initial commit of ebook 35606HEADmain

42 files changed, 56168 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/35606-8.txt b/35606-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..602dd99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18084 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4
+       "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2011 [EBook #35606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FINLAND: "... but does not reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13
+      m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards." 'Arctic' amended
+      from 'Artic'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISCHART, JOHANN: "Sie haben Nasen und riechen's nit."
+     'und' amended from 'vnd'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISHER, JOHN: "The constancy of Fisher, while driving Henry
+      to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the whole
+      Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most
+      learned and pious bishops of the time." 'Christian' amended from
+      'Christain'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISHKILL LANDING: "... in which the New York Provincial
+      Congress met in August and September 1776." 'Provincial' amended
+      from 'Provinical'.
+
+    ARTICLE FITZGERALD, EDWARD: "... until 1873 in the town of
+     Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house hard by,
+     called Little Grange." 'called' amended from 'ealled'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "He profited largely by the tyranny of
+      Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion of the
+      ecclesiastical preferments which were illegally kept vacant, and
+      obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099)."
+      'illegally' amended from 'illegaly'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "A bishop, however, was an inconvenient
+      prisoner, and Flambard soon succeeded in effecting his escape from
+      the Tower of London." 'succeeded' amended from 'succeded'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAME: "... if the outer tube be slid up again, it detaches
+      the outer cone and carries it upward." 'be' amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAME: "It is least ambiguous when used in reference to
+      flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical
+      proportions before issuing from the burner." 'is' amended from
+      'it'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE: "During the seventeen years of
+      his orderly government the country found time to recuperate its
+      forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis
+      XIV. and of the regent, and the general prosperity rapidly
+      increased." 'rapidly' amended from 'rapidy'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE IV
+
+          Finland to Fleury, André
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FINLAND                        FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM FITZWILLIAM
+  FINLAY, GEORGE                 FIUME
+  FINN MAC COOL                  FIVES
+  FINNO-UGRIAN                   FIX, THÉODORE
+  FINSBURY                       FIXTURES
+  FINSTERWALDE                   FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS
+  FIORENZO DI LORENZO            FJORD
+  FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA             FLACCUS
+  FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS     FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES
+  FIR                            FLACIUS, MATTHIAS
+  FIRDOUSI                       FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE
+  FIRE                           FLAG
+  FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION       FLAGELLANTS
+  FIREBACK                       FLAGELLATA
+  FIRE BRAT                      FLAGEOLET
+  FIREBRICK                      FLAGSHIP
+  FIREFLY                        FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, JOSEPH
+  FIRE-IRONS                     FLAIL
+  FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO             FLAMBARD, RANULF
+  FIRESHIP                       FLAMBOROUGH HEAD
+  FIRE-WALKING                   FLAMBOYANT STYLE
+  FIREWORKS                      FLAME
+  FIRM                           FLAMEL, NICOLAS
+  FIRMAMENT                      FLAMEN
+  FIRMAN                         FLAMINGO
+  FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS      FLAMINIA, VIA
+  FIRMINY                        FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS
+  FIRST-FOOT                     FLAMINIUS, GAIUS
+  FIRST OF JUNE                  FLAMSTEED, JOHN
+  FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING         FLANDERS
+  FIRTH, MARK                    FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE
+  FIRUZABAD                      FLANNEL
+  FIRUZKUH                       FLANNELETTE
+  FISCHART, JOHANN               FLASK
+  FISCHER, EMIL                  FLAT
+  FISCHER, ERNST BERTHOLD        FLATBUSH
+  FISH, HAMILTON                 FLAT-FISH
+  FISH                           FLATHEADS
+  FISHER, ALVAN                  FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE
+  FISHER, GEORGE PARK            FLAVEL, JOHN
+  FISHER, JOHN                   FLAVIAN I.
+  FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER  FLAVIAN II.
+  FISHERIES                      FLAVIAN
+  FISHERY                        FLAVIGNY
+  FISHGUARD                      FLAVIN
+  FISHKILL LANDING               FLAX
+  FISK, JAMES                    FLAXMAN, JOHN
+  FISK, WILBUR                   FLEA
+  FISKE, JOHN                    FLÈCHE
+  FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN          FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT
+  FISTULA                        FLECKEISEN, CARL WILHELM ALFRED
+  FIT                            FLECKNOE, RICHARD
+  FITCH, JOHN                    FLEET
+  FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING      FLEET PRISON
+  FITCH, RALPH                   FLEETWOOD, CHARLES
+  FITCHBURG                      FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM
+  FITTIG, RUDOLF                 FLEETWOOD
+  FITTON, MARY                   FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT
+  FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY          FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT
+  FITZBALL, EDWARD               FLEMING, PAUL
+  FITZGERALD                     FLEMING, RICHARD
+  FITZGERALD, EDWARD             FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD
+  FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD        FLEMING, SIR THOMAS
+  FITZGERALD, RAYMOND            FLEMISH LITERATURE
+  FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS        FLENSBURG
+  FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY       FLERS
+  FITZHERBERT, THOMAS            FLETA
+  FITZ NEAL, RICHARD             FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM
+  FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER             FLETCHER, ANDREW
+  FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM           FLETCHER, GILES (English author)
+  FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM           FLETCHER, GILES (English poet)
+  FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY           FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM
+  FITZROY, ROBERT                FLETCHER, PHINEAS
+  FITZROY                        FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK
+  FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT           FLEUR-DE-LIS
+  FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM          FLEURUS
+  FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD           FLEURY
+  FITZWALTER, ROBERT             FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE
+  FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM
+
+
+
+
+FINLAND (Finnish, _Suomi_ or _Suomenmaa_), a grand-duchy governed
+subject to its own constitution by the emperor of Russia as grand-duke
+of Finland. It is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and
+includes, moreover, a large territory in Lapland. It touches at its
+south-eastern extremity the government of St Petersburg, includes the
+northern half of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian
+governments of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
+roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing into the
+Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is
+separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken line which takes the course
+of the valley of the Torneå river up to its sources, thus falling only
+21 m. short of reaching the head of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs
+south-east and north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not
+reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
+southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Åland
+archipelago--its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the Swedish
+coast--as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytärs,
+&c. Its utmost limits are: 59° 48'--70° 6' N., and 19° 2'--32° 50' E.
+The area of Finland, in square miles, is as follows (_Altas de Finlande,
+1899_):--
+
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  |  Government.   |Continent.| Islands | Islands | Lakes.| Total. |
+  |                |          |in Lakes.| in Seas.|       |        |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  | Nyland         |   4,062  |    24   |   210   |   286 |  4,582 |
+  | Åbo-Björneborg |   7,594  |     8   |  1331   |   400 |  9,333 |
+  | Tavastehus     |   6,837  |    97   |   ..    | 1,400 |  8,334 |
+  | Viborg         |  11,630  |   362   |   130   | 4,502 | 16,624 |
+  | St Michel      |   5,652  |  1018   |   ..    | 2,149 |  8,819 |
+  | Kuopio         |  13,160  |   643   |   ..    | 2,696 | 16,499 |
+  | Vasa           |  14,527  |    62   |   203   | 1,313 | 16,105 |
+  | Uleåborg       |  60,348  |   171   |    94   | 3,344 | 63,957 |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  |    Total       | 123,810  |  2385   |  1968   |16,090 |144,253 |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+
+  _Orography._--A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the
+  eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts,
+  the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to
+  the Kjölen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, and to the
+  slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White
+  Sea. At the head-waters of the Torneå, Finland penetrates as a narrow
+  strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjölen (the Keel), where the
+  Haldefjäll (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and
+  is surrounded by other _fjälls_, or flat-topped summits, of from 3300
+  to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into
+  which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are
+  deeply sunk, and which take the character of a mountain region in the
+  Saariselkä (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the remainder of
+  Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach
+  on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to 1000 ft. Quite different
+  is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs
+  of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line
+  traced through the lakes Uleå and Piellis. The meridional ridges which
+  formerly used to be traced here along the main water-partings do not
+  exist in reality, and the country appears on the hypsometrical map in
+  the _Atlas de Finlande_ as a plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude,
+  covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300
+  ft. The three main lake-basins of Näsi-järvi, Päjäne and Saima are
+  separated by low and flat hills only; but one sees distinctly
+  appearing on the map a line of flat elevations running south-west to
+  north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from
+  Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A
+  regular gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia
+  (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie tracts in its lower parts.
+
+  A notable feature of Finland are the _åsar_ or narrow ridges of
+  morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some of
+  them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
+  they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the
+  rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in
+  the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo ås, which runs
+  from Hangöudd to Vesi-järvi, and is continued farther east under the
+  name of Salpauselliä, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
+  are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
+  ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As a
+  rule these forest-clothed _åsar_ rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
+  120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to
+  the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways are
+  traced in preference along them.
+
+  _Lakes and Rivers._--A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the
+  aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
+  (_fjården_), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great
+  facilities for internal navigation, while the connecting streams
+  supply an enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake
+  Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three
+  and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen,
+  flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the
+  lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the Gulf of
+  Finland; the basins of Pyhä-selkä, Ori-vesi and Piellis-järvi; Päjäne,
+  surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are
+  discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; Näsi-järvi
+  and Pyhä-järvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing into the Gulf
+  of Bothnia; Uleå-träsk, discharged by the Uleå into the same gulf; and
+  Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. Two large rivers,
+  Kemi and Torneå, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Uleå
+  is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel.
+
+  _Geology._--Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits
+  are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and
+  also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in
+  the Kjölen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age are met with in the Kola
+  peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder
+  of Finland is built up of the oldest known crystalline rocks belonging
+  to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem
+  to be the granites of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of
+  the granites gave rise to the _Ladoga schists_ and various deposits of
+  the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the
+  country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
+  formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in
+  West Finland, formed the so-called _Bothnian series_. New masses of
+  granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits
+  underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at work
+  on a grand scale. A new series of _Jatulian deposits_ was formed and a
+  new system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this part
+  of the globe. The _Jotnian series_, which were formed next, remain
+  still undisturbed. It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi
+  granite of Åland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine deposits
+  younger than those just mentioned--all belonging to a pre-Cambrian
+  epoch--are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater
+  part of the country has probably been dry land since Palaeozoic times.
+  The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial
+  deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine of the
+  ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial clays (partly of
+  lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral
+  coast-region--or in separate areas in the interior depressions. Some
+  Finnish geologists--Sederholm for one--consider it probable that
+  during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (_Yoldia_ sea) covered all
+  southern Finland and also Scania (Skåne) in Sweden, thus connecting
+  the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad
+  channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in
+  Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a
+  post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the
+  Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to
+  260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces of a large inner
+  post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North America, have been
+  discovered. The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal
+  rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken),
+  from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero in the Baltic
+  provinces.
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds
+  the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
+  corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
+  isotherms of 41° and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
+  direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from 9°
+  Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30° along the south coast; while in July the
+  difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees, being
+  53° in the north and 61° in the south-east. Everywhere, and especially
+  in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts (June
+  12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain and snow is
+  from 25½ in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the interior of
+  southern Finland.
+
+  _Flora_, _Forests_, _Fauna_.--The flora of Finland has been most
+  minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
+  were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
+  provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province.
+  These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651
+  in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the total
+  for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants are not met with
+  in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the
+  Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch fir
+  (_Pinus sylvestris_, L.), the fir (_Picea excelsa_, Link.); two
+  species of birch (_B. verrucosa_, Ehrh., and _B. odorata_, Bechst.),
+  as well as the birch-bush (_B. nana_); two species of _Alnus_
+  (_glutinosa_ and _incana_); the oak (_Q. pedunculata_, Ehrh.), which
+  grows only on the south coast; the poplar (_Populus tremula_); and the
+  Siberian larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over
+  6,000,000 trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large
+  saw-mills, and about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The
+  total export of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is
+  estimated, however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for
+  fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used
+  for export in different shapes. The total area under forests is
+  estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the
+  state. The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
+  vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
+  necessary bibliographical indications in _Travaux géographiques en
+  Finlande_, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.
+
+  _Population._--The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in 1751,
+  832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was
+  2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 men. Of
+  these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country
+  districts. The distribution of population in various provinces was as
+  follows:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    |      1904.      | Population.| Density per  |
+    |                 |            |sq. kilometre.|
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Åbo-Björneborg  |   447,098  |     20.3     |
+    | Kuopio          |   313,951  |      8.9     |
+    | Nyland          |   297,813  |     29.3     |
+    | St Michel       |   189,360  |     11.1     |
+    | Tavastehus      |   301,272  |     17.7     |
+    | Uleåborg        |   280,899  |      1.9     |
+    | Viborg          |   421,610  |     14.6     |
+    | Vasa            |   460,460  |     12.5     |
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    |      Total      | 2,712,562  |      8.6     |
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+
+  The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing
+  an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was estimated at
+  about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased
+  then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish autonomy. In 1899 the
+  emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952
+  in 1904.
+
+  The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes
+  (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces
+  of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran
+  faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek Orthodox Church
+  and 755 Roman Catholics.
+
+  The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the
+  grand-duchy and of the province (_län_) of Nyland, principal seaport
+  (111,654 inhabitants); Åbo, capital of the Åbo-Björneborg province and
+  ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading
+  manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of
+  province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleåborg, capital
+  of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa län
+  (18,028); Björneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519);
+  and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545).
+
+  _Industries._--Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority of
+  the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has been
+  marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign exports
+  of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. Measures
+  have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the
+  state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose.
+  There are two high schools, one experimental station, twenty-two
+  middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides
+  ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies exist in each
+  province.
+
+  Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of fish,
+  &c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of
+  £61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy,
+  machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern development, but
+  the aggregate production approaches one and a half millions sterling
+  in value.
+
+  Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output,
+  which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951
+  grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and iron. The
+  last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes. In
+  1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile industries
+  are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high
+  duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of paper out of wood is
+  also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, there are upwards of 500
+  saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over
+  £3,000,000 annually.
+
+  _Communications._--The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500
+  m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway was
+  opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in
+  1870 (cost only £4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type began to
+  be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of railway,
+  mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the state
+  railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. Finland
+  has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced
+  canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one.
+  It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 m. inland, and
+  is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. Considerable works
+  have also been made to connect the different lakes and lake-basins
+  for inland navigation, a sum of £1,000,000 having been spent for that
+  purpose.
+
+  The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an enormous
+  extension both in the towns and between the different towns of
+  southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 40
+  to 60 marks,[1] and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.
+
+  _Commerce._--The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
+  reached in 1904 the following values:--
+
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+    |         | From or to |   From or to   |   Totals.   |
+    |         |   Russia.  |other Countries.|             |
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+    | Imports | £4,036,000 |  £6,488,000    | £10,524,000 |
+    | Exports |  2,332,000 |   6,292,000    |   8,624,000 |
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+
+  The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
+  Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports are:
+  cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding £3,000,000), metals,
+  machinery, textile materials and textile products. The chief articles
+  of export are: timber and wood articles (£5,250,000), paper and paper
+  pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. The chief ports are
+  Helsingfors, Åbo, Viborg, Hangö and Vasa.
+
+  _Education._--Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new
+  education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
+  occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
+  given in the maternal house, or in "maternal schools," or by
+  ambulatory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the
+  necessary examination in the houses of every parish. All education
+  above that level is in the hands of the educational department and
+  school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound
+  (since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts
+  and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these
+  expenses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each female
+  teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. Secondary
+  education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and
+  scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to
+  scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or
+  gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors
+  (formerly the Åbo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328
+  women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the Helsingfors
+  polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical,
+  commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several scientific
+  societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific
+  Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several
+  medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian
+  Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical,
+  one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, as also
+  the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, &c., issue
+  publications well known to the scientific world. The numerous local
+  branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular
+  Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller
+  communes in establishing schools, and the latter in publishing popular
+  works, starting their own schools as well as free libraries (in nearly
+  every commune), and organizing lectures for the people. The university
+  students take a lively part in this work.
+
+_Government and Administration._--From the time of its union with Russia
+at the Diet of Borgå in 1809 till the events of 1899 (see _History_)
+Finland was practically a separate state, the emperor of Russia as
+grand-duke governing by means of a nominated senate and a diet elected
+on a very narrow franchise, and meeting at distant and irregular
+intervals. This diet was on the old Swedish model, consisting of
+representatives of the four estates--nobility, clergy, burghers and
+peasants--sitting and voting in separate "Houses." The government of the
+country was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
+with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the Russian
+government. War and foreign affairs were entirely in the hands of
+Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence in Helsingfors. The
+senate also controlled the administration of the law. The constitutional
+conflict of 1899-1905 brought about something like a revolution in
+Finland. For some years the country was subject to a practically
+arbitrary form of government, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese
+War and the growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
+peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution. As a
+Finnish writer puts it: "just as the calamities which had befallen
+Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to come from Russia."
+The _status quo ante_ was restored, the diet met in extraordinary
+session, and proceeded to the entire recasting of the Finnish
+government. Freedom of the press was voted, and the diet next proceeded
+to reform its own constitution. Far-reaching changes were voted. The
+new diet, instead of being composed of four estates sitting separately,
+consists of a single chamber of 200 members elected directly by
+universal suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
+grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not more
+than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion to
+population. A scheme of "proportional representation," the votes being
+counted in accordance with the system invented by G.M. d'Hondt, a
+Belgian, was also adopted. The executive was to consist of a
+minister-secretary of state and of the members of the senate, who were
+entitled to attend and address the diet and who might be the subject of
+interpellations. The members of the senate were made responsible to the
+diet as well as to the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has
+power to consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government.
+After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty of the
+senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate is not obliged
+to accept the decision of the majority of the diet, nor, apparently, is
+the sovereign bound to accept the advice of the senate. The first
+elections, April 1907, resulted in the election to the diet of about 40%
+representatives of the Social Democratic party, and nineteen women
+members. The budget of Finland in 1905 was £4,273,970 of "ordinary"
+revenue. The "ordinary" expenditure was £3,595,300. The public debt
+amounted at the end of 1905 to £5,611,170.
+
+_History._--It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning of
+the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what is now Finland,
+though it was only when Christianity was introduced, about 1157, that
+they were brought into contact with civilized Europe. They probably
+found the Lapps in possession of the country. The early Finlanders do
+not seem to have had any governmental organization, but to have lived in
+separate communities and villages independent of each other. Their
+mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, as
+"Ukko," the god of the air, "Tapio," god of the forests, "Ahti," the god
+of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to have been both brave and
+troublesome to their neighbours, and their repeated attacks on the coast
+of Sweden drew the attention of the kings of that country. King Eric IX.
+(St Eric), accompanied by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it
+is said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the country in
+1157, when the people were conquered and baptized. King Eric left Bishop
+Henry with his priests and some soldiers behind to confirm the conquest
+and complete the conversion. After a time he was killed, canonized, and
+as St Henry became the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend
+to her own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence and
+paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, Thomas (also an
+Englishman), arrived and recommenced the work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas
+nearly succeeded in detaching Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a
+province subject only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a
+crusade in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the
+subdivisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and
+building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who conquered and
+connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and built the strong castle
+of Viborg. Almost continuous wars between Russia and Sweden were the
+result of the conquest of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled
+that the river Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
+Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by the Swedes,
+they spread among the Finlanders their civilization, gave them laws,
+accorded them the same civil rights as belonged to themselves, and
+introduced agriculture and other beneficial arts. The Reformed religion
+was introduced into Finland by Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John
+III. raised the country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to
+suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by Sweden,
+especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor having created an
+order of nobility,--counts, barons and nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the
+beginning of the 17th century established the diet of Finland, composed
+of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants.
+Gustavus and his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
+gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing
+printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696) the country
+suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the diocese of Åbo
+alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months. Finland has been
+visited at different periods since by these scourges; so late as 1848
+whole villages were starved during a dreadful famine. Peter the Great
+cast an envious eye on Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in
+1710 he managed to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and
+Villmanstrand; and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime
+the sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished in the
+wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721 the province of
+Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was finally ceded to Russia.
+But the country had been laid very low by war, pestilence and famine,
+though it recovered itself with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes
+made an effort to recover the ceded province, but through wretched
+management suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
+1742, ceding by the peace of Åbo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand
+and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have occurred till 1788,
+under Gustavus III., who began to reign in 1771, and who confirmed to
+Finland those "fundamental laws" which they have succeeded in
+maintaining against kings and tsars for over two centuries. The country
+was divided into six governments, a second superior court of justice was
+founded at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
+science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the academic
+language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war again broke out between
+Sweden and Russia, and was carried on for two years without much glory
+or gain to either party, the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the
+lost Finnish province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
+broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the cession in
+1809 of the whole of Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia. Finland,
+however, did not enter Russia as a conquered province, but, thanks to
+the bravery of her people after they had been abandoned by an
+incompetent monarch and treacherous generals, and not less to the wisdom
+and generosity of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her
+free constitution and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
+grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates were summoned to
+a free diet at Borgå and accepted Alexander as grand-duke of Finland, he
+on his part solemnly recognizing the Finnish constitution and
+undertaking to preserve the religion, laws and liberties of the country.
+A senate was created and a governor-general named. The province of
+Viborg was reunited to Finland in 1811, and Åbo remained the capital of
+the country till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were
+removed to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had
+not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors in
+1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous and
+progressive, and his statue in the great square in front of the
+cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors testifies to the regard in
+which his memory is cherished by his Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his
+successor soon fell under the influence of the reactionary party which
+had begun to assert itself in Russia even before the assassination of
+Alexander II. One of Alexander III.'s first acts was to confirm "the
+constitution which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
+Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious memory, and
+developed with the consent of the estates of Finland by our dearly
+beloved father of blessed memory the emperor Alexander Nicolaievich."
+But the Slavophil movement, with its motto, "one law, one church, one
+tongue," acquired great influence in official circles, and its aim was,
+in defiance of the pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to
+Orthodoxy and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
+years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the defenders of the
+Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were complicated by the
+rivalry between the Swedish party, which had hitherto been dominant in
+Finland, and the Finnish "nationalist" party which, during the latter
+half of the 19th century, had been determinedly asserting itself
+linguistically and politically. With some exceptions, however, the whole
+country united in defence of its constitution; "Fennoman" and
+"Svecoman," recognizing that their common liberties were at stake,
+suspended their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
+(see RUSSIA) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the "February
+manifesto" (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated the legislative
+power of the Finnish diet. A new military law, practically amalgamating
+the Finnish with the Russian forces, followed in July 1901; Russian
+officials and the Russian language were forced on Finland wherever
+possible, and in April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was
+invested with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
+with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the expenses
+being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian system was now in
+full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests and banishments, and the
+suppression of newspapers, were the order of the day. To all this the
+people of Finland opposed a dogged and determined resistance, which
+culminated in November 1905 in a "national strike." The strike was
+universal, all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
+industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
+steamship, telephone and postal services were practically suspended.
+Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and electricity; no shops
+except provision shops were open; public departments, schools and
+restaurants were closed. After six days the unconstitutional
+government--already much shaken by events in Russia and
+Manchuria--capitulated. In an imperial manifesto dated the 7th of
+November 1905 the demands of Finland were granted, and the _status quo
+ante_ 1899 was restored.
+
+But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution, although
+precious to those whose only protection it was, was an antiquated and
+not very efficient instrument of government. Popular feeling had been
+excited by the political conflict, advanced tendencies had declared
+themselves, and when the new diet met it proceeded as explained above to
+remodel the constitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with
+freedom of the press, speech, meeting and association.
+
+In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The Imperial
+government insisted that the decision in all Finnish questions affecting
+the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed attempt was made to
+curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.
+
+_Ethnology._--The term Finn has a wider application than Finland, being,
+with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) or Ugro-Finnic, the
+collective name of the westernmost branch of the Ural-Altaic family,
+dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, the Baltic provinces (Esthonia,
+Livonia, Curland), parts of Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both
+banks of middle Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural
+Mountains and the Yenissei) and Hungary.
+
+Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people except
+the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence of
+civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
+agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be
+distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who retain their
+Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race, of low stature, with
+almost round head, low forehead, flat features, prominent cheek bones,
+eyes mostly grey and oblique (inclining inwards), short and flat nose,
+protruding mouth, thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the
+occiput seems flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard
+weak and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
+with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion also somewhat
+brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, faithful and
+submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom and independence, but
+also somewhat stolid, revengeful and indolent. Many of these physical
+and moral characteristics they have in common with the so-called
+"Mongolian" race, to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also
+linguistically, related.
+
+Considerable researches have been accomplished since about 1850 in the
+ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale which has no parallel
+in any other country. The study of the prehistoric population of
+Finland--Neolithic (no Palaeolithic finds have yet been made)--of the
+Age of Bronze and the Iron Age has been carried on with great zeal. At
+the same time the folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked
+out with wonderful completeness (see _L'Oeuvre demi-séculaire de la
+Société de Littérature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois_, by Dr
+E.G. Palmén, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn's report to the London
+Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun by Porthan, Z.
+Topelius, and especially E. Lönnrot (1802-1884), for collecting the
+popular poetry of the Finns, was continued by Castrén (1813-1852),
+Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka (1854-1889), who extended their
+researches to the Finns settled in other parts of the Russian empire,
+and collected a considerable number of variants of the _Kalewala_ and
+other popular poetry and songs. In order to study the different eastern
+kinsfolk of the Finns, Sjögren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
+North Russia, and Castrén to West and East Siberia (_Nordische Reisen
+und Forschungen_), and collected the materials which permitted himself
+and Schiefner to publish grammatical works relative to the Finnish,
+Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas,
+Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx
+of linguists, continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and
+the Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (_Foundations of
+Finno-Ugrian Archaeology_, in Finnish, and _Atlas of Antiquities_) led
+the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their attention to the
+basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga. A series of expeditions (of
+Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were consequently directed to those
+regions, especially since the discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable
+Orkhon inscriptions (see TURKS, p. 473), which finally enabled the
+Danish linguist, V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to
+discover that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See _Inscriptions
+de l'Iénissei recueillies et publiées par la Société Finl.
+d'Archéologie_, 1889, and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, 1892.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The general history of Finland is fully treated by Yrjö
+  Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889). Both works have
+  been translated into German. The constitutional conflict gave rise to
+  a host of books and pamphlets in various languages. Mechelin,
+  Danielson and Hermanson were the leading writers on the Finnish side,
+  and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the political documents have been
+  published and translated. A finely illustrated book, _Finland in the
+  Nineteenth Century_, by various Finnish writers, gives an excellent
+  account of the country; also Reuter's _Finlandia_, a very complete
+  work with an exhaustive bibliography. The constitutional question was
+  fully discussed in English in _Finland and the Tsars_, by J.R. Fisher
+  (2nd ed., 1900). _The Atlas de Finlande_, published in 1899 by the
+  Geographical Society of Finland, is a remarkably well executed and
+  complete work. _The Statistical Annual for Finland--Statistisk Arsbok
+  för Finland_--published annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in
+  Helsingfors, gives the necessary figures.
+       (P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*)
+
+
+_Finnish Literature._
+
+The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael Agricola
+(1506-1557), who published an _A B C Book_ in 1544, and, as bishop of
+Åbo, a number of religious and educational works. A version of the New
+Testament in Finnish was printed by Agricola in 1548, and some books of
+the Old Testament in 1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at
+Stockholm in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable to
+the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the poets of
+Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a wider audience.
+It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of Finland, the _Kalewala_
+(q.v.), was introduced to readers by the exertions of Elias Lönnrot
+(q.v.), that the Finnish language was used for literary composition.
+Lönnrot also collected and edited the works of the peasant-poets P.
+Korhonen (1775-1840) and Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing
+the improvisations of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last
+quarter of the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary
+activity in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the
+publication of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
+aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the political
+troubles, books in almost every branch of research are found in the
+language, mainly translations or adaptations. We meet with, during the
+present century, a considerable number of names of poets and dramatists,
+no doubt very minor, as also painters, sculptors and musical composers.
+At the Paris International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish
+painters and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
+country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied a
+position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution to a history
+of Finnish literature is Krohn's _Suomenkielinen runollisuns
+ruotsinvallan aikana_ (1862). Finland is wonderfully rich in periodicals
+of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish Societies of Literature
+and of Sciences and other learned bodies being specially valuable. A
+great work in the revival of an interest in the Finnish language was
+done by the _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura_ (the Finnish Literary
+Society), which from the year 1841 has published a valuable annual,
+_Suomi_. The Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition
+of the works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
+(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published at
+Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjö Koskinen, and has been translated into
+both Swedish and German. The author was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the
+above form being a Finnish translation. Other works on Finnish history
+and some important works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In
+language we have Lönnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
+by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner's _Comparative
+Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig) is in
+German. In imaginative literature Finland has produced several important
+writers of the vernacular. Alexis Stenwall ("Kiwi") (1834-1872), the son
+of a village tailor, was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular
+dramas and an historical romance, _The Seven Brothers_ (1870). Among
+recent playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
+successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895), P. Cajander
+(b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish, and Karl Bergbom (b.
+1843). Among lyric poets are J.H. Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jännes (b. 1848)
+and Yrjö Weijola (b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari
+Päivärinta (b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a
+grimly realistic story, _His Life_. Many of the popular Finnish authors
+of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio Filander a
+farmer; Heikki Maviläinen a smith; Juhana Kokko (Kyösti) a gamekeeper.
+The most gifted of the writers of Finland, however, is certainly Juhani
+Aho (b. 1861), the son of a country clergyman. His earliest writings
+were studies of modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went
+to reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods of the
+leading French novelists of the newer school. About the year 1893 he
+began to publish short stories, some of which, such as _Enris_, _The
+Fortress of Matthias_, _The Old Man of Korpela_ and _Finland's Flag_,
+are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a very interesting
+degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary Finnish population.
+It has been well said that in the writings of Juhani Aho can be traced
+all the idiosyncrasies which have formed the curious and pathetic
+history of Finland in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b.
+1857), in tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
+which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country life.
+Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Järnefelt (b. 1861). Santeri
+Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naïvely, but not without skill, has followed
+in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to exaggerate either the force
+or the originality of these early developments of a national Finnish
+literature, which, moreover, are mostly brief and unambitious in
+character. But they are eminently sincere, and they have the great merit
+of illustrating the local aspects of landscape and temperament and
+manners.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E.G. Palmén, _L'Oeuvre demi-séculaire de la Suomalaisen
+  Kirjallisuuden Seura_, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882); J. Krohn,
+  _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet_ (Helsingfors, 1897); F.W.
+  Pipping, _Förteckning öfver böcker på finska språket_ (Helsingfors,
+  1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, _Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und
+  seiner Dichter_ (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, _Popular Poetry of the
+  Finns_ (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, _Öfversigt af Finlands
+  Litteraturhistoria för skolor_ (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using
+  the Swedish language, see SWEDEN: _Literature_.     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Finnish mark, _markka_, of 100 _penni_, equals about 9½ d.
