wrack flax.</td> <td class="tcr">PW,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked wrack flax.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">WPW,</td> <td class="tcl">White picked wrack.</td> <td class="tcr">GPW,</td> <td class="tcl">Grey picked wrack flax.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">D,</td> <td class="tcl">Dreiband (Threeband).</td> <td class="tcr">PD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Dreiband flax.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">LD,</td> <td class="tcl">Livonian Dreiband.</td> <td class="tcr">PLD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Livonian Dreiband.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">SD,</td> <td class="tcl">Slanitz Dreiband.</td> <td class="tcr">PSD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Slanitz Dreiband.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped +from Riga either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or +Wiasma Slanitz, showing from what district they come, as there +are differences in the quality of the produce of each district. The +lowest quality of Riga flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband +Wrack.</p> + +<p>Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is imported +is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few. +The leading marks are:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">LOD,</td> <td class="tcc">indicating</td> <td class="tcl">Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">OD,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Ordinary Dreiband.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">D,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Dreiband.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">HD,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Light Dreiband.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">R,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Risten.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">G,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Cut.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">M,</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">Marienburg.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being +the best.</p> + +<p>Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Petersburg, +the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd +and 4th Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. 2, while all the +Archangel flax is dew-retted.</p> + +<p>Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered +from the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this +quantity a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom. +The Chief British ports for the landing of flax are:—Belfast, Dundee, +Leith, Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the +chief centres of the flax industry.</p> + +<p>The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast +Flax Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all +sources into the different parts of the United Kingdom:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />Ireland.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />England and<br />Scotland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,622</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,506</td> <td class="tcc rb">67,116</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">95,199</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,650</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,549</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,802</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">61,087</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">97,253</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,440</td> <td class="tcc rb">62,813</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,052</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,145</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,907</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,586</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,563</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,023</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,565</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,785</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,611</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,727</td> <td class="tcc rb">43,884</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,701</td> <td class="tcc rb">38,168</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,533</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,917</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,024</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,893</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">90,098</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40,063</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50,035</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the +acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864 +it reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433. +After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that +year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated +considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to +89,225 acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage +was above 108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000, +while the average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000 +acres.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Wo.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> 8 and 2, which means 80% of one quality and 20% of +another. Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not +unusual to have quotations for flaxes containing four different +kinds.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLAXMAN, JOHN<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughtsman, +was born on the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary +residence of his parents at York. The name John was hereditary +in the family, having been borne by his father after a forefather +who, according to the family tradition, had fought on the side of +parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled as a carrier or +farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the father +of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder +and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New +Street, Covent Garden, London. His wife’s maiden name was +See, and John was their second son. Within six months of his +birth the family returned to London, and in his father’s back +shop he spent an ailing childhood. His figure was high-shouldered +and weakly, the head very large for the body. His mother +having died about his tenth year, his father took a second wife, +of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and +that she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother. +Of regular schooling the boy must have had some, since he is +reputed as having remembered in after life the tyranny of some +pedagogue of his youth; but his principal education he picked +up for himself at home. He early took delight in drawing and +modelling from his father’s stock-in-trade, and early endeavoured +to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the light of +translations from classic literature.</p> + +<p>Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped +him with books, advice, and presently with commissions. The +two special encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney, +and a cultivated clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose +house in Rathbone Place the young Flaxman used to meet the +best “blue-stocking” society of those days, and, among +associates of his own age, the artists Blake and Stothard, who +became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to work +with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve +years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal, +and became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society +of Artists; at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of +Arts and began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the +second year of its existence. In the same year, 1770, he entered +as an Academy student and won the silver medal. But all these +successes were followed by a discomfiture. In the competition +for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman, who had +made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged +by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor +named Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement, +and indeed seemed to have had a wholesome effect in curing +the successful lad of a tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency +which made Thomas Wedgwood say of him in 1775: “It is but +a few years since he was a most supreme coxcomb.”</p> + +<p>He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the +schools and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy, +occasionally also attempting diversions into the sister art of +painting. To the Academy he contributed a wax model of +Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax (1771); a terracotta +bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History (1772); +a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During these +years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew +family, for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work +of this class he could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The +means of such a livelihood, however, presented themselves in +his twentieth year, when he first received employment from +Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, as a modeller of +classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental vessels and +medallion portraits, in those varieties of “jasper” and “basalt” +ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the +manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention. +In the same year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from +New Street, Covent Garden, to a more commodious house in +the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years, from his twentieth to +his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted chiefly by his +work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the minute +refinements of figure outline and modelling which these manufacturers +aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities +best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the +gifts of an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long +upon such a minor and half-mechanical art of household decoration; +but the beauty of the product it would be idle to deny, or +the value of the training which the sculptor by this practice +acquired in the delicacies and severities of modelling in low +relief and on a minute scale.</p> + +<p>By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another +branch of his profession, which was in the future to furnish +his chief source of livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for +the dead. Three of the earliest of such monuments by his hand +are those of Chatterton in the church of St Mary Redcliffe at +Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in Gloucester cathedral (1784), +and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in the cathedral at +Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman’s career memorial +bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his +industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches +throughout the length and breadth of England, and in them the +finest qualities of his art are represented. The best are admirable +for pathos and simplicity, and for the alliance of a truly Greek +instinct for rhythmical design and composition with that spirit +of domestic tenderness and innocence which is one of the secrets +of the modern soul.</p> + +<p>In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married +to Anne Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until +almost his life’s end. She was a woman of attainments in letters +and to some extent in art, and the devoted companion of her +husband’s fortunes and of his travels. They set up house at first +in Wardour Street, and lived an industrious life, spending their +summer holidays once and again in the house of the hospitable +poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five years, in 1787, +they found themselves with means enough to travel, and set out +for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice. +Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman’s +residence in Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than +in the shape of correspondence. He soon ceased modelling +himself for Wedgwood, but continued to direct the work of other +modellers employed for the manufacture at Rome. He had +intended to return after a stay of a little more than two years, +but was detained by a commission for a marble group of a Fury +of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with circumstances +of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious +Comte-Évêque, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of +Derry. He did not, as things fell out, return until the summer +of 1794, after an absence of seven years,—having in the meantime +executed another ideal commission (a “Cephalus and Aurora”) +for Mr Hope, and having sent home models for several sepulchral +monuments, including one in relief for the poet Collins in +Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord Mansfield +in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span></p> + +<p>But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and +European fame was not his work in sculpture proper, but those +outline designs to the poets, in which he showed not only to what +purpose he had made his own the principles of ancient design +in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but also by what a natural +affinity, better than all mere learning, he was bound to the +ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the <i>Iliad</i> and +<i>Odyssey</i> were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for +Dante by Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer; +they were all engraved by Piroli, not without considerable loss +of the finer and more sensitive qualities of Flaxman’s own lines.</p> + +<p>During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled +through central and northern Italy. On their return they took +a house, which they never afterwards left, in Buckingham Street, +Fitzroy Square. Immediately afterwards we find the sculptor +publishing a spirited protest against the scheme already entertained +by the Directory, and carried out five years later by +Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of art +with the spoils of conquered Europe.</p> + +<p>The record of Flaxman’s life is henceforth an uneventful record +of private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious +industry, with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not +loud but loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best +worth having—Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a +son of Hayley’s, who presently afterwards sickened and died. +In 1797 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy. Every +year he exhibited work of one class or another: occasionally a +public monument in the round, like those of Paoli (1798), or +Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, of Sir William +Jones for St Mary’s, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or Howe for +St Paul’s; more constantly memorials for churches, with symbolic +Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both commonly +in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell, +Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and +many more]; and these pious labours he would vary from time +to time with a classical piece like those of his earliest predilection. +Soon after his election as associate, he published a scheme, half +grandiose, half childish, for a monument to be erected on Greenwich +Hill, in the shape of a Britannia 200 ft. high, in honour of +the naval victories of his country. In 1800 he was elected full +Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to Paris to +see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself +according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next +event which makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a +chair specially created for him by the Royal Academy—the +chair of Sculpture: this took place in 1810. We have ample +evidence of his thoroughness and judiciousness as a teacher in +the Academy schools, and his professorial lectures have been +often reprinted. With many excellent observations, and with +one singular merit—that of doing justice, as in those days +justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval +schools—these lectures lack point and felicity of expression, +just as they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are +somewhat heavy reading. The most important works that +occupied Flaxman in the years next following this appointment +were the monument to Mrs Baring in Micheldever church, the +richest of all his monuments in relief (1805-1811); that for the +Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, which is the next +richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul’s (1807), +to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and +Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of +Wales’s Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813). +At this time the antiquarian world was much occupied with the +vexed question of the merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman +was one of those whose evidence before the parliamentary +commission had most weight in favour of the purchase which +was ultimately effected in 1816.</p> + +<p>After his Roman period he produced for a good many years +no outline designs for the engraver except three for Cowper’s +translations of the Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets +of outline illustrations drawn about the same time, but not +published, were one to the <i>Pilgrim’s Progress</i>, and one to a +Chinese tale in verse, called “The Casket,” which he wrote to +amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to his +old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the +happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod, +excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Immediately +afterwards he was much engaged designing for the +goldsmiths—a testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and +following that, the great labour of the famous and beautiful +(though quite un-Homeric) “Shield of Achilles.” Almost at the +same time he undertook a frieze of “Peace, Liberty and Plenty,” +for the duke of Bedford’s sculpture gallery at Woburn, and an +heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord Egremont’s +house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is +shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed +to Rees’s <i>Encyclopaedia</i> (1819-1820).</p> + +<p>In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis +six years earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the +sculptor’s own sister,, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house, +and his industry was scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he +delivered at the Academy a lecture in memory of his old friend +and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then lately dead; +in 1823 he received from A.W. von Schlegel a visit of which +that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring +soon after this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work +and exhibition, but on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold +in church, and died four days later, in his seventy-second year. +Among a few intimate associates, he left a memory singularly +dear; having been in companionship, although susceptible and +obstinate when his religious creed—a devout Christianity with +Swedenborgian admixtures—was crossed or slighted, yet in other +things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of +modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true +friend and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.</p> + +<p>Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or +of his age, which in England offered neither training nor much +encouragement to a sculptor, that he is weakest when he is +most ambitious, and most inspired when he makes the least +effort; but so it is. Not merely does he fail when he seeks to +illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival the tumultuousness +of Michelangelo—to be intense or tumultuous he was never +made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his +work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as +it is partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures, +the “St Michael” at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably +composed from all points of view; but it lacks fire and force, +and it lacks the finer touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like +the diploma piece of the “Apollo” and “Marpessa” in the Royal +Academy compares with it favourably. This is one of the very +few things which he is recorded to have executed in the marble +entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he entrusted the finishing +work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his employ, and +was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they +imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked +at the Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman’s complicated +monuments in the round, such as the three in Westminster +Abbey and the four in St Paul’s, there is scarcely one +which has not something heavy and infelicitous in the arrangement, +and something empty and unsatisfactory in the surface +execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in +relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The +truth is that he did not thoroughly understand composition on +the great scale and in the round, but he thoroughly understood +relief, and found scope in it for his remarkable gifts of harmonious +design, and tender, grave and penetrating feeling. But if we +would see even the happiest of his conceptions at their best, +we must study them, not in the finished marble but rather in +the casts from his studio sketches (marred though they have been +by successive coats of paint intended for their protection) of +which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the Flaxman +gallery at University College And the same is true of his +happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-known +relief of “Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury.” Nay, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span> +going farther back still among the rudiments and first conceptions +of his art, we can realize the most essential charm of his +genius in the study, not of his modelled work at all, but of his +sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of these the principal +public collections are at University College, in the British +Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are +dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the +excellence of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus +and Hesiod, in all cases save when the designer aims at that which +he cannot hit, the terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman +at his best it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the +original studies for such designs as these (which, with the exception +of the Hesiod series, are far finer than the engravings), but +still more with those almost innumerable studies from real life +which he was continually producing with pen, tint or pencil. +These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor’s notes in +existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and +expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that +struck his fancy. There are groups of Italy and London, +groups of the parlour and the nursery, of the street, the +garden and the gutter; and of each group the artist knows +how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual secret, +expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art +of sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and +balancings of the various figures in any given group, and not +less happily the charm of the affections which link the figures +together and inspire their gestures.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various biographical +and other publications; the principal are the following:—An +anonymous sketch in the <i>European Magazine</i> for 1823; an anonymous +“Brief Memoir,” prefixed to <i>Flaxman’s Lectures</i> (ed. 1829, and +reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan Cunningham’s +<i>Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters</i>, &c., vol. iii.; notices in +the <i>Life of Nollekens</i>, by John Thomas Smith; in the <i>Life of Josiah +Wedgwood</i>, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the <i>Diaries and +Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson</i> (London, 1869), the latter an +authority of great importance; in the <i>Lives</i> of Stothard, by Mrs Bray, +of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and of Blake, by +Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated essays, principally +on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the <i>Art Journal</i> +for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G.F. Teniswood; <i>Essays in English Art</i>, +by Frederick Wedmore; <i>The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 plates, +with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and Genius +of Flaxman</i>, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article +“Flaxman” in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEA<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (0. Eng. <i>fléah</i>, or <i>fléa</i>, cognate with <i>flee</i>, to run away +from, to take flight), a name typically applied to <i>Pulex irritans</i>, +a well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other +mammals, remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly +cosmopolitan. In ordinary language the name is used for any +species of <i>Siphonaptera</i> (otherwise known as <i>Aphaniptera</i>), +which, though formerly regarded as a suborder of <i>Diptera</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>), are now considered to be a separate order of insects. All +<i>Siphonaptera</i>, of which more than 100 species are known, are +parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species +belong to the family <i>Pulicidae</i>, of which <i>P. irritans</i> may be taken +as the type; but the order also includes the <i>Sarcopsyllidae</i>, the +females of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the +<i>Ceratopsyllidae</i>, or bat-fleas.</p> + +<p>Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body, +small and indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae +situated in cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes, +which are always minute and sometimes absent. The structure +of the mouth-parts is different from that seen in any other insects. +The actual piercing organs are the mandibles, while the upper +lip or labrum forms a sucking tube. The maxillae are not piercing +organs, and their function is to protect the mandibles and +labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of the host. Maxillary +and labial palpi are also present, and the latter, together with +the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.</p> + +<p>Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis. +The footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very +active; they feed upon almost any kind of waste animal matter, +and when full-grown form a silken cocoon. The human flea is +considerably exceeded in size by certain other species found +upon much smaller hosts; thus the European <i>Hystrichopsylla +talpae</i>, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small mammals, +attains a length of 5½ millimetres; another large species infests +the Indian porcupine. Of the <i>Sarcopsyllidae</i> the best known +species is the “jigger” or “chigoe” (<i>Dermatophilus penetrans</i>), +indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West +Africa during the second half of last century. Since then this +pest has spread across the African continent and even reached +Madagascar. The impregnated female jigger burrows into the +feet of men and dogs, and becomes distended with eggs until +its abdomen attains the size and appearance of a small pea. +If in extracting the insect the abdomen be ruptured, serious +trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At least +four species of fleas (including <i>Pulex irritans</i>) which infest the +common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the +active agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human +beings.</p> +<div class="author">(E. E. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLÈCHE<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (French for “arrow”), the term generally used in +French architecture for a spire, but more especially employed +to designate the timber spire covered with lead, which was +erected over the intersection of the roofs over nave and transepts; +sometimes these were small and unimportant, but in cathedrals +they were occasionally of large dimensions, as in the flèche of +Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly 100 ft. high; this, however, +is exceeded by the example of Amiens cathedral, which measures +148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its finial.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1632-1710), French preacher and author, +bishop of Nîmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse, +on the 10th of June 1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by +his uncle, Hercule Audiffret, superior of the Congrégation des +Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered the order. On the death of +his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the strictness of its rules, +and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to writing poetry. +His French poems met with little success, but a description in +Latin verse of a tournament (<i>carrousel, circus regius</i>), given +by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He +subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefèvre de Caumartin, +afterwards <i>intendant</i> of finances and counsellor of state, +whom he accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (<i>q.v.