+
+
+
+
+FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875), British historian, was born of Scottish
+parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December 1799. He studied for
+the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went to Göttingen. He had already
+begun to feel a deep interest in the Greek struggle for independence,
+and in 1823 he resolved to visit the country. In November he arrived in
+Cephalonia, where he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly
+afterwards he landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he
+improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities of the
+country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion of the Greek leaders,
+both civil and military, he by no means lost his enthusiasm for their
+cause. A severe attack of fever, however, combined with other
+circumstances, induced him to spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the
+spring of 1825 in Rome, Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland,
+and, after spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to
+Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the
+university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His
+enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he resided almost
+uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in the unsuccessful
+operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard Church for the relief of
+Athens in 1827. When independence had been secured in 1829 he bought a
+landed estate in Attica, but all his efforts for the introduction of a
+better system of agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to
+the literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first
+publications were _The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation_ (1836);
+_Essai sur les principes de banque appliqués à l'état actuel de la
+Grèce_ (Athens, 1836); and _Remarks on the Topography of Oropia and
+Diacria, with a map_ (Athens, 1838). The first instalment of his great
+historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed., 1857) under the title _Greece
+under the Romans; a Historical View of the Condition of the Greek Nation
+from the time of its Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the
+Roman Empire in the East_. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself
+still further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several
+tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of one of
+them he published a volume _On the Site of the Holy Sepulchre; with a
+plan of Jerusalem_ (1847). _The History of the Byzantine and Greek
+Empires from 716-1453_ was completed in 1854. It was speedily followed
+by the _History of Greece under the Ottoman and Venetian Domination_
+(1856), and by the _History of the Greek Revolution_ (1861). In weak
+health, and conscious of failing energy, he spent his last years in
+revising his history. From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of
+_The Times_ newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable
+attention, and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct
+influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned
+societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edinburgh the
+honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the 26th of January 1875.
+A new edition of his _History_, edited by the Rev. H.F. Tozer, was
+issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in 1877. It includes a brief but
+extremely interesting fragment of an autobiography of the author, almost
+the only authority for his life.
+
+As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field of
+research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon alone being
+a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious; as a scholar he was
+accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute and profound; and in all that
+he wrote he was unswerving in his loyalty to the principles of
+constitutional government and to the cause of liberty and justice.
+
+
+
+
+FINN MAC COOL (in Irish FIND MAC CUMAILL), the central figure of the
+later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called Ossianic or Fenian. In
+Scotland Find usually goes by the name of Fingal. This appears to be due
+to a misunderstanding of the title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Rí
+Fionnghall, i.e. king of the Norse. Find's father, Cumall mac Trénmóir,
+was uncle to Conn Cétchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in A.D.
+157. Cumall carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named
+Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which Cumall
+was slain by Goll mac Morna (A.D. 174). Find was born after his father's
+death and was at first called Demni. He is leader of the _fiann_ or
+_féinne_ (English "Fenians"), a kind of militia or standing army which
+was drawn from all quarters of Ireland. His father had held the same
+office before him, but after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac
+Morna, who retained it until Find came to man's estate. Find usually
+resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded by some
+of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered throughout
+Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those coming from over the
+sea. In times of invasion Find collected his forces, overcame the foe,
+and pursued him to Scotland or Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might
+be. When not engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or
+love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the conditions of
+admission to this privileged band, which were at once singular and
+exacting. The foremost heroes in Find's train were his son Ossian, his
+grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain, and Diarmait O'Duibne, whose
+elopement with Find's destined bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King
+Cormac mac Airt (A.D. 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story.
+These, like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was
+allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance. The
+latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being Goll and Conan. By
+the annalists Find is represented as having met with death by treachery
+either in 252 or 283. Under Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac
+Airt, the power of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly
+took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the battle of
+Gabra (A.D. 283). Very few survived the defeat, but the story makes
+Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival of St Patrick in 432.
+
+It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have existed in
+the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older in date than the
+Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal with events happening
+in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196), Lugaid mac Con (196-227),
+and Cormac mac Airt (227-266), but none of these in their oldest shape
+contain any allusion whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history
+of the Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a
+Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster against
+Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was originally a figure in
+Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the Viking age, but we have no
+documentary evidence concerning him at this time. He seems primarily to
+have been regarded as a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been
+transformed into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that his
+personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local tradition out of
+stories clustering round the figure of the Viking leader Ketill Hviti
+(Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the year 1000 Find was
+certainly connected in the minds of the people with the reign of Cormac
+mac Airt, but the process is obscure. Recently John MacNeill has pointed
+out that in the oldest genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui
+Tairrsigh of Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county
+of Kildare and parts of King's and Queen's counties). The Ui Tairrsigh
+were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill would account in this
+manner for the slow acceptance of the stories by the conquering
+Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was fashionable at court, the subject
+races clung to the Fenian cycle. For the last 800 years Find has been
+the national hero of the Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the
+Scottish Highlands and the Isle of Man. See also CELT (subsection _Irish
+Literature_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Nutt, _Ossian and the Ossianic Literature_ (London,
+  1899); H. Zimmer, "Keltische Beiträge iii.," _Zeitschrift für
+  deutsches Altertum_ (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L.C. Stern, "Die
+  Ossianischen Heldenlieder," _Zeitschrift für vergleichende
+  Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895; trans, by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions
+  of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp.
+  257-325); J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+FINNO-UGRIAN, or Finno-Ugric, the designation of a division of the
+Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers. The first part is
+the name given by their neighbours, though not used by themselves, to
+the inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Baltic. It is probably the
+same word as the Fenni of Tacitus and [Greek: Phinnoi] of Ptolemy,
+though it is not certain that those races were Finns in the modern
+sense. It possibly means people of the fens or marshes, and corresponds
+to the native word _Suomi_, which appears to be derived from _suo_, a
+marsh. Finn and Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland
+but also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia and
+sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this sense the
+Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and Mordvins (Volga),
+and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The name is not, however, extended
+to the Ostiaks, Voguls and Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate
+subdivision called Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country
+on either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castrén in a
+scientific sense.
+
+The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not be pressed as
+indicating a community of physical features and customs. But making
+allowance for the change of language by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians
+form, with the striking exception of the Hungarians, a moderately
+homogeneous whole. They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and
+Manchus, have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power of
+political organization. Those of them who have not come under European
+influence live under the simplest form of patriarchal government, and
+states, kings or even great chiefs are almost unknown among them.
+
+Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south Siberia
+extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large parts of it are
+still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and marsh was no doubt
+much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric tribes seem to shun the open
+steppes but are widely spread in the wooded country, especially on the
+banks of lakes and rivers. Their want of political influence renders
+them obscure, but they form a considerable element in the population of
+the northern, middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found
+much to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except
+in the Baltic provinces). The difference of temperament between the
+Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little Russians is partly
+due to an infusion of Finnish blood.
+
+Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built and, though
+there is considerable variation in height and the cephalic index, are
+mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat squat, and brachy- or
+mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish or olive coloured, the eyes
+grey or blue, the hair light, the beard scanty. Most of them seem
+deficient in energy and liveliness, both mental and physical; they are
+slow, heavy, conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined
+to be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are patient,
+persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When their natural
+mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly and hospitable.
+
+I. _Tribes and Nations._--The Ugrian subdivision, which seems to be in
+many respects the more primitive, consists of three peoples standing on
+very different levels of civilization, the Ostiaks and Voguls and the
+Hungarians.
+
+
+  Ostiaks.
+
+  Voguls.
+
+The _Ostiaks_ (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic fishermen and
+hunters inhabiting at present the government of Tobolsk and the banks of
+the Obi. They formerly extended into the government of Perm on the
+European side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the
+Yenisei appear to be a different race and not to belong to the
+Finno-Ugrian group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship
+the River Obi. Allied to them are the _Voguls_, a similar nomadic tribe
+found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly extending at least as far
+as the government of Vologda. The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls
+are allied, though not mere dialects of one another, and form a small
+group separated from the languages of the Finns both Western and
+Eastern. For further details of these and other tribes see under the
+separate headings.
+
+
+  Magyars or Hungarians.
+
+According to the legend, Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and Magyor. They
+married daughters of the prince of the Alans and became the ancestors of
+the two kindred nations, Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story
+corresponds with what can be ascertained scientifically about the origin
+of these peoples. It is probable that the Huns and Magyars were allied
+tribes of mixed descent comprising both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian
+elements. The language is indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name
+Hungarian seems to lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish
+connexions which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and
+Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu as far east
+as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are of opinion that
+the tribes from whom the present Hungarians are descended were formed
+originally in the Terek-Kuban country to the north of the Caucasus,
+where a mixture of Turkish and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian
+language but Turkish mode of life predominating. They were also
+influenced by Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns
+and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe in the 5th
+century and made no permanent settlement in spite of the devastation
+they caused, whereas the Magyars remained for some centuries near the
+banks of the Don. According to tradition they were compelled to leave a
+country called Lebedia under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved
+westward under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary in
+the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions was called
+Árpád. For the chequered and often tragic history of the country see
+HUNGARY. The Magyars were converted to Christianity in the 11th century
+and adhered to the Roman not the Eastern Church. They have in all
+probability entirely lost their ancient physique, but have retained
+their language, and traces of their older life may be seen in their
+fondness for horses and flocks.
+
+
+  Permians and Syryenians.
+
+The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The _Permians_ and
+_Syryenians_ may be treated as one tribe. The latter name is very
+variously spelt as Syrjenian, Sirianian, Zyrjenian, Zirian, &c. They
+both call themselves Komi and speak a mutually intelligible language,
+allied to Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied to this
+sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found chiefly in the
+governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel, but there are a few
+Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals. The Syryenian headquarters
+are at the town of Ishma on the Pechora, whereas the name Permian is
+more correctly restricted to the inhabitants of the right bank of the
+upper Kama. Both probably extended much farther to the west in former
+times. The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than
+most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for trading
+purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.
+
+
+  Votiaks.
+
+The _Votiaks_ are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons
+dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government of Viatka.
+Their language indicates that they have borrowed a good deal from the
+Tatars and Chuvashes, and they seem to have little individuality, being
+described as weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves
+Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them migrated,
+doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into the government of
+Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are said to have improved in
+physique.
+
+
+  Cheremissians.
+
+The _Cheremissians_, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call themselves
+Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the neighbourhood of
+Kazan. Those inhabiting the right bank of the Volga are physically
+stronger and are known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place names
+makes it probable that their present position is the result of their
+being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then southwards by the
+Russians. There is some discrepancy between their language and their
+physical characteristics. The former shows affinities to both Mordvinian
+and the Permian group, but their crania are said to be mainly
+dolichocephalic, and it has been suggested that they are connected with
+the neolithic dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle
+and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.
+
+
+  Mordvinians.
+
+The _Mordvinians_, also called Mordvá, Mordvins and Mordvs, are
+scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially Nizhniy
+Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk, Ufa and even Orenburg. Though
+not continuous, their settlements are considerable both in extent and
+population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns, and their
+traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought with the Tatars.
+They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the 6th century, but do not
+now use the name, calling themselves after one of their two divisions,
+Moksha or Erza. Their country is still covered with forest to a large
+extent. Their language is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the
+other it shows a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other
+Eastern languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar
+to itself.
+
+
+  Lapps.
+
+The _Lapps_ are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They call
+themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians. They are the
+shortest and most brachycephalic race in Europe. The majority are nomads
+who live by pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but
+others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or fishing.
+From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation among the Finns
+and other neighbouring nations for skill in sorcery.
+
+
+  Esthonians.
+
+The _Esthonians_ are the peasantry of the Russian province Esthonia and
+the neighbouring districts. They were serfs until 1817 when they were
+liberated, but their condition remained unsatisfactory and led to a
+serious rebellion in 1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns,
+and are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting the
+Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they are known to
+foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii of Tacitus, and to have
+properly belonged to quite a different tribe. They call themselves Ma
+mes, or country people, and their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish,
+Virolaiset, Esthonians.) Though not superior to other tribes in general
+intelligence, they have become more civilized owing to their more
+intimate connexion with the Russian and German population around them.
+
+
+  Livonians.
+
+_Livs_, _Livlanders_ or _Livonians_ is the name given to the old
+Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and north
+Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and predatory pagan tribe in the
+middle ages, and it is possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish
+race from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost
+completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken in a few
+places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been disputed if it still
+exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and is allied to Esthonian.
+
+
+  Votes.
+
+The _Votes_ (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also called
+southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent the original
+inhabitants of Ingria, the district round St Petersburg, but have
+decreased before the advance of the Russians and also of Karelians from
+the north. They are heard of in the 11th century, but now occupy only
+about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria.
+
+
+  Vepsas.
+
+The _Vepsas_ or _Vepses_, also called Northern Chudes, are another tribe
+allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the Votes. They are
+found in the district of Tikhvinsk and other parts of the government of
+Old Novgorod, and apparently extended farther east into the government
+of Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and Vepsas are
+closely related to the Esthonians.
+
+
+  Finns.
+
+The _Finns_ proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the most
+important and civilized division of the group. They inhabit at present
+the grand duchy of Finland and the adjacent governments, especially
+Olonetz, Tver and St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called
+Kainulaiset was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns
+Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns, the
+Tavastlanders or Hämäläiset, who occupy the southern and western parts
+of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaiset found in the east
+and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards the White Sea.
+
+The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the grand
+duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There is a considerable
+admixture of Swedish blood; the language is full of Swedish words;
+Christianity is universal; and the upper classes and townspeople are
+mainly Swedish in their habits and speech, though of late a persistent
+attempt has been made to Russify the country. The Finns have much the
+same mental and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but
+have reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several
+collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been made, the
+most celebrated of which is the _Kalewala_, compiled by Lönnrot about
+1835, and there is a copious modern literature. The study of the
+national languages and antiquities is prosecuted in Helsingfors and
+other towns with much energy: several learned societies have been formed
+and considerable results published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that
+this scientific activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit,
+owes much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary language
+there are several dialects, the most important of which is that of
+Savolaks.
+
+
+  Karelians.
+
+The _Karelians_ are not usually regarded as separate from the Finns,
+though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas and Votes. Living
+farther east they have come less under Swedish and more under Russian
+influence than the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the
+districts which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this
+influence has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of
+European civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more
+than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better proportioned
+build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and friendly, but less
+persevering and tenacious. They number about 260,000, of whom about
+63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000 in Tver and Novgorod, but in the
+southern districts are less distinguished from the Russian population.
+They belong to the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy
+are Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a Karelian
+population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda and Tambov. It was
+among them that the _Kalewala_ was collected, chiefly in East Finland
+and Olonetz.
+
+
+  Samoyedes.
+
+There is some difference of opinion as to whether the _Samoyedes_ should
+be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given the rank of a
+separate division equivalent to Finno-Ugrian and Turkish. The linguistic
+question is discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe who wander
+with their reindeer over the treeless plains which border on the White
+and Kara seas on either side of the Urals. In culture and habits they
+resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes, and there seems to be no adequate
+reason for separating them.
+
+
+  Other inclusions.
+
+Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian group, but
+some doubt must remain as to the propriety of the classification, either
+because they are now extinct, or because they are suspected of having
+changed their language.
+
+The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga before they
+invaded the country which now bears their name, were probably a tribe
+similar to the Magyars, though all record of their language is lost. It
+has been disputed whether the Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied
+parts of south Russia and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians
+or Turks, and there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs,
+which without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the
+difference ethnographically important. The formation of hordes of
+warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different races,
+was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably often a matter
+of chance what language was adopted as the common speech.
+
+At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who speak Tatar
+languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are also the
+Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified by Finnish
+influence. The little known Soyots of the head-waters of the Yenisei are
+also said to be Finno-Ugrians.
+
+The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas and Votes
+but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all Finno-Ugrian tribes,
+and to all extinct tribes of whatever race who have left tombs,
+monuments or relics of mining operations in European Russia or Siberia.
+Some Russian archaeologists use it specifically of the Permian group.
+But its extension is so vague that it is better to discard it as a
+scientific term.
+
+II. _Languages._--The Finno-Ugric languages are generally considered as
+a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists of four families:
+Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric, including Samoyede unless it is
+reckoned separately as a fifth. The chief character of the group is that
+agglutination, or the addition of suffixes, is the only method of
+word-formation, prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown,
+as is also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages,
+such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A connexion
+between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has also been suggested.
+On the other hand, the more highly developed agglutinative languages,
+such as Finnish, approach the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan
+languages may have been developed from an ancestor not unlike the
+Ural-Altaic group.
+
+The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other divisions of
+the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabulary. Compared with
+Mongol and Manchu they have a much greater wealth of forms, both in
+declension and conjugation; the suffixes form one word with the root and
+are not wholly or partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal
+element is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and
+nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages, but
+Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting position or
+motion, and the union of the case termination with the noun is more
+complete; in some languages the object can be incorporated in the verb,
+which does not occur in Turkish, but the negative is rarely
+(Cheremissian) thus incorporated after the Turkish fashion (e.g.
+_yazmak_, "to write"; _yazmamak_, "not to write"), and in some languages
+takes pronominal suffixes (Finnish _en tule_, _et tule_, _eivät tule_,
+"I, you, they do not come"). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in
+Finnish and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed,
+or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns and
+particles exist and are fully developed in some languages. The tendency
+to form compounds, which is not characteristic of Turkish, is very
+marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is said also to be found in
+Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian. The original order in the sentence
+seems to be that the governing word follows the word governed, but there
+are many exceptions to this, particularly in Hungarian where the
+arrangement is very free.
+
+In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of Turkish,
+Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance between the numbers.
+Many of the languages contain numerous Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but
+with this exception the resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and
+indicates an ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of
+word-building and of the elements used, even if they have not the same
+sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of sentences and
+in some details (e.g. the use of the infinitive or verbal substantive),
+seem to justify the hypothesis of an original relationship with the
+Turkish languages, which in their turn have connexions with the other
+groups.
+
+Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by some among the
+Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate displays a far closer
+resemblance to them in both grammar and vocabulary than do any of the
+Turkish languages. The numerals are different, but the personal and
+interrogative pronouns and many common words (e.g. _joha_, "river,"
+Finn. _joki_; _sava_, "good," Finn, _hywä_; _kole_, "fish," Finn,
+_kala_) show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is
+very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb differs, verb
+and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In detail, however, the
+verbal suffixes show analogies to those of Finno-Ugrian. Vowel-harmony
+and weakening of consonants occur as in Finnish.
+
+Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be divided into two
+sections: (1) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak, Vogul and Magyar; and (2)
+Finnish. The Permian languages (Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a
+distinct group within this latter section, and the remainder may be
+divided into the Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West
+Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).
+
+The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the Finnish branch
+before the systems of declension or conjugation were developed. Their
+case suffixes seem to be later formations, though we find, _t_, _tl_ or
+_k_ for the plural and traces of _l_ as a local suffix. Ostiak and
+Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods and tenses are less numerous
+but the number of verbal forms is increased by those in which the
+pronominal object is incorporated. Hungarian has naturally advanced
+enormously beyond the stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks
+of strong European influence, but also retains primitive features.
+Vowel-harmony is observed (_várok_, "I await," but _verek_, "I strike").
+The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive or
+intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated. Alone
+among Finno-Ugrian languages it has developed an article, and the
+adjective is inflected when used as a predicate though not as an
+attribute (_Jó emberek_, "good men," but _Az emberek jók_, "the men are
+good"). There is great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish,
+a tendency to form long compounds.
+
+The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by any striking
+differences, but show greater resemblances to one another in details.
+None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian an objective conjugation.
+The case system is elaborate and generally comprises twelve or fifteen
+forms. The negative conjugation is peculiar; there are negative
+adjectives ending in _tem_ or _tom_ and abessive cases (e.g. Finnish
+_syyttä_, without a cause, _tiedotta_, without knowledge).
+
+Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development less fully
+than the more western languages. They are less completely inflected than
+the Finnish languages and more thoroughly agglutinative in the strict
+sense. In vocabulary, e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the
+Ugrian division. Syryenian has older literary remains than any
+Finno-Ugrian language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th
+century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals and
+translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.
+
+Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of the Volga
+Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been influenced by Russian and
+Tatar rather than by Scandinavian, and hence show apparent differences.
+But Mordvinian has points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem
+to point to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of _kemen_ for
+ten, _-nza_ as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the
+regular formation of the imperfect with _i_, the infinitive with _ma_,
+and the participle with _f_ (Finnish _va_). On the other hand it has
+many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation like the Ugrian
+languages, and has developed two forms of declension, the definite and
+indefinite.
+
+Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages and
+Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations and also in
+marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable (Syry. _yas_,
+Cher. _vlya_) between the singular and the case suffixes. Most of the
+numerals are like Syryenian but _kändekhsye_, _indekhsye_, for eight and
+nine, recall Finnish forms (_kahdeksan_, _yhdeksän_), as do also the
+pronouns.
+
+The connexion between the various West Finnish languages is more obvious
+than between those already discussed. Lappish (or Lapponic) forms a link
+between them and Mordvinian. Its pronouns are remarkably like the
+Mordvinian equivalents, but the general system of declension and
+conjugation, both positive and negative, is much as in Finnish.
+Superficially, however, the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the
+difference in phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for
+diphthongs and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.
+
+The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and Livish) to
+Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but to the casual
+learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than Finnish, but on the
+whole is less primitive and has assumed under foreign influence the
+features of a European language even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony
+is found only in the Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the
+pronominal affixes are not used, and the negative has become an
+unvarying particle, though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in
+Finnish. On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the
+general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and the
+positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish. Esthonian
+has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and a certain amount
+of literary culture, the best-known work being the national epic or
+_Kalewi-poeg_.
+
+Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian or
+Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken language of the
+Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian, but the _Kalewala_ and
+their other old songs are written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has
+come to be accepted as the ordinary language of poetry throughout modern
+Finland, just as the Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic
+poetry. It is more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves
+many old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is
+softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in
+ordinary speech, e.g. _saa'a, kosen_ for _saada, kosken_.
+
+The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the group is
+clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian and in its
+present form consists of non-Aryan material recast in an Aryan and
+European mould. Not only are some of the simplest words borrowed from
+Scandinavian, but the grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan
+peculiarities have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian.
+The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with a string
+of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms a whole with the
+root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the adjective is declined and
+compared and agrees with its substantive; compound tenses are formed
+with the aid of the auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of
+relative pronouns and particles.
+
+Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting examples of
+non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both translation and
+imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it may be doubted if the
+experiment is successful. The sense of effort is felt less in Hungarian
+than in the other languages; though they are admirable instruments for
+terse conversation or popular poetry, there appears to be some
+deep-seated difference in the force of the verb and the structure of
+phrases which renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to
+express sentences of the type common in European literature.
+
+III. _Civilization and Religion._--The Finno-Ugric tribes have not been
+equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and Magyars, have adopted,
+at least in towns, the ordinary civilization of Europe; others are
+agriculturists; others still nomadic. The wilder tribes, such as the
+Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly consist of one section which is
+nomadic and another which is settling down. The following notes apply to
+traces of ancient conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere
+universal. Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike,
+though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages as they
+advanced among this older population. But most Finno-Ugrians are astute
+and persevering hunters, and the Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow.
+The tribes are divided into numerous small clans which are exogamous.
+Marriage by capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are
+still polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the
+more general form. Women are treated as servants and often excluded
+from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive form of house
+consists of poles inclined towards one another and covered with skins or
+sods, so as to form a circular screen round a fire; winter houses are
+partly underground. Long snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are
+largely employed in summer. The Finns in particular are very good
+seamen. The Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden
+moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different languages,
+which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that the original system
+did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude for calculating and
+trading is not great. Several thousands of the Ostiaks, Voguls and
+Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much paganism lingers among the
+nominal Christians, and in poetry such as the _Kalewala_. The deities
+are chiefly nature spirits and the importance of the several gods varies
+as the tribes are hunters, fishermen, &c. Sun or sky worship is found
+among the Samoyedes and _Jumala_, the Finnish word for god, seems
+originally to mean sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river
+Obi and also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns,
+Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by each clan
+with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship are also found. The
+Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice to ghosts, and the Ostiaks
+to make images of the more important dead, which are tended and
+honoured, as if alive, for some years. Images are found in the tombs and
+barrows of most tribes, and the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use
+idols, generally of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of
+the idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations of
+Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are said to
+sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is due to possession
+by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and cured by spells, seems to
+prevail among all tribes, and in general extraordinary power is supposed
+to reside in incantations and magical formulae. This belief is
+conspicuous in the _Kalewala_, and almost every tribe has its own
+collection of prayers, healing charms and spells to be used on the most
+varied occasions. A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards
+(Finnish noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples. They
+are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the will of the gods; a
+magic drum plays a great part in their invocations, and their office is
+generally hereditary. The non-Buddhist elements of Chinese and Japanese
+religion present the same features as are found among the
+Finno-Ugrians--nature-worship, ancestor-worship and exorcism--but in a
+much more elaborate and developed form.
+
+IV. _History._--Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history or
+written records, and little in the way of traditions of their past. In
+their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter to some extent the
+course of ordinary European history. For the earlier period we have no
+positive information, but the labours of investigators, especially in
+Finland, have collected a great number of archaeological and
+philological data from which an account of the ancient wanderings of
+these tribes may be constructed. Barrows containing skulls and ornaments
+may mark the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be
+of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan words of
+an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact with the other
+language from which it borrowed at the time when such forms were
+current. But clearly all such deductions contain a large element of
+theory, and the following sketch is given with all reserve.
+
+The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the Urals and
+spoke a common language. It is not certain if they were all of the same
+physical type, for the association of different races speaking one
+language is common in central Asia. They were hunters and fishermen, not
+agriculturists. At an unknown period the Finns, still undivided, moved
+into Europe and perhaps settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps
+arrived there before 1500 B.C., learned some rudiments of agriculture,
+and developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still in the
+neolithic stage. About 600 B.C. they came in contact with an Iranian
+people, from whom they learned the use of metals, and borrowed numerals
+for a hundred (Finnish _sata_, Ostiak _sat_, Magyar _szaz_; cf. Zend
+_sata_) and a thousand (Magyar _ezer_; cf. _hazanra_ and _hazar_).
+Magyar and some other languages also borrowed a word for ten (_tíz_, cf.
+_das_). This Iranian race may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are
+believed by many authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented
+by the Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route up the
+Volga in the 4th century B.C. About that time the Western Finns must
+have broken away from the Mordvinians and wandered north-westwards. At a
+period not much later than the Christian era, they must have come in
+contact with Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also
+with Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter first
+in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as there may
+have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces. But the distribution of
+tombs and barrows seems to indicate that they entered Finland not from
+the east through Karelia but from the Baltic provinces by sea to
+Satakunta and the south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From
+both Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous quantity of
+culture-words and probably the ideas and materials they indicate. Thus
+the Finnish words for gold, king and everything concerned with
+government are of Scandinavian origin. Their migration to Finland was
+probably complete about A.D. 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later
+as Russians were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns
+northwards, overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country
+between St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to drive the
+Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east. The Finns know the
+Russians by the name of _Venäjä_, or Wends, and as this name is not used
+by Slavs themselves but by Scandinavians and Teutons, it seems clear
+that they arrived among the Finns as greater strangers than the
+Scandinavians and known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps
+first preached to the Finns as early as A.D. 1000, but there was a long
+political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of the 13th
+century Finland was definitely converted and annexed to Sweden,
+remaining a dependency of that country until 1809, when it was ceded to
+Russia.
+
+The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward movement and
+did not fall under western influences but came into contact with Tatar
+tribes and were more or less Tatarized. In some cases this took the form
+of the adoption of a Tatar language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and
+Votiak) a large number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that
+there were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting
+to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such was Great
+Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the Mongols in 1238. The
+pressure of tribes farther east acting on these settlements dislodged
+sections of them from time to time and created the series of invasions
+which devastated the East Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But
+we do not know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians,
+Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were Turks,
+Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking a Ugrian
+language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspection of the
+performances of the various tribes, as far as we can distinguish them,
+suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the warlike element. The names
+Hun and Hungarian may possibly be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot
+assume that this tribe passed across Asia unchanged in language and
+physique. The Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of
+the 9th century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and
+conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or so before
+this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu, probably a
+district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The isolated groups of
+Hungarians now found in Transylvania and called Szeklers are considered
+the purest descendants of the invading Magyars. Those who settled in the
+plains of Hungary probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars
+and earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as
+Pechenegs and Kumans.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the older writers may be mentioned Strahlenberg
+  (_Das nord- und östliche Theil von Europa und Asia_, 1730), Johann
+  Gottlieb Georgi (_Description de toutes les nations de l'empire de la
+  Russie_, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777); but especially the various
+  works of Matthias A. Castrén (1852-1853) and W. Schott (1858). Modern
+  scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their languages was
+  founded by these two authors. Among newer works some of the most
+  important separate publications are: J.R. Aspelin, _Antiquités du nord
+  finno-ougrien_ (1877-1884); J. Abercromby, _Pre- and Proto-historic
+  Finns_ (1898); and A. Hackmann, _Die ältere Eisenzeit in Finnland_
+  (1905).
+
+  The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and
+  languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not
+  in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there
+  are several: _Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne_ (Helsingfors)
+  (_Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja_); _Finnisch-Ugrische
+  Forschungen_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig); _Mitteilungen der
+  archäologischen, historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der
+  Kais. Universität zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les
+  études ouralo-altaïques_ (Budapest). In all of these will be found
+  numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halévy,
+  Heikel, Krohn, Muncácsi, Paasonen, Setälä, Smurnow, Thomsen and
+  Vambéry.
+
+  The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the
+  headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions
+  may be consulted the works of Castrén, Schott and Otto Donner, also
+  such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages: Byrne,
+  _Principles of the Structure of Language_, vol. i. (1892); Friedrich
+  Müller, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft II._, Band ii., Abth. 1882;
+  Steinthal and Misleli, _Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft_ (1893).
+       (C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+FINSBURY, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.
+by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the city of London and W. by
+Holborn and St Pancras. Pop. (1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares
+are Pentonville Road, from King's Cross east to the Angel, Islington,
+continuing E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate
+Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre from W. to
+E., King's Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon Road, and so to the
+City; St John Street and Road and Goswell Road (the residence of
+Dickens' Pickwick) running S. from the Angel towards the City; and
+Rosebery Avenue running S.W. from St John Street into Holborn. The
+commercial character of the City extends into the southern part of the
+borough; the residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local
+industries include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing
+and paper-making.
+
+An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation is not known.
+The place was supposed by some to take name from an extensive fen, a
+part of which, commonly known as Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was
+drained in the 16th century and subsequently laid out as public grounds.
+It was a frequent resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of
+entertainment and the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that
+it furnished a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in
+the fire of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous at
+a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of Clerkenwell
+(q.v.), a locality of considerable historic interest, including the
+former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which the gateway and other
+traces remain. Among several other sites and buildings of historical
+interest the Charterhouse (q.v.) west of Aldersgate Street, stands
+first, originally a Carthusian monastery, subsequently a hospital and a
+school out of which grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill
+Fields, City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the
+middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons interred
+here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother of John and Charles
+Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends. A
+neighbouring chapel is intimately associated with the Wesleys, and the
+house of John Wesley is opened as a museum bearing his name. Many
+victims of the plague were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields,
+near the junction of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the
+fields lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable
+Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and armoury.
+Sadler's Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as a place of
+entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a fashionable medicinal
+spring, music room and theatre, the last most notable in its connexion
+with the names of Joseph Grimaldi the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other
+institutions are the technical college, Leonard Street, and St Mark's,
+St Luke's and the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the
+parcels department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green
+the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the Thames).
+Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the New River Head. The
+municipal borough coincides with the east and central divisions of the
+parliamentary borough of Finsbury, each returning one member. The
+borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors.
+Area, 589.1 acres.
+
+
+
+
+FINSTERWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
+Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster, 28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The town has a Gothic church (1581), a
+château, schools, cloth and cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and
+saw mills and factories for machine building. The town, which is first
+mentioned in 1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635
+and of Prussia in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+FIORENZO DI LORENZO (c. 1440-1522), Italian painter, of the Umbrian
+school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most of his authentic works
+are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There is probably no other
+Italian master of importance of whose life and work so little is known.