</i>), where the +king had ordered the <i>Grands Jours</i> to be held (1665), and where +Caumartin was sent as representative of the sovereign. There +Fléchier wrote his curious <i>Mémoires sur les Grand Jours tenus à +Clermont</i>, in which he relates, in a half romantic, half historical +form, the proceedings of this extraordinary court of justice. +In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured for him the post of +<i>lecteur</i> to the dauphin. The sermons of Fléchier increased his +reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest pitch +by his funeral orations. The most important are those on +Madame de Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership +of the Academy, the duchesse d’Aiguillon (1675), and, above all, +Marshal Turenne (1676). He was now firmly established in the +favour of the king, who gave him successively the abbacy of St +Séverin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the office of almoner to the +dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of Lavaur, from which +he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nîmes. The edict of Nantes +had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were still +very numerous at Nîmes. Fléchier, by his leniency and tact, +succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even +gained the esteem of those who declined to change their faith. +During the troubles in the Cévennes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Huguenots</a></span>) he softened +to the utmost of his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed +himself so indulgent even to what he regarded as error, that his +memory was long held in veneration amongst the Protestants of +that district. It is right to add, however, that some authorities +consider the accounts of his leniency to have been greatly +exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond what the +edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of February +1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which +Fléchier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust +and sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal +Bourdaloue in earnestness of thought and vigour of expression; +nor can he rival the philosophical depth or the insinuating and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +impressive eloquence of Massillon. But he is always ingenious, +often witty, and nobody has carried farther than he the harmony +of diction, sometimes marred by an affectation of symmetry +and an excessive use of antithesis. His two historical works, +the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more remarkable +for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive +insight.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The last complete edition of Fléchier’s works is by J.P. Migne +(Paris, 1856); the <i>Mémoires sur les Grands Jours</i> was first published +in 1844 by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as <i>Mém. sur les Gr. J. d’Auvergne</i>, with +notice by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M. Chéruel, 1862). His +chief works are: <i>Histoire de Théodose le Grand</i>, <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>, +<i>Histoire du Cardinal Ximénès</i>, <i>Sermons de morale</i>, <i>Panégyriques des +saints</i>. He left a <i>portrait</i> or <i>caractère</i> of himself, addressed to one of +his friends. The <i>Life of Theodosius</i> has been translated into English +by F. Manning (1693), and the “Funeral Oration of Marshal +Turenne” in H.C. Fish’s <i>History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence</i> +(ii., 1857). On Fléchier generally see Antonin V.D. Fabre, <i>La +Jeunesse de Fléchier</i> (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, <i>Fléchier, orateur</i> +(1886); A. Delacroix, <i>Hist, de Fléchier</i> (1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> +(1820-1899), German philologist and critic, was born at Wolfenbüttel +on the 23rd of September 1820. He was educated at the +Helmstedt gymnasium and the university of Göttingen. After +holding several educational posts, he was appointed in 1861 to +the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum’sches Gymnasium at +Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died on +the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his +labours on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these +authors he was unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-long +friend and a worker in the same field. His chief works are: +<i>Exercitationes Plautinae</i> (1842), one of the most masterly productions +on the language of Plautus; “Analecta Plautina,” +printed in <i>Philologus</i>, ii. (1847); <i>Plauti Comoediae</i>, i., ii. (1850-1851, +unfinished), introduced by an <i>Epistula critica ad F. +Ritschelium; P. Terenti Afri Comoediae</i> (new ed., 1898). In +his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance +with the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin +language and metre. He attached great importance to the question +of orthography, and his short treatise <i>Fünfzig Artikel</i> (1861) +is considered most valuable. Fleckeisen also contributed largely +to the <i>Jahrbücher fur Philologie</i>, of which he was for many years +editor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See obituary notice by G. Götz in C. Bursian’s <i>Biographisches +Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i> (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener +in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (where the date of birth is given +as the 20th of September).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLECKNOE, RICHARD<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1600-1678?), English dramatist +and poet, the object of Dryden’s satire, was probably of English +birth, although there is no corroboration of the suggestion of +J. Gillow (<i>Bibliog. Dict. of the Eng. Catholics</i>, vol. ii., 1885), that +he was a nephew of a Jesuit priest, William Flecknoe, or more +properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few known facts of his life +are chiefly derived from his <i>Relation of Ten Years’ Travels in +Europe, Asia, Affrique and America</i> (1655?), consisting of letters +written to friends and patrons during his travels. The first of +these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to escape +the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Béatrix de +Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him +to Rome to secure the legalization of her marriage. There in +1645 Andrew Marvell met him, and described his leanness and +his rage for versifying in a witty satire, “Flecknoe, an English +Priest at Rome.” He was probably, however, not in priest’s +orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in 1648 crossed +the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a detailed +description. On his return to Europe he entered the household +of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back +to England. His royalist and Catholic convictions did not +prevent him from writing a book in praise of Oliver Cromwell, +<i>The Idea of His Highness Oliver</i> ... (1659), dedicated to Richard +Cromwell. This publication was discounted at the restoration +by the <i>Heroick Portraits</i> (1660) of Charles II. and others of the +Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking horse +from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in <i>Mac Flecknoe</i> +(1682). The opening lines run:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“All human things are subject to decay.</p> +<p class="i05">And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.</p> +<p class="i05">This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young</p> +<p class="i05">Was called to empire, and had governed long;</p> +<p class="i05">In prose and verse was owned, without dispute,</p> +<p class="i05">Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Dryden’s aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe’s +affectation of contempt for the players and his attacks on +the immorality of the English stage. His verse, which hardly +deserved his critic’s sweeping condemnation, was much of it +religious, and was chiefly printed for private circulation. None +of his plays was acted except <i>Love’s Dominion</i>, announced as a +“pattern for the reformed stage” (1654), that title being altered +in 1664 to <i>Love’s Kingdom</i>, with a <i>Discourse of the English Stage</i>. +He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the actors whom +he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been staged. +Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and +is said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted +with the nobility than with the muses. He died probably about +1678.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Discourse of the English Stage</i>, was reprinted in W.C. Hazlitt’s +<i>English Drama and Stage</i> (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert +Southey, in his <i>Omniana</i> (1812), protested against the wholesale +depreciation of Flecknoe’s works. See also “Richard Flecknoe” +(Leipzig, 1905, in <i>Munchener Beiträge zur ... Philologie</i>), by A. +Lohr, who has given minute attention to his life and works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEET,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a word in all its significances, derived from the root +of the verb “to fleet,” from O. Eng. <i>fleotan</i>, to float or flow, +which ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in +Gr. <span class="grk" title="pleein">πλέειν</span>, to sail, and Lat. <i>pluere</i>, to rain; cf. Dutch <i>vliessen</i>, and +Ger. <i>fliessen</i>. In English usage it survives in the name of many +places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream +in London that formerly ran into the Thames between the +bottom of Ludgate Hill and the present Fleet Street. From +the idea of “float” comes the application of the word to ships, +when in company, and particularly to a large number of warships +under the supreme command of a single officer, with the +individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and subordinate +command. The distinction between a fleet and a +squadron is often one of name only. In the British navy the +various main divisions are or have been called fleets and +squadrons indifferently. The word is also frequently used of +a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is also applied to a +row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original meaning +of the word “flowing” comes the adjectival use of the word, +swift, or speedy; so also “fleeting,” of something evanescent +or fading away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEET PRISON,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> an historic London prison, formerly situated +on the east side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from +the Fleet stream, which flowed into the Thames. Concerning +its early history little is known, but it certainly dated back to +Norman times. It came into particular prominence from being +used as a place of reception for persons committed by the Star +Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and persons imprisoned +for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It was burnt +down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was destroyed +in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782. +In pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842), +by which the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen’s Bench prisons were +consolidated into one under the name of Queen’s prison, it was +finally closed, and in 1844 sold to the corporation of the city of +London, by whom it was pulled down. The head of the prison +was termed “the warden,” who was appointed by patent. It +became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to “farm +out” the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which +made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted +on prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly +evil repute, by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid, +with another, the sum of £5000 to John Huggins for the wardenship. +He was guilty of the greatest extortions upon prisoners, +and, in the words of a committee of the House of Commons +appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the kingdom, +“arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into dungeons, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most +barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of +the laws of this kingdom.” He was committed to Newgate, and +an act was passed to prevent his enjoying the office of warden +or any other office whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the +Fleet were the limits within which particular prisoners were +allowed to reside outside the prison walls on observing certain +conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Fleet Marriages.</i>—By the law of England a marriage was +recognized as valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by +a person in holy orders, even if those orders were not of the +Church of England. Neither banns nor licence were necessary, +and the time and place were alike immaterial. Out of this +state of the marriage law, in the period of laxness which succeeded +the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable clandestine marriages. +They were contracted at first to avoid the expenses attendant +on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which imposed a +penalty of £100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted +another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or +licence, acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned +for debt in the Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors, +for they had “neither liberty, money nor credit to lose by any +proceedings the bishop might institute against them.” The +earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage is 1613, while the +earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in 1674, but it +was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or licence +that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition, +and “many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the +neighbourhood fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or +houses as a chapel,” and employed touts to solicit custom for +them. The scandal and abuses brought about by these clandestine +marriages became so great that they became the object +of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke’s Act (26 Geo. ii. +c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity, that banns +should be published according to the rubric, or a licence obtained, +and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in +church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must +be by the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect +of putting a stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England +was concerned, and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna +Green (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The <i>Fleet Registers</i>, consisting of “about two or three hundred +large registers” and about a thousand rough or “pocket” books, +eventually came into private hands, but were purchased by the +government in 1821, and are now deposited in the office of the +registrar-general, Somerset House. Their dates range from 1686 +to 1754. In 1840 they were declared not admissible as evidence +to prove a marriage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—J.S. Burn, <i>The Fleet Registers; comprising the +History of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and +Marriage-house Keepers</i>, &c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, <i>The Fleet: +its River, Prison and Marriages</i> (London, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD, CHARLES<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (d. 1692), English soldier and +politician, third son of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle, +Northamptonshire, and of Anne, daughter of Nicholas Luke of +Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into Gray’s Inn on the +30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great Rebellion, +like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished +themselves in the field, he joined Essex’s life-guard, was wounded +at the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and +fought at Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of +the court of wards, and in 1646 became member of parliament +for Marlborough. In the dispute between the army and parliament +he played a chief part, and was said to have been the +principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at Holmby, +but he did not participate in the king’s trial. In 1649 he was +appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as +lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell’s campaign +in Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next +year he was elected a member of the council of state, and being +recalled from Scotland was entrusted with the command of the +forces in England, and played a principal part in gaining the +final triumph at Worcester. In 1652 he married <a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Cromwell’s +daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and was made commander-in-chief +in Ireland, to which title that of lord deputy was added. +The chief feature of his administration, which lasted from +September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the +soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of +the original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed +also great severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic +priests, and favoured the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan +sects to the disadvantage of the moderate Presbyterians, exciting +great and general discontent, a petition being finally sent in for +his recall.</p> + +<p>Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell’s +policy. He supported his assumption of the protectorate and +his dismissal of the parliaments. In December 1654 he became +a member of the council, and after his return to England in 1655 +was appointed one of the major-generals. He approved of the +“Petition and Advice,” only objecting to the conferring of the +title of king on Cromwell, became a member of the new House +of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell’s foreign policy in +Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the +Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell’s +death, naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said +that Cromwell had in fact so nominated him. He, however, +gave his support to Richard’s assumption of office, but allowed +subsequently, if he did not instigate, petitions from the army +demanding its independence, and finally compelled Richard +by force to dissolve parliament. His project of re-establishing +Richard in close dependence upon the army met with failure, +and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of +May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the +committee of safety and of the council of state, and one of the +seven commissioners for the army, while on the 9th of June +he was nominated commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his +power was undermined and was attacked by parliament, which +on the 11th of October declared his commission void. The next +day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of the parliament +and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk’s approach +from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order. +While hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on +the point of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th +of December restored the Rump, when he was deprived of his +command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer +for his conduct. The Restoration therefore took place without +him. He was included among the twenty liable to penalties +other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding +any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he +survived till the 4th of October 1692.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a +third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward +Hartopp.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1656-1723), English divine, was +descended of an ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the +Tower of London on New Year’s Day 1656. He received his +education at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge. About +the time of the Revolution he took orders, and was shortly +afterwards made rector of St Austin’s, London, and lecturer of +St Dunstan’s in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in +1702, and in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from +which he was translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at +Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood +was regarded as the best preacher of his time. He was accurate +in learning, and effective in delivery, and his character stood +deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal administration +he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a +zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite +of his Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance +brought him into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with +Swift, but he never entered into personal controversy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal writings are—-<i>An Essay on Miracles</i> (1701); <i>Chronicum +preciosum</i> (an account of the English coinage, 1707); and <i>Free +Sermons</i> (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last +was condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384 +of <i>The Spectator</i>, circulated more widely than ever. A collected +edition of his works, with a biographical preface, was published in +1737.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of +the Wyre, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London, the terminus of a +joint branch of the London & North-Western and Lancashire +& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274; (1901) 12,082. It +dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir Peter +Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward +views, especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine, +but the neighbouring country is flat and of little interest. The +two railways jointly are the harbour authority. The dock is +provided with railways and machinery for facilitating traffic, +including a large grain elevator. The shipping traffic is chiefly +in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers serve +Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other +ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there +are salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant +promenade, with other appointments of a watering-place. +There are also barracks with a military hospital and a rifle +range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one of the principal public +schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall was the seat of Sir +Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of the school +on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided +into classical and modern sides, with a special department for +preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A +number of entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships +tenable at the universities are offered annually. The number +of boys is about 350.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1855-1886), German traveller +in West Africa, was born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna, +Russia. After receiving a commercial education he obtained in +1875 a position in Lagos, West Africa. In 1879 he ascended +the Benue river some 125 m. above the farthest point hitherto +reached. His careful survey of the channel secured him a +commission from the German African Society to explore the +whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba, +and then visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct +from the sultan for his intended expedition to Adamawa. This +expedition was undertaken in 1882, and on the 18th of August +in that year Flegel discovered the source of the Benue at +Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the +Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed. +After a short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in +April 1885 with a commission from the German African Company +and the Colonial Society to open up the Niger-Benue district +to German trade. This expedition had the support of Prince +Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for +Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of +influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger +Company). Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue +to Yola, but was unable to accomplish his mission. He returned +to the coast and died at Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the +11th of September 1886. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goldie, Sir George</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Flegel wrote <i>Lose Blatter aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaafreunde</i> +(Hamburg, 1885), and <i>Vom Niger-Benue. Briefe aus Afrika</i> (edited +by K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1801-1888), German +Orientalist, was born at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of +February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he studied theology and +oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently continuing his +studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of oriental +languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till his +death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda’s +<i>Historia ante-Islamica</i> (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi’s <i>Commentary +on the Koran</i> (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue +of the oriental MSS, in the royal library at Dresden (1831); +published an edition and German translation of Ali’s <i>Hundred +Sayings</i> (1837); the continuation of Babicht’s edition of <i>The +Thousand and One Nights</i> (vols. ix.-xii., 1842-1843); and an +edition of Mahommed Ibrihim’s <i>Persian Grammar</i> (1847). He +also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS. +at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the 10th of +February 1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members +of the French Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the +German <i>Ordre pour le mérite</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, PAUL<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1609-1640), German poet, was born at +Hartenstein in the Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October +1609, the son of the village pastor. At the age of fourteen he was +sent to school at Leipzig and subsequently studied medicine +at the university. Driven away by the troubles of the Thirty +Years’ War, he was fortunate enough to become attached to an +embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp +to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller +Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned +to Reval, and here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined +to settle as a physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a +doctor’s diploma, but died suddenly at Hamburg on his way +home on the 2nd of April 1640.</p> + +<p>Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming +is distinguished from most of his contemporaries by the ring of +genuine feeling and religious fervour that pervades his lyric +poems, even his occasional pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite +form of verse, he was particularly happy. Among his religious +poems the hymn beginning “In allen meinen Taten lass ich den +Höchsten raten” is well known and widely sung.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fleming’s <i>Teutsche Poëmata</i> appeared posthumously in 1642; +they are edited by J.M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des litterarischen +Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains +Fleming’s Latin poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann +in the second volume of the series entitled <i>Deutsche Dichter des siebzehnten +Jahrhunderts</i> (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Österley (Stuttgart, +1885). A life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ense’s +<i>Biographische Denkmale</i>, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1826). See also J. Straumer, +<i>Paul Flemings Leben und Orientreise</i> (1892); L.G. Wysocky, <i>De +Pauli Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, RICHARD<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and +founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in +Yorkshire. He was descended from a good family, and was +educated at University College, Oxford. Having taken his +degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next +year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he +became an ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some +of high rank, to the side of the reformer, and incurring the +censure of Archbishop Arundel. He afterwards became one of +Wycliffe’s most determined opponents. Before 1415 he was +instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in 1420 +he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended +the councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope, +Martin V., made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native +country, and in eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this +occasion that he was named chamberlain to the pope. To +Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution of the decree of +the council for the exhumation and burning of Wycliffe’s +remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it on +Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the +appointment. In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence +empowering him to found a college at Oxford for the special +purpose of training up disputants against Wycliffe’s heresy. +He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January 1431. Lincoln +College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its endowments +were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1827-  ), Canadian engineer +and publicist, was born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of +January 1827, but emigrated to Canada in 1845. Great powers +of work and thoroughness in detail brought him to the front, +and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of the Dominion +government. Under his control was constructed the Intercolonial +railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his +retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian +and Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning +throughout the world, and the construction of a state-owned +system of telegraphs throughout the British empire. After +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +years of labour he saw the first link forged in the chain, in the +opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable between Canada and +Australia. Though not a party man he strongly advocated +Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the +Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States. +He took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became +chancellor of Queen’s University, Kingston.