+In fact the whole edifice that modern scientific criticism has built
+around his name is based on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in
+the Pinacoteca of Perugia--a niche with lunette, two wings and
+predella--and on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that
+city in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint an
+altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova--the pentatych of the "Madonna and
+Saints" now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth and death and pupilage
+nothing is known, and Vasari does not even mention Fiorenzo's name,
+though he probably refers to him when he says that Cristofano,
+Perugino's father, sent his son to be the shop drudge of a painter in
+Perugia, "who was not particularly distinguished in his calling, but
+held the art in great veneration and highly honoured the men who
+excelled therein." Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino
+and of Pinturicchio show certain mannerisms which point towards
+Fiorenzo's influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some
+fifty pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes
+works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be surprised
+to find great divergence of opinion as regards the masters under whom
+Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied. Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo
+Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione,
+Filippo Lippi, Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with
+this distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter that
+stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the probability is that
+he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly influenced by Gozzoli.
+Fiorenzo's authentic works are remarkable for their sense of space and
+for the expression of that peculiar clear, soft atmosphere which is so
+marked a feature in the work of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity
+of feeling and a power of expressing character which are far removed
+from the somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures
+bearing Fiorenzo's name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight charming
+St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-authenticated works,
+so Florentine in conception and movement, that the Perugian's authorship
+is very questionable. On the other hand the beautiful "Nativity," the
+"Adoration of the Magi," and the "Adoration of the Shepherds" in the
+same gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the
+fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco at Deruta.
+The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the Frankfort museums
+contain each a "Madonna and Child" ascribed to the master, but the
+attribution is in each case open to doubt.
+
+  See Jean Carlyle Graham, _The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo_
+  (Perugia, 1903); Edward Hutton, _The Cities of Umbria_ (London).
+       (P. G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
+Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft. above sea-level.
+Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via Aemilia, and has a
+picturesque piazza with an old tower in the centre. The Palazzo Grossi
+also is a fine building. Alseno lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is
+the Cistercian abbey of Chiaravalle della Colomba, with a fine Gothic
+church and a large and beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble),
+of the 12th-14th century.
+
+
+
+
+FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS (1748-1821), German painter and historian of
+art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th of October 1748. He received his
+first instructions in art at an academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in
+1761, to continue his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to
+Bologna, where he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769
+admission to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained
+the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick. In 1781
+he removed to Göttingen, occupied himself as a drawing-master, and was
+named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints at the university
+library. He was appointed professor extraordinary in the philosophical
+faculty in 1799, and ordinary professor in 1813. During this period he
+had made himself known as a writer by the publication of his _Geschichte
+der zeichnenden Künste_, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in
+1815 to 1820 by the _Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste in Deutschland
+und den vereinigten Niederlanden_, in 4 vols. These works, though not
+attaining to any high mark of literary excellence, are esteemed for the
+information collected in them, especially on the subject of art in the
+later middle ages. Fiorillo practised his art almost till his death, but
+has left no memorable masterpiece. The most noticeable of his painting
+is perhaps the "Surrender of Briseis." He died at Göttingen on the 10th
+of September 1821.
+
+
+
+
+FIR, the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch pine (_Pinus
+sylvestris_), but at present not infrequently employed as a general term
+for the whole of the true conifers (_Abielineae_); in a more exact
+sense, it has been transferred to the "spruce" and "silver firs," the
+genera _Picea_ and _Abies_ of most modern botanists.
+
+The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having their
+needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of growing in
+clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their cones are composed of
+thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales, each with a more or less
+conspicuous bract springing from the base. The trees have usually a
+straight trunk, and a tendency to a conical or pyramidal growth,
+throwing out each year a more or less regular whorl of branches from the
+foot of the leading shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend
+horizontally.
+
+In the spruce firs (_Picea_), the cones are pendent when mature and
+their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the shoots,
+though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally. In the genus
+_Abies_, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their scales drop off
+when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct rows on each side of
+the shoot.
+
+The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the Norway
+spruce (_Picea excelsa_), so well known in British plantations, though
+rarely attaining there the gigantic height and grandeur of form it often
+displays in its native woods. Under favourable conditions of growth it
+is a lofty tree, with a nearly straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in
+somewhat irregular whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed
+with dark, clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as
+they increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even
+in large trees, often sweeping the ground--a habit that, with the jagged
+sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses, gives a peculiarly
+graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway spruce. The slender,
+sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered thickly around the shoots;
+the upper one pressed towards the stem, and the lower directed sideways,
+so as to give a somewhat flattened appearance to the individual sprays.
+The elongated cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper
+branches; they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and
+eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the
+extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge their seeds
+until the following spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Male Flowers.
+A, branch bearing male cones, reduced; B, single male cone, enlarged; C,
+single stamen, enlarged.]
+
+The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on most of the
+mountain ranges of northern and central Europe; while in Asia it occurs
+at least as far east as the Lena, and in latitude extends from the
+Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle. On the Swiss Alps it is one
+of the most prevalent and striking of the forest trees, its dark
+evergreen foliage often standing out in strong contrast to the snowy
+ridges and glaciers beyond. In the lower districts of Sweden it is the
+predominant tree in most of the great forests that spread over so large
+a portion of that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part
+of the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according to
+Franz Christian Schübeler, on the mountain slopes up to an altitude of
+from 2800 to 3100 ft., and clothing the shores of some of the fjords to
+the water's edge; in the higher regions it is generally mingled with the
+pine. Less abundant on the western side of the fjelds, it again forms
+woods in Nordland, extending in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to
+the 67th parallel; but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at
+a greater elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish
+Lapland it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft.,
+its upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In all the
+Scandinavian countries it is known as the _Gran_ or _Grann_. Great
+tracts of low country along the southern shores of the Baltic and in
+northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce. It everywhere shows
+a preference for a moist but well-drained soil, and never attains its
+full stature or luxuriance of growth upon arid ground, whether on plain
+or mountain--a peculiarity that should be remembered by the planter. In
+a favourable soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of
+the stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of from
+150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5 to 6 ft. at the
+base. But when it grows in dense woods, where the lower branches decay
+and drop off early, only a small head of foliage remaining at the
+tapering summit, its stem, though frequently of great height, is rarely
+more than 1½ or 2 ft. in thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight
+leading shoot, in the vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2½ or
+even 3 ft. in a single season. In its native habitats it is said to
+endure for several centuries; but in those countries from which the
+commercial supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection
+in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  SILVER FIR (_Abies pectinata_).
+  A, Cone and foliage.
+
+  SPRUCE FIR (_Picea excelsa_).
+  B, Cone and foliage.
+
+  HEMLOCK SPRUCE (_Tsuga canadensis_)
+  C, Cone, seed and foliage.
+
+  DOUGLAS FIR (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_).
+  D, Cone, seed and foliage.
+
+  _Photos by Henry Irving_.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  CYPRESS (_Cupressus sempervirens_).
+  A, Cone and branchlets.
+
+  JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_).
+  B, Fruit and foliage.
+
+  ARAUCARIA (_A. imbricata_, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle).
+  C, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed.
+
+  YEW (_Taxus baccata_).
+  D, Seed and foliage.
+
+  Photos by Henry Irving.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Cones; scale
+with seeds. A, Branch bearing (a) young female cones, (b) ripe cones,
+reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, enlarged.]
+
+In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood is white,
+apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an open place, but, as
+produced in the close northern forests, often of fine and even grain.
+Immense quantities are imported into Britain from Norway, Sweden and
+Prussia, under the names of "white Norway," "Christiania" and "Danzig
+deal." The larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used
+for the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and
+rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably as
+lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears less
+adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from Sweden in a
+manufactured state, in the form of door and window-frames and
+ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap "white deal" furniture is
+made of this wood. The younger and smaller trees are remarkably durable,
+especially when the bark is allowed to remain on them; and most of the
+poles imported into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and
+similar uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often
+made of it, and are said to be lighter than those of pine. The best
+poles are obtained in Norway from small, slender, drawn-up trees,
+growing under the shade of the larger ones in the thick woods, these
+being freer from knots, and tougher from their slower growth. A variety
+of the spruce, abounding in some parts of Norway, produces a red
+heartwood, not easy to distinguish from that of the Norway pine (Scotch
+fir), and imported with it into England as "red deal" or "pine." This
+kind is sometimes seen in plantations, where it may be recognized by its
+shorter, darker leaves and longer cones. The smaller branches and the
+waste portion of the trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported
+as fire-wood, or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce
+is also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.
+
+The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded by the tree
+in less abundance than those furnished by the pine, are of considerable
+economic value. In Scandinavia a thick turpentine oozes from cracks or
+fissures in the bark, forming by its congelation a fine yellow resin,
+known commercially as "spruce rosin," or "frankincense"; it is also
+procured artificially by cutting off the ends of the lower branches,
+when it slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of
+Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce, a long
+strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin that
+slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in the latter part
+of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the following spring to
+ensure a continuance of the supply. The process is repeated every
+alternate year, until the tree no longer yields the resin in abundance,
+which under favourable circumstances it will do for twenty years or
+more. The quantity obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on
+the vigour of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected
+to the operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed, and
+the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value even for
+fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better sort of "Burgundy
+pitch" of the druggists is prepared. By the peasantry of its native
+countries the Norway spruce is applied to innumerable purposes of daily
+life. The bark and young cones afford a tanning material, inferior
+indeed to oak-bark, and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value
+in countries where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In
+Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over the
+floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses, as a
+fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting. The young
+shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of those northern
+latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to obtain. In times of
+scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the sweetish inner bark, beaten
+in a mortar and ground in his primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke
+out a scanty supply of meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable
+though somewhat resinous substitute for his ordinary _flad-brod_. A
+decoction of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy for
+scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential ingredient
+in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as an occasional
+beverage. The well-known "Danzig-spruce" is prepared by adding a
+decoction of the buds or cones to the wort or saccharine liquor before
+fermentation. Similar preparations are in use wherever the spruce fir
+abounds. The wood is burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being
+reckoned in Germany about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the
+widespreading roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland and
+Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are selected, split
+through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley of wood-ashes and salt,
+which, dissolving out the resin, loosens the fibres and renders them
+easily separable, and ready for twisting into cordage. Light portable
+boats are sometimes made of very thin boards of fir, sewn together with
+cord thus manufactured from the roots of the tree.
+
+The Norway spruce seems to have been the "Picea" of Pliny, but is
+evidently often confused by the Latin writers with their "Abies," the
+_Abies pectinata_ of modern botanists. From an equally loose application
+of the word "fir" by our older herbalists, it is difficult to decide
+upon the date of introduction of this tree into Britain; but it was
+commonly planted for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th
+century. In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as
+well as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for its
+successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be turned to
+agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for economic planting in
+Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which come to perfection in more
+bleak and elevated regions, and on comparatively barren ground, though
+it may perhaps be grown to advantage on some moist hill-sides and
+mountain hollows. Its great value to the English forester is as a
+"nurse" for other trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form
+render it admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the
+young saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out.
+For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a picturesque
+tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among the best of the
+conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet harmonizing with the olive
+green and rounded outline of oaks and beeches, or with the red trunk and
+glaucous foliage of the pine. When young its spreading boughs form good
+cover for game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are
+useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring. In a
+good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous size: one
+in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft. in height, and the
+trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the ground. The spruce bears the
+smoke of great cities better than most of the _Abietineae_; but in
+suburban localities after a certain age it soon loses its healthy
+appearance, and is apt to be affected with blight (_Eriosoma_), though
+not so much as the Scotch fir and most of the pines.
+
+The black spruce (_Picea nigra_) is a tree of more formal growth than
+the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle and in more
+regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce; and, though the lower
+ones become bent to a horizontal position, they do not droop, so that
+the tree has a much less elegant appearance. The leaves, which grow very
+thickly all round the stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a
+dark greyish-green. The cones, produced in great abundance, are short
+and oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are deep
+purple when young, but become brown as they ripen. The tree also occurs
+in the New England states and extends over nearly the whole of British
+North America, its northern limit occurring at about 67° N. lat., often
+forming a large part of the dense forests, mostly in the swampy
+districts. A variety with lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in
+Newfoundland and some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees
+usually grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great
+height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the Norway
+spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a diameter of 1½ or
+2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty soil, and often grows
+luxuriantly in very moist situations. The wood is strong, light and very
+elastic, forming an excellent material for small masts and spars, for
+which purpose the trunks are used in America, and exported largely to
+England. The sawn timber is inferior to that of _P. excelsa_, besides
+being of a smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the
+log-houses of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks.
+The spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots of
+this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for some time in
+water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the resulting decoction is
+then poured into a cask with molasses or maple sugar and a little yeast,
+and left to ferment. It is often made by the settlers and fishermen of
+the St Lawrence region, being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The
+American "essence of spruce," occasionally used in England for making
+spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and
+concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree are of no
+great value. It was introduced into Britain at the end of the 17th
+century.
+
+The white spruce (_Picea alba_), sometimes met with in English
+plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce, the
+branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light glaucous
+green; the small light-brown cones are more slender and tapering than in
+_P. nigra_, and the scales have even edges. It is of comparatively small
+size, but is of some importance in the wilds of the Canadian dominion,
+where it is found to the northern limit of tree-vegetation growing up to
+at least 69°; the slender trunks yield the only useful timber of some of
+the more desolate northern regions. In the woods of Canada it occurs
+frequently mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous
+tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used by the
+Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark covering of their
+canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark is employed to varnish
+over the seams. It was introduced to Great Britain at the end of the
+17th century and was formerly more extensively planted than at present.
+
+The hemlock spruce (_Tsuga canadensis_) is a large tree, abounding in
+most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador; in lower
+Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often the prevailing tree.
+The short leaves are flat, those above pressed close to the stem, and
+the others forming two rows; they are of a rather light green tint
+above, whitish beneath. The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The
+large branches droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays
+are much lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most
+elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old, the branches,
+broken and bent down by the winter snows, give it a ragged but very
+picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently 3 ft. thick near the base.
+The hemlock prefers rather dry and elevated situations, often forming
+woods on the declivities of mountains. The timber is very much twisted
+in grain, and liable to warp and split, but is used for making
+plasterers' laths and for fencing; "shingles" for roofing are sometimes
+made of it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most
+valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are sometimes used
+for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It was introduced into
+Great Britain in about the year 1736.
+
+The Douglas spruce (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_), one of the finest
+conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes considerably
+more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures 8 or 10 ft. across.
+The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are of a deep green tint; the
+cones are furnished with tridentate bracts that project far beyond the
+scales. It forms extensive forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia
+and Oregon, whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its
+strength, durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep
+yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick bark. It
+was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery by David Douglas
+in 1827, and has been widely planted, but does not flourish well where
+exposed to high winds or in too shallow soil.
+
+Of the _Abies_ group, the silver fir (_A. pectinata_), may be taken as
+the type,--a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size, with large
+spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward the extremities. The
+flat leaves are arranged in two regular, distinct rows; they are deep
+green above, but beneath have two broad white lines, which, as the
+foliage in large trees has a tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery
+appearance from below. The large cones stand erect on the branches, are
+cylindrical in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which
+project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is of a
+silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to have been
+the true "Abies" of the Latin writers--the "pulcherrima abies" of
+Virgil. From early historic times it has been held in high estimation in
+the south of Europe, being used by the Romans for masts and all purposes
+for which timber of great length was required. It is abundant in most of
+the mountain ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in
+the northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the Caucasus
+and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Extensive woods of this
+fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree grows up to nearly 4000
+ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms great part of the extensive forest
+of the Hochwald, and occurs in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is
+plentiful likewise on the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior
+to that of _Picea excelsa_, but, being soft and easily worked, is
+largely employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all the
+purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently made of it,
+and it is in great esteem for carving and for the construction of
+stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the wood is more perishable
+than that of the spruce fir when exposed to the air, though it is said
+to stand well under water. The bark contains a large amount of a fine,
+highly-resinous turpentine, which collects in tumours on the trunk
+during the heat of summer. In the Alps and Vosges this resinous
+semi-fluid is collected by climbing the trees and pressing out the
+contents of the natural receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels
+held beneath them. After purification by straining, it is sold as
+"Strasburg turpentine," much used in the preparation of some of the
+finer varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar
+process as that from _Picea excelsa_. A fine oil of turpentine is
+distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse resin.
+Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th century, the silver
+fir has become common there as a planted tree, though, like the Norway
+spruce, it rarely comes up from seed scattered naturally. There are many
+fine trees in Scotland; one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his
+_Sylva Britannica_, then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In
+the more southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90
+ft., and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young
+shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on light
+soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents a
+ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top and horizontal
+boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque relief above the rounded
+summits of the neighbouring trees. The silver fir flourishes in a deep
+loamy soil, and will grow even upon stiff clay, when well drained--a
+situation in which few conifers will succeed. On such lands, where
+otherwise desirable, it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones
+do not ripen till the second year.
+
+The silver fir of Canada (_A. balsamea_), a small tree resembling the
+last species in foliage, furnishes the "Canada balsam"; it abounds in
+Quebec and the adjacent provinces.
+
+Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies, and some
+furnish valuable products in their native countries; but they are not
+yet of sufficient economic or general interest to demand mention here.
+
+  For further information see Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed.,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+FIRDOUSI, FIRDAUSI or FIRDUSI, Persian poet. Abu 'l Kasim Mansur (or
+Hasan), who took the _nom de plume_ of Firdousi, author of the epic poem
+the _Shahnama_, or "Book of Kings," a complete history of Persia in
+nearly 60,000 verses, was born at Shadab, a suburb of Tus, about the
+year 329 of the Hegira (941 A.D.), or earlier. His father belonged to
+the class of _Dihkans_ (the old native country families and landed
+proprietors of Persia, who had preserved their influence and status
+under the Arab rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of
+Tus (in Khorasan). Firdousi's own education eminently qualified him for
+the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook, for he was profoundly
+versed in the Arabic language and literature and had also studied deeply
+the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was conversant with the ancient
+historical records which existed in that tongue.
+
+The _Shahnama_ of Firdousi (see also PERSIA: _Literature_) is perhaps
+the only example of a poem produced by a single author which at once
+took its place as the national epic of the people. The nature of the
+work, the materials from which it was composed, and the circumstances
+under which it was written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and
+necessarily tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the
+empire and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series
+of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient
+sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory of so
+imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th century of the
+Christian era we find mention made of these historical traditions in the
+work of an Armenian author, Moses of Chorene (according to others, he
+lived in the 7th or 8th century). During the reign of Chosroes I.
+(Anushirvan) the contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch,
+an attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the kingdom,
+all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient kings, and the
+results were deposited in the royal library. During the last years of
+the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed, the former collection being
+revised and greatly added to by the Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by
+several learned mobeds. His work was entitled the _Khoda'inama_, which
+in the old dialect also meant the "Book of Kings." On the Arab invasion
+this work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the
+iconoclastic caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately
+preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira being
+paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a learned Persian who
+had embraced Islam. Other Guebres occupied themselves privately with the
+collection of these traditions; and, when a prince of Persian origin,
+Yakub ibn Laith, founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing
+off his allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the
+work of his illustrious predecessors. His "Book of Kings" was completed
+in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely circulated in Khorasan and
+Irak. Yakub's family did not continue long in power; but the Samanid
+princes who succeeded applied themselves zealously to the same work, and
+Prince Nuh II., who came to the throne in 365 A.H. (A.D. 976), entrusted
+it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki's labours were
+brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination, and the fall of the
+Samanian house happened not long after, and their kingdom passed into
+the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahmud ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the
+dynasty (998-1030), continued to make himself still more independent of
+the caliphate than his predecessors, and, though a warrior and a
+fanatical Moslem, extended a generous patronage to Persian literature
+and learning, and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic
+institutions. The task of continuing and completing the collection of
+the ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted
+him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many of the
+influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount of materials for the
+work, and after having searched in vain for a man of sufficient learning
+and ability to edit them faithfully, and having entrusted various
+episodes for versification to the numerous poets whom he had gathered
+round him, he at length made choice of Firdousi. Firdousi had been
+always strongly attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun
+at an early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of the
+death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design of himself
+carrying out the work which the latter had only just commenced; and,
+although he had not then any introduction to the court, he contrived,
+thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed Lashkari, to procure a copy of
+the Dihkan Danishwer's collection, and at the age of thirty-six
+commenced his great undertaking. Abu Mansur, the governor of Tus,
+patronized him and encouraged him by substantial pecuniary support. When
+Mahmud succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the
+work, Firdousi was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni. At first
+court jealousies and intrigues prevented Firdousi from being noticed by
+the sultan; but at length one of his friends, Mahek, undertook to
+present to Mahmud his poetic version of one of the well-known episodes
+of the legendary history. Hearing that the poet was born at Tus, the
+sultan made him explain the origin of his native town, and was much
+struck with the intimate knowledge of ancient history which he
+displayed. Being presented to the seven poets who were then engaged on
+the projected epic, Abu 'l Kasim was admitted to their meetings, and on
+one occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud's request, in praise of his
+favourite Ayaz, with such success that the sultan bestowed upon him the
+name of Firdousi, saying that he had converted his assemblies into
+paradise (_Firdous_). During the early days of his sojourn at court an
+incident happened which contributed in no small measure to the
+realization of his ambition. Three of the seven poets were drinking in a
+garden when Firdousi approached, and wishing to get rid of him without
+rudeness, they informed him who they were, and told him that it was
+their custom to admit none to their society but such as could give proof
+of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed that each
+should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own to be the last, and
+all four ending in the same rhyme. Firdousi accepted the challenge, and
+the three poets having previously agreed upon three rhyming words to
+which a fourth could not be found in the Persian language, 'Ansari
+began--
+
+  "Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun";
+
+Farrakhi added--
+
+  "The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun";
+
+'Asjadi continued--
+
+  "Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior's johsun";[1]
+
+and Firdousi, without a moment's hesitation, completed the quatrain--
+
+  "Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun."
+
+The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdousi
+recited to them the battle as described in the _Shahnama_, and delighted
+and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.
+
+Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling and
+versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such marks of his
+favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet an enthusiastic
+panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of the _Shahnama_, and forms
+a curious contrast to the bitter satire which he subsequently prefixed
+to the book. The sultan ordered his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to
+pay to Firdousi a thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but
+the poet preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was
+finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct a
+dike for his native town of Tus, which suffered greatly from defective
+irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream of his childhood.
+Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy of Hasan Maimandi, who
+often refused to advance him sufficient for the necessaries of life,
+Firdousi passed the later portion of his life in great privation, though
+enjoying the royal favour and widely extended fame. Amongst other
+princes whose liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary
+difficulties, was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who
+sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy of the
+episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which Firdousi had sent him, and
+promised him a gracious reception if he should ever come to his court.
+As this prince belonged, like Firdousi, to the Shiah sect, while Mahmud
+and Maimandi were Sunnites, and as he was also politically opposed to
+the sultan, Hasan Maimandi did not fail to make the most of this
+incident, and accused the poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and
+patron, as well as of heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in
+the attack, and for some time Firdousi's position was very precarious,
+though his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work
+prevented him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the
+misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.
+
+At length, after thirty-five years' work, the book was completed (1011),
+and Firdousi entrusted it to Ayaz, the sultan's favourite, for
+presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi to take the poet as
+much gold as an elephant could carry, but the jealous treasurer
+persuaded the monarch that it was too generous a reward, and that an
+elephant's load of silver would be sufficient. 60,000 silver dirhems
+were accordingly placed in sacks, and taken to Firdousi by Ayaz at the
+sultan's command, instead of the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse,
+which had been promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and
+seeing the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold,
+received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he
+complained to Ayaz that he had not executed the sultan's order. Ayaz
+related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan Maimandi, and
+Firdousi in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to Ayaz himself, the same
+amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the rest to a beer seller for a
+glass of beer (_fouka_), sending word back to the sultan that it was not
+to gain money that he had taken so much trouble. On hearing this
+message, Mahmud at first reproached Hasan with having caused him to
+break his word, but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master's
+anger upon Firdousi to such an extent that he threatened that on the
+morrow he would "cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the feet of his
+elephants." Being apprised by one of the nobles of the court of what had
+taken place, Firdousi passed the night in great anxiety; but passing in
+the morning by the gate that led from his own apartments into the
+palace, he met the sultan in his private garden, and succeeded by humble
+apologies in appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being
+appeased himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Returning
+home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses which he had
+composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing to the grand mosque
+of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the place where the sultan was in
+the habit of praying, the following lines:--
+
+  "The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea.
+  What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein without
+  finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the sea."
+
+He then gave a sealed paper to Ayaz, begging him to hand it to the
+sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed, and set off on his
+travels with no better equipment than his staff and a dervish's cloak.
+At the expiration of the 20 days Ayaz gave the paper to the sultan, who
+on opening it found the celebrated satire which is now always prefixed
+to copies of the _Shahnama_, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest
+and severest pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage,
+sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture, but he
+was already in comparative safety. Firdousi directed his steps to
+Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of Jorjan, who at first
+received him with great favour, and promised him his continued
+protection and patronage; learning, however, the circumstances under
+which he had left Ghazni, he feared the resentment of so powerful a
+sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew already coveted his kingdom, and
+dismissed the poet with a magnificent present. Firdousi next repaired to
+Bagdad, where he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him
+to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic poem
+which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier gave Firdousi an
+apartment near himself, and related to the caliph the manner in which he
+had been treated at Ghazni. The caliph summoned him into his presence,
+and was so much pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which
+Firdousi composed in his honour, that he at once received him into
+favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to
+chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however,
+somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph's eyes; in order therefore to
+recover his prestige, Firdousi composed another poem of 9000 couplets on
+the theme borrowed from the Koran of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar's
+wife--_Yusuf and Zuleikha_ (edited by H. Ethé, Oxford, 1902; complete
+metrical translation by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem,
+though rare and little known, is still in existence--the Royal Asiatic
+Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time heard of his
+asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter menacing his liege
+lord, and demanding the surrender of the poet. Firdousi, to avoid
+further troubles, departed for Ahwaz, a province of the Persian Irak,
+and dedicated his _Yusuf and Zuleikha_ to the governor of that district.
+Thence he went to Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his
+intimate and devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon
+the frontier. Firdousi confided to him that he contemplated writing a
+bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the sultan
+of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of the latter,
+dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and remonstrated with
+Mahmud. Nasir Lek's message and the urgent representations of Firdousi's
+friends had the desired effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his
+intention of offering full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy
+Maimandi to death. The change, however, came too late; Firdousi, now a
+broken and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tus, and,
+while wandering through the streets of his native town, heard a child
+lisping a verse from his own satire in which he taunts Mahmud with his
+slavish birth:--
+
+  "Had Mahmud's father been what he is now
+   A crown of gold had decked this aged brow;
+   Had Mahmud's mother been of gentle blood,
+   In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood."
+
+He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his
+misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was buried in a
+garden, but Abu'l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of Tus, refused to read
+the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging that he was an infidel, and
+had devoted his life to the glorification of fire-worshippers and
+misbelievers. The next night, however, having dreamt that he beheld
+Firdousi in paradise dressed in the sacred colour, green, and wearing an
+emerald crown, he reconsidered his determination; and the poet was
+henceforth held to be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the
+Hegira (1020 A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion
+of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the meanwhile
+despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of gold to Firdousi,
+with a robe of honour and ample apologies for the past. But as the
+camels bearing the treasure reached one of the gates of the city,
+Firdousi's funeral was leaving it by another. His daughter, to whom they
+brought the sultan's present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister
+remembering his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for
+the river of Tus, this work was completed in honour of the poet's
+memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.
+
+  Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon that
+  prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by order of
+  Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is rejected by
+  modern scholars (see T. Nöldeke, "Das iranische Nationalepos," in W.
+  Geiger's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii. pp. 150-158).
+
+  The _Shahnama_ is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends
+  current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, a
+  class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There
+  is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousi adhered faithfully
+  to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect
+  storehouse of the genuine traditions of the country.
+
+  The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of the
+  19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation in a
+  magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French government, by
+  the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. The size and number of
+  the volumes, however, and their great expense, made them difficult of
+  access, and Frau von Mohl published the French translation (1876-1878)
+  with her illustrious husband's critical notes and introduction in a
+  more convenient and cheaper form. Other editions are by Turner Macan
+  (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden,
+  1877-1883). There is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London,
+  1832; reprinted 1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly
+  rhymed and partly unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with
+  an introduction containing an account of Firdousi and the Shahnama;
+  the version by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work.
+  The episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers from
+  Matthew Arnold's poem. The only complete translation is Il Libro dei
+  Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author of a
+  history of Persian poetry.
+
+  See also E.G. Browne's _Literary History of Persia_, i., ii.
+  (1902-1906); T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shahnama,
+  editions, &c.; and H. Ethé, "Neupersische Litteratur," in the same
+  work.     (E. H. P.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A sort of cuirass.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE (in O. Eng. _fýr_; the word is common to West German languages, cf.
+Dutch _vuur_, Ger. _Feuer_; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit
+_pu_, _pavaka_, and Gr. [Greek: pur]; the ultimate origin is usually
+taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. _purus_), the term
+commonly used for the visible effect of combustion (see FLAME),
+operating as a heating or lighting agency.
+
+So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a question
+whether we have any authentic instance on record of a tribe altogether
+ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to be found in the voluminous
+literature of travel which would decide the question in the affirmative;
+but when they are carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be
+far from conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe
+in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the bamboo
+jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no better authority has
+been found for the statement, and the story, which seems to be current
+in eastern Africa, may be nothing else than the propagation of fables
+about the Pygmies whom the ancients located around the sources of the
+Nile. Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring
+expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island "there
+was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of fire," and that
+the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced by flint and steel
+and the smoke emitted by those with cigars in their mouths. The presence
+of the word _afi_, fire, in the Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the
+ethnographer of the expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as
+equivalent only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the
+supposition of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a
+missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word _afi_ in his list
+for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin of fire, and
+describes some peculiar customs connected with its use. Alvaro de
+Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us that the inhabitants of
+Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific, showed great fear when they saw
+fire--which they did not know before. But that island has not been
+identified with certainty by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to
+the Ladrones or Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre
+Gobien, "till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants,
+burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts ablaze,
+their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats up wood. Some
+of them having approached the fire too near were burnt, and the others
+kept aloof, fearing to be torn or poisoned by the powerful breath of
+that terrible animal." To this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone
+islanders made pottery before the arrival of Europeans, that they had
+words expressing the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and
+cooking. Let us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have
+been found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus the
+question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing impossible in
+the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe, it cannot be said
+that such a tribe has been discovered.
+
+It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that fire was
+subject to his control, and could even be called into being by
+appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon and its various aspects
+he must soon have become familiar. The volcano lit up the darkness of
+night and sent its ashes or its lava down into the plains; the lightning
+or the meteor struck the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less
+obvious cause produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is
+possible that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings
+save awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity as
+with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have bred
+confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary to suppose that
+the practical discovery of fire was made only at one given spot and in
+one given way; it is much more probable indeed that different tribes and
+races obtained the knowledge in a variety of ways.
+
+It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable to
+rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers in
+Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman bearing always
+about with her a burning brand, which it is one of her principal duties
+to protect and foster; and it has been supposed that it was only
+ignorance which imposed on her the endless task. This is absurd. The
+Australian methods of producing fire by the friction of two pieces of
+wood are perfectly well known, and are illustrated in Howitt's _Native
+Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a
+little trouble to the men.