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He published <i>The Intercolonial: a History</i> (Montreal and London, +1876); <i>England and Canada</i> (London, 1884); and numerous <i>brochures</i> +and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1544-1613), English judge, was +born at Newport, Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called +to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1574. He represented Winchester +in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when he was returned for +Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of London, +and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon. +This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603. +In 1604 he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided +over many important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted +to the chief justiceship of the king’s bench, and was one of the +judges at the trial of the <i>post-nati</i> in 1608, siding with the majority +of the judges in declaring that persons born in Scotland after +the accession of James I. were entitled to the privileges of +natural-born subjects in England. He was praised by his +contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his “great judgments, +integrity and discretion.” He died on the 7th of August +1613 at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEMISH LITERATURE.<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> The older Flemish writers are +dealt with in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Literature</a></span>; after the +separation of Belgium, however, from the Netherlands in 1830 +there was a great revival of Flemish literature. The immediate +result of the revolution was a reaction against everything +associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard the French +language as the speech of liberty and independence. The +provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the +Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois. +For some years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1793-1846) +had been advocating the claims of the Flemish language. He +had done his best to allay the irritation between Holland and +Belgium and to prevent a separation. As archivist of Antwerp +he made use of his opportunities by writing a history of Flemish +letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies had made +it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he settled +at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish. +He edited old Flemish classics, <i>Reinaert de Vos</i> (1836), the +rhyming Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c., +and gathered round him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the +chevalier Philipp Blommaert (1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk +Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874), F.A. Snellaert +(1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others. +Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809, +founded in 1834 in his native town the <i>Nederduitsche letteroefeningen</i>, +a review for the new writers, and it was speedily followed +by other Flemish organs, and by literary societies for the promotion +of Flemish. In 1851 a central organization for the Flemish +propaganda was provided by a society, named after the father +of the movement, the “Willemsfonds.” The Catholic Flemings +founded in 1874 a rival “Davidsfonds,” called after the energetic +J.B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of Louvain, +and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium (<i>Vaderlandsche +historie</i>, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda +the Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in +law, and in administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools +in 1883. Finally in 1886 a Flemish Academy was established +by royal authority at Ghent, where a course in Flemish literature +had been established as early as 1854.</p> + +<p>The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified +by the appearance (1837) of <i>In’t Wonderjaar</i> 1566 (In the Wonderful +year) of Hendrik Conscience (<i>q.v.</i>), who roused national +enthusiasm by describing the heroic struggles of the Flemings +against the Spaniards. Conscience was eventually to make his +greatest successes in the description of contemporary Flemish +life, but his historical romances and his popular history of +Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which +had been started by professors and scholars.</p> + +<p>The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best +known of whose poems are those on the “three sister cities” +of Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp (<i>Die drie zustersteden, vaderlandsche +trilogie</i>, Ghent, 1846), in which he makes an impassioned +protest against the adoption of French ideas, manners +and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The book +speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who +was a magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish. +Jan Theodoor van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a +volunteer in the campaign of 1830, settled down as a clerk in +Antwerp, and became one of the hottest champions of the +Flemish movement. He wrote a series of political and satirical +songs, admirably suited to his public. The romantic and +sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (<i>q.v.</i>), was typically Flemish +in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse, +whose most ambitious work was the epic <i>Artavelde</i> (1859), is +perhaps best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for +children. Peter Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native +of Antwerp, wrote novels, poems, dramas, and a work on the +Flemish revival (<i>De Vlaemsche Beweging</i>, 1847).</p> + +<p>Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht +Damien Sleeckx (1818-1901). An inspector of schools by +profession, he was an indefatigable journalist and literary critic. +He was one of the founders in 1844 of the <i>Vlaemsch België</i>, the +first daily paper in the Flemish interest. His works include a +long list of plays, among them <i>Jan Steen</i> (1852), a comedy; +<i>Grétry</i>, which gained a national prize in 1861; <i>De Visschers +van Blankenberg</i> (1863); and the patriotic drama of <i>Zannekin</i> +(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to +the idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete +in his methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of +carefully observed detail. He was particularly successful in +describing the life of the shipping quarter of his native town. +Among his novels are: <i>In’t Schipperskwartier</i> (1856), <i>Dirk Meyer</i> +(1860), <i>Tybaerts en K<span class="sp">ie</span></i> (1867), <i>Kunst en Liefde</i> (“Art and Love,” +1870), and <i>Vesalius in Spanje</i> (1895). His complete works were +collected in 17 vols. (1877-1884).</p> + +<p>Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with +North Brabant; his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by +writing historical novels in the manner of Conscience, but his +later novels are satires on contemporary society. A more original +talent was displayed by Anton Bergmann (1835-1874), who, +under the pseudonym of “Tony,” wrote <i>Ernest Staas, Advocat</i>, +which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in 1874. In +the same year appeared the <i>Novellen</i> of the sisters Rosalie (1834-1875) +and Virginie Loveling (b. 1836). These simple and +touching stories were followed by a second collection in 1876. +The sisters had published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie +Loveling’s gifts of fine and exact observation soon placed her in +the front rank of Flemish novelists. Her political sketches, +<i>In onze Vlaamsche gewesten</i> (1877), were published under the +name of “W.G.E. Walter.” <i>Sophie</i> (1885), <i>Een dure Eed</i> +(1892), and <i>Het Land der Verbeelding</i> (1896) are among the more +famous of her later works. Reimond Stÿns (b. 1850) and Isidoor +Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular +novel, <i>Arm Vlaanderen</i> (1884), and some others, and have since +written separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling, +is a disciple of Zola. <i>Het Recht van den Sterkste</i> (“The Right of +the Strongest,” 1893) is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders; +<i>Schoppenboer</i> (“The Knave of Spades,” 1898) deals with +brutalized peasant life; and <i>Sursum corda</i> (1895) describes the +narrowness and religiosity of village life.</p> + +<p>In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed +translation of <i>Reinaert</i> (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888), +&c., produced a social epic in three parts, <i>Drie menschen van in de wieg tot in het graf</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +(“Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave,” +1861), in which he propounded radical and humanitarian views. +The songs of Julius Vuylsteke (1836-1903) are full of liberal and +patriotic ardour; but his later life was devoted to politics rather +than literature. He had been the leading spirit of a students’ +association at Ghent for the propagation of “<i>flamingant</i>” views, +and the “Willemsfonds” owed much of its success to his +energetic co-operation. His <i>Uit het studenten leven</i> appeared in +1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of +Mme van Ackere (1803-1884), <i>née</i> Maria Doolaeghe, were +modelled on Dutch originals. Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890), +née Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her tales than her +poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales are +sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets +were Emmanuel Hiel (<i>q.v.</i>), author of comedies, opera libretti +and some admirable songs; the abbé Guido Gezelle (1830-1899), +who wrote religious and patriotic poems in the dialect of West +Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck (b. 1838), who attempted a +great epic subject in <i>Menschdon Verlost</i> (1872); J.M. Dautzenberg +(1808-1869), author of a volume of charming <i>Volksliederen</i>. +The best of Dautzenberg’s work is contained in the posthumous +volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort +(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs +from Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The <i>Makamen +en Ghazelen</i> (1866), adapted from Rückert’s version of Hariri, +and other volumes by “Jan Ferguut” (J.A. van Droogenbroeck, +b. 1835) show a growing preoccupation with form, and +with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b. 1840), they prepare +the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of the +younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is +the leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and +became professor in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp. +He introduced something of the ideas and methods of contemporary +French writers into Flemish verse; and explained +his theories in 1898 in an <i>Inleiding tot de Poëzie</i>. Among Pol +de Mont’s numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards +are <i>Claribella</i> (1893), and <i>Iris</i> (1894), which contains amongst +other things a curious “<i>Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef</i>,” +a version of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.</p> + +<p>Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (<i>Gent +van den vroegsten Tijd tot heden</i>, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter +(b. 1834), and of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839), +curator of the Plantin museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe +(b. 1846).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ida van Düringsfeld, <i>Von der Schelde bis zur Maas</i>. <i>Das +geistige Leben der Vlamingen</i> (Leipzig, 3 vols., 1861); J. Stecher, +<i>Histoire de la littérature néerlandaise en Belgique</i> (1886); <i>Geschiedenis +der Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden</i> (1899), by +Theodoor Coopman and L. Scharpé; A. de Koninck, <i>Bibliographie +nationale</i> (3 vols., 1886-1897); and <i>Histoire politique et littéraire du +mouvement flamand</i> (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The <i>Vlaamsche +Bibliographie</i>, issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans +de Potter, contains a list of publications between 1830 and 1890; +and there is a good deal of information in the excellent <i>Biographisch +woordenboeck der Noord- en Zuid- Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (1878) +of Dr W.J.A. Huberts and others.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Max Rooses, <i>Keus van Dicht- en Prozawerken van J.F. +Willems</i>, and his <i>Brieven</i> in the publications of the Willemsfonds +(Ghent, 1872-1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLENSBURG<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (Danish, <i>Flensborg</i>), a seaport of Germany, in +the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the +Flensburg Fjord, 20 m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction +of the main line Altona-Vamdrup (Denmark), with branches +to Kiel and Glücksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The principal +public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored +1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval +church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the +exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineering, +navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery +contains the remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle +of Idstedt (25th of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument, +erected by the Danes to commemorate their victory, was removed +to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a busy centre of trade and +industry, and is the most important town in what was formerly +the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent wharves, does a +large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards, breweries, +distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works, copper-works, +soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade with the +West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous development +of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in the +Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.</p> + +<p>Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It +attained municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged +by the Swedes after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under +Danish rule, of Schleswig.