+
+The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably in detail, but
+are for the most part merely modified applications of concussion or
+friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the working up of stone into
+implements must have been followed sooner or later by the discovery of
+fire; for in the process of chipping sparks were elicited, and in the
+process of polishing heat was generated. The first or concussion method
+is still familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of
+use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are
+comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians take two
+pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur, strike them
+together till the sulphur catches fire, and then transfer the flame to a
+heap of dry grass over which a few feathers have been scattered. Instead
+of two pieces of quartz the Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of
+iron pyrites. Mr Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken
+china violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same process
+in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China two pieces of bamboo
+are considered sufficient, the silicious character of the outside layer
+rendering it as good as native flint. The friction methods are more
+various. One of the simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and
+groove--"a blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own
+making in a piece of wood lying on the ground." Much, of course, depends
+on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the manipulator. In
+Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce fire in a few seconds, but
+only succeeded himself after much labour. The same device was employed
+in New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak
+Islands. Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards
+other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary
+piece of wood--thus making what Tylor has happily designated a
+fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia, Kamchatka,
+Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs of Ceylon, throughout a
+great part of southern Africa, among the Eskimo and Indian tribes of
+North America, in the West Indies, in Central America, and as far south
+as the Straits of Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient
+Mexicans, and Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a
+Mexican MS.--a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick to
+rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method of rotation
+seems to be very generally in use; but various devices have been
+resorted to for the purpose of diminishing the labour and hastening the
+result. The Gaucho of the Pampas takes "an elastic stick about 18 in.
+long, presses one end to his breast and the other in a hole in a piece
+of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's
+centre-bit." In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord
+or thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end and
+that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others put the upper
+end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold firmly in their mouth.
+A further advance was made by the Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who
+applied the principle of the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious
+pump-drill was used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of
+these instruments and a rich variety of details connected with
+fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor's valuable chapter in his
+_Researches_. These methods of producing fire are but rarely used in
+Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious observances. We read in
+Wuttke that some time ago the authorities of a Mecklenburg village
+ordered a "wild fire" to be lit against a murrain amongst the cattle.
+For two hours the men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was
+not to be ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the
+atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting to
+the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such a fire, to be
+efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded female was
+compelled to give in; fire was obtained---but of bad quality, for it did
+not stop the murrain.
+
+It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be concentrated by
+a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions the burning-lens in _The
+Clouds_, and the story of Archimedes using a mirror to fire the ships at
+Syracuse is familiar to every schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be
+trusted as an authority the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the
+sacred fire with a concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the
+burning-glass is in common use.
+
+To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the cosmogonies,
+those records of pristine speculative thought, do not give any reply
+which would not be found in the relations of travellers and historians.
+
+  They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes is
+  likewise the god of fire. At Mangaïa it is told that the great Maui
+  went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making fire by
+  rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the tale
+  differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind
+  grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands. Wishing
+  to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out, and so he
+  obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every thing
+  melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother herself were
+  already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven, saved the hero and
+  the perishing world; but before the waters extinguished all the blaze,
+  Mahuika shut a few sparks into some trees, and thence men draw it now.
+  The Maoris have also the legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki's
+  footsteps, and that lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western
+  Point, Victoria, the Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened
+  the door of the sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that
+  Karakorok, the good man's good daughter, seeing the earth to be full
+  of serpents, went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had
+  killed them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame
+  burst out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the
+  Persian _Shahnama_ also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter.
+  Hushenk, the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone,
+  which, evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it.
+  "Light shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out
+  in glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." The
+  snake escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.
+
+  North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering
+  through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the
+  prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same idea
+  in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have been, among
+  many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on the Akmon or
+  hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that their ancestor
+  obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its
+  claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.
+
+  Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like
+  the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri,
+  the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by
+  hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children.
+  Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed "the secret of
+  the stone's edge and the iron's hardness." The Slavonian god of
+  thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from
+  his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head;
+  the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other.
+  Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six
+  little ones. Finnish poems describe how "fire, the child of the sun,
+  came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper,
+  in a large pail of gold." Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth
+  lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the
+  Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and
+  from the nail issued the "fiery babe." He gave it to the Wind's
+  daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea,
+  where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been
+  lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He
+  dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and
+  found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to
+  earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's chariot.
+
+Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses
+increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save the labour
+expended on the initial process of procuring light, or on carrying it
+about constantly, primitive men hit on the expedient of a fire which
+should burn night and day in a public building. The Egyptians had one in
+every temple, the Greeks, Latins and Persians in all towns and villages.
+The Natchez, the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their "national
+fires" burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the "eternal lamps"
+in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic churches, may be a
+survival. The "Regia," Rome's sacred centre, supposed to be the abode of
+Vesta, stood close to a fountain; it was convenient to draw from the
+same spot the two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and
+political interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was at
+once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: all
+public business and most private affairs were transacted by the light
+and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder that its flagstones
+should become sacred. Primitive communities consider as holy everything
+that ensures their existence and promotes their welfare, material things
+such as fire and water not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew
+into a religious institution. And if we hear a little more of fire
+worship than of water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole
+more difficult to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and
+the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the Roman
+temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all authority, all
+public or private business had to stop immediately. The connexion
+between heaven and earth had been broken, and it had to be restored in
+some way or other--either by Jove sending down divine lightning on his
+altars, or by the priests making a new fire by the old sacred method of
+rubbing two pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun
+in a concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier without
+carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum burned night
+and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the emigrants took with them
+living coals from the altar of Hestia, and had in their new country a
+fire lit as a representative of that burning in the mother country.[1]
+Not before the three curiae united their fires into one could Rome
+become powerful; and Athens became a shining light to the world only,
+we are told, when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought
+each its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated,
+making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated around
+Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.
+
+_Periodic Fires._--Because the sun loses its force after noon, and after
+midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the ancients
+inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, as time goes
+on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. Therefore men set
+about renewing the fires in the temples and on the hearth on the longest
+day of summer or at the beginning of the agricultural year. The ceremony
+was attended with much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites.
+Houses were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent
+lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels were
+made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by the creditor;
+criminals were released by the civil authorities in imitation of the
+heavenly judges, who were believed to grant on the same day a general
+remission of sins. All things were made new; each man turned over a new
+page in the book of his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in
+the Old World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried these
+ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated with magnificent
+ceremonies the renewal of the _saecula_, or astronomic periods, which
+might be shorter or longer than a century. Some details of the festival
+among the Aztecs have been preserved. On the last night of every period
+(52 years) every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn
+procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, the
+priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if they had a
+vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and stars, had been wound
+up like a clock for a definite period of time. And had they failed to
+raise the vital spark, they would have believed that it was because the
+great fire was being extinguished at the central hearth of the world.
+The Stoics and many other ancient philosophers thought that the world
+was doomed to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the
+end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, how the
+cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying everything. The
+Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is also found in the
+Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha (2 Esdras xvi. 15).
+
+  See Dupuis, _Origine de tous les cultes_ (1794); Burnout, _Science des
+  religions_; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert
+  Kuhn. _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_ (1859);
+  Steinthal, _Über die ursprüngliche Form der Sage von Prometheus_
+  (1861); Albert Reville, "Le Mythe de Prométhée," in _Revue des deux
+  mondes_ (August 1862); Michel Bréal, _Hercule et Cacus_ (1863); Tylor,
+  _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, ch. ix. (1865);
+  Bachofen, _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (1870); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric
+  Times_ (6th ed., 1900); Haug, _Religion of the Parsis_ (1878).
+       (E. Re.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among the
+    Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people with
+    a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care of a
+    so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating
+    from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
+    The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
+    temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
+    Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, had
+    each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die out,
+    they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, Pueblos and
+    Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins discussed
+    important affairs of state at the "council fires," around which each
+    _sachem_ marched three times, turning to it all the sides of his
+    person. "It was a saying among our ancestors," said an Iroquois chief
+    in 1753, "that when the fire goes out at Onondaga"--the Delphi of the
+    league--"we shall no longer be a people."
+
+
+
+
+FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this article, primarily,
+from the point of view of the protection against fire that can be
+accorded by preventive measures and by the organization of fire
+extinguishing establishments.
+
+History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in towns and
+cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. The following is
+a list of notable fires of early days:--
+
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
+
+   798. _London_, nearly destroyed.
+
+   982.    "    greater part of the city burned.
+
+  1086.    "    all houses and churches from the east to the west gate
+                  burned.
+
+  1212.    "    greater part of the city burned.
+
+  1666.    "    "The Great Fire," September 2-6.
+                It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
+                  for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres,
+                  400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul's
+                  church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall,
+                  the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals
+                  and libraries, 52 companies' halls, and a vast number
+                  of other stately edifices, together with three of the
+                  city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of
+                  Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street
+                  Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple
+                  church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six
+                  persons were killed. The total loss of property was
+                  estimated at the time to be £10,731,500.
+
+  1794. _London_, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
+                  £1,000,000.
+
+  1834.    "    Houses of Parliament burned.
+
+  1861.    "    Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at
+                  £2,000,000.
+
+  1873.    "    Alexandra palace destroyed.
+
+  1137. _York_, totally destroyed.
+
+  1184. _Glastonbury_, town and abbey burned.
+
+  1292. _Carlisle_, destroyed.
+
+  1507. _Norwich_, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.
+
+  1544. _Leith_, burned.
+
+  1598. _Tiverton_, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33
+                      persons killed. Loss, £150,000.
+
+  1612.     "      600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.
+
+  1731.     "      300 houses burned.
+
+  1700. _Edinburgh_, "the Great Fire."
+
+  1612. _Cork_, greater part burned, and again in 1622.
+
+  1613. _Dorchester_, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.
+
+  1614. _Stratford-on-Avon_, burned.
+
+  1644. _Beaminster_, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.
+
+  1675. _Northampton_, almost totally destroyed.
+
+  1683. _Newmarket_, large part of the town burned.
+
+  1694. _Warwick_, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.
+
+  1707. _Lisburn_, burned.
+
+  1727. _Gravesend_, destroyed.
+
+  1738. _Wellingborough_, 800 houses burned.
+
+  1743. _Crediton_, 450 houses destroyed.
+
+  1760. _Portsmouth_, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.
+
+  1770.      "           "        "    Loss, £100,000.
+
+  1802. _Liverpool_, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+  1827. _Sheerness_, 50 houses and much property destroyed.
+
+  1854. _Gateshead_, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+  1875. _Glasgow_. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.
+
+
+  FRANCE
+
+    59. _Lyons_, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.
+
+  1118. _Nantes_, greater part of the city destroyed.
+
+  1137. _Dijon_, burned.
+
+  1524. _Troyes_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1720. _Rennes_, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.
+
+  1784. _Brest_. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+  1862. _Marseilles_, destructive fire.
+
+  1871. _Paris_. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
+          £32,000,000.
+
+
+  CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE
+
+    64. _Rome_ burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were
+          destroyed.
+
+  1106. _Venice_, greater part of the city was burned.
+
+  1577.    "     fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
+                   an explosion.
+
+  1299. _Weimar_, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.
+
+  1379. _Memel_ was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540,
+          1678, 1854.
+
+  1405. _Bern_ was destroyed.
+
+  1420. _Leipzig_ lost 400 houses.
+
+  1457. _Dort_, cathedral and large part of the town burned.
+
+  1491. _Dresden_ was destroyed.
+
+  1521. _Oviedo_, large part of the city destroyed.
+
+  1543. _Komorn_ was burned.
+
+  1634. _Fürth_ was burned by Austrian Croats.
+
+  1680. _Fürth_ was again destroyed.
+
+  1686. _Landau_ was almost destroyed.
+
+  1758. _Pirna_ was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.
+
+  1762. _Munich_ lost 200 houses.
+
+  1764. _Königsberg_, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000.
+
+  1769.      "       almost destroyed.
+
+  1784. _Rokitzan_ (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.
+
+  1801. _Brody_, 1500 houses destroyed.
+
+  1859.   "    1000 houses destroyed.
+
+  1803. _Posen_, large part of older portion of city burned.
+
+  1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.
+
+  1818. _Salzburg_ was partly destroyed.
+
+  1842. _Hamburg_. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.
+           During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219
+             buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed.
+             One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100
+             persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to
+             £7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany
+             came in to help to rebuild the city.
+
+  1861. _Glarus_ (Switzerland), 500 houses burned.
+
+
+  NORTHERN EUROPE
+
+  1530. _Aalborg_, almost entirely destroyed.
+
+  1541. _Aarhuus_, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.
+
+  1624. _Opslo_, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.
+
+  1702. _Bergen_, greater part of the town destroyed.
+
+  1728. _Copenhagen_, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.
+
+  1794.       "       royal palace with contents burned.
+
+  1795.       "       50 streets, 1563 houses burned.
+
+  1751. _Stockholm_, 1000 houses destroyed.
+
+  1759.      "       250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.
+
+  1775. _Åbo_, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.
+
+  1827.   "    780 houses burned, with the university.
+
+  1790. _Carlscrona_, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.
+
+  1802. _Gothenburg_, 178 houses burned.
+
+  1858. _Christiania_. Loss estimated at £250,000.
+
+  1865. _Carlstadt_ (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's
+          residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.
+
+
+  RUSSIA
+
+  1736. _St Petersburg_, 2000 houses burned.
+
+  1862.        "         great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+  1752. _Moscow_, 18,000 houses burned.
+
+  1812.   "       The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive
+                    out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five
+                    days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number
+                    of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, £30,000,000.
+
+  1753. _Archangel_, 900 houses burned.
+
+  1793.      "       3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.
+
+  1786. _Tobolsk_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1788. _Milau_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1812. _Riga_, partly destroyed.
+
+  1834. _Tula_, destructive fire.
+
+  1848. _Orel_, large part of the town destroyed.
+
+  1850. _Cracow_, large part of the town burned.
+
+  1864. _Novgorod_, large amount of property destroyed.
+
+
+  TURKEY
+
+    The following fires have occurred at _Constantinople_:--
+
+  1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.
+
+  1745. A fire lasted five days.
+
+  1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
+          estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the year
+          10,000 houses were destroyed.
+
+  1751. 4000 houses were burned.
+
+  1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761,
+          1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.
+
+  1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m.
+          in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly
+          650 houses were destroyed.
+
+  1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.
+
+  1778. 2000 houses were burned.
+
+  1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
+          mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In
+          February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.
+
+  1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
+          houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of
+          1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of
+          Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at
+          2,000,000 florins.
+
+  1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been
+          burned, and as many in 1795.
+
+  1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
+          magnificent buildings.
+
+  1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
+          were destroyed.
+
+  1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.
+
+  1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.
+
+  1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
+          £3,000,000.
+
+  1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c.
+          Over 22,000 people were left homeless.
+
+  1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population
+          and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed
+          over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city,
+          including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss
+          estimated at nearly £5,000,000.
+
+  1797. _Scutari_, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.
+
+  1763. _Smyrna_, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.
+
+  1772.     "     3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c.
+                    consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.
+
+  1796.     "     4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.
+
+  1841.     "     12,000 houses were burned.
+
+
+  INDIA
+
+  1631. _Rajmahal_. Palace and great part of the town burned.
+
+  1799. _Manilla_, vast storehouses were burned.
+
+  1833.     "      10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
+                     rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.
+
+  1803. _Madras_, more than 1000 houses burned.
+
+  1803. _Bombay_. Loss by fire of £600,000.
+
+
+  CHINA AND JAPAN
+
+  1822. _Canton_ was nearly destroyed by fire.
+
+  1866. _Yokohama_, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the
+           foreign settlement destroyed.
+
+  1872. _Yeddo_. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind,
+                   destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m.
+                   20,000 persons were made homeless.
+
+  1873.    "     A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.
+
+
+  UNITED STATES
+
+  1679. _Boston_. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in
+                    the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.
+
+  1760.    "      A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.
+
+  1787.    "      A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.
+
+  1794.    "      96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.
+
+  1872.    "      Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
+                    quarter of Boston was destroyed.
+         The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston
+           streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings,
+           comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the
+           city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about
+           £15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned
+           district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever.
+
+  1778. _Charleston_ (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.
+
+  1796.       "      300 houses were burned.
+
+  1838.       "      One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
+                       buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.
+
+  1802. _Portsmouth_ (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.
+
+  1813.      "               397 buildings destroyed.
+
+  1820. _Savannah_, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.
+
+  1835. _New York_. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
+                      Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in
+                      the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
+                      firms lost their places of business. The area
+                      burned over was 52 acres. The loss was £3,000,000.
+
+  1845.     "       A fire in the business part of the city, July 20,
+                      destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was £1,500,000.
+                      35 persons were killed.
+
+  1845. _Pittsburg_. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20
+                    squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.
+
+  1846. _Nantucket_ was almost destroyed.
+
+  1848. _Albany_. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37
+           acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.
+
+  1849. _St Louis_. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part
+                      of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss,
+                      £600,000.
+
+  1851.     "       More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
+                      May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.
+
+  1851.     "       500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.
+
+  1850. _Philadelphia_. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost.
+                          Loss, £200,000.
+
+  1865.      "          50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
+                          killed. Loss, £100,000.
+
+  1851. _Washington_. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the
+           Congressional Library were burned.
+
+  1851. _San Francisco_. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
+           A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
+           destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another fire
+           burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.
+
+  1857. _Chicago_. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.
+
+  1859.     "      Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.
+
+  1866.     "      Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss,
+                     £100,000 each.
+
+  1871.     "      The greatest fire of modern times.
+          It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
+            raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or
+            3-1/3 sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
+            lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings
+            were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and
+            one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the
+            end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The
+            loss was estimated at £39,000,000.
+
+  1862. _Troy_ (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.
+
+  1866. _Portland_ (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city
+           was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown
+           up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 to
+           £2,250,000.
+
+  1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
+          15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
+          estimated at £600,000.
+
+
+  BRITISH NORTH AMERICA
+
+  1815. _Quebec_ was injured to the extent of £260,000.
+
+  1845.     "    1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the
+                   population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to
+                   £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
+                   dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
+                   streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.
+
+  1866.     "    2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.
+
+  1825. _New Brunswick_. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in
+           length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons
+           killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss,
+           about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown
+           destroyed.
+
+  1837. _St John_ (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and
+           nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+  1877. _St. John._ Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200
+           acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed;
+           10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss,
+           £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.
+
+  1846. _St John's_ (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two
+           whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at
+           £1,000,000.
+
+  1850. _Montreal_. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
+                      June 7. 200 houses were burned.
+
+  1852.      "      A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
+                      The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in
+                      width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.
+
+
+  SOUTH AMERICA
+
+  1536. _Cuzco_ was nearly consumed.
+
+  1861. _Mendoza_. A great fire followed an earthquake which had
+           destroyed 10,000 people.
+
+  1862. _Valparaiso_ was devastated by fire.
+
+  1863. _Santiago_. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly
+           women and children, perished.
+
+
+  WEST INDIES
+
+  1752. _Pierre_ (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.
+
+  1782. _Kingston_ (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.
+
+  1795. _Montego Bay_ (Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.
+
+  1805. _St Thomas._ 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.
+
+  1808. _Spanish Town_ (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated
+           at £1,500,000.
+
+  1828. _Havana_ lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.
+
+  1843. _Port Republicain_ (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
+           burned.
+
+Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires,
+more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago,
+Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking
+generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated
+the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general
+negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the
+development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better
+organization of the fire-fighting establishments.
+
+It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire,
+and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:--
+
+  Port of Spain (Trinidad)              March  4, 1895
+  New Westminster (British Columbia)    Sept. 10, 1898
+  Toronto (Ontario)                     Jan. 6, 10, and
+                                        March  3, 1895
+  Windsor (Nova Scotia)                 Oct.  17, 1897
+  St John's (Newfoundland)              July   8, 1892
+  London--Charterhouse Square           Dec.  25, 1889
+    "     St Mary Axe                   July  18, 1893
+    "     Old Bailey and Fleet Street   Nov.  15, 1893
+    "     Tabernacle Street, Finsbury   June  21, 1894
+    "     Bermondsey Leather Market     Sept. 13, 1894
+    "         "        "       "        May   17, 1895
+    "     Minories                      Nov.  10, 1894
+    "     South-West India Docks        Feb.   8, 1895
+    "     Charlotte and Leonard
+            Streets, Finsbury           June  10, 1896
+    "     Cripplegate                   Nov.  19, 1897
+  Nottingham                            Nov.  17, 1894
+  Sheffield                             Dec.  21, 1893
+  Bradford                              Nov.  30, 1896
+  Sunderland                            July  18, 1898
+  Dublin                                May    4, 1894
+  Glasgow--Anderston Quay               Jan.  16, 1897
+    "      Dunlop Street                April 25, 1898
+
+As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary
+number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public
+entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention.
+Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in
+this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire
+prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in
+1897 (_Fires at Public Entertainments_), and the results of these fires
+analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350
+souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in
+other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list
+extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk
+of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has
+occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago.
+
+The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far
+greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and
+property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the
+fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual
+fire wastage of the world still averages quite £50,000,000 sterling. It
+is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss,
+insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the
+annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say
+1897), was about £17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially
+reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling. This
+extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,--in spite
+of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of
+property in buildings--is in the main owing to the fire-preventive
+measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great
+improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of
+intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the
+public.
+
+Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more
+particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England
+since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl's
+Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to
+have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization
+and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made
+by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the
+fire-preventive side of fire protection.
+
+_Fire Protection._--The term "Fire Protection" is often misunderstood.
+Fire-extinguishing--in other words, fire brigade work--is what the
+majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well
+protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine
+establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor rôle
+in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe
+their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive
+legislation, based on the practical experience and research of
+architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal
+officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire
+combating and fire research.
+
+Under the heading of "Fire Prevention" should be classed all preventive
+measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading
+"Fire Combating" should be classed both self-help and outside help.
+
+Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a
+rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in
+Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey
+regulations--supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the
+treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the
+manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of
+the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and
+continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious
+arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire
+reports.
+
+  Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
+  There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, had
+  some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school _Standard
+  Reader_ replaced by more instructive ones, which warn children not to
+  play with matches, and teach them to run for help in case of an
+  emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been arranged in place
+  of the meaningless sentences so often used in elementary schools.
+  There are a number of municipalities where regular warnings are issued
+  every December as to the dangerous Christmas-tree. In such places
+  every inhabitant has at least an opportunity of learning how to throw
+  a bucket of water properly, and how to trip up a burning woman and
+  roll her up without fanning the flames. The householder is officially
+  informed where the nearest fire-call point is, and how long he must
+  expect to wait till the first engine can reach his house. If he is a
+  newspaper reader, he will also have ample opportunity of knowing the
+  resources of his town, and the local reporter's fire report will give
+  him much useful information based on facts or hints supplied by the
+  authorities.
+
+Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the heading of
+"Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with the protection of large
+risks, such as factories, stores and public places of amusement, which
+lend themselves to regulation. The requirements of the fire survey code
+may allow for hydrants or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for
+their regular inspection, and the means for self-help may thus be given.
+These means will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some
+of the employés engaged on the risk are instructed as to their purpose,
+and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. The possibility
+of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be encouraged by enforcing
+regular drills for the employés, and regular inspections to test their
+efficiency. There are towns where great reliance is placed on the
+efforts of such amateur firemen. In some cities they even receive extra
+pay and are formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and
+retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.
+
+Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder can scarcely
+be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned for the education of
+the public, if properly utilized, would assure intelligent behaviour on
+the part of a large percentage of the community. There are places where,
+without any regulation being attempted, and thanks entirely to the
+influence referred to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a
+bucket, and a crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the
+household. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly
+encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference with
+personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, with
+the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple of scaling
+ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given to householders to
+learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box of this kind be put in
+a fire-station, and certain afternoons in the year be reserved on which
+this elementary instruction will be given, and the students afterwards
+shown over the fire-station or treated to a "turn-out," a considerable
+number will be found to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter
+whether curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will
+be attained.
+
+Under "outside" help should be understood what is organized, and not
+simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or by a neighbour.
+The link between self-help and outside help is the fire-call.
+
+_The Fire-Call._--The efficiency of the fire-call depends not only on
+the instrument employed and its position, but also on its conspicuous
+appearance, and the indications by which its situation may be
+discovered. These indications are quite as important as the instruments
+themselves. The conspicuousness of the instrument alone does not
+suffice. Of the official notifications given in the press, those in
+regard to the position of the call-points are among the most useful. An
+indication at every street corner as to the direction to take to reach
+the point--or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the
+nearest call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front
+door--may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize
+the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It is
+immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by bell outside
+a fire-station, by a messenger from some special messenger service, by a
+call through a telephone, or by an electric or automatic appliance. Any
+instrument will do that ensures the call being transmitted with maximum
+speed and certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the
+locality.
+
+_Outside Help._--Organized outside help may not be limited simply to the
+attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements can be made for the
+attendance of the local police force, a public or private salvage corps,
+an ambulance, or, in some cases, a military guard. Then in some
+instances arrangements are made for the attendance of the water and gas
+companies' servants, and even officials from the public works office,
+insurance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage
+corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire brigade,
+and others where the police are generally on the spot in good force five
+minutes after the arrival of the first engines. There are several cities
+where the ambulance wagon and the steamers arrive together, and another
+city where the military authorities always send a fire piquet which can
+be turned out in a few minutes.
+
+If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank of the
+individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire brigade, even if
+he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank, should have control, and
+his authority be fully recognized. Unfortunately, there are not many
+countries where this is the case. The efficiency of outside help depends
+in the first instance on the clear definition of the duties and powers
+of all concerned--on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the
+organization, the theoretically as well as practically correct
+executive; and, last but by no means least, on the prestige, the social
+standing, the education of commanders and their ability to handle men.
+Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,
+smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry;
+showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for public applause, will be
+dangerous.
+
+_Research._--Under the heading "Fire Research" should be included
+theoretical and experimental investigation as to materials and
+construction, combined with the chronicling of practical experience in
+fires, then the careful investigation and chronicling of the causes of
+fires, assisted where necessary by a power for holding fire inquests in
+interesting, suspicious or fatal cases. Experimental investigation as to
+natural and accidental causes as distinct from criminal causes can be
+included. Research in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire
+inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, by the
+senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by immediate
+government investigations held on the same lines as inquiries into
+explosions and railway accidents.[1] As to general research work, there
+are several cities which contribute substantially towards the costs of
+fire tests at independent testing stations. Some towns also have special
+commissions of experts who visit all big fires occurring within easy
+travelling distance, take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as
+to how the materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics
+as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places such
+tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with oil lamps, their
+burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.
+
+  _The British Fire Prevention Committee._--The British Fire Prevention
+  Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
+  Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February 1899.
+  It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The members include
+  civil engineers, public officials holding government appointments,
+  fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst the
+  subscribers in the main include the great public departments, such as
+  the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the
+  important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
+  government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
+  together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand has
+  formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. The
+  ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council and an
+  executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription of
+  members and subscribers. The services of the members of council and
+  executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket expenses of any
+  kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals mainly with
+  questions of regulations, rules and publications of general technical
+  interest, the tests are probably what have brought the committee into
+  prominence and given it an international reputation. They are not only
+  the recognized fire tests of Great Britain, but they rank as universal
+  standard tests for the whole of the civilized world, and Americans,
+  just as much as Danes, Germans or Austrians, pride themselves when
+  some product of their country has passed the official procedure of a
+  test by the committee. The reports of the tests, which state facts
+  only without giving criticisms or recommendations, are much
+  appreciated by all who have the control of public works or the
+  specification of appliances. The committee does not limit itself
+  solely to testing proprietary forms of construction or appliances, but
+  has a number of tests--quite equal to the proprietary tests--of
+  articles in general use. The ordinary concrete floor or the ordinary
+  wooden joist floor protected by asbestos boards or slag wool receives
+  as much attention as a patent floor; and similarly the ordinary
+  everyday hydrant receives equal attention with the patent hydrant, or
+  ordinary bucket of water with the special fire extinguisher. The door
+  tests of the committee, which cover some thirty different types of
+  doors, deal with no less than twenty ordinary wooden doors that can be
+  made by any ordinary builder or cabinet-maker. These so-called
+  non-proprietary tests are made at the expense of the general funds of
+  the committee, whilst for the proprietary tests the owners have to pay
+  about two-thirds of the expenses incurred in the form of a testing
+  fee. The expenses incurred in a test, of course, not only comprise the
+  actual testing operation of testing, but also the expense of producing
+  the report, which is always a very highly finished publication with
+  excellent blocks. The expense incurred also includes the establishment
+  expenses of the testing station at Regent's Park.
+
+  The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
+  Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in both
+  of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National Fire
+  Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. It
+  from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent of
+  Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official
+  reports, well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and
+  methods of the countries visited, and serving as most useful reference
+  publications.
+
+  Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both in
+  respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been most
+  beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless of the
+  fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount of
+  property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage
+  annually is about £5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
+  obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
+  Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about £23,000, of which
+  more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
+  contributions or subscriptions.
+
+  There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
+  several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
+  notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several
+  insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
+  Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside Great
+  Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare with the
+  systematic series of inquiries conducted without any substantial state
+  aid in London.
+
+_Distribution of Losses._--Property destroyed by fire is practically an
+absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the owner, or it may
+be distributed among a number of people, who are taxed for it in the
+form of a contribution to their national or local fire fund, a share in
+some mutual insurance "ring," or the more usual insurance companies'
+premium. In the first two cases some expenses have also to be met in
+connexion with the management of the fund, "tariff" organization, or
+"ring." In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to be
+covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance enterprise
+as such, and then a further amount for division amongst those who share
+the risk of the venture--namely, the insurance company's shareholders.
+
+  It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. The
+  sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss with a
+  minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly managed company
+  paying large dividends will cover a loss, but with an unnecessarily
+  large extra outlay. In every case the loss remains; and as property
+  may always be considered part of the community, the province or
+  nation, as the case may be, suffers. It is always in the interest of a
+  nation to minimize its national losses, no matter whether they fall on
+  one individual's shoulders or on many, and whether such losses are
+  good for certain trades or not. With a suitable system of fire
+  protection it is possible to bring these losses to a minimum, but this
+  minimum would probably only be reached by an extra expense, which
+  would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets in the form of municipal
+  rates than the higher premium for the greater risk. A practical
+  minimum is all that can be attempted, and that practical minimum
+  varies according to circumstances.
+
+  Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, and the
+  actual extra cost of this protection should be something less than the
+  saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a smaller dead
+  loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure for his
+  combined contributions toward the losses, the management of his
+  insurance, and the protective measures. Where there is mutual
+  insurance or municipal insurance in its best sense, the losses by fire
+  and the costs of the protection are often booked in one account, and
+  the better protection up to a certain point should mean a smaller
+  individual annual share. Where there is company insurance the
+  municipal rates are increased to cover the cost of extra protection,
+  while a proportionate decrease is expected in the insurance premiums.
+  Competition and public opinion generally impose this decrease of the
+  insurance rates as soon as there is a greater immunity from fire.
+  Where the insurance companies are well managed and the shareholders
+  are satisfied with reasonable dividends, practical protection can be
+  said to find favour with all concerned, but if the protection is
+  arranged for and the companies do not moderate their charges
+  accordingly, the reverse is the case.
+
+  The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
+  maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
+  considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
+  municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the
+  effect that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good
+  fire service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
+  managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
+  means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has to pay
+  for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal rate, or in
+  the form of an increased premium raised to meet the contribution
+  levied, this is simply juggling with figures.