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Holdt, <i>Flensburg fruher und jetzt</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLERS,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a manufacturing town of north-western France, in +the arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on +the Vère, 41 m. S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906) +11,188. A modern church in the Romanesque style and a +restored château of the 15th century are its principal buildings. +There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +a communal college and a branch of the Bank of France. Flers +is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region which +includes the towns of Condé-sur-Noireau and La Ferté-Macé. +Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton +and linen fabrics, of which the annual value is about £1,500,000, +drugs and chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour +mills and dyeworks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETA,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a treatise, with the sub-title <i>seu Commentarius juris +Anglicani</i>, on the common law of England. It appears, from +internal evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward +I., about the year 1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation +of Bracton. The author is supposed to have written it during +his confinement in the Fleet prison, hence the name. It has +been conjectured that he was one of those judges who were imprisoned +for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first printed +by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1845-  ), American +ethnologist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She +studied the remains of Indian civilization in the Ohio and +Mississippi valleys, became a member of the Archaeological +Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with the +Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American +Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she +was appointed special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes, +in 1884 prepared and sent to the New Orleans Exposition an +exhibit showing the progress of civilization among the Indians of +North America in the quarter-century previous, in 1886 visited +the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on a mission +from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United +States special agent in the distribution of lands among the +Winnebagoes and Nez Percés. She was made assistant in +ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and received the +Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president of the Anthropological +Society of Washington and of the American Folk-Lore Society, +and vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement +of Science; and, working through the Woman’s National +Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans +to Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In +1888 she published <i>Indian Education and Civilization</i>, a special +report of the Bureau of Education. In 1898 at the Congress +of Musicians held at Omaha during the Trans-Mississippi Exposition +she read “several essays upon the songs of the North +American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of +Omaha Indians ... sang their native melodies.” Out of this +grew her <i>Indian Story and Song from North America</i> (1900), +illustrating “a stage of development antecedent to that in which +culture music appeared.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, ANDREW,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish +politician, was the son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-1664), +and was born at Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East +Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of +Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of Saltoun, he +completed his education by spending some years in travel and +study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament +which met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher +was a fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced +by John Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +Charles II. in Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York, +afterwards King James II.; but he left Scotland about 1682, +subsequently spending some time in Holland as an associate +of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents.</p> + +<p>Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the +rising of 1685, he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England, +but left the army after killing one of the duke’s trusted advisers. +This incident is thus told by Sir John Dalrymple:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of +danger to be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the +horse of a country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood +ready equipt for its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion +to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language, shook his cane and +attempted to strike. Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality, +yet having been accustomed to foreign services both by sea and +land in which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier +and a gentleman and of the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol +and shot him dead on the spot. The action was unpopular in +countries where such refinements were not understood. A clamour +was raised against it among the people of the country, in a body +they waited upon the duke with their complaints; and he was forced +to desire the only soldier and almost the only man of parts in his +army, to abandon him.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as +quitting the rebel army because he disapproved of the action of +Monmouth in proclaiming himself king.</p> + +<p>His history during the next few years is rather obscure. +He probably travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks +in Hungary; and having in his absence lost his estates and been +sentenced to death, he joined William of Orange at the Hague, +and returned to Scotland in 1689 in consequence of the success +of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were restored to him; +and he soon became a leading member of the “club,” an organization +which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland, +and in general an active opponent of the English government. +In 1703, at a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher +again became a member of the Scottish parliament. The failure +of the Darien expedition had aroused a strong feeling of resentment +against England, and Fletcher and the national party +seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree of independence +for their country.</p> + +<p>His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the +union of the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third +edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The thought of England’s domineering over Scotland was what +his generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression +which Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his +learned and elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted +courage and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union, +he performed essential service. He got the act of security passed, +which declared that the two crowns should not pass to the same head +till Scotland was secured in her liberties civil and religious. Therefore +Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war +after the queen’s demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some +of the articles, and indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as +the act of security was his own work, he had all the merit of that +important transaction.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired +from public life. Employing his abilities in another direction, +he did a real, if homely, service to his country by introducing +from Holland machinery for sifting grain. He died unmarried +in London in September 1716.</p> + +<p>Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher’s integrity, but +he was also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as +“a Scotch gentleman of great parts and many virtues, but a +most violent republican and extremely passionate.” In appearance +he was “a low, thin man, of a brown complexion; full of +fire; with a stern, sour look.” Fletcher was a fine scholar and +a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford +bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his +time. His chief works are: <i>A Discourse of Government relating +to Militias</i> (1698); <i>Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of +Scotland</i> (1698); and <i>An Account of a Conversation concerning +a right regulation of Governments for the common good of Mankind</i> +(1704). In Two Discourses he suggests that the numerous +vagrants who infested Scotland should be brought into compulsory +and hereditary servitude; and in <i>An Account of a +Conversation</i> occurs his well-known remark, “I knew a very +wise man so much of Sir Christopher’s (Sir C. Musgrave) sentiment, +that he believed if a man were permitted to make all the +ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher</i> were published in London +in 1737. See D.S. Erskine, 11th earl of Buchan, <i>Essay on the Lives +of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson</i> (1792); J.H. Burton, +<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, +<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, GILES<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1548-1611), English author, son of +Richard Fletcher, vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the +poets Phineas and Giles Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549. +He was educated at Eton and at King’s College, Cambridge, +taking his B.A. degree in 1569. He was a fellow of his college, and +was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had married Joan Sheafe +of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr Bridgwater, +chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for +Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland, +Germany and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the +court of the czar Theodore with instructions to conclude as +alliance between England and Russia, to restore English trade, +and to obtain better conditions for the English Russia Company. +The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey, had already obtained +large concessions through the favour of the protector, Boris +Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he +found that Godunov’s interest was alienated, and that the Russian +government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The +envoy was badly lodged, and treated with obvious contempt, +and was not allowed to forward letters to England, but the +English victory over the Armada and his own indomitable +patience secured among other advantages for English traders +exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from +the infliction of torture. Fletcher’s treatment at Moscow was +later made the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth. +He returned to England in 1589 in company with Jerome +Horsey, and in 1591 he published <i>Of the Russe Commonwealth, +Or Maner of Government by the Russe Emperour</i> (<i>commonly called +The Emperour of Moskovia</i>) <i>with the manners and fashions of the +people of that Countrey</i>. In this comprehensive account of +Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare, +church and manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to +arrange his material during the return journey, doubtless +received some assistance from the longer experience of his +travelling companion, who also wrote a narrative of his travels, +published in <i>Purchas his Pilgrimes</i> (1626). The Russia Company +feared that the freedom of Fletcher’s criticisms would give +offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage +their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was +not reprinted in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from +a copy of the original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an +introduction by Mr Edward A. Bond.</p> + +<p>Fletcher was appointed “Remembrancer” to the city of +London, and an extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and +became treasurer of St Paul’s in 1597. He contemplated a +history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord +Burghley he suggested that it might be well to begin with an +account from the Protestant side of the marriage of Henry VIII. +and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties prevented the execution +of this plan. He had become security to the exchequer for +the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of London, +who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprisonment +by the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually +in prison in 1601, when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous +letter to Burghley from which it may be gathered that his prime +offence had been an allusion to Essex’s disgrace as being the work +of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed in 1610 to +negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the “Eastland +Merchants,” and he died next year, and was buried on the 11th +of March in the parish of St Catherine Colman, London.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Russe Commonwealth</i> was issued in an abridged form in +<i>Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations, Voyages</i>, &c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of +1598), a somewhat completer version in <i>Purchas his Pilgrimes</i> +(pt. iii. ed. 1625), also as <i>History of Russia</i> in 1643 and 1657. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +Fletcher also wrote <i>De literis antiquae Britanniae</i> (ed. by Phineas +Fletcher, 1633), a treatise on “The Tartars,” printed in <i>Israel Redux</i> +(ed. by S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost +tribes of Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and +<i>Licia, or Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular +vertues of his Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets ... whereunto +is added the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third</i> (1593). +This series of love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was published +anonymously. Most critics, with the notable exception of +Alexander Dyce (Beaumont and Fletcher, <i>Works</i>, i. p. xvi., 1843) +have accepted it as the work of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence +afforded in the first of the <i>Piscatory Eclogues</i> of his son Phineas, who +represents his father (Thelgon), as having “raised his rime to sing +of Richard’s climbing.”</p> + +<p>See E.A. Bond’s Introduction to the Hakluyt Society’s edition; +also Dr A.B. Grosart’s prefatory matter to <i>Licia</i> (<i>Fuller Worthies +Library</i>, Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of +Phineas Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher’s letters relative to +the college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved +in the Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in +Grosart’s edition.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, GILES<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1584-1623), English poet, younger +son of the preceding, was born about 1584. Fuller in his <i>Worthies +of England</i> says that he was a native of London, and was educated +at Westminster school. From there he went to Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1606, and became +a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was reader in Greek +grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he contributed +a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to <i>Sorrow’s +Joy</i>. His great poem of <i>Christ’s Victory</i> appeared in 1610, and +in 1612 he edited the <i>Remains</i> of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall. +It is not known in what year he was ordained, but his sermons at +St Mary’s were famous. Fuller tells us that the prayer before +the sermon was a continuous allegory. He left Cambridge about +1618, and soon after received, it is supposed from Francis Bacon, +the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk coast, where “his clownish +and low-parted parishioners ... valued not their pastor +according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy +and hastened his dissolution.” (Fuller, <i>Worthies of England</i>, +ed. 1811, vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, <i>The Reward of the Faithful</i>, +appeared in the year of his death (1623).</p> + +<p>The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is +<i>Christ’s Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and +after Death</i> (1610). An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page +illustrative engravings by George Tate. It is in four cantos +and is epic in design. The first canto, “Christ’s Victory in +Heaven,” represents a dispute in heaven between Justice and +Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ’s life on earth; the second, +“Christ’s Victory on Earth,” deals with an allegorical account +of the Temptation; the third, “Christ’s Triumph over Death,” +treats of the Passion; and the fourth, “Christ’s Triumph after +Death,” treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes +with an affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher +(<i>q.v.</i>) as “Thyrsilis.” The metre is an eight-line stanza owing +something to Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and +the stanza concludes with a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit +which nearly every verse embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his +brother Phineas, to whom he was deeply attached, was a close +follower of Spenser. In his very best passages Giles Fletcher +attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear of Milton, who +did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the <i>Christ’s +Victory and Triumph</i> in his <i>Paradise Regained</i>. Fletcher lived +in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and +Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion +with the sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away +by his theme and forgets to be ingenious, he attains great +solemnity and harmony of style. His descriptions of the Lady +of Vain Delight, in the second canto, and of Justice and of +Mercy in the first, are worked out with much beauty of detail +into separate pictures, in the manner of the <i>Faerie Queene</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Giles Fletcher’s poem was edited (1868) for the <i>Fuller Worthies +Library</i>, and (1876) for the <i>Early English Poets</i> by Dr A.B. Grosart. +It is also reprinted for <i>The Ancient and Modern Library of Theological +Literature</i> (1888), and in R. Cattermole’s and H. Stebbing’s +<i>Sacred Classics</i> (1834, &c.) vol. 20. In the library of King’s College, +Cambridge, is a MS. <i>Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica Lamentationum +Jeremiae</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1729-1785), English divine, +was born at Nyon in Switzerland on the 12th of September +1729, his original name being <span class="sc">de la Fléchière</span>. He was +educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to a clerical +one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his +sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders, +where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went +to England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutor +in a Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of +the new Methodist preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being +ordained by the bishop of Bangor. He often preached with +John Wesley and for him, and became known as a fervent +supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of Dunham, +he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five +years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and +zeal. Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood +Wesley and his work, yet he never wrote or said anything +inconsistent with his own Anglican position. In theology he +upheld the Arminian against the Calvinist position, but always +with courtesy and fairness; his resignation on doctrinal grounds +of the superintendency (1768-1771) of the countess of Huntingdon’s +college at Trevecca left no unpleasantness. The outstanding +feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and saintliness +of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his godliness +is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the +words “Mark the perfect man.” Southey said that “no age +ever provided a man of more fervent piety or more perfect +charity, and no church ever possessed a more apostolic minister.” +His fame was not confined to his own country, for it is said +that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a character as perfect +as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of Madeley. He +died on the 14th of August 1785.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836. +The chief of them, written against Calvinism, are <i>Five Checks to +Antinomianism</i>, <i>Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth</i>, +and the <i>Portrait of St Paul</i>. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L. +Tyerman (1882); F.W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also +C.J. Ryle, <i>Christian Leaders of the 18th Century</i>, pp. 384-423 (1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, PHINEAS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1582-1650), English poet, elder son +of Dr Giles Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed +above, was born at Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the +8th of April 1582. He was admitted a scholar of Eton, and in +1600 entered King’s College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. +in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of the contributors to +<i>Sorrow’s Joy</i> (1603). His pastoral drama, <i>Sicelides or Piscatory</i> +(pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance before James I., +but only produced after the king’s departure at King’s College. +He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow +of his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently +because certain emoluments were refused him. He became +chaplain to Sir Henry Willoughby, who presented him in 1621 +to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk, where he married and spent +the rest of his life. In 1627 he published <i>Locustae, vel Pietas +Jesuitica</i>. <i>The Locusts or Apollyonists</i>, two parallel poems in +Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr Grosart +saw in this work one of the sources of Milton’s conception of +Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, <i>Brittains Ida</i>, +with Edmund Spenser’s name on the title-page. It is certainly +not by Spenser, and is printed by Dr Grosart with the works +of Phineas Fletcher. <i>Sicelides</i>, a play acted at King’s College +in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632 appeared two theological +prose treatises, <i>The Way to Blessedness</i> and <i>Joy in Tribulation</i>, +and in 1633 his <i>magnum opus, The Purple Island</i>. The book was +dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his +<i>Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies</i>. He died in +1650, his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December +of that year. <i>The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man</i>, is a poem +in twelve cantos describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological +structure of the human body and the mind of man. The intellectual +qualities are personified, while the veins are rivers, +the bones the mountains of the island, the whole analogy being +worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of Spenser is +preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his moral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the <i>Faerie Queene</i>. +What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses +in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem +lies in its descriptions of rural scenery. The <i>Piscatory Eclogues</i> +are pastorals the characters of which are represented as fisher +boys on the banks of the Cam, and are interesting for the light +they cast on the biography of the poet himself (Thyrsil) and +his father (Thelgon). The poetry of Phineas Fletcher has not +the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother Giles. The +mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more far-fetched, +but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor +music.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his works (4 vols.) was privately printed +by Dr A.B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur +de</span> (1491-1537), marshal of France and historian, was the son +of Robert II. de la Marck; duke of Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan +and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the celebrated William de +la Marck, “The Wild Boar of the Ardennes.” A fondness for +military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years, and at +the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed +in charge of the count of Angoulême, afterwards King Francis I. +In his twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d’Amboise, +but after three months he quitted his home to join the French +army in the Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself +into Verona, then besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was +protracted, and being impatient for more active service, he +rejoined the army. He then took part in the relief of Mirandola, +besieged by the troops of Pope Julius II., and in other actions +of the campaign. In 1512 the French being driven from Italy, +Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of 10,000 men, +in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy +in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara. +But the French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped +with his life, having received more than forty wounds. He was +rescued by his father and sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons. +Returning to Italy with Francis I. in 1515, he distinguished +himself in various affairs, and especially at Marignano, where +he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so powerfully +to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with +his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called +home by the news of his father’s illness. In 1519 he was sent +into Germany on the difficult errand of inducing the electors +to give their votes in favour of Francis I.; but in this he failed. +The war in Italy being rekindled, Fleuranges accompanied the +king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was taken prisoner +with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the defection +of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into confinement +in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this +imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed +his enforced leisure in writing his <i>Histoire des choses mémorables +advenues du règne de Louis XII et de François I, depuis 1499 +jusqu’en l’an 1521</i>. In this work he designates himself <i>Jeune +Adventureux</i>. Within a small compass he gives many curious +and interesting details of the time, writing only of what he had +seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was first +published in 1735, by Abbé Lambert, who added historical and +critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections. +The last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active +service was at the defence of Péronne, besieged by the count of +Nassau in 1536. In the following year he heard of his father’s +death, and set out from Amboise for his estate of La Marck; +but he was seized with illness at Longjumeau, and died there in +December 1537.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his own book in the <i>Nouvelle Collection des mémoires pour +servir à l’histoire de France</i> (edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. +Poujoulat, series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEUR-DE-LIS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (Fr. “lily flower”), an heraldic device, very +widespread in the armorial bearings of all countries, but more +particularly associated with the royal house of France. The +conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littré says, represents very imperfectly +three flowers of the white lily (<i>Lilium</i>) joined together, +the central one erect, and each of the other two curving outwards. +The fleur-de-lis is a common device in ancient decoration, notably +in India and in Egypt, where it was the symbol of life and resurrection, +the attribute of the god Horus. It is common also in +Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the conventional +fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or white +iris—the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare—or an arrow-head, a +spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the +evil eye, &c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the +fleur-de-lis is a frequent sculptured ornament. As early as +1120 three fleurs-de-lis were sculptured on the capitals of the +Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The fleur-de-lis was first +definitely connected with the French monarchy in an <i>ordonnance</i> +of Louis le Jeune (<i>c.</i> 1147), and was first figured on a seal of +Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry +dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became +a very common charge in France, England and Germany, where +every gentleman of coat-armour desired to adorn his shield +with a loan from the shield of France, which was at first <i>d’azur, +semé de fleurs de lis d’or</i>. In February 1376 Charles V. of France +reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis to three—in honour of the +Trinity—and the kings of France thereafter bore <i>d’azur, à trois +fleurs de lis d’or</i>. Tradition soon attributed the origin of the +fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish monarchy, +and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an +angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation +for this legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William +Newton (<i>Display of Heraldry</i>, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was +the figure of a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre +at the proclamation of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the +true origin of the fleur-de-lis as a conventional decoration, it +is demonstrably far older than the Frankish monarchy, and +history does not record the reason of its adoption by the royal +house of France, from which it passed into common use as an +heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the +Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman +states by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged +to defend the patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the +church. Another order of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII. +in 1816, in memory of the silver fleurs-de-lis which the comte +d’Artois had given to the troops in 1814 as decorations; it was +abolished by the revolution of 1830.