+
+_Cost._--As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, better
+and safer building from the fire point of view means better and more
+valuable structures of longer life from the economic aspect. Such better
+and safer constructional work pays for itself and cannot be considered
+in the light of an extra tax on the building owner. The compilation and
+administration of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be
+attended to by the same executive authorities as would in any case
+superintend general structural matters, and the additional work would at
+the most require some increased clerical aid. If the execution of the
+fire survey regulations were delegated to the same authority there would
+again simply be some extra clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of
+perhaps a few extra surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly
+efficient, it has been found advisable in several instances to form
+parties of three for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be
+a fire brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep,
+who would have to receive a special retaining fee.
+
+The cost of the public training referred to would be small, as the
+elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster's work, and
+the Press matters could be easily managed in the fire brigade office.
+Payments would have only to be made for advertisements, such as the
+official warnings, lists for fire-call points, &c., and perhaps for the
+publication of semi-official hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and
+drills for amateurs are concerned would be under the control of the fire
+brigade. There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase and
+maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.
+
+The most expensive items in the system of fire protection undoubtedly
+come under the headings "Fire-Call" and "Fire Brigade." As to the
+former, there are a number of cities where the cost is modified by
+having the whole of the electrical service for the police force, the
+ambulance and fire brigade, managed by a separate department. The same
+wires call up each of these services, and, as the same staff attend to
+their maintenance, the fire protection of a city need only be debited
+with perhaps a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed
+independently. The combined system has also the great advantage of
+facilitating the mutual working of the different services in case of an
+emergency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an outlay;
+but here again, if the three services work together, the expenses on the
+count of fire protection can be lessened. The money rewards given in
+some cities to the individuals who first call the fire-engines may
+become a heavy item. Their utility is doubtful, and they have formed an
+inducement for arson.
+
+As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong active force
+should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. The latter should
+be as inexpensive as possible, but should at least constitute a
+part-paid and disciplined body which could be easily called in for
+emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot allow for an active force being
+ready for such coincidences as an unusual number of large fires starting
+simultaneously, but they must allow for an ample strength always being
+forthcoming for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due
+consideration for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire
+brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the property
+owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of the force. The
+budget must also allow for an attractive rate of pay, as the profession
+is one which requires men who have a maximum of the sterling qualities
+which we look for in the pick of a nation. It must also not be
+forgotten that the fire service is one of the few where a system of
+pensions is the only fair way of recognizing the risks of limb and
+health, and at the same time securing that stability in which practical
+experience from long service is so essential a factor. The budget must
+allow for an ample reserve of appliances.
+
+Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit of its
+having a separate section for salvage corps purposes depends on
+circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is required, and should be
+part and parcel of the municipal brigade and organized on the same lines
+with a reserve, no matter whether the insurance of the locality be
+managed by the authorities or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it
+matters little whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.
+
+Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are items for
+fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, due confidence
+being placed in the opinions of the fire officers and surveyors, there
+is no reason why the outlay should be great. The statistical work would
+only require some clerical aid. Where special coroners are retained for
+criminal cases some extra money will of course be required; but even
+here the costs need not be excessive, as there are many retired fire
+brigade officers and fire surveyors who are well suited for the work,
+and would be satisfied with a small emolument.
+
+As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places where
+special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests of fire
+protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the heading "Fire
+Protection" have simply to cover the maintenance of hydrants and
+tablets, or at the most the cost of the water actually used for
+fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the cost of hydrants is shared
+with the scavenging department or the commission of sewers, which also
+have the use of them. Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to
+a private water company, the property owners will be paying their share
+for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.
+
+The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving and
+for the protection of property. It should be remembered that a good
+staircase and a ladder are often as useful for the manoeuvring of the
+firemen as for life-saving purposes, and that they are practically as
+essential for the saving of property as for saving life. No distinction
+need be made between the two risks when speaking of fire protection in
+general; but as the safety of the most valueless life is generally
+classed higher than that of the most valuable property, it may be well
+to give life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.
+
+Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective system is
+defective. With good construction and a fire survey, the quick arrival
+of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks of detection are as a
+rule far too great to encourage its growth.
+
+_Saving of Life._--Under "Fire Prevention" special requirements in the
+Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life by requiring
+practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. The risks in
+theatres and assembly halls require separate legislation. In ordinary
+structures no inmate of a building should be more than sixty feet away
+from a staircase, and preferably there should be two staircases at his
+disposal in the event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only
+given to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that
+their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater danger
+than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of
+opening a window has saved many a life.
+
+_Safety of Property._--As far as the protection of property is
+concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful
+construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of
+buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of
+skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention
+of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by
+the materials used in construction.
+
+The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one house
+from spreading to another, and a stranger's property, so to say, from
+being endangered. This is quite possible, given good party walls
+carried well over the roof to a height regulated by the nature of the
+risk, the provision of the shutters to windows where necessary, and the
+use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a thoroughly good roof--or still
+better, a fire-resisting attic floor--can do much. If the locality has a
+fire brigade and the force is efficiently handled, "spreads" from one
+house to another should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts
+are, however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to
+localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible for
+street improvements.
+
+The division of a building or large "risk" into a number of minor ones
+is only possible to a certain extent. There is no need to spend enormous
+sums to make each of the minor "risks" impregnable. The desire should be
+simply to try to retard the spread for a certain limited time after the
+flames have really taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most
+fires will have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient
+fire-extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can be
+on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration from
+becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an ordinary well-built house,
+for example, if the joists are strong and the boards grooved, if some
+light pugging be used and the plastering properly done, if the doors are
+made well-fitting and fairly strong, a very considerable amount of
+furniture and fittings can remain well alight for half an hour before
+there is a spread. In a warehouse or factory "risk" the same holds good.
+With well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps
+run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary
+double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with sheet
+iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned for a
+considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent" flooring are
+exceedingly useful for the division of "risks," and with their aid a
+fire can be limited to an individual storey of a building, but it should
+not be forgotten that even the best of flooring is useless if carried by
+unprotected iron girders supported, say, by some light framing or weak
+partition. The general mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete
+construction is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,
+shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that the
+protection of the supports and girder-work requires most careful
+attention.
+
+Of the various systems of "patent" flooring, as a rule the simpler forms
+are the more satisfactory. It should, however, always be remembered that
+any specific form of flooring alone does not prevent a fire breaking
+from one "risk" to another. They should go hand in hand with general
+good construction, and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the
+modern fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their
+introduction for fire protection alone. In considering their
+introduction, the general advantages which they afford as to spans,
+thickness, general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A
+practical installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first,
+not increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly should
+add to the general value of the structure by giving it a more
+substantial character.
+
+The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should not be
+forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well armed with
+shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting glass, and the lifts
+not only vertical doors, but also horizontal flaps, cutting up the well
+into sections. The question of light partitions must also not be
+neglected.
+
+Division of "risks," common-sense construction, and proper staircase
+accommodation are really all that fire protection requires, and where
+the special Building Act clauses have been kept within the lines
+indicated, there has been little friction and discontent. It is only as
+a rule when the authorities are eccentric in their demands that the
+building owner considers himself harassed by protective measures.
+
+Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the actual
+outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey can also
+increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen the possibility
+of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes or ladders, and a
+regular inspection of their efficiency, will do much. The examination of
+a rusty door-catch may save a building. The actual preventive work of
+the surveyor will, however, mostly consist in warning property owners
+against temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty
+chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas brackets fixed in
+risky positions. Self-help will be greatly facilitated by the judicious
+arrangement of fire-extinguishing gear, and a like inspection of its
+efficiency. Hydrants and cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so
+stiff that the water cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand
+pumps and pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest
+errors generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of the
+fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his efforts are
+unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not, perhaps, use the
+gear at all.
+
+With regard to regulations governing "special risks," so far as the
+safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls is concerned,
+attention should be chiefly given to the exits. Spread of fire, and even
+its outbreak, are secondary considerations. A panic caused by the
+suspicion of a fire can be quite as fatal as that caused by the actual
+start of a conflagration. In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct
+communication should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the
+main staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and
+burners should be prohibited.
+
+_Fire-resisting Materials._--One of the greatest misnomers in connexion
+with fire prevention was originally the description of certain materials
+and systems of construction as being "fire-proof." This has seriously
+affected the development of the movement towards fire prevention, for,
+having regard to the fact that nothing described as "fire-proof" could
+be fire-proof in the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so
+described, and in fact everything described as "fire-proof" came to be
+looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion and obtain
+a better understanding on the subject, the International Fire Prevention
+Congress of London in 1903, at which some 800 representatives of
+government departments and municipalities were present, discussed this
+matter at considerable length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in
+consideration of their importance in affecting the whole development of
+fire-resisting construction, are published below. It is the
+classification of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that
+has been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire, and in
+numerous other countries, since that date.
+
+The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations
+contained in the following statement issued by the British Fire
+Prevention Committee:--
+
+  The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having given
+  their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term
+  "fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably applied
+  to many building materials and systems of building construction in use
+  in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that the avoidance of
+  this term in general business, technical, and legislative vocabulary
+  is essential.
+
+  The executive consider the term "fire-resisting" more applicable for
+  general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying
+  qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended
+  to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or
+  low temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general
+  adoption of this term in place of "fire-proof."
+
+  Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the
+  fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,
+  consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise the
+  authorities controlling building operations, should clearly
+  discriminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,
+  requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city
+  warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight
+  requires very different protection from the tenement house of the
+  suburbs.
+
+  The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting
+  materials and systems of construction affording _temporary_
+  protection, _partial_ protection, and _full_ protection against fire,
+  and to classify all building materials and systems of construction
+  under these three headings. The exact and definite limit of these
+  three classes is based on the experience obtained from numerous
+  investigations and tests, combined with the experience obtained from
+  actual fires, and after due consideration of the limitations of
+  building practice and the question of cost.
+
+  The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for building
+  materials or systems of construction will be seen from the standard
+  tables appended for--
+
+  I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,
+  II. Fire-resisting partitions,
+  III. Fire-resisting doors,
+
+  but they could be popularly summarized as follows:--
+
+  (a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire for at
+  least three-quarters of an hour.
+
+  (b) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+  for at least one hour and a half.
+
+  (c) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+  for at least two hours and a half.
+
+  The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the actual
+  minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and the
+  application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables by all
+  technically interested, but for the popular discrimination---which the
+  executive are desirous of encouraging--the time standard alone should
+  suffice.
+
+  It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards in
+  this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that the
+  same standardization may in future be common to all countries, and the
+  preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization are
+  already in hand.
+
+_Fire Combating._--As to self-help, complication must always be avoided.
+The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest lines. One thing
+which must be instilled into him is not to waste water--a sure sign of
+lack of training. Of course the drills must be on the same lines as
+those of the local brigade, and on no account should other gear be used
+for self-help than is generally customary in that force. When
+volunteers and regulars work together, the former should always remember
+that the paid force are experts, though the regulars must never have
+that contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers are
+often men who are probably experts in some other vocation outside
+fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which a professional
+fire-fighter has had.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |            |   Load per     |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |  Minimum   |  Superficial   |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |  Classification    |Sub-Class.| of Test.|Temperature.|      Foot      |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |            |  Distributed   |  under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |            |(per Sq. Metre).|               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|   1500° F. |   Optional     | 100 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5° C.)|                |(9.290 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|   1500° F. |   Optional     | 200 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5° C.)|                |(18.580 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|   1800° F. |     112 lb.    |  100 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|  (546.852 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)|            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|   1800° F. |     168 lb.    |  200 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|  (820.278 kg.) |(18.580 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|   1800° F. |     224 lb.    |  100 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)| (1093.706 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)|            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|   1800° F. |     280 lb.    |  200 sq. ft.  |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)| (1367.130 kg.) |(18.258 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  kg. = kilogramme.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |            |                |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |  Minimum   |  Thickness of  |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |   Classification   |Sub-Class.|of Test. |Temperature.|    material.   |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |            |                |  Under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |            |                |               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|   1500° F. |2 in. and under |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5° C.)|   (.051 m.)    |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|   1500° F. |    Optional    |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5° C.)|                |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|   1800° F. |2½ in. and under|  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|   (.063 m.)    |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|   1800° F. |   Optional     |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|                |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|   1800° F. |2½ in. and under|  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|   (.063 m.)    |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|   1800° F. |    Optional    |  80 sq. ft.   |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2° C.)|                |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  kg. = kilogramme.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without
+  Frames._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |            |                |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |  Minimum   |  Thickness of  |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |   Classification   |Sub-Class.| of Test.|Temperature.|    material.   |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |            |                |  Under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |            |                |               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|  1500° F.  |2 in. and under |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(815.5° C.) |   (.051 m.)    |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|  1500° F.  |    Optional    |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(815.5° C.) |                |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|  1800° F.  |2½ in. and under|  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2° C.) |   (.063 m.)    |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|  1800° F.  |    Optional    |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2° C.) |                |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|  1800° F.  | ½ in. and under|  25 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2° C.) |   (.018 m.)    |(2.322 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|  1800° F.  |    Optional    |  25 sq. ft.   |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2° C.) |                |(2.322 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+
+_Transmission of Fire-Calls._--There are several methods of transmitting
+the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of course, to run direct to
+the nearest fire-station; but this is only possible where the distance
+is short. In one or two cities, however, the number of fire-stations is
+so great that they are very close to one another, and hence "direct"
+calls are generally recorded.
+
+Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is reported at
+some public office, police-station or guard-room, where there are always
+runners ready to start off to the nearest fire-station. The special
+runner is here practically a makeshift for the more modern telegraph or
+telephone line, and it is believed that the only city in which this
+system is employed is one where the unsettled political atmosphere has
+compelled the authorities to prohibit the construction of any telegraph
+lines other than those for the use of the general postal service.
+Similar messenger services have, however, also been introduced in
+connexion with the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises
+known as "general messenger" or "call-boy" services, which are organized
+for business purposes, have the advantage of including the fire-call and
+the police-call. In the same way that a cab can be signalled, a call may
+come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready runner makes off to the
+fire-station instead of to the cab rank. As a rule, these messenger
+offices are near the fire-station. The combination is rather a curious
+one, as it embraces the most advanced notions of giving every "risk" its
+own fire-call, and the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.
+
+Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely on the
+public telephone system, the terms of subscription to which may compel
+holders to forward fire messages if required to do so. This system
+allows for such development as the payment of retaining fees to porters
+in public and other buildings which have a night service, on condition
+that the fire-call shall be promptly despatched. The telephones are,
+perhaps, even provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should
+be remembered that the service always goes through a general telephone
+exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.
+
+In the special telephone line system special wires are laid from
+buildings which are practically open all the year round direct to their
+nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again made for prompt
+attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes the place of the telephone, but
+this requires the porter or attendant to be specially trained to the
+work. To simplify matters, the buildings are sometimes provided with
+automatic fire-calls instead of telephones; but the principle of the
+system remains the same. In districts where there are few public
+offices, the list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has
+been frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops,
+where night service is not unusual.
+
+What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next. Automatic
+fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles are under lock
+and key, and the keys are distributed only among policemen, watchmen or
+householders, and the messages can, therefore, only be given by persons
+known to the authorities.
+
+The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next to the
+direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones can be laid
+on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an instance where an
+attempt was made to give every householder a private fire-call. This
+system is, however, unfortunately too extreme for the municipal purse.
+If in connexion with some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the
+messenger services referred to, it would be a different matter, though
+it should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call points
+means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire, and a risk of
+too many sections of the fire brigade being on the road to it.
+
+Besides these forms of "call," there is also the private alarm.
+Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones,
+alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which a call
+can be given direct from the "risk" involved.
+
+Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most frequented
+positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front of a church would
+be the best; in others, the front of a public-house. It should always be
+remembered that every facility should be given to enable as many people
+as possible to know the whereabouts of the call points without any
+distinct effort on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar
+conspicuous by day, and a coloured lamp by night.
+
+As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box stating
+the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the best
+methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most in use in a
+modern city, and hence the plate is read by many. In an oriental town
+the public fountain would, however, take the place of the letter-box.
+Plates put up inside every front door are somewhat extreme measures. In
+one city red darts are painted on the glass of every street lamp,
+indicating the direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign,
+however, has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its
+meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.
+
+Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a sovereign.
+In some places every call is rewarded--even those to chimney fires--and
+this often results in an abuse of the privilege. Rogues light fires on
+the top of a chimney and then run to call the engines. If a reward be
+given, a limitation should be made. In one town no relation or employé
+of the owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given for
+calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.
+
+No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by mistake. The
+possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is a bona fide reason
+for a call which should not be discouraged. Malicious alarms should,
+however, be treated with the utmost rigour, as the absence of firemen
+from their stations always means an extra risk to life and property.
+Combined "lynch law" and imprisonment has generally been adopted with
+good effect. The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of
+the engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that
+handed to the police.
+
+The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to
+facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the
+headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed or the
+telephone is used no special arrangements are required, but where the
+telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced, the apparatus
+must be adapted for this contingency. At some automatic fire-call points
+a few signals can be given, at others, a telegraphic or telephonic
+transmitter can be applied. Much valuable time may be saved in this way
+when more assistance is required.
+
+_Fire Brigades._--The organization of fire brigades varies greatly.
+There are brigades where officers and men are practically constantly
+ready to attend a fire, and others where they are ready on alternate
+days, two days out of every three, or three days out of every four, and
+the off day is entirely their own, or at the most, only partially used
+by the authorities for some light work. The men off duty are only
+expected to attend a fire if there is a great emergency, the brigade
+being strong enough without them for ordinary eventualities. Both
+systems can be worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service,
+which would be only called out for great calamities. They could be
+organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the reserve men
+might be attached to sections of the regulars and mixed with them when
+the occasion arises. The reserves can consist either of retired firemen
+who have a few regular drills, or of amateurs who go through a special
+course of training, and have some series of drills at intervals, with
+preferably a short spell of service every year with the regulars. For
+the regulars, forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has
+given the most satisfactory results.
+
+The division of the active force may be on a system of a number of small
+parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong bodies. Another
+system allows for subdivision into sections of equal strength, ranging
+from parties of, say, five men with a non-commissioned officer to thirty
+non-commissioned officers and men with an officer. The force can, of
+course, also simply be divided up into parties or sections of different
+strengths not governed by a system of military units. The sections
+either can work independently, as units, simply governed by one central
+authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor or major
+bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole individually
+responsible to headquarters.
+
+The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may be "officers
+and gentlemen" in the military sense, or have only temporarily done work
+with the rank and file when in training. There could also be a
+combination of these two systems. Only the captain and deputy-captain
+might be officers in the military sense, the sections or divisions being
+officered by "non-coms." Some cities have an officer to every thirty
+"non-coms" and men, whilst others put a division of as many as two
+hundred under a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection
+is treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have
+really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military
+sense have been found essential. They have also been found advantageous
+where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing. The prestige of the
+fire service has been raised everywhere where the officers, besides
+being fire experts, are educated men of social standing. There are
+cities where the officers of the fire brigade are in every way
+recognized as equal to army or navy men, their social position is the
+same, and their mess fulfils the same functions as a regimental mess.
+The fire brigade officer is recognized at court, and there is no
+ceremonial without him. On the other hand, there are also cities with
+brigades several hundred strong where the captain's social standing is
+beneath that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary
+training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally had some
+experience in another profession, such as the army, the navy, or the
+architectural and engineering professions, previous to their entering
+the fire service. Some brigades recruit from army officers only, and
+preferably from the engineers or artillery regiments; others recruit
+from among architects and engineers, subject to their having at least
+had some military experience in the reserve forces or the volunteers.
+Some cities only take engineers or architects, and make a point of it
+that they should have no previous military experience. Some previous
+experience in the handling of men is essential.
+
+As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are taken as
+firemen; others where the engines are manned by sailors. In some towns
+the building trades supply the recruits; in others, all trades are
+either discriminately or indiscriminately represented. A combination
+from the army or navy on the one side and the building trades on the
+other is most satisfactory. The knowledge of building construction in
+the ranks stands the force in good stead, and has often saved both lives
+and property. Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important
+trade, much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing their
+own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from sedentary trades
+should not be excessive. Where there are only men of one trade or
+calling, there is often too great a tendency to one-sidedness, and a
+great amount of prejudice.
+
+Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for both
+officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry men are very
+useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary, also a good
+memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in a brigade, and should be
+transferred to some other service if the fatness be developed during
+their engagement with a brigade. Many brigades take only single men,
+"non-coms" and officers only being allowed to marry. There are many
+brigades where twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the
+privates, fifty for the "non-coms," and sixty for the officers.
+
+As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their sections or
+units provided with practically the same gear; others where each unit
+has a double or treble set, one of which is used according to
+circumstances. The section may have a manual engine, a steamer and a
+ladder truck at its disposal, and may turn out with either. There are
+towns where the units are differently equipped, and steamer or manual
+sections called out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where
+the sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of engines
+and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete with (say) a
+chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape. The contrast to this
+will be found in the small parties of twos or threes, whose turn-out
+would only consist of a small hose trolley or an escape. Of course,
+there are all kinds of combinations, the most important of which allows
+a section to have one or more independent subsections. Though
+practically belonging to the "unit," the subsections work independently
+in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long ladder, or
+a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The subsections may act as
+outposts or simply as specialist parties, which are only called out for
+particular work.
+
+As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street stations are
+provided for the small parties referred to. In a few cases two small
+parties are housed under the same roof. The large bodies that back them
+are generally quartered together in extensive barracks, from which any
+number of engines and men can be turned out according to the nature of
+the call. Then there are cities where every section has its own
+well-built station; others where one or two sections are housed
+together, according to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a
+dozen located at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of
+the group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the
+other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be the central
+station of a district at the same time. The actual working of the
+district headquarters would, however, then be kept separate from the
+working of the headquarters staff. The latter would, perhaps, have some
+sections ready to send anywhere besides the trucks, &c., necessary for
+the officers, the general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is
+usual to combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the
+headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district
+centres.
+
+In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts, &c.,
+various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory results have
+been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not simply a hose-car or
+escape-party) can reach any building in the city within six minutes from
+the time of the call reaching the station, the six minutes including
+both turn-out and run. Where there are exceptionally large or dangerous
+risks, this time has had to be shortened to four minutes, and the
+possibility of an attendance from a second station assured within six
+minutes. In dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have
+been obtained where every house can be reached from the district centre
+within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters would naturally have
+a central position in the city. In one or two instances the headquarters
+offices are located in a separate building, which in no way serves as a
+fire-station, but simply as a centre through which all orders and
+business pass.
+
+The different stations must be in connexion with each other. The special
+runner or rider is practically disappearing. The telegraph and
+telephone have taken his place. Some cities favour Morse telegraphy,
+which certainly had great advantages over the telephone at one time, as
+messages could be easily transmitted to several stations with the same
+effort, but telephone distributors have now been successfully
+introduced. Errors are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and
+there is always a record of every message. The most modern forms of
+telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the fire service
+than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in direct communication with
+every station, but every station should be able to communicate with its
+neighbour directly, as well as through the headquarters office, and
+there should be a direct wire to its district station if it has one.
+There should be three routes of communication, so that two should be
+always ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters
+or the district centres would be in touch with the various auxiliaries
+referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and the telephone
+exchange.
+
+As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one unit to
+answer the first call if they have no particulars, others always turn
+out two or three sections, and there are several cities where the
+district centre would at least send an officer and a few men as well. In
+one brigade, headquarters is always represented by either the chief or
+the second officer in the case of a call of this kind. The idea is that
+it is always better to have too strong a force quickly in attendance
+than too small a number of men, and that it is most important that the
+first arrival should be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a
+call and one breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being
+too great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,
+not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other fires
+are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines, on account of
+a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a call reaches the
+firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn out, and if more help is
+required other sections will be called up individually. In others the
+reinforcements are not called up separately, but the fires are divided
+into three classes--small, medium and large; and on the message arriving
+of a more extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section
+already know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls to
+certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may always
+be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the same message will
+then simultaneously turn out the stronger body without any further
+detailed instructions being necessary. In some towns the fire-call
+automata are so arranged that the messenger can at once call for the
+different classes of fire. This, however, is not to be recommended, as a
+messenger will probably consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic
+blaze, and will bring out too many engines.
+
+_Equipment._--The following are characteristic features in the equipment
+of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure water supply, some
+brigades simply attend with hose-cars, life-saving gear and ladders; or,
+instead of the hose-cars, take their manuals, which they practically
+never use and which serve only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others
+take, and make a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with
+them ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time is
+thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug; and in case of
+a hydrant being out of order, there is always sufficient water at hand
+until the second hydrant has been found. Many cities have introduced
+chemical engines to take the place of this combination of water barrel
+and manual engine. A supply of water is carried on the chemical engine.
+Some cities always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,
+only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at once
+used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently of the
+pressure there is in the water service. Where there is no good water
+service, manuals or steamers have, of course, to be sent out, and are
+supplied either from the low-pressure service or from the natural
+waterways or wells. There are still a large number of cities where the
+suburbs have no proper water service, and the water barrel is then very
+handy for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the chemical
+treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire, with the view of
+increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals instead of water. In
+certain localities fire appliances are still run out to fires by hand,
+especially where there is a high pressure water system and hose carts
+only are required. Generally the appliances are horsed. Motor traction
+is, however, now rapidly superseding horse traction for reasons of
+economy and the wider and more rapid range of efficiency.
+
+As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely almost
+entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend on scaling
+ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence is placed in the
+jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are much used; and there are a few
+where wonderful work is done with life-lines. To indicate the diversity
+with which any one appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the
+fire service, it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different
+ways in which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material of
+the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape--whether
+round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means of holding it, the
+way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at what distance from the
+endangered building the sheet is to be held. Last, but not least, come
+the words of command.
+
+_Working of Brigades._--In some forces all possible attention is given
+to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others the speed at
+which engines run to the fire is considered to be of primary importance.
+Other brigades, again, give equal attention to both. There are brigades
+which work entirely on military lines, each man having certain duties
+marked out for him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are
+others where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there are
+combinations in the same way as regards command. Some chief officers
+arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies, and control
+the working of the brigade from a position of vantage at a distance.
+Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire, perhaps at the branch
+itself, or on some gallant life-saving exploit where they no doubt do
+good work as a fireman, but in no way fulfil the office of commanders.
+Officers must remember that they are officers, and not rank and file;
+and this is generally very difficult to those who have advanced from the
+ranks. Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to
+their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must always be
+in a good position where they can superintend everything pertaining to
+the outbreak in question. Some brigades seem to make a point of working
+quietly, and shouting is absolutely forbidden, all commands being given
+by shrill whistles. In some brigades all commands are given by word of
+mouth, and there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being
+bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes trying. As a
+rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.
+
+Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others are
+satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a distance. Some
+attack the fire direct, others only try to protect what surrounds the
+seat of the flames. Several brigades are ordered always to try to attack
+by the natural routes of the front door and the staircases. In others,
+the men always have to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the
+aid of ladders--through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully
+extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades boast of never
+having damaged property unnecessarily. They have, for instance, had the
+patience to suffocate a cellar fire, instead of putting the whole cellar
+under water. In certain classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the
+hand-pump have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction
+than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which to
+judge the training and handling of a fire brigade--to see what damage
+they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and windows, when there
+is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided, where every man in the
+force feels that his first duty is to prevent damage and loss and his
+second to extinguish the fire.
+
+Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally stationed
+at headquarters; where this division is split up into sections, there
+would also be a distribution among the district centres; the salvage men
+are simply part of the force, told off on special duty. Where there are
+private salvage corps, their stations are generally near the
+headquarters or district centres of the brigade, from which they receive
+notice of the fire. In some cities the salvage corps work quite
+independently; in others, they work under the chief of the brigade
+directly they arrive at the fire.
+
+As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with the fire
+service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room to work in is
+now fully recognized, and the police are at once called out and often
+brought on to the scene in an incredibly short time. The value of these
+measures should not be under-rated, especially in cities where rowdyism
+exists. In many cities the ambulance service is also turned out to
+fires. Where no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen
+should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and gasmen are
+also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many garrison towns the
+military turn out to assist the fire brigade.
+
+  _National Fire Brigades' Union._--The National Fire Brigades' Union,
+  which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great Britain,
+  originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire brigades held
+  at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee on the 30th of
+  May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were present. Next
+  day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall, Oxford, and
+  it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades Union.
+  Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade, was
+  appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed first
+  president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through ill-health he
+  was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the union offered to
+  provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers for his regiment the
+  duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped corps were sent out to
+  the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein, South Africa, under
+  Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned the services rendered by the
+  firemen in his despatches.
+
+  The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own
+  council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the
+  central council. The districts are:--Eastern, Midlands, South Coast,
+  South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South
+  Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North Wales,
+  Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in 1902). There
+  are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents in America,
+  Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
+  Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, India and the
+  Federated Malay Straits. The total strength of the union is 667 fire
+  brigades and members with nearly 12,000 firemen. Every member of the
+  union gives his time and services for the benefit of the country; all
+  appointments are honorary, with the exception that a small allowance
+  is made for clerical assistance. A drill book is issued by the union,
+  and the fourth edition was published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these
+  books have been issued to brigades all over the world.
+
+  The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers. All
+  members have to come up for re-examination every three years, else
+  they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination is
+  more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association.
+  This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial fire
+  brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance work. A
+  very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the union
+  entitled _First Aid in the Fire Service_, by Chief Officer William
+  Ettles, M.D.
+
+  The union organized and took part in the International Fire
+  Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and 1896,
+  and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses at
+  Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It has also
+  held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal Palace, and
+  before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.
+
+
+_Fire Brigade Organization._
+
+Below are given examples of the organization of different fire brigades.
+The brigades so described have been selected not so much on account of
+their intrinsic importance, as because they represent classes or types
+of brigades and fire brigade organization which it may be useful to
+refer to. In respect of the London fire brigade, however, historical
+data are also presented, as it is only with the aid of these that the
+extraordinary development of that force can be properly realized.
+
+With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire brigade, the
+resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903 are reprinted below.
+As they indicate, the general feeling amongst all interested in fire
+protection from an economic point of view is that fire brigades should
+not be merely fire extinguishing organizations but should utilize their
+influence in a much wider sense.
+
+The Congress considered:--
+
+  1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers to
+  take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire projection,
+  inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers' experience in
+  actual fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work
+  of architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful
+  for the organization and development of precautionary measures.
+
+  2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should
+  encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study of
+  questions of fire prevention.
+
+  3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and
+  that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a
+  government department.
+
+  4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That on
+  the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immediately
+  made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain the
+  cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the result of
+  such investigation to a public department for tabulation and
+  publication.
+
+  5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be
+  charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred, as
+  may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.
+
+  6. That the press should from time to time publish technical reports
+  on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge and
+  experience gained.
+
+_London._--In the early part of the 19th century the methods in vogue
+for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis were of the
+most crude and disjointed character, in striking contrast with the
+highly elaborated system now put into practice by the London County
+Council through its fire brigade; and it was not until the second half
+of the 19th century was well advanced that anything approaching an
+adequate and satisfactory organization was brought into existence. Until
+the passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only acts
+relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London were the
+Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90), and "an act (14
+Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better Regulation of Buildings and
+Party Walls, and for the more effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire
+within the Cities of London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof,
+and other the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of
+Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras, and St
+Luke's at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex." The clauses in the
+latter act relating to protection against fire remained in force till
+the passing of the act of 1865. They provided that every parish should
+keep "one large engine and one small, called a hand engine, a leathern
+pipe, and a certain number of ladders." The Lighting and Watching Act
+contained a clause which extended to England and Wales and so covered
+the area "without the bills of mortality," enabling the inspectors
+appointed under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines; and
+certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without the bills
+of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.