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:440px; height:147px" src="images/img499.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Middle Ages.</td> + <td class="caption">17th century.</td> + <td class="caption">18th and 19th centuries.</td></tr></table> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEURUS,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, +5 m. N.E. of Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles. +The first of these was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between +the forces of Count Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick and +the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter being defeated. The +second is described below, and the third and fourth, incidents +of Jourdan’s campaign of 1794, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary +Wars</a></span>. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms +the battlefield of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo +Campaign</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:517px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img500.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The second battle was fought on the 1st of July 1690 between +45,000 French under François-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville, +duke of Luxemburg, and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and +Imperialists under George Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The +latter had formed up his army between Heppignies and St +Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a double +barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a +village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army +exactly. But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard +from Velaine, decided, after a cursory survey of the ground, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +attack the front and both flanks of the Allies’ position at once—a +decision which few, if any, generals then living would have dared +to make, and which of itself places Luxemburg in the same rank +as a tactician as his old friend and commander Condé. The +left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of woods, houses +and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect with the +frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop +Waldeck’s right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of +cavalry and some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep +round the enemy’s left by way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes, +concealed by the high-standing corn. At 8 o’clock the frontal +attack began by a vigorous artillery engagement, in which +the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns, held their +own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been +absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy +already formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second +line back to oppose them, but while he was doing so the French +leader filled up the gap between himself and the frontal assailants +by posting infantry around Wagnelée, and also guns on the +neighbouring hill whence their fire enfiladed both halves of the +enemy’s army up to the limit of their ranging power. At 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> +Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole line. He himself +scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the Dutch +infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded. +The left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and +in their first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean +Christophe, comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers +in the service. But Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary +success, sent a portion of his right wing towards St Amand, +where it merely shared the fate of his left, and the day was decided. +Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14 battalions of infantry +(English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck could do no +more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the Spaniards +at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the +infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them—the French +cavalry, eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest. +Then slowly and in perfect order, they retired into the broken +ground above Mellet, where they were in safety. The French +slept on the battlefield, and then returned to camp with their +trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost some 2500 killed, +amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of artillery, +the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg +was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-Dame. +But the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV. +ordered Luxemburg to keep in line with other French armies +which were carrying on more or less desultory wars of manœuvre +on the Meuse and Moselle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEURY<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Abraham Joseph Bénard</span>] (1750-1822), French +actor, was born at Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and +began his stage apprenticeship at Nancy, where his father was +at the head of a company of actors attached to the court of King +Stanislaus. After four years in the provinces, he came to Paris +in 1778, and almost immediately was made <i>sociétaire</i> at the +Comédie Française, although the public was slow to recognize +him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like +the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of +the presentation of Laya’s <i>L’Ami des lois</i>, and, when liberated, +appeared at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the +rehabilitated Comédie Française. After forty years of service +he retired in 1818, and died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was +notoriously illiterate, and it is probable that the interesting +<i>Mémoire de Fleury</i> owes more to its author, Lafitte, than to the +subject whose “notes and papers” it is said to contain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1653-1743), French +cardinal and statesman, was born at Lodève (Hérault) on the +22nd of June 1653, the son of a collector of taxes. Educated +by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the priesthood, and became +in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi, almoner to +Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of +Fréjus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined +him to seek a position at court. He became tutor to the king’s +great-grandson and heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of +ambition, he acquired over the child’s mind an influence which +proved to be indestructible. On the death of the regent Orleans +in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred +his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis +Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present +at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and +on Bourbon’s attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired +from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the +11th of July 1726 took affairs into his own hands, and secured +the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame +de Prie. He refused the title of first minister, but his elevation +to the cardinalate in that year secured his precedence over the +other ministers. He was naturally frugal and prudent, and +carried these qualities into the administration, with the result +that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 15,000,000 livres instead +of the usual deficit. In 1726 he fixed the standard of the currency +and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment +thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced +labour from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though +at the cost of rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen +years of his orderly government the country found time to +recuperate its forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances +of Louis XIV. and of the regent, and the general +prosperity <span class="correction" title="amended from rapidy">rapidly</span> increased. Internal peace was only seriously +disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise +against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to +accept the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>, and he met the opposition of the +parlement of Paris by exiling forty of its members.</p> + +<p>In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance +of peace, which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore +led to a continuance of the good understanding between France +and England. It was only with reluctance that he supported +the ambitious projects of Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain, +in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the succession of Don Carlos +to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had economized +in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was +forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled +by public opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.’s father-in-law +Stanislaus Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish +crown on the death of Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-Austrian +candidate; but the despatch of a French expedition +of 1500 men to Danzig only served to humiliate France. Fleury +was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic measures; he concluded +a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and sent +two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +Rhine and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty +of Vienna (1735-1738). France had joined with the other +powers in guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa under +the Pragmatic sanction, but on the death of Charles VI. in 1740 +Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an excuse for repudiating +his engagements, when he found the party of war supreme +in the king’s counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian +campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian +general Königsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury disavowed +his own letter, and died a few days after the French +evacuation of Prague on the 29th of January 1743. He had +enriched the royal library by many valuable oriental MSS., and +was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of Science, +and the Academy of Inscriptions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—F.J. Bataille, <i>Éloge historique de M. le Cardinal +A. H. de Fleury</i> (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, <i>Oraison +funèbre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Fleury</i> (Paris, 1743); P. +Vicaire, <i>Oraison funèbre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury</i> (Caen, 1743); +M. van Hoey, <i>Lettres et négotiations pour servir à l’histoire de la vie +du Cardinal de Fleury</i> (London, 1743); <i>Leben des Cardinals A. H. +Fleury</i> (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morénas, <i>Parallèle du ministère du +Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury</i> (Avignon, 1743); <i>Nachrichten +von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury</i> +(Hamburg, 1744).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 35606-h.htm or 35606-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/6/0/35606/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + + diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8150513 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..39d5816 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b1a85fd --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c6f792 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..195ac5a --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e58c77 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea1cb96 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6a1e38c --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1249b69 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a881c0b --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8417595 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c798be8 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..70003ca --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6303edd --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img395.jpg b/35606-h/images/img395.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..407fcb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img395.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b81845 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c773540 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img455.jpg b/35606-h/images/img455.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..605b8e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img455.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ba5396 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..971ff8f --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img464.jpg b/35606-h/images/img464.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..328e06b --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img464.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4387cb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8ef4f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img468.jpg b/35606-h/images/img468.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..404abae --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img468.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5d1a9de --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..731aa8b --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img473.jpg b/35606-h/images/img473.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b623fcc --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img473.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c628907 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b223ad --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img475.jpg b/35606-h/images/img475.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e0fd422 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img475.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img485.jpg b/35606-h/images/img485.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac00d58 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img485.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img499.jpg b/35606-h/images/img499.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..539f659 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img499.jpg diff --git a/35606-h/images/img500.jpg b/35606-h/images/img500.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d817a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-h/images/img500.jpg |