+
+The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in 1862,
+reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act of George
+III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered practically of
+importance, but that, at the time of the report, the arrangements
+generally made by the parishes under the act were not only entirely
+useless, but in many cases produced injurious results, as the system
+under the act frequently conferred a reward for the first useless
+parochial engine, whereas the efficient engine which might be on the
+spot a few minutes later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were,
+however, exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a
+"very efficient" fire brigade was maintained at an expense of about £500
+a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the rating of the parish.
+The select committee were unable to ascertain with any accuracy the
+total amount paid by the metropolitan parishes for the maintenance,
+"however inefficient," of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be
+about £10,000.
+
+For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance offices in
+London kept fire brigades at their individual expense; to these
+brigades were attached a considerable number of men usually occupied as
+Thames watermen, retained in the service of the different Fire Offices,
+who received payment only on the occurrence of fires, and who wore the
+livery and badge of the respective companies. These fire brigades were,
+to quote the report of the select committee of 1862, considered as
+giving notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a
+considerable rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of
+good as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.
+
+The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced an attempt to
+be made, which was effectually carried out in the year 1832, by R. Bell
+Forde, a leading director of the Sun Fire Office, to form one brigade
+for the purpose of promoting economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus
+the first organized fire brigade for London began its operations under
+the united sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the
+leading insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known as
+the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense was at first
+£8000, the number of stations 19, the number of men employed 80. By 1862
+the annual cost had grown to £25,000, the number of stations had become
+20, and the number of men 127.
+
+It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire Engine
+Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in substitution for which
+the new Cannon-Street station has been built. The following is a list of
+the other stations of the establishment:--
+
+  School House-lane, Shadwell   Crown Street, Soho
+  Wellclose Square              Wells Street
+  Jeffrey's Square              Baker Street
+  Whitecross Street             King Street, Golden Square
+  Farringdon Street             Horseferry Road
+  Holborn                       Waterloo Road
+  Chandos Street                Southwark Bridge Road
+  Tooley Street                 Southwark Bridge (floating)
+  Lucas Street, Rotherhithe     Rotherhithe (floating)
+
+The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner as far as
+its limited equipment and strength would permit, but it was universally
+admitted that the staff, engines and stations were totally inadequate
+for the general protection of London from fire. The directors of the
+insurance offices themselves admitted this, but they considered their
+brigade sufficient for the protection of that part of London in which
+the largest amount of insured property was located, and contended that
+it was not their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying
+districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve their
+offices in serious loss.
+
+From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire offices was
+supplemented by the "Society for the Protection of Life from Fire." This
+society was managed by a committee of which the lord mayor was
+president. It was supported entirely by voluntary contributions, and, at
+a cost of about £7000 a year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90
+stations in different parts of the most central districts in London. Its
+most outlying station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it
+maintained no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham,
+Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its equipment
+was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the metropolis.
+
+In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire Engine
+Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, and the
+attention of the government was consequently directed to the inadequacy
+of the existing conditions for fire extinction. It was suggested, at the
+time, that the parochial engines should be placed under the inspection
+of the commissioners of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and
+the existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another thirty
+years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a fire brigade
+should be created under the superintendence of the commissioners of
+police, and should form part of the general establishment of the
+metropolitan police. In 1865, however, the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act
+was passed, under which the responsibility for the provision and
+maintenance of an efficient fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan
+Board of Works. Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the
+staff, stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment; the
+engines maintained by the various parochial authorities, and the men in
+charge of them were also absorbed by the new organization, as were the
+fire-escapes and staff of the Society for the Protection of Life from
+Fire.
+
+The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the maintenance of the
+brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny rate on all the rateable
+property in London; (2) contributions by the fire insurance companies at
+the rate of £35 per million of the gross amount insured by them in
+respect of property in London; and (3) a contribution of £10,000 a year
+by the government. Although the revenue allotted increased year by year,
+its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls from all
+parts of London for protection from fire. Some temporary financial
+relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board of Works (Loans) Act 1869,
+which (1) authorized the interest on borrowed money to be paid, and the
+principal to be redeemed out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan
+Consolidated rate, apart from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade
+purposes; and (2) provided that the amount to be raised for the annual
+working expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be
+produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value of
+property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One result of
+the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by which the London County
+Council was constituted), under which a county rate for all purposes is
+levied, was virtually to repeal the limitation of the amount which might
+be raised from the ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time
+the expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other
+departments of the council's service, been determined solely by what the
+council has judged to be the requirements of the case.
+
+When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire brigade was
+admittedly not large enough properly to protect the whole of London, the
+provision in various suburban districts being notoriously inadequate to
+the requirements. A plan for enlarging and improving old stations, and
+for carrying out a scheme of additional protection laid down after
+careful consideration of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on
+the 8th of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided
+for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for the
+establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with horsed
+escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-escape and
+hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.
+
+  Since it came into existence the London County Council has established
+  additional fire stations at Dulwich, New Cross, Kingsland,
+  Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd's Bush, West Hampstead, East
+  Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant's Wharf
+  (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road
+  (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea), Herne Hill, Lee Green
+  and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vauxhall, Kilburn, Bayswater,
+  Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and North End stations are
+  sub-stations. New stations have been erected, in substitution for
+  small and inconvenient buildings, at Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham,
+  Brompton, Islington, Paddington, Redcross Street (City), Euston Road,
+  Clapham, Mile End, Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington,
+  Westminster, Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing
+  stations at Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead,
+  Battersea, Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been
+  considerably enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been
+  established in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively. A
+  building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation of the
+  staff of the Cherry-garden river station; and another building has
+  been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff of a
+  river station which has been established there.
+
+  In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in
+  course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional
+  sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise. The
+  Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and enlarged. The
+  council had also determined to erect new stations in substitution for
+  existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway, Waterloo Road, Shooter's
+  Hill and North End, Fulham; and to build additional sub-stations at
+  Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton Hill, Camberwell New Road,
+  Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and Earlsfield.
+
+
+_Budapest._--There is a combination of a professional force and a
+volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary service of
+factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade possesses a central
+station and eight sub-stations, two minor stations, and permanent
+theatre-watchrooms at the royal theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the
+professional brigade consisted of a chief officer, an inspector, a
+senior adjutant and two junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23
+warrant officers, 3 engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen
+with 62 horses. There have been some slight increases since. The
+apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22 manual
+engines, 27 small manual engines, 11 water carts, 13 traps, 4 tenders,
+26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders, 9 ordinary extension
+ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets and 22,000 metres of hose.
+The various stations are connected with the central station by private
+telephone lines. There are 149 telephonic fire alarms distributed
+throughout the city. They are on radial lines connected up with their
+respective nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from
+three to seventeen call-points.
+
+The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and comprises some
+eighty members. Its equipment is housed with that of the professional
+brigade, and is bought and maintained by the municipality. This
+volunteer brigade is a comparatively wealthy institution, having a
+capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst receiving a special subsidy annually
+from the municipality. Though legally an entirely independent
+institution, the brigade voluntarily puts itself under the command of
+the chief officer of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at
+the disposal of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every
+night and "turn out" when called upon to render service. This volunteer
+brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer brigades, and
+it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that the educational
+classes referred to above are held and facilities accorded to the
+officers undergoing instruction to gain experience at the Budapest
+fires.
+
+  The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the
+  volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with
+  the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest
+  factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory
+  fire brigades. These brigades--forty-four in number--are essentially
+  private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to
+  which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual
+  understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory
+  immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory
+  brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with 1
+  steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have a
+  very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke helmets.
+
+_Cologne._--The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong (1906),
+with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional officers, a
+warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16 foremen. The brigade
+has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are used for ambulance purposes. The
+brigade has three large stations and a minor station, and has a
+permanent fire-watch at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for
+duty as coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of
+duty to twenty-four hours of rest.
+
+A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary retained fire
+brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent, 2 deputy
+superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses, who are retained
+men housed in municipal buildings (tenements), and available as an
+immediate reserve force. The first section of the reserve force are
+housed centrally.
+
+There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades manned by
+volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and horsed from the
+municipal stables or municipal tramways. Three of these volunteer
+brigades, which have large suburban districts, comprise each a
+superintendent, 2 senior foremen and 3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen
+and 3 coachmen. The minor outlying suburbs have several such brigades,
+each having one senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2
+coachmen. The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295,
+all ranks.
+
+  The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of professional
+  brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of suburban
+  volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is still an
+  old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the extra
+  sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building. The
+  brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed matter,
+  in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally well
+  prepared. The brigade does permanent "fire-watch" duty at the
+  municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It provides
+  additional watches during performances at all other theatres and
+  public entertainments. Such duties are provided in part by an
+  auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade. A number of
+  the professional brigade are always utilized for doing general work in
+  the workshops of the brigade. The first or central section of the
+  auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and is additionally
+  turned out eleven times per annum (without drill). Men newly attached
+  to the auxiliary force have to go through a four weeks' recruit drill.
+
+_Nuremberg._--The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most economically
+organized efficient fire service in Central Europe, and its form of
+organization is peculiar and exceptional. In 1902 the entire
+fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (£6300). The total of
+inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small amount of money the city
+gets a highly-trained retained fire brigade of 156 men (1907), and two
+volunteer fire brigades of 130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has
+an auxiliary of eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and
+two private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands
+under a professional chief officer and professional second officer.
+There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen attached to the
+retained brigade. The service has been in existence for fifty years. It
+has gradually developed and has worked remarkably well, and may, in
+fact, be taken as a model institution for municipal economy, with due
+regard to up-to-dateness and efficiency. The retained fire brigade
+comprises entirely municipal employés, regularly engaged in the
+municipal workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal
+workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There is a
+headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer brigade in
+the centre of the town, a modern district station in the western
+district, and a third district station is in course of erection for the
+eastern district, which is at present only served by a small branch
+station.
+
+  At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14 firemen
+  (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade. Nine men of
+  the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at night, together
+  with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west district
+  station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day, and the
+  same number at night.
+
+  The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units of the
+  following strength, namely:--
+
+  First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder.
+
+  Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long
+  ladder.
+
+  Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.
+
+  Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose- and coal-tender trap.
+
+  From the west district station three units can be turned out in
+  rotation, namely:---
+
+  First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.
+
+  Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.
+
+  Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender
+  trap.
+
+  The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises a
+  turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.
+
+  The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession, these
+  horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further has a
+  reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.
+
+  The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal 25
+  manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of the
+  hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet
+  pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening "fire watch"
+  at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get modest extra pay
+  for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather to cover
+  disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages. The brigade
+  uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in proximity to
+  the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on duty for fire
+  brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical purposes
+  the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which the men do
+  municipal work in the municipal workshops, and elsewhere, i.e. in
+  training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up to the best
+  professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well drilled and
+  includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do duty at night by
+  rotation. The brigade's responsibilities are clearly defined, and the
+  position of the professional chief and second officer clearly laid
+  down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During the fifty
+  years' existence of the service, 85 firemen received the twenty-five
+  years' long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the suburban
+  volunteer brigades.
+
+_Venice._--The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force of "Vigili"
+or municipal watchmen, which body does general duty in preserving order
+and rendering assistance to the community. In other words, this force
+performs the duties of the civil police (rather than governmental or
+criminal police), fire, patrol watch service, and public control in a
+general sense. The force, which in all its sections made a most
+excellent impression, has a commandant, under whom the two primary
+sections work, namely (a) the civil police section and the (b) fire
+brigade section; each section in turn having its own principal officers.
+The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire brigade
+section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant of the whole force
+is a retired military officer, and the chief of the fire service section
+is a civil engineer, and these two officers, together with the chief of
+the civil police section, are the three superior officers of the force.
+The police section serve as auxiliaries to the fire brigade section in
+case of any great fire, and, of course, generally work very much hand in
+hand on all occasions. The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6
+foremen, 6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well
+equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large modern
+petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old type
+steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small petrol
+motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-engines, ladders,
+&c., which are in considerable number, are carried in a large fleet of
+swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is done with Roman ladders, which are
+usually planted on two gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the
+depth of the canal permits, the lower length is buried in the canal
+bottom. Hook ladders are also used.
+
+  Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the
+  headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a strength
+  of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite the
+  station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire station
+  of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the Doge's
+  palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground floor
+  facing St Mark's Square have been adapted for fire station purposes in
+  a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of the brigade has
+  been used to form emblems, &c.
+
+_Vienna._--In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted on modern
+lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality having been greatly
+extended. The professional brigade was somewhat strengthened and
+entirely re-equipped, and the various existing volunteer brigades of the
+outlying districts were transformed into suburban volunteer fire
+brigades, equipped and controlled by the municipality and standing under
+the general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle
+involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force around
+Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal brigade, a
+principle of great economic advantage, as the professional brigade would
+otherwise have had to be materially strengthened, probably trebled.
+These suburban volunteer fire brigades number no fewer than 34, and have
+1200 firemen of all ranks. They are practically independent institutions
+as far as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but
+their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided by the
+municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional firemen
+detached from headquarters are attached to their stations as telegraph
+clerks and drill-instructors.
+
+The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their own
+districts, and further, assist in other districts when so ordered by
+headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great fires in the city
+proper. Headquarters, of course, renders assistance at large suburban
+fires. These suburban volunteer fire brigades are very perfectly
+equipped with appliances, generally of the same type as those used in
+the central professional brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped
+with combined chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached.
+They have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern. The
+men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, i.e. do not take pay
+of any description or make any charges for attendance at fires or
+refreshments at fires.
+
+The Vienna "professional brigade," as it is generally called, has a
+personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475 men. Of
+stations there is the headquarters, a district station, 4 branch
+stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations, and 2
+"watches" in public buildings. The officers of the brigade consist of
+the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors. The officers, of
+whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered at headquarters. There
+are three telegraph superintendents. The rank and file is composed of 8
+drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two
+classes), 22 engineers and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four
+telegraph clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban
+volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.
+
+  The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus and
+  service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to "turn out":--2 open
+  and 2 officers' service carriages (at headquarters), 6 "traps" for the
+  first "turn-out" (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district fire
+  station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men, and
+  equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder and jumping
+  sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-boxes, a jack,
+  tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump and a hose-reel
+  attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters and 1 at the
+  district station), each manned by seven firemen and equipped like the
+  "traps" with the exception that, instead of the life-saving chute, the
+  carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two petroleum torches each, an
+  extension ladder (15 metres long) and some spare coal for the steam
+  fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension ladders each 25 metres long, and 3
+  extension turn-table ladders each 25 metres long (at headquarters and
+  at two of the sub-stations); each of the pneumatic ladders has three
+  men, and each turn-table ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at
+  headquarters and 1 each in the other stations), each having five men
+  with 3 hook-ladders, a jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel,
+  a hand-engine, a smoke helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a
+  tool box, torches, &c.; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and
+  one each in the district fire station and the 4 steam-engine
+  stations), each with an engineer and stoker.
+
+  The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large
+  chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs).
+  The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68, and
+  there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The total number
+  of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two
+  electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire
+  telegraphic and telephonic installation, including the lines in the
+  volunteer brigades' districts kept up by the professional brigade,
+  comprises 47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with
+  altogether 161 Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points.
+
+_Zürich._--Zürich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of which are
+built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the buildings being
+subject to the local building regulations and the State Insurance
+Association's rules, in which they are compulsorily insured. The brigade
+is a compulsory militia brigade, placed under the control of the head of
+the department of police under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer
+is head of a special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the
+safety of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is
+known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade. His
+office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a small
+permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence. Every male
+inhabitant of Zürich is compelled to do some service for the prevention
+of, or protection against, fire, from the age of twenty to fifty years.
+The duty may be fulfilled (1) by active service, or (2) in the case of
+an able-bodied citizen, who for some reason is not found suited to be a
+member of the brigade, or has been dismissed from the brigade, by the
+payment of a tax, which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain
+citizens, however, are _ipso facto_ exempt from active service, namely
+members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic school, of
+the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice, and of the Town
+Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters, the officials of railways,
+tramway and steamboat companies, of the post-office and telephone
+department, students of the Polytechnic school and other educational
+institutions and municipal officials, with whose duties fire brigade
+service is incompatible. Exemption from active service can also be
+accorded on a testimonial of a medical board. Exemption from active
+service, however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which
+amounts to between £4000 and £5000. In making the selection of men for
+active service only, men particularly fitted for the work are taken,
+namely, men who are personally keen, who have a good physique, and who
+are preferably of the building or allied trades. The officers of the
+brigade are appointed by the municipal committee. The men's drills are
+by the chief officer, and the men are liable to fines and to
+imprisonment (up to four days) for not attending their drills. The whole
+of the brigade is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss
+Fire Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition
+provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty. There
+is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the municipality, which
+also accords a scale of compensation.
+
+  The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen
+  companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections, namely,
+  a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police section,
+  the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending to
+  salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal with
+  the fire in its own district without calling upon the company of an
+  adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious fire
+  that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a system of
+  decentralization and independence of companies in this brigade not
+  often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc for each drill of
+  two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours, and fifty centimes per
+  hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided. Any telephone can be used
+  free by law for an alarm. The brigade has at its disposal an extension
+  telephone service, but the men are not all connected up with the
+  telephone of their respective districts, and thus the alarm is given
+  mainly with horns sounded by men who are on the telephone. No section
+  of the brigade has less than ten men on the telephone.
+
+  The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances in
+  the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks, and each
+  section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly housed in
+  small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter doors, to
+  which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty of these hydrant
+  houses distributed round the city, the larger appliances being at
+  headquarters and at some depots.
+
+  Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for
+  the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company might
+  be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief officer and
+  staff, and independent organization, the organization of the
+  companies, however, being identical. A company comprises 1 chief
+  officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6 orderlies,
+  a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively 1
+  lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service
+  section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the
+  life-saving section, and 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 20 men
+  for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there
+  some slight variation in the organization, namely, 1 and 2 sections
+  have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior
+  officer. At Zürich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an
+  extraordinary uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and
+  instructions in all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268
+  in all ranks. There were about 70 fires in that year. (E. O. S.)
+
+
+_United States._
+
+Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a scale that
+in 1902 it was estimated by P.G. Hubert ("Fire Fighting To-Day and
+To-Morrow," _Scribner's Magazine_, 1902, 32, pp 448 sqq.) that in
+proportion to population the fire force of America was nearly four times
+that of Germany or France and about three times that of England. The
+many fires consequent on wooden construction even in the large cities;
+the bad effect of sudden climatic changes--drying, parching heat being
+followed by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less
+safe character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements, the
+more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the reasons
+assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-fighting service in
+the United States is in no way connected with the military as it is on
+the continent of Europe; the association of volunteer with paid firemen
+is uncommon except in the suburban parts of the large cities, and in the
+smaller cities and towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term
+are, during that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.
+
+_New York._--The fire department of New York City is the result of
+gradual development. The first record of municipal action in regard to
+fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250 leather buckets and a supply
+of fire-ladders and hooks were purchased, and a tax of one guilder for
+fire apparatus was imposed on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were
+ordered to be dug; in 1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was
+required to provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and
+bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets respectively; in
+1689 "brent-masters" or fire-marshals were appointed; in 1695 every
+dwelling-house had to provide one fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two
+Richard Newsham hand-engines were ordered from England, and soon
+afterwards a superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small
+salary; in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad
+Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the
+appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable or militia
+duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire companies increased
+rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially political; and success
+in a fire company was a sure path to success in politics, the best-known
+case being that of Richard Croker, a member of "Americus 6," commonly
+called "Big Six," of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman.
+Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (predecessors of
+the present "ward leader's outing") under the auspices of the volunteer
+organizations, annual balls after 1829, water-throwing contests, often
+over liberty poles, and bitter fights between different companies
+(sometimes settled by fist duels between selected champions), improved
+the organization of these companies as political factors if not as
+fire-fighters. So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in
+1836, when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from
+office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when the
+volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their work, and
+they began again only when Gulick assured them that the news was false;
+almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick was reinstated. The type of
+the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer fire hero was made famous in
+1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau's playing of the part Mose in Benjamin
+Baker's play, _A Glance at New York_. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York
+were raised entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.
+
+In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted of 163
+companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder) manned by 3521 men
+(engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts about 25, and hook and
+ladder companies about 40); the chief engineer, elected with assistants
+for terms of five or three years by ballots of the firemen, received a
+salary of $3000 a year; and three bell-ringers in each of eight district
+watch-towers, who watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a
+year. The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire District
+and established therein a Fire Department, headed by four commissioners,
+who with the mayor and comptroller constituted a board of estimate.
+
+This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when the Greater
+New York was chartered and the present system was introduced. At its
+head is a commissioner who receives $7500 a year. The more immediate
+head of the firemen is a chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member
+of the force not appointed on the basis of a civil service examination;
+the chief has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond
+boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each receiving an annual
+salary of $5000.
+
+  In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Manhattan,
+  Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens); 59 chiefs of
+  battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 28 in Brooklyn and
+  Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in Manhattan, Bronx and
+  Richmond, and 111 in Brooklyn and Queens), 365 assistant foremen (221
+  in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond; and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 431
+  engineers of steamers (247 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184
+  in Brooklyn and Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and
+  Richmond, and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens); and the total uniformed
+  force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine
+  companies--at East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River),
+  West 35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan and
+  the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in Brooklyn and
+  Queens there were 70 engine companies, including two fire-boat
+  companies--at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The appropriations for the
+  year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and
+  $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens; and the department expenses were
+  $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for
+  Brooklyn and Queens.
+
+  The first high-pressure main system in the city was installed at Coney
+  Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically driven
+  centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area, 1360 acres)
+  and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in 1908, and where
+  the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the City Hall to 25th
+  St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue and East Broadway, being
+  the "Dry Goods District"; water is pumped either from city mains or
+  from the river, and the change may be made instantaneously. The fire
+  watch-tower system was abolished in 1869; the present system is that
+  of red box electric telegraph alarms, which register at headquarters
+  (East 67th St.), where an operator sends out the alarm to that
+  engine-house nearest to the fire which is ready to respond, and a
+  chart informing him of the absence from the engine-house of apparatus.
+  There are volunteer forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond
+  boroughs and in other outlying districts.
+
+  _Boston._--The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great
+  fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000), a
+  chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior
+  deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent
+  and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent
+  and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the force
+  numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam
+  fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination
+  chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3
+  fire-boats (built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29
+  ladder-trucks and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main
+  service was established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the
+  application of the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made
+  in Boston in 1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer,
+  then a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric
+  telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent of the
+  Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.[2]
+
+  _Chicago._--The Chicago organization practically dates from the fire
+  of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858. Its
+  principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary
+  $8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen
+  battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and
+  assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants,
+  engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908 was
+  1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale, Norwood
+  Park, Hansen Park and Ashburn Park. In the business part of the city
+  there is a patrol of seven companies employed by the Board of Fire
+  Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed force (except the
+  chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In 1908 the equipment
+  included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and ladder companies, including
+  one water-tower, 15 chemical engines and one hose company; and there
+  were 5 fire-boats (4 active and 1 reserve). The first fire-boat was
+  built in 1883. The initial installation of high-pressure mains was
+  completed in 1902, and was greatly enlarged in 1908.
+
+
+_Fire Appliances._
+
+_Fire-Alarms._--Most large cities possess a system of electrical
+fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals along
+the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either opens the
+door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window with which it is
+fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus causing the particular
+number allocated to the box, which of course indicates its position, to
+be electrically telegraphed to the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as
+thought advisable. Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box.
+Automatic fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric
+circuit is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain
+temperature. The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or
+to give warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for
+closing it are of the most varied kinds--the expansion of mercury in a
+thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended between
+horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass in a curved
+strip of brass and steel welded together, &c.
+
+_Fire-Engines._--The earliest method of applying water to the extinction
+of fires was by means of buckets, and these long remained the chief
+instruments employed for the purpose, though Hero of Alexandria about
+150 B.C. described a fire-engine with two cylinders and pistons worked
+by a reciprocating lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in
+Rome. In the 16th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire
+squirts or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same
+century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by a screw
+handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time of the Great Fire
+were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2½ or 3 in. in diameter, and three men were
+required to manipulate them. The next stage of development was to mount
+a cistern or reservoir on wheels so that it was portable, and to provide
+it with pumps which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed
+delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important advance was
+made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der Heyde, senior and junior,
+made flexible hose by sewing together the edges of a strip of leather,
+and applied it for both suction and delivery, so that the engines could
+be continuously supplied with water and the stream could be more readily
+directed on the seat of the fire. For many years manual engines were the
+only ones employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as
+many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are superseded by
+power-driven engines, at least for all important services. The first
+practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braithwaite about 1829, but
+though it proved useful in various fires in London for several years
+after that date, it was objected to by the men of the fire brigade and
+its use was abandoned. A generation later, however, steam fire-engines
+began to come into vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to
+the scene of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be
+geared to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not
+till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines were
+employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity have all been
+used. Such engines have the advantage that they can reach a fire much
+more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle, especially in hilly districts,
+and they can if necessary be made of greater power, since their size
+need not be limited by considerations of the weight that can be drawn by
+horses. Petrol-propelled engines can be started off from a station
+within a few seconds of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are
+ready to work immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines
+possess the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under
+steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol engines,
+which cost nothing for maintenance except while they are actually
+working. Motor engines are made with a capacity to deliver 1000 gallons
+of water a minute or even more, but the sizes than can deal with 400 or
+500 gallons a minute are probably those most commonly used.
+
+In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are often provided
+for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks and along the waterside.
+The capacity of these may rise to 6000 gallons a minute. Steam is the
+power most commonly used in them, both for propulsion and for pumping,
+but in one built for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in
+1909, an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam
+engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with oil-fuel, and
+steam could be raised in a few minutes while the boat was on its way to
+a fire. The pumps could throw a 1½-in. jet to a height of nearly 200 ft.
+In some places, as at Boston, Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for
+service at some distance from the water. Fire-mains laid through the
+streets terminate in deep water at points accessible to the boats, the
+pumps of which can be connected to them and made to fill them with water
+at high pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply
+system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure water
+can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar devices, to draw
+a much larger quantity from the ordinary mains and force it in jets to
+considerable heights and distances, without the intervention of any
+engine.
+
+The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-pipes, which
+are made either of leather fastened with brass or copper rivets, or of
+canvas (woven from flax) which has the merit of lightness but is liable
+to rot, or of rubber jacketed with canvas (or in America with cotton).
+For directing the water on the fire, nozzles of various forms are
+employed, some throwing a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and
+others again combining jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive
+away smoke and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to
+enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached. A line
+of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the extensions of which
+are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests on the wall of the
+building at the required height. Water-towers enable the jet to be
+delivered at a considerable height independently of any support from the
+building. A light, stiff, lattice steel frame is mounted on a truck, on
+which it lies horizontally while being drawn to a fire, but when it has
+to be used it is turned to an upright position, often by the aid of
+compressed gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still
+greater height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be
+controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the nozzle to be
+moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe up the tower may be of
+large diameter, so that it can carry a huge volume of water, and at the
+bottom it may terminate in a reservoir into which several fire-engines
+may pump simultaneously.
+
+Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable sizes as
+fire-extinguishers or "extincteurs," and in the larger ones as "chemical
+engines," throw a jet of water charged with gas, commonly carbon
+dioxide, which does not support combustion. Essentially they consist of
+a closed metal tank, filled with a solution of some carbonate and also
+containing a small vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the
+acid is kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to be
+used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger
+projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the bottle
+of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus breaks the
+bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker which pierces the
+metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the acid comes into contact
+with the carbonate solution carbon dioxide is formed, and a stream of
+gas and liquid mixed issues under considerable pressure from the
+attached nozzle or hosepipe. Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few
+gallons, are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings,
+&c., and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act
+when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire,
+because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear; but it
+is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid they emit is much
+more efficacious than plain water, and too much importance can easily be
+attached to spectacular displays of their power to extinguish artificial
+blazes of wood soused with petrol, which have been burning only a few
+seconds. Chemical engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by
+fire brigades as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or
+motor vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose, and
+other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with pumps for throwing
+powerful jets of ordinary water. Large buildings, such as hotels and
+warehouses, where a competent watchman is assumed to be always on duty,
+may be protected by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and
+connected by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the
+various floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when
+pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and
+carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a stream is
+available at the hydrants.
+
+_Automatic Sprinklers._--Factories, warehouses and other buildings in
+which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted with automatic
+sprinklers which discharge water from the ceiling of a room as soon as
+the temperature rises to a certain point. Lines of pipes containing
+water under pressure are carried through the building near the ceilings
+at distances of 8 or 10 ft. apart, and to these pipes are attached
+sprinkler heads at intervals such that the water from them is
+distributed all over the room. The valves of the sprinklers are normally
+kept closed by a device the essential feature of which is a piece of
+fusible metal; this as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about
+160° F.) by the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the
+water, which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower.
+In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes are
+filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 lb. per sq. in. When the
+sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a fire, the
+compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of pressure in the pipes
+is arranged to operate a system of levers that opens the water-valve of
+the main-feed pipe. The idea of automatic sprinklers is an old one, and
+a system was patented by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their
+present development they are specially associated with the name of
+Frederick Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.
+
+_Fire-Escapes._--The best kind of fire-escape, because it is always in
+place, and always ready for use, is an external iron staircase, reaching
+from the top of a building to the ground, and connected with balconies
+accessible from the windows on each floor. In many towns the building
+by-laws require such staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a
+certain height and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of
+non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper room to
+reach the ground through the window, numberless forms have been
+invented, from simple knotted ropes and folding ladders to slings and
+baskets suspended by a rope over sheaves fixed permanently outside the
+windows, and provided with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the
+speed of his descent, and to "chutes" or canvas tubes down which he
+slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders, mounted on a
+wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb; sometimes the persons
+rescued are sent down a chute attached to the apparatus, but many fire
+brigades think it preferable to rely on carrying down those who are
+unable to descend the ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a
+number of men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape
+is by jumping from an upper window.     (X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In the United States a special officer called a "fire-marshal"
+    has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in
+    1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in
+    Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut
+    (1901), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been
+    passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question
+    has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred,
+    should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in
+    recent years in the City of London no regular system exists.
+
+  [2] See Thomas C. Martin, _Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police
+    Patrol Systems_ (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the
+    Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was
+    installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in
+    1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860.
+
+
+
+
+FIREBACK, the name given to the ornamented slab of cast iron protecting
+the back of a fireplace. The date at which firebacks became common
+probably synchronizes with the removal of the fire from the centre to
+the side or end of a room. They never became universal, since the
+proximity of deposits of iron ore was essential to their use. In England
+they were confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey,
+and appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties was
+exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other parts of the
+country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there was a certain
+commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed an interesting and even
+artistic form. The earlier examples were commonly rectangular, but a
+shaped or gabled top eventually became common. English firebacks may
+roughly be separated into four chronological divisions--those moulded
+from more than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical,
+mythological and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies
+of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Netherlandish. The
+fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of detached ornament were
+much used before attempts were made to elaborate a homogeneous design,
+but by the middle of the 17th century firebacks of a very elaborate type
+were being produced. Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion,
+the death of Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of
+serpents. Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being
+used extensively--many existing firebacks bear the arms of the Stuarts.
+About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private families began to be
+used, the earliest instances remaining bearing those of the Sackvilles,
+who were lords of a large portion of the forest of Anderida, which
+furnished the charcoal for the smelting operations in our ancient
+iron-fields. To the armorial shields the date was often added, together
+with the initials of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to
+cut the design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face
+downwards upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into the
+impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands and in parts
+of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and Metz there are several
+private collections, and there are also many examples in public museums.
+The museum of the Porte de Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest
+examples in existence with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles
+V., accompanied by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first destroyed
+in France the possession of a _plaque de cheminée_ bearing heraldic
+insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection to the republic, and on
+the 13th of October 1793 the National Convention issued a decree giving
+the owners and tenants of houses a month in which to turn such firebacks
+with their face to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron
+foundries of a sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct
+of equality. Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to
+this day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs
+outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not infrequently
+made, and the old examples are much prized and collected.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE BRAT, a small insect (_Thermobia_ or _Thermophila furnorum_)
+related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses, where it feeds upon
+bread and flour.
+
+
+
+
+FIREBRICK.--Under this term are included all bricks, blocks and slabs
+used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &c., where the brickwork
+has to withstand high temperature (see BRICK).
+
+The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary very
+greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain, corrosive
+action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace charge, chemical
+action of furnace charge and products of combustion, &c., and in order
+to meet these different conditions many varieties of firebricks are
+manufactured.
+
+Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, i.e. from clays which
+withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive shrinkage or
+warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although the term "fireclay"
+is generally restricted in use to certain shales from the Coal Measures,
+which contain only a small percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are
+consequently highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of
+refractoriness for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a
+fireclay which has a fusion point below 1600° C.
+
+  Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but generally the
+  percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high, and the
+  percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash (taken
+  together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &c., are
+  also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical or
+  other properties are necessary.
+
+  The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various
+  fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon its
+  refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a
+  certain proportion of ground firebrick, ganister, sand or some similar
+  refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking
+  generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing is
+  continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or
+  other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas
+  firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected to
+  rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained and
+  consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken to
+  obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and
+  mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose to
+  which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often
+  contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron
+  disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules
+  are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is
+  used.
+
+  A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather
+  open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping,
+  strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be subjected
+  when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the full
+  contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these
+  requirements, and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground
+  firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up.
+  The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between
+  rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to
+  ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay and
+  other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry state,
+  water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks made up
+  from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.
+
+  The proportion of ground firebrick, &c., used depends on the nature of
+  the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but
+  generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage
+  of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to
+  produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking,
+  warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing a
+  sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings and
+  coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes special
+  mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain fireclay
+  goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay for the
+  manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &c., where the temperature
+  is very variable but never very high, a certain percentage of sawdust
+  is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out on firing and
+  ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material is much less
+  liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a closer
+  texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work, where
+  strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For the
+  construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &c., the firebrick used must be
+  sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing strain of the
+  superimposed brickwork, &c., at the highest temperature to which they
+  are subjected.
+
+  The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces,
+  &c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the
+  brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The
+  firebrick may waste by crumbling--due to excessive porosity or
+  openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence
+  of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &c.; it may gradually wear away
+  by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the solid
+  particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases themselves;
+  it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface through
+  contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is subjected to very
+  high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract and so split
+  and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized fact that
+  successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion point, or
+  long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually produce
+  vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close texture,
+  and entirely alters the properties of the brick.
+
+  Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is
+  necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the
+  chemical composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the
+  formation of fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the
+  furnace charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be
+  basic or aluminous and not siliceous, i.e. it should be made from a
+  fireclay containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to
+  which a high percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has
+  been added. For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials
+  containing little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and
+  uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their
+  carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite, clay
+  and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &c.
+
+  In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the
+  manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or
+  ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the
+  material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of the
+  south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these
+  siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork does
+  not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &c., of
+  many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick can
+  be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should endeavour to
+  make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &., to meet
+  certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials at his
+  disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making
+  firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a
+  thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of
+  which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary mortar,
+  and the joints should be as close as possible, only just sufficient of
+  the paste being used to enable the bricks to bed on one another.
+
+  It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of
+  firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory
+  material--such as kaolin--in order to protect the firebricks from the
+  direct action of the flue gases, &c., and quite recently a thin paste
+  of carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has been
+  more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carborundum
+  bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of
+  carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to
+  have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that
+  the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin
+  coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious
+  and highly-refractory facing.     (J. B.*; W. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIREFLY, a term popularly used for certain tropical American
+click-beetles (_Pyrophorus_), on account of their power of emitting
+light. The insects belong to the family _Elateridae_, whose characters
+are described under COLEOPTERA (q.v.). The genus _Pyrophorus_ contains
+about ninety species, and is entirely confined to America and the West
+Indies, ranging from the southern United States to Argentina and Chile.
+Its species are locally known as _cucujos_. Except for a few species in
+the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous _Elateridae_ are
+unknown in the eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of
+conspicuous smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area beneath
+the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these regions are
+situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of cells which may be
+regarded as a specialized portion of the fat-body. Both the male and
+female fireflies emit light, as well as their larvae and eggs, the egg
+being luminous even while still in the ovary. The inhabitants of
+tropical America sometimes keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of
+illumination, or make use of the insects for personal adornment.
+
+The name "firefly" is often applied also to luminous beetles of the
+family _Lampyridae_, to which the well-known glow-worm belongs.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE-IRONS, the implements for tending a fire. Usually they consist of
+poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most frequently of iron, steel, or
+brass, or partly of one and partly of another. The more elegant brass
+examples of the early part of the 19th century are much sought after for
+use with the brass fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from
+an ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are smaller
+in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.
+
+
+
+
+FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO (1493-c. 1545), Italian poet and littérateur, was
+born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493. The family name was
+taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated at the foot of the
+Apennines, its original home. The grandfather of Agnolo had obtained the
+citizenship of Florence and transmitted it to his family. Agnolo was
+destined for the profession of the law, and pursued his studies first at
+Siena and afterwards at Perugia. There he became the associate of the
+notorious Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the
+model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola practised for
+a time the profession of an advocate, but with little success. It is
+asserted by all his biographers that while still a young man he assumed
+the monastic dress at Vallombrosa, and that he afterwards held
+successively two abbacies. Tiraboschi alone ventures to doubt this
+account, partly on the ground of Firenzuola's licentiousness, and partly
+on the ground of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to
+be conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope Clement
+VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled at Prato as
+abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a collected edition was
+published in 1548, are partly in prose and partly in verse, and belong
+to the lighter classes of literature. Among the prose works
+are--_Discorsi degli animali_, imitations of Oriental and Aesopian
+fables, of which there are two French translations; _Dialogo delle
+bellezze delle donne_, also translated into French; _Ragionamenti
+amorosi_, a series of short tales in the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling
+him in elegance and in licentiousness; _Discacciamento delle nuove
+lettere_, a controversial piece against Trissino's proposal to introduce
+new letters into the Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of
+_The Golden Ass_ of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed
+through many editions; and two comedies, _I Lucidi_, an imitation of the
+_Menaechmi_ of Plautus, and _La Trinuzia_, which in some points
+resembles the _Calandria_ of Cardinal Bibbiena. His poems are chiefly
+satirical and burlesque. All his works are esteemed as models of
+literary excellence, and are cited as authorities in the vocabulary of
+the Accademia della Crusca. The date of Firenzuola's death is only
+approximately ascertained. He had been dead several years when the first
+edition of his writings appeared (1548).
+
+  His works have been very frequently republished, separately and in
+  collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued at
+  Florence in 2 vols. in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+FIRESHIP, a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down on an enemy to
+set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity, and in the middle
+ages. The highly successful employment of one by the defenders of
+Antwerp when besieged by the prince of Parma in 1585 brought them into
+prominent notice, and they were used to drive the Armada from its
+anchorage at Gravelines in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes
+with great effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century.
+Thus in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald)
+were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque Roads;
+and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of the Greek
+fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the consequent demoralization of
+the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely contributed to secure for
+the insurgents the command of the sea. In general, however, it was found
+that fireships hampered the movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an
+enemy's fire, or towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion
+was frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position. They
+were made by building "a fire chamber" between the decks from the
+forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the mainmast. This space was
+filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar, together with gunpowder in
+iron vessels. The gunpowder and combustibles were connected by trains of
+powder, and by bundles of brushwood called "bavins." When a fireship was
+to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy, and when
+close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat which was towed
+astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous a reward of £100, or in
+lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be worn as a mark of honour, was
+granted in the British navy to the successful captain of a fireship. A
+rank of _capitaine de brûlot_ existed in the French navy of Louis XIV.,
+and was next to the full captain--or _capitaine de vaisseau_.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE-WALKING, a religious ceremony common to many races. The origin and
+meaning of the custom is very obscure, but it is shown to have been
+widespread in all ages. It still survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji
+Islands, Tahiti, India, the Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is
+said Japan. The details of its ritual and its objects vary in different
+lands, but the essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests,
+fakirs, and devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is
+always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with the spring
+festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful harvest. Such was the
+Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the time of Kublai Khan the Taoist
+Buddhists held great festivals to the "High Emperor of the Sombre
+Heavens" and walked through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their
+priests bearing images of their gods in their arms. Though they were
+severely burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed if
+they had faith. J.G. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, vol. iii. p. 307) describes
+the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien. The chief performers
+are labourers who must fast for three days and observe chastity for a
+week. During this time they are taught in the temple how they are to
+perform their task. On the eve of the festival a huge brazier of
+charcoal, often twenty feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of
+the great god. At sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A
+Taoist priest throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two
+exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse the fire
+again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The trained performers
+then pass through with the image of the god. Frazer suggests that, as
+the essential feature of the rite is the carrying of the deity through
+the flames, the whole thing is sympathetic magic designed to give to the
+coming spring sunshine (the supposed divine emanation), that degree of
+heat which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks,
+notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and Chota
+Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three months in the
+year, the priest walks over a narrow trench filled with smouldering wood
+ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal
+hero Bir by a like performance, and they declare that the walker who is
+really "possessed" by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as
+observed in the Madras presidency see _Indian Antiquary_, vii. (1878) p.
+126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the ceremony is
+called _vilavilarevo_, and according to an eyewitness a number of
+natives walk unharmed across and among white-hot stones which form the
+pavement of a huge native oven. In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In
+April 1899 an Englishman saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see _The Field_, May
+20th, 1899). The fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in
+honour of a mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called
+_Nistinares_ and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in
+the fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine.
+Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the
+_Nistinares_ (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot embers
+and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the muddy ground
+where libations of water have been poured.
+
+The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity of the
+performers from burns. On this point authorities and eyewitnesses differ
+greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief was thrown on to the stones
+when the first man leapt into the oven, and what remained of it snatched
+up as the last left the stones. Every fold that touched the stone was
+charred! In some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but
+this is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an
+impression that there is something still to be explained in the escape
+of the performers from shocking injuries. S.P. Langley, who witnessed a
+fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the whole rite as there
+practised is a mere symbolic farce (_Nature_ for August 22nd, 1901).
+
+  For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses' reports
+  _in extenso_, see A. Lang, _Magic and Religion_ (1901). See also Dr
+  Gustav Oppert, _Original Inhabitants of India_, p. 480; W. Crooke,
+  _Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, p. 10
+  (1896); _Folklore Journal_ for September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv.
+  P. 87.
+
+
+
+
+FIREWORKS. In modern times this term is principally associated with the
+art of "pyrotechny" (Gr. [Greek: pur], fire, and [Greek: technê], art),
+and confined to the production of pleasing scenic effects by means of
+fire and inflammable and explosive substances. But the history of the
+evolution of such displays is bound up with that of the use of such
+substances not only for scenic display but for exciting fear and for
+military purposes; and it is consequently complicated by our lack of
+exact knowledge as to the materials at the disposal of the ancients
+prior to the invention of gunpowder (see also the article GREEK FIRE).
+For the following historical account the term "fireworks" is therefore
+used in a rather general sense.
+
+_History._--It is usually stated that from very ancient times fireworks
+were known in China; it is, however, difficult to assign dates or quote
+trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic displays were certainly given in
+the Roman circus. While a passage in Manilius,[1] who lived in the days
+of Augustus, seems to bear this interpretation, there is the definite
+evidence of Vopiscus[2] that fireworks were performed for the emperor
+Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,[3] writing
+in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set piece, where
+whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire were displayed upon the
+_pegma_, a species of movable framework employed in the various
+spectacles presented in the circus. After the fall of the Western empire
+no mention of fireworks can be traced until the Crusaders carried back
+with them to Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East,
+and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio,[4] writing in 1540,
+says that at an anterior period it had been customary at Florence and
+Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast of St John or at the
+Assumption, and that on these occasions stage properties, including
+effigies with wooden bodies and plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty
+pedestals, and that these figures gave forth flames, whilst round about
+tubes or pipes were erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but
+he adds that these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome
+when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy, fire
+festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England and
+France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen Elizabeth,[5]
+while De Frezier,[6] writing in 1707, says it was commonly adhered to in
+his time, and that on one occasion the king of France himself set a
+light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals of these curious rites have
+been noted quite recently in Scotland and Ireland.[7] Early use also of
+fireworks was made in plays and pageants. Hell or hell's mouth was
+represented by a gigantic head out of which flames were made to
+issue:[8] in the river procession on the occasion of the marriage of
+Henry VII. and Elizabeth (1487) the "Bachelors' Barge" carried a dragon
+spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne Boleyn
+(1538) "there went before the lord mayor's barge a foyst or wafter full
+of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great red dragon that spouted
+out wild fyre and round about were terrible monstrous and wild men
+casting fire and making a hideous noise."[9] These individuals were
+known as "green men." Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic
+masks, and carried "fire clubs." They were sometimes employed to clear
+the way at processions.[10]
+
+Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and fireworker came
+into existence; at first they were not soldiers, but civilians who
+sometimes exercised military functions, and part of their duties was
+intimately connected with the preparation of fireworks both for peace
+and war. The emperor Charles V. brought his fireworks under definite
+regulations in 1535,[11] and eventually other countries did the same.
+The _ignes triumphales_ were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold
+poles were erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around
+them were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they
+presented the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched
+dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp welcomed
+the archduke of Austria in 1550.[12] Then the "fire combat" came into
+fashion. Helmets from which flames would issue were provided for the
+performers; there were also swords and clubs that would give out sparks
+at every stroke, lances with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck
+gave forth a detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons
+such as these will be found in Hanzelet's _Recueil de machines
+militaires_ (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be somewhat of a
+scenic artist who could devise a romantic background and fill it with
+shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to make his castle, his
+cave or his rocky ravine, and people his stage with distressed damsel,
+errant knight or devouring dragon. Furthermore he had to give motion to
+the inanimate persons of the drama; thus his dragon would run down an
+incline on hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a
+rocket.[13] In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the
+daughter of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the
+king's gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a giant, a
+dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted castle, jumbled
+up together after the approved fashion of the Spenserian legends.[14] As
+time went on a more refined taste rejected the bizarre features of the
+old displays, artistic merit began to creep into the designs, and an
+effort was made to introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus
+Clarmer of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture
+of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend, where
+Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion, the monster
+Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquering Louis XIII.[15] In
+the first half of the 17th century many books[16] on fireworks appeared,
+which avoided the old grotesque ideas and advocated skill and finesse.
+"It is a rare thing," says Nye (1648), "to represent a tree or fountain
+in the air." The most celebrated work of them all was the _Great Art of
+Artillery_ by Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be
+translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly eighty
+years after it had appeared.[17] The classic façade now came into
+fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic figures, and disposed
+around were groups of rockets, Roman candles, &c., musket barrels for
+projecting stars, and mortars from which were fired shells called
+balloons, which were full of combustibles. The figures were carved out
+of wood which was soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mâché so
+that a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts, removed
+from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled with fireworks.
+
+National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appearance, and
+for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over Europe in the
+public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph. Representations and
+sometimes accounts will be found in the British Museum[18] of the more
+important English displays, from the coronation of James II. down to the
+peace rejoicings of 1856, during which period national fireworks were
+provided by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of
+Ranelagh and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private
+enterprise, and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs
+Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without an official
+rival.     (J. R. J. J.)
+
+_Modern Fireworks._--In modern times the art of pyrotechny has been
+gradually improved by the work of specialists, who have had the
+advantage of being guided by the progress of scientific chemistry and
+mechanics. As in all such cases, however, science is useless without the
+aid of practical experience and acquired manual dexterity.
+
+Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with oxygen, and will
+do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically as to render the
+products of the combination (which may be solid matter or gas) intensely
+hot and luminous. This is the general cause of the phenomenon known as
+fire. Its special character depends chiefly on the nature of the
+substances burned and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to
+them. As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted with
+about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this oxygen which
+supports the combustion of our coal and candles. But it is not often
+that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon atmospheric oxygen for his
+purposes; for the phenomena of combustion in it are too familiar, and
+too little capable of variation, to strike with wonder. Two cases,
+however, where he does so may be instanced, viz. the burning of
+magnesium powder and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the
+imitation of lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort
+much to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may be
+produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled with the
+gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in anything like its
+present form had not certain solid substances become known which,
+containing oxygen in combination with other elements, are capable of
+being made to evolve large volumes of it at the moment it is required.
+The best examples of these solid _oxidizing agents_ are potassium
+nitrate (nitre or saltpetre) and chlorate; and these are of the first
+importance in the manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these
+salts be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity of some
+suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder, the resulting mixture
+is capable of burning with more or less energy without any aid from
+atmospheric oxygen, since each small piece of fuel is in close
+juxtaposition to an available and sufficient store of the gas. All that
+is required is that the liberation of the oxygen from the solid
+particles which contain it shall be started by the application of heat
+from without, and the action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the
+fundamental fact of pyrotechny--that, with proper attention to the
+chemical nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures
+(_compositions_ or _fuses_) may be prepared which contain within
+themselves all that is essential for the production of fire.
+
+If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric and chloric
+acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped together as oxidizing
+agents, most of the other materials used in making firework compositions
+may be classed as _oxidizable substances_. Every composition must
+contain at least one sample of each class: usually there are present
+more than one oxidizable substance, and very often more than one
+oxidizing agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the
+ingredients of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much
+importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of combustion.
+The most important oxidizable substances employed are charcoal and
+sulphur. These two, it is well known, when properly mixed in certain
+proportions with the oxidizing agent nitre, constitute gunpowder; and
+gunpowder plays an important part in the construction of most fireworks.
+It is sometimes employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but
+more commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients and
+with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur, the following
+oxidizable substances are more or less employed:--many compounds of
+carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c.; certain metallic compounds
+of sulphur, such as the sulphides of arsenic and antimony; a few of the
+metals themselves, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of
+these metals iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the
+others. They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings.
+They do not contribute much to the burning power of the composition; but
+when it is ignited they become intensely heated and are discharged into
+the air, where they oxidize more or less completely and cause brilliant
+sparks and scintillations.
+
+Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances, which
+neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes employed as
+ingredients of the compositions in order to influence the character of
+the fire. This may be modified in many ways. Thus the rate of combustion
+may be altered so as to give anything from an instantaneous explosion to
+a slow fire lasting many minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or
+charged with glowing sparks. But the most important characteristic of a
+fire--one to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists--is its
+_colour_, which may be varied through the different shades and
+combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours are imparted
+to the flame by the presence in it of the heated vapours of certain
+metals, of which the following are the most important:--sodium, which
+gives a yellow colour; calcium, red; strontium, crimson; barium, green;
+copper, green or blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of
+these metals are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are
+decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion. Very often
+the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they serve the double
+purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting colour to the flame.
+
+The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great, for the
+requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost each size of each
+variety, are different. Moreover, every pyrotechnist has his own taste in
+the matter of compositions. They are capable, however, of being
+classified according to the nature of the work to which they are suited.
+Thus there are rocket-fuses, gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions,
+&c.; and, in addition, there are a few which are essential in the
+construction of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be.
+Such are the _starting-powder_, which first catches the fire, the
+_bursting-powder_, which causes the final explosion, and the
+_quick-match_ (cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of
+gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more
+complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another. Of the
+general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the following two
+examples, which are selected at hazard from among the numerous recipes
+for making, respectively, tourbillion fire and green stars:--
+
+        _Tourbillion_.                     _Green Stars_.
+  Meal gunpowder      24 parts.     Potassium chlorate  16 parts.
+  Nitre               10   "        Barium nitrate      48   "
+  Sulphur              7   "        Sulphur             12   "
+  Charcoal             4   "        Charcoal             1   "
+  Steel filings        8   "        Shellac              5   "
+                                    Calomel              8   "
+                                    Copper sulphide      2   "
+
+Although the making of compositions is of the first importance, it is
+not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do; for the
+construction of the _cases_ in which they are to be packed, and the
+actual processes of packing and finishing, require much care and
+dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard, and are
+generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary greatly, according
+to the effect which it is desired to produce. The relations of length to
+thickness, of internal to external diameter, and of these to the size of
+the openings for discharge, are matters of extreme importance, and must
+always be attended to with almost mathematical exactness and considered
+in connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be used.
+
+There is one very important property of fireworks that is due more to
+the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner in which they are
+filled than to the precise chemical character of the composition, i.e.
+their power of _motion_. Some are so constructed that the piece is kept
+at rest and the only motion possible is that of the flame and sparks
+which escape during combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also
+fixed, contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary
+compositions, balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some kind
+of varnish; and these _stars_, as they are called, shot into the air,
+one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there with striking
+effect. But in many instances motion is imparted to the firework as a
+whole--to the case as well as to its contents. This motion, various as
+it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two kinds--_rotatory_ motion
+round a fixed point, which may be in the centre of gravity of a single
+piece or that of a whole system of pieces, and _free ascending_ motion
+through the air. In all cases the cause of motion is the same, viz. that
+large quantities of gaseous matter are formed by the combustion, that
+these can escape only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure
+is necessarily exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large gun
+is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may be regarded
+as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and in them the recoil is
+therefore so much greater as to be the most noticeable feature of the
+discharge; and it only requires proper contrivances to make the piece
+fly through the air like a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis
+like a Catherine wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in
+pyrotechny than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour.
+
+The following is a brief description of some of the forms of firework
+most employed:--
+
+  _Fixed Fires._--_Theatre fires_ consist of a slow composition which
+  may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at
+  the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured--green,
+  red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating
+  buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case,
+  the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous
+  fumes. _Bengal lights_ are very similar, but are piled in saucers,
+  covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match.
+  _Marroons_ are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind cord
+  and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud
+  report. They are generally used in _batteries_, or in combination with
+  some other form of firework. _Squibs_ are straight cylindrical cases
+  about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a
+  strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little
+  bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that the
+  fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of
+  course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. _Crackers_ are
+  characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards
+  several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine. One
+  end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a hissing
+  noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a bend. If
+  the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at each
+  report; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the fixed
+  fireworks. _Roman candles_ are straight cylindrical cases filled with
+  layers of composition and _stars_ alternately. These stars are simply
+  balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic
+  filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required
+  size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are discharged
+  like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a
+  beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of
+  differently coloured fire in one case. _Gerbes_ are choked cases, not
+  unlike Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire
+  spreads like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously
+  coloured stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. _Lances_ are small
+  straight cases charged with compositions like those used for making
+  stars. They are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they
+  are fixed with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by
+  _leaders_, i.e. by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they
+  can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in
+  detachments, as may be desired. The devices and "set pieces"
+  constructed in this way are often of an extremely elaborate character;
+  and they include all the varieties of _lettered designs_, of _fixed
+  suns_, _fountains_, _palm-trees_, _waterfalls_, _mosaic work_,
+  _Highland tartan_, _portraits_, _ships_, &c.
+
+  _Rotating Fireworks._--_Pin_ or _Catherine wheels_ are long paper
+  cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-wire
+  and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by a pin,
+  sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the outer primed
+  end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil causes the
+  wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with considerable
+  velocity. _Pastiles_ are very similar in principle and construction.
+  Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and made to revolve round
+  its own centre point, it may be used as the engine to drive a wheel or
+  other form of framework round in a circle. Many varied effects are
+  thus produced, of which the _fire-wheel_ is the simplest. Straight
+  cases, filled with some fire-composition, are attached to the end of
+  the spokes of a wheel or other mechanism capable of being rotated.
+  They are all pointed in the same direction at an angle to the spokes,
+  and they are connected together by leaders, so that each, as it burns
+  out, fires the one next it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant
+  effects of changing colour are produced; or various fire-wheels of
+  different colours may be combined, revolving in different planes and
+  different directions--some fast and some slowly. _Bisecting wheels_,
+  _plural wheels_, _caprice wheels_, _spiral wheels_, are all more or
+  less complicated forms; and it is possible to produce, by mechanism of
+  this nature, a model in fire of the solar system.
+
+  _Ascending Fireworks._--_Tourbillions_ are fireworks so constructed as
+  to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful
+  spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the
+  centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the
+  composition occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by
+  six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the
+  end, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right
+  and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory
+  motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is
+  the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the
+  ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward motion to
+  the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion; and the
+  quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that combustion begins at
+  the two ends simultaneously and does not reach the holes of ascension
+  till after the rotation is fairly begun. The _sky-rocket_ is generally
+  considered the most beautiful of all fireworks; and it certainly is
+  the one that requires most skill and science in its construction. It
+  consists essentially of two parts,--the body and the head. The body is
+  a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and is choked at the lower
+  end, so as to present only a narrow opening for the escape of the
+  fire. The composition does not fill up the case entirely, for a
+  central hollow conical bore extends from the choked mouth up the body
+  for three-quarters of its length. This is an essential feature of the
+  rocket. It allows of nearly the whole composition being fired at once;
+  the result of which is that an enormous quantity of heated gases
+  collects in the hollow bore, and the gases, forcing their way
+  downwards through the narrow opening, urge the rocket up through the
+  air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-of-Paris plug. A hole
+  passes through this and is filled with a fuse, which serves to
+  communicate the fire to the head after the body is burned out. This
+  head, which is made separately and fastened on after the body is
+  packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber with a conical
+  top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way through the air and
+  of holding the _garniture_ of stars, sparks, crackers, serpents, gold
+  and silver rain, &c., which are scattered by bursting fire as soon as
+  the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A great variety of
+  beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of ingenuity in the
+  choice and construction of this garniture. Many of the best results
+  have been obtained by unpublished methods which must be regarded as
+  the secrets of the trade. The _stick_ of the sky-rocket serves the
+  purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight; and its size must
+  be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case. In _winged_
+  rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act like the
+  feathers of an arrow. A _girandole_ is the simultaneous discharge of a
+  large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two hundred), which
+  either spread like a peacock's tail or pierce the sky in all
+  directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the final feat
+  of a great pyrotechnic display.
+
+  See Chertier, _Sur les feux d'artifice_ (Paris, 1841; 2nd ed., 1854);
+  Mortimer, _Manual of Pyrotechny_ (London, 1856); Tessier, _Chimie
+  pyrotechnique, ou traité pratique des feux colorés_ (Paris, 1858);
+  Richardson and Watts, _Chemical Technology_, s.v. "Pyrotechny"
+  (London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, _The Pyrotechnist's Treasury_
+  (London, 1878); Websky, _Luftfeuerwerkkunst_ (Leipzig, 1878).
+       (O. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Manilius, _Astronomica_, lib. v., 438-443.
+
+  [2] Vopiscus, _Carus, Numerianus et Carinus_, ch. xix.
+
+  [3] Claudianus, _De consulatu Manlii Theodori_, 325-330.
+
+  [4] Vanuzzio Biringuccio, _Pyrotechnia_.
+
+  [5] Strutts, _Sports and Pastimes of the English People_.
+
+  [6] De Frezier, _Traité des feux d'artifice_ (1707 and 1747).
+
+  [7] _Notes and Queries_, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8,
+    vol. ii. pp. 145 and 254.
+
+  [8] J.B. Nichols & Sons, _London Pageants_.
+
+  [9] Hall's _Chronicles_.
+
+  [10] J. Bate, _Mysteries of Nature and Art_ (1635). This contains a
+    picture of a green man.
+
+  [11] _Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen_ (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
+    pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.
+
+  [12] See "Fairholts' Collection" bequeathed to the Royal Society of
+    Antiquaries.
+
+  [13] _Journal_ of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11.
+
+  [14] Somers' _Tracts_, vol. iii.
+
+  [15] De Frezier.
+
+  [16] Diego Ufano, _Artillery_, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner
+    Norton, _The Gunner_ and _The Gunner's Dialogue_ (1628); F. de Malthe
+    (Malthus), _Artificial Fireworks_, in French and English (1628);
+    "Hanzelet," _Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux
+    artificiels pour la guerre et récréation_ (1620 and 1630);
+    Furttenback, master gunner of Bavaria, _Halinitro Pyrobolio_, in
+    German (1627); (John Babington Matross, _Pyrotechnia_, 1635); Nye,
+    master gunner of Worcester, _Art of Gunnery_ (Worcester, 1648);
+    Casimir Siemienowitz, lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of
+    Poland, _The Great Art of Artillery_, in French (1650).
+
+  [17] Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the
+    surveyor-general of the Ordnance.
+
+  [18] "Crace Collection" in the print-room; the King's Prints and
+    Drawings in the library. See also "The Connection of the Ordnance
+    Department with National and Royal Fireworks," _R. A. Journal_, vol.
+    xxii. No. 11.
+
+
+
+
+FIRM, an adjective originally indicating a dense or close consistency,
+hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This word, in M. Eng.
+_ferme_, is derived through the French, from Lat. _firmus_. The medieval
+Latin substantive _firma_ meant a fixed payment, either in the way of
+rent, composition for periodic payments, &c.; and this word, often
+represented by "firm" in translations of medieval documents, has
+produced the English "farm" (q.v.). From a late Latin use of _firmare_,
+to confirm by signature, _firma_ occurs in many Romanic languages for a
+signature, and the English "firm" was thus used till the 18th century.
+From a transferred use came the meaning of a business house. In the
+Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered into partnership with one
+another are called collectively a firm, and the name under which their
+business is carried on is called the firm-name.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the word _firmamentum_,
+which means in classical Latin a strengthening or support (_firmare_, to
+make firm or strong) was used as the equivalent of [Greek: stereôma]
+([Greek: stereoein], to make firm or solid) in the LXX., which
+translates the Heb. raqiya'. The Hebrew probably signifies literally
+"expanse," and is thus used of the expanse or vault of the sky, the verb
+from which it is derived meaning "to beat out." In Syriac the verb means
+"to make firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. [Greek: stereôma]
+and the Lat. _firmamentum_. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
+eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven spheres
+of the planets.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. _ferman_, a mandate or patent, cognate
+with the Sanskrit _pramana_, a measure, authority), an edict of an
+oriental sovereign, used specially to designate decrees, grants,
+passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey and signed by one of his
+ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's sign-manual and drawn up with
+special formalities is termed a _hatti-sherif_, Arabic words meaning a
+line, writing or command, and lofty, noble. A written decree of an
+Ottoman sultan is also termed an _irade_, the word being taken from the
+Arab. _irada_, will, volition, order.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in the reign of
+Constantine and his successors. About the year 346 he composed a work
+entitled _De erroribus profanarum religionum_, which he inscribed to
+Constantius and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still
+extant. In the first part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of
+worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he
+discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries.
+The whole tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
+argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the eight books
+on astronomy (Libri VIII. _Matheseos_) bearing the same author's name,
+that the two works have usually been attributed to different writers.
+Mommsen (_Hermes_ vol. 29, pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the
+astronomy--a work interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit--was
+composed about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add to
+this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a connexion
+with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming the same author
+for the two books, though it shows that in the 4th century acceptance of
+Christianity did not always mean an advance in ethical standpoint.
+
+  The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
+  library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
+  reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
+  of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions are
+  those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his
+  _Minucius Felix_ (_Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat._ ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The
+  Neoplatonist work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has
+  often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, _Gesch. der
+  chr. lat. Litt._, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_,
+  ed. 1901, p. 354.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of Loire, 8 m. S.W.
+of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778. It has important coal mines
+known since the 14th century and extensive manufactures of iron and
+steel goods, including railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy
+woollen hosiery is also manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north and
+Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on Christmas or New
+Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be brought the house by
+First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is regarded with dread. In
+Lancashire a light-haired man is as unlucky as a woman, and it became a
+custom for dark-haired males to hire themselves out to "take the New
+Year in." In Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first
+carol-singer who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
+it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his fairness is
+no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always more elaborate than
+in England, involving a subsequent entertainment.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF THE. By this name we call the great naval
+victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of Admiral
+Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place name can be given to
+it, because the battle was fought 429 m. to the west of Ushant.
+
+The French people were suffering much distress from the bad harvest of
+the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant ships laden with corn
+was expected from America. Admiral Vanstabel of the French navy had been
+sent to escort it with two ships of the line in December of 1793. He
+sailed with his charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On
+the previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
+Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept the
+convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel fleet. He
+sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail of the line and 15
+smaller vessels, having under his charge nearly a hundred merchant ships
+which were to be seen clear of the Channel. On the 4th, when off the
+Lizard, the convoy was sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle
+ships and 6 or 7 frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to
+accompany them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
+Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to cruise on
+the look-out for the French convoy between Cape Ortegal and Belle Isle.
+These detachments reduced the force under Lord Howe's immediate command
+to 26 of the line and 7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant,
+and sent frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
+him that the main French fleet, which was under the command of
+Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at anchor in
+the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which the convoy was
+likely to be met with, knowing that if the French admiral came out it
+would be to meet the ships with the food and cover them from attack. To
+seek the convoy was therefore the most sure way of forcing
+Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the 18th the British fleet continued
+cruising in the Bay of Biscay. On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant
+and again reconnoitred Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had
+gone to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had
+passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog. On the
+19th the French admiral was informed by the "Patriote" (74) that Nielly
+had fallen in with, and had captured, the British frigate "Castor" (32),
+under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together with a convoy from
+Newfoundland. On the same day Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch
+convoy of 53 sail from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral
+Montagu joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured
+part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that Nielly was to join
+Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined force would be 9 sail of the
+line. Montagu himself had steered to cruise on the route of the convoy
+between the 45th and 47th degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to
+meet his subordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the
+main French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch ships
+taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that on the 19th the
+French fleet had been in latitude 47° 46' N. and in longitude 11° 22' N.
+and was steering westward. Judging that Montagu was too far to the south
+to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse, and considering him strong enough
+to perform the duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to
+pursue the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the weather
+hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 A.M. that the British
+fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47° 34' N. and 13° 39' W.
+
+The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to windward.
+Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m. from the British, and
+then hauled to the wind on the port tack. It was difficult for the
+British fleet to force an action from leeward if the French were
+unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached a light squadron of four ships,
+the "Bellerophon" (74), "Russel" (74), "Marlborough" (74), and
+"Thunderer" (74) under Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of
+the French line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
+windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's ships
+began to come up with the last of the French line, the "Révolutionnaire"
+(110). A partial action took place which went on till after dark; other
+British vessels joined. The "Révolutionnaire" was so damaged that she
+was compelled to leave her fleet, and the British "Audacious" (74) was
+also crippled and compelled to return to port. The "Révolutionnaire" was
+accompanied by another liner. During the night the two fleets continued
+on the same course, and next day Howe renewed his attempts to force an
+action from leeward. He tacked his fleet in succession--his first ship
+tacking first and the rest in order--in the hope that he would be able
+to cut through the French rear and gain the weather-gage.
+Villaret-Joyeuse then turned all his ships together and again headed in
+the same direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer the
+British fleet, and another partial action took place between the van of
+each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not disposed to charge
+home, Howe at noon once more ordered his fleet to tack in succession.
+His signal was poorly obeyed by the van, and his object, which was to
+cut through the French line, was not at once achieved. But the admiral
+himself finally set an example by tacking his flagship, the "Queen
+Charlotte" (100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
+of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
+seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together
+to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable confusion by
+these movements, but the British had gained the weather-gage.
+Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships cut off, but he had
+fallen to leeward and the power to force on a battle had passed to Lord
+Howe. During the 30th the fleets lost sight of one another for a time.
+The French, who had four ships crippled, had been joined by four others,
+and were again 26 in number, including the "Patriote."
+
+The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick weather,
+but by the evening the British were close to windward of the French. As
+Howe, who had not full confidence in all his captains, did not wish for
+a night battle, he waited till the following morning, keeping the French
+under observation by frigates. On the 1st of June they were in the same
+relative positions, and at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on
+the French, throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end,
+with orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to place
+the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a very bold
+departure from the then established methods of fighting, and most
+honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had been trained in the old
+school. Its essential merit was that it produced a close _mêlée_, in
+which the better average gunnery and seamanship of the British fleet
+would tell. Lord Howe's orders were not fully obeyed by all his
+captains, but a signal victory was won,--six of the French line of
+battle ships were taken, and one, the "Vengeur," sunk. The convoy
+escaped capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
+20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at Brest on
+the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console the French for
+their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten in England in the
+pleasure given by the victory.
+
+  See James's _Naval History_, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, _Batailles
+  navales de la France_ (1867).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857-   ), British historian, was born at
+Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated at Clifton College
+and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university he took the Stanhope
+prize for an essay on the marquess Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at
+Pembroke College in 1887, and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He
+was Ford's lecturer in English history in 1900, and became regius
+professor of modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
+1904. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to English
+history during the time of the Great Civil War and the Commonwealth; and
+although he is somewhat overshadowed by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the
+same field, his books are of great value to students of this period. The
+chief of them are: _Life of the Duke of Newcastle_ (1886); _Scotland and
+the Commonwealth_ (1895); _Scotland and the Protectorate_ (1899);
+_Narrative of General Venables_ (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_ (1900);
+_Cromwell's Army_ (1902); and the standard edition of _Ludlow's Memoirs_
+(1894). He also edited the _Clarke Papers_ (1891-1901), and Mrs
+Hutchinson's _Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson_ (1885), and wrote an
+introduction to the _Stuart Tracts_ (1903), besides contributions to the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_. In 1909 he published _The Last Years
+of the Protectorate_.
+
+
+
+
+FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and philanthropist,
+was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819, the son of a steel
+smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his brother, left school to
+join their father in the foundry where he was employed, and ten years
+later the three together started a six-hole furnace of their own. The
+venture proved successful, and besides an extensive home business, they
+soon established a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works
+were erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
+acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels near
+Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance was the principal
+feature of their business, and they produced also shot and heavy
+forgings. They also installed a plant for the production of steel cores
+for heavy guns, and for some time they supplied nearly all the metal
+used for gun making by the British government and a large proportion of
+that used by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
+became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed "Mark Firth's
+Almshouses" at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in 1875, when mayor, he
+presented to his native place a freehold park of thirty-six acres. He
+founded and endowed Firth College, for lectures and classes in connexion
+with the extension of university education, which was opened in 1879. He
+died on the 28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.
+
+
+
+
+FIRUZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m. S. of
+Shiraz, in 28° 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated in a fertile
+plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by the river Khoja which
+flows through it from north to south. The town is surrounded by a mud
+wall and ditch. Three or four miles north-west of the town are the ruins
+of the ancient city and of a large building popularly known as the
+fire-temple of Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the
+gorge through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
+bas-reliefs.
+
+The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern end, and
+according to Persian history it was there that Alexander the Great, when
+unable to capture the ancient city, built a dike across the gorge, thus
+damming up the water of the river and turning the plain into a lake and
+submerging the city and villages. The lake remained until the beginning
+of the 3rd century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
+it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gur, and made
+it the capital of one of the five great provinces or divisions of Fars.
+Firuz (or Peroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's successors, called the
+district after his name Firuzabad ("the abode of Firuz"), but the name
+of the city remained Gur until Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982)
+changed it to its present name. He did this because he frequently
+resided at Gur, and the name meaning also "a grave" gave rise to
+unpleasant allusions, for instance, "People who go to Gur (grave) never
+return alive; our king goes to Gur (the town) several times a year and
+is not dead yet."
+
+The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat and rice. It is
+said that the rice of Firuzabad bears sixty-fold.     (A. H.-S.)
+
+
+
+
+FIRUZKUH, a small province of Persia, with a population of about 5000,
+paying a yearly revenue of about £500. Its chief place is a village of
+the same name picturesquely situated in a valley of the Elburz, about 90
+m. east of Teheran, at an elevation of 6700 ft. and in 35° 46' N. and
+52° 48' E. It has post and telegraph offices and a population of 2500. A
+precipitous cliff on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the
+ruins of an ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591), German satirist and publicist, was
+born, probably at Strassburg (but according to some accounts at Mainz),
+in or about the year 1545, and was educated at Worms in the house of
+Kaspar Scheid, whom in the preface to his _Eulenspiegel_ he mentions as
+his "cousin and preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the
+Netherlands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the
+degree of _doctor juris_ at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which
+period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was probably
+associated in the business of, his sister's husband, Bernhard Jobin, a
+printer at Strassburg, who published many of his books. In 1581 Fischart
+was attached, as advocate to the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of
+appeal) at Spires, and in 1583, when he married, was appointed _Amtmann_
+(magistrate) at Forbach near Saarbrücken. Here he died in the winter of
+1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names, such as Mentzer,
+Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros, Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold
+Alkofribas Wüstblutus, Ulrich Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen
+Gilt's Mischen; and it is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt
+whether some of the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50
+satirical works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
+among which are--_Nachtrab oder Nebelkräh_ (1570), a satire against one
+Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the Roman Catholic Church; _Von
+St Dominici des Predigermönchs und St Francisci Barfüssers artlichem
+Leben_ (1571), a poem with the expressive motto "Sie haben Nasen und
+riechen's nit" (Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the
+Protestants against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that
+Luther held communion with the devil; _Eulenspiegel Reimensweis_
+(written 1571, published 1572); _Aller Praktik Grossmutter_ (1572),
+after Rabelais's _Prognostication Pantagrueline_; _Flöh Haz, Weiber
+Traz_ (1573), in which he describes a battle between fleas and women;
+_Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift vom Leben, Rhaten
+und Thaten der ... Helden und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und
+Pantagruel_, also after Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified
+title, _Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung_, 1577); _Neue künstliche
+Figuren biblischer Historien_ (1576); _Anmahnung zur christlichen
+Kinderzucht_ (1576); _Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich_ (1576,
+republished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland), a
+poem commemorating the adventure of a company of Zürich arquebusiers,
+who sailed from their native town to Strassburg in one day, and brought,
+as a proof of this feat, a kettleful of _Hirsebrei_ (millet), which had
+been cooked in Zürich, still warm into Strassburg, and intended to
+illustrate the proverb "perseverance overcomes all difficulties";
+_Podagrammisch Trostbüchlein_ (1577); _Philosophisch Ehzuchtbüchlein_
+(1578); the celebrated _Bienenkorb des heiligen römischen
+Immenschwarms_, &c., a modification of the Dutch _De roomsche
+Byen-Korf_, by Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and
+reprinted in 1847; _Der heilig Brotkorb_ (1580), after Calvin's _Traité
+des reliques_; _Das vierhörnige Jesuiterhütlein_, a rhymed satire
+against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems. To Fischart
+also have been attributed some "Psalmen und geistliche Lieder" which
+appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book of 1576.
+
+Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also those of
+Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He was a lawyer, a
+theologian, a satirist and the most powerful Protestant publicist of the
+counter-reformation period; in politics he was a republican. Above all,
+he is a master of language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His
+satire was levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and
+private life of his time--at astrological superstition, scholastic
+pedantry, ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
+lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the wildest
+witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all this he did with a
+serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized by the eloquence and
+picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical language he employed.
+Thirty years after Fischart's death his writings, once so popular, were
+almost entirely forgotten. Recalled to the public attention by Johann
+Jakob Bodmer and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his
+works have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position in
+German literature to be fully understood.
+
+  Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart's works
+  has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin, deals
+  in his _Fischartstudien_ (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist.
+  Fischart's poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three
+  volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke (Leipzig,
+  1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_
+  (Stuttgart, 1893); _Die Geschichtklitterung_ and some minor writings
+  appeared in Scheible's _Kloster_, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart,
+  1847-1848). _Das glückhafft Schiff_ has been frequently reprinted,
+  critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical
+  details, Erich Schmidt in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol.
+  7; A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_; W.
+  Wackernagel, _Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm_
+  (2nd ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, _Étude sur Jean Fischart_ (Paris,
+  1889); and A. Hauffen, "Fischart-Studien" (in _Euphorion_, 1896-1909).
+
+
+
+
+FISCHER, EMIL (1852-   ), German chemist, was born at Euskirchen, in
+Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852, his father being a merchant
+and manufacturer. After studying chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to
+Strassburg, where he graduated as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as
+assistant to Adolf von Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he
+was appointed to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882)
+and Würzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann as professor
+of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted himself entirely to organic
+chemistry, and his investigations are characterized by an originality of
+idea and readiness of resource which make him the master of this branch
+of experimental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too complex
+to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more intricate and
+involved the subjects of his investigations the more strongly shown is
+the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were, atom from atom, until the
+molecule stood revealed, and, this accomplished, the same skill combined
+atom with atom until the molecule was regenerated. His _forte_ was to
+enter fields where others had done little except break the ground; and
+his researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in hand,
+and where the solution was not entire, his methods and results almost
+always contained the key to the situation.
+
+  In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer, he
+  published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound
+  of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (q.v.). He
+  investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing
+  their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the readiness
+  with which they entered into combination with other substances, giving
+  origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds. Of such condensation
+  products undoubtedly the most important are the hydrazones, which
+  result from the interaction with aldehydes and ketones. His
+  observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones, by treatment
+  with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded derivatives of indol,
+  the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent substance of indigo,
+  were a valuable confirmation of the views advanced by his master, von
+  Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and the many substances related to
+  it. Of greater moment was his discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted
+  with the sugars to form substances which he named osazones, and
+  which, being highly crystalline and readily formed, served to identify
+  such carbohydrates more definitely than had been previously possible.
+  He next turned to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H.
+  Perkin), and in collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852),
+  then at Munich and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since
+  identified himself mainly with the compounds of this and related
+  groups, he published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably
+  established that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl
+  methane. Fischer's next research was concerned with compounds related
+  to uric acid. Here the ground had been broken more especially by von
+  Baeyer, but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group
+  (the word _purin_ appears to have been suggested by the phrase _purum
+  uricum_) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
+  established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
+  and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work in this
+  field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great series of
+  papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all referred to a
+  nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was obtained, but only
+  after much difficulty; and an immense series of derivatives were
+  prepared, some of which were patented in view of possible
+  therapeutical applications.[1] These researches were published in a
+  collected form in 1907 with the title _Untersuchungen in der
+  Puringruppe_ (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
+  successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here the
+  pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be regarded
+  as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may be taken
+  as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled in importance
+  in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical complexity of these
+  carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which they could be got into a
+  manageable form--they generally appeared as syrups--occasioned much
+  experimental difficulty; but these troubles were little in comparison
+  with the complications due to stereochemical relations. However,
+  Fischer synthesized fructose, glucose and a great number of other
+  sugars, and having showed how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of
+  the 16 stereoisomeric glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides,
+  thereby completing a most brilliant experimental research, and
+  simultaneously confirming the van't Hoff theory of the asymmetric
+  carbon atom (see STEREO-ISOMERISM). The study of the sugars brought in
+  its train the necessity for examining the nature, properties and
+  reactions of substances which bring about the decomposition known as
+  fermentation (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by
+  ferments and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this
+  complex subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important
+  discovery, viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical
+  constitution of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it
+  down. The magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by
+  his collected papers, _Untersuchungen über Kohlenhydrate und Fermente_
+  (1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909).
+
+  From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject of
+  the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with life
+  processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a subject
+  which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework, presents difficulties
+  which are probably without equal in the whole field of chemistry,
+  partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity of the
+  substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar manner in which
+  chemical reactions are brought about in the living organism. But by
+  the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded in breaking down
+  the complex albuminoid substances into amino acids and other
+  nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions of most of which have been
+  solved; and by bringing about the recombination of these units,
+  appropriately chosen, he prepared synthetic peptides which approximate
+  to the natural products. His methods led to the preparation of an
+  octadeca-peptide of the molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any
+  other synthetic compound; but even this compound falls far short of
+  the simplest natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from
+  2000 to 3000. He considers, however, that the synthesis of more
+  complex products is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches
+  made from 1899 to 1906 have been published with the title
+  _Untersuchungen über Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine_ (Berlin,
+  1907). The extraordinary merit of his many researches has been
+  recognized by all the important scientific societies in the world, and
+  he was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his
+  control the laboratory at Berlin became one of the most important in
+  existence, and has attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant
+  pupils, many of whom are to be associated with much of the
+  experimental work indissolubly connected with Fischer.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see
+    F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, _The Chemical Basis of
+    Pharmacology_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German philosopher, was born
+at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of July 1824. After studying
+philosophy at Leipzig and Halle, he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg
+in 1850. The Baden government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching
+owing to his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse
+considerable sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a
+professorship at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the
+dignity of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller's removal to
+Berlin, Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history
+of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on the 4th of
+July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian and commentator,
+for which he was especially qualified by his remarkable clearness of
+exposition; his point of view is in the main Hegelian. His _Geschichte
+der neuern Philosophie_ (1852-1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most
+accredited modern book of its kind, and he made valuable contributions
+to the study of Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing,
+Schiller and Schopenhauer.
+
+  Some of his numerous works have been translated into English: _Francis
+  Bacon of Verulam_, by J. Oxenford (1857); _The Life and Character of
+  Benedict Spinoza_, by Frida Schmidt (1882); _A Commentary on Kant's
+  Kritik of Pure Reason_, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866); _Descartes and his
+  School_, by J.P. Gordy (1887); _A Critique of Kant_, by W.S. Hough
+  (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, _Kuno Fischer und die
+  litterar-historische Methode_ (1892); and bibliography in J.M.
+  Baldwin's _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was born in New York
+City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father, Nicholas Fish (1758-1833),
+served in the American army during the War of American Independence,
+rising to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia
+College in 1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only
+a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in Congress. He
+was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor of New York in 1846, and
+was defeated by Addison Gardner (Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was
+appointed a judge of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected
+(November 1847) to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor
+of New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States senator in
+1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the last part of his term.
+In 1861-1862 he was associated with John A. Dix, William M. Evarts,
+William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York
+men, on the Union Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to
+April 30, 1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising
+and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million dollars for
+the relief of New York volunteers and their families. Fish was secretary
+of state during President Grant's two administrations (1869-1877). He
+conducted the negotiations with Great Britain which resulted in the
+treaty of the 8th of May 1871, under which (Article 1) the "Alabama
+claims" were referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article
+34) was made of the "San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning the Oregon
+boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace Conference at
+Washington between Spain and the allied republics of Peru, Chile,
+Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the formulation (April 12) of a
+general truce between those countries, to last indefinitely and not to
+be broken by any one of them without three years' notice given through
+the United States; and it was chiefly due to his restraint and
+moderation that a satisfactory settlement of the "Virginius Affair" was
+reached by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was
+vice-president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to
+1854, and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in
+Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.
+
+His son, NICHOLAS FISH (1846-1902), was appointed second secretary of
+legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was _chargé
+d'affaires_ at Berne in 1877-1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882-1886,
+after which he engaged in banking in New York City.
+
+
+
+
+FISH (O. Eng. _fisc_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch
+_visch_, Ger. _Fisch_, Goth. _fisks_, cognate with the Lat. _piscis_),
+the common name of that class of vertebrate animals which lives
+exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and whose limbs take the
+form of fins (see ICHTHYOLOGY). The article FISHERIES deals with the
+subject from the economic and commercial point of view, and ANGLING with
+the catching of fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the
+zodiac known as "the fishes" is treated under PISCES.
+
+The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval
+Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters of the
+names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. [Greek: Iêsous Christos, Theou
+Huios, Sôtêr], Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which together spell
+the Greek word for "fish," [Greek: ichthys]. The fish is also said to be
+represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at both ends, and formed
+by the intersection of two circles. This figure, also known as the
+_vesica piscis_, is common in ecclesiastical seals and as a glory or
+aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding figures of the Trinity,
+saints, &c. The figure is, however, sometimes referred to the almond, as
+typifying virginity; the French name for the symbol is _Amande
+mystique_.
+
+The word "fish" is used in many technical senses. Thus it is used of the
+purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor to the bill-board; of a
+piece of wood or metal used to strengthen a sprung mast or yard; and of
+a plate of metal used, as in railway construction, for the strengthening
+of the meeting-place of two rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but
+it is probably an adaptation of the Fr. _fiche_, that which "fixes," a
+peg. This word also appears in the English form "fish," in the metal,
+pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used for
+scoring points, &c., in many games.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, ALVAN (1792-1863), American portrait-painter, was born at
+Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792. At the age of
+eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and subsequently was employed
+by the village house painter, but at the age of twenty-two he began to
+paint portrait heads, alternating with rural scenes and animals, for
+which he found patrons at modest prices. In ten years he had saved
+enough to go to Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the
+galleries of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized
+group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty, Harding
+and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his work in
+Boston--perhaps the first joint display by painters ever held in that
+city. Though he had considerable talent for landscape, a lack of
+patronage for such work caused him to confine himself to portraiture, in
+which he was moderately successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the
+16th of February 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian, was born at
+Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August 1827. He graduated at
+Brown University in 1847, and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1851, spent three years in study in Germany, was college preacher and
+professor of divinity at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street
+professor of ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in
+1861-1901, when he was made professor _emeritus_. He was president of
+the American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have
+given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history. They
+include _Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity_ (1865);
+_History of the Reformation_ (1873), republished in several revisions;
+_The Beginnings of Christianity_ (1877); _Discussions in History and
+Theology_ (1880); _Outlines of Universal History_ (1886); _History of
+the Christian Church_ (1887); _The Nature and Method of Revelation_
+(1890); _Manual of Natural Theology_ (1893); _A History of Christian
+Doctrine_, in the "International Theological Library" (1896); and _A
+Brief History of Nations_ (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of Rochester,
+born at Beverly, received his first education at the collegiate church
+there. In 1484 he went to Michael House, Cambridge, where he took his
+degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491, and, after filling several offices in
+the university, became master of his college in 1499. He took orders;
+and his reputation for learning and piety attracted the notice of
+Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and
+chaplain. In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when
+chancellor, he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the
+beneficent schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and
+Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek and
+Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his own benefactions
+took the form of scholarships, fellowships and lectures. In 1503 he was
+the first Margaret professor at Cambridge; and the following year was
+raised to the see of Rochester, to which he remained faithful, although
+the richer sees of Ely and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated
+as one of the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did
+not attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at the
+legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence of the
+brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of display;
+and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the cardinal's demand
+for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A great friend of Erasmus, whom
+he invited to Cambridge, whilst earnestly working for a reformation of
+abuses, he had no sympathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he
+preached at Paul's Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther's
+books. Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther, he
+joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply to the
+scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained the esteem of the
+king until the divorce proceedings began in 1527; and then he set
+himself sternly in favour of the validity of the marriage. He was Queen
+Catherine's confessor and her only champion and advocate. He appeared on
+her behalf before the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise
+against the divorce that was widely read.
+
+Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform brought
+forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only moral force that
+could withstand the royal will, he energetically opposed the reformation
+of abuses, which doubtless under other circumstances he would have been
+the first to accept. In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed
+(11th of February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the
+clergy "to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic Church";
+and it was his influence that brought in the saving clause, _quantum per
+legem Dei licet_. By listening to the revelations of the "Holy Maid of
+Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton (q.v.), he was charged with misprision
+of treason, and was condemned to the loss of his goods and to
+imprisonment at the king's will, penalties he was allowed to compound by
+a fine of £300 (25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April)
+to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he was ready
+to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the offspring of
+Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith, trust and
+obedience to any foreign authority or potentate. Refusing to take the
+oath, he was committed (15th of April) to the Tower, where he suffered
+greatly from the rigours of a long confinement. On the passing of the
+Act of Supremacy (November 1534), in which the saving clause of
+convocation was omitted, he was attainted and deprived of his see. The
+council, with Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of
+May 1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of the
+church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher, while
+driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the
+whole Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most
+learned and pious bishops of the time. Paul III., who had begun his
+pontificate with the intention of purifying the curia, was unaware of
+the grave danger in which Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the
+king with the bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of
+St Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate. Henry,
+in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there should be
+no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at Westminster (17th
+of June 1535) on the charge that he did "openly declare in English that
+the king, our sovereign lord, is not supreme head on earth of the Church
+of England," and was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a
+sentence afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd
+of June 1535, after saying the _Te Deum_ and the psalm _In te Domine
+speravi_. His body was buried first at All Hallows, Barking, and then
+removed to St. Peter's _ad vincula_ in the Tower, where it lies beside
+that of Sir Thomas More. His head was exposed on London Bridge and then
+thrown into the river. As a champion of the rights of conscience, and
+as the only one of the English bishops that dared to resist the king's
+will, Fisher commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was
+beatified by Pope Leo XIII.
+
+  Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the _Opera J. Fisheri quae
+  hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia_ (Würzburg, 1595), and some of his
+  published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra
+  series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the
+  P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the main
+  sources for his biography are _The Life and Death of that renowned
+  John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London, 1655), by an anonymous
+  writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893);
+  Bridgett's _Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London,
+  1880 and 1890); and Thureau, _Le bienheureux Jean Fisher_ (Paris,
+  1907).     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON (1841-   ), British admiral,
+was born on the 25th of January 1841, and entered the navy in June 1854.
+He served in the Baltic during the Crimean War, and was engaged as
+midshipman on the "Highflyer," "Chesapeake" and "Furious," in the
+Chinese War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,
+and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on the 25th of
+January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November of the same year.
+The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars at sea in which the
+British navy had to take a part, after 1860, allowed few officers to
+gain distinction by actual services against the enemy. But they were
+provided with other ways of proving their ability by the sweeping
+revolution which transformed the construction, the armament, and the
+methods of propulsion of all the navies of the world, and with them the
+once accepted methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a
+commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French
+"Gloire" had set going the long duel in construction between guns and
+armour. He early made his mark as a student of gunnery, and was promoted
+commander on the 2nd of August 1869, and post-captain on the 30th of
+October 1874. In this rank he was chosen to serve as president of the
+committee appointed to revise "The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet." It was
+his already established reputation which pointed Captain Fisher out for
+the command of H.M.S. "Inflexible," a vessel which, as the
+representative of a type, had supplied matter for much discussion. As
+captain of the "Inflexible" he took part in the bombardment of
+Alexandria (11th July 1882). The engagement was not arduous in itself,
+having been carried out against forts of inferior construction,
+indifferently armed, and worse garrisoned, but it supplied an
+opportunity for a display of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the
+midst of a long naval peace. The "Inflexible" took a prominent part in
+the action, and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed
+in Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded it in
+various skirmishes with the enemy. After the Egyptian campaign, he was,
+in succession, director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October
+1886 to May 1891); A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd
+August 1890, at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral
+superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord
+commissioner of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and
+vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the North American
+and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he acted as naval expert at the
+Hague Peace Conference, and on the 1st of July 1899 was appointed
+commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command,
+Admiral Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902,
+and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st of August 1903,
+from which post he passed to that of first sea lord. Besides holding the
+foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and
+G.C.B. in 1902. As first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John
+Fisher had a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures
+of naval development and internal reform; and he was also one of the
+committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed in 1904 to report
+on the measures necessary to be taken to put the administration and
+organization of the British army on a sound footing. The changes in
+naval administration made under him were hotly canvassed among critics,
+who charged him with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue
+subservience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever the
+efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact was undeniable
+that for the first time for very many years the navy suffered, as a
+service, from the party-spirit which was aroused. It was notorious that
+Admiral Lord Charles Beresford in particular was acutely hostile to Sir
+John Fisher's administration; and on his retirement in the spring of
+1909 from the position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he
+put his charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry was
+held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its report,
+published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty, though it
+encouraged the belief that some important suggestions as to the
+organization of a naval "general staff" would take effect. On the 9th of
+November Sir John Fisher was created a peer as Baron Fisher of
+Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired from the Admiralty in January 1910.
+
+
+
+
+FISHERIES,[1] a general term for the various operations engaged in for
+the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man. From time
+immemorial fish have been captured by various forms of spears, nets,
+hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a historical description of the
+methods and appliances that have been used would comprise a considerable
+portion of a treatise on the history of man. For the most part the
+operations of fishing have been comparable with those of primitive
+hunting rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible
+account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality has
+been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing pressure
+on every source of food, and the enormous improvements in the catching
+power of the engines involved, has made some kind of regulation and
+control inevitable, with the result that in practically every civilized
+country there exists some authority for the investigation and regulation
+of fisheries.
+
+The annexed table shows the department of state and the approximate
+expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries of the world.
+The figures are only approximate and are based on the expenditure for
+1907. In the case of England and Wales the expenditure is not complete,
+as under the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast
+of England and Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees
+with power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number
+of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with this
+addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that undertaken
+by most of the countries of northern Europe, although British fisheries
+are much more valuable than those of all the rest of Europe together.
+
+
+  _Administration of Fisheries._
+
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  |                                |    Norway.    |   Sweden.  |  Denmark.  |   Germany.   |  Holland.  |  Belgium.     |
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  |Department of State             |Trade and      |Agriculture.|Agriculture.|Imperial De-  |Agriculture.|Agriculture and|
+  |                                |  Industry and |            |            |  partment of |            |  Woods and    |
+  |                                |  Agriculture. |            |            |  Interior.   |            |  Forests.     |
+  |Approximate Annual Expenditure--|               |            |            |              |            |               |
+  |  1. Administration             |    £15,000    |   £5,500   |  £10,200   |Conducted by  |  £12,500   |     ..        |
+  |                                |               |            |            |  Maritime    |            |               |
+  |                                |               |            |            |  States      |            |               |
+  |  2. Scientific Fishery Research|      5,000    |    4,500   |    6,300   |   £27,750    |    2,500   |    £1,000     |
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |                                |   Canada.  |   U.S. America.   |  England and  |   Scotland.   |    Ireland.    |
+  |                                |            |                   |     Wales.    |               |                |
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |Department of State             |Marine and  |Bureau of Fisheries|Agriculture and|Fishery Board. |Agriculture and |
+  |                                |  Fisheries.|  under Commerce   |  Fisheries.   |               |  Technical     |
+  |                                |            |  and Labour.      |               |               |  Instruction.  |
+  |Approximate Annual Expenditure--|            |                   |               |               |
+  |  1. Administration             | £159,000   |Conducted by       |     £8,000    |    £13,000    |    £10,000     |
+  |                                |            |  Costal States    |               |               |                |
+  |  2. Scientific Fishery Research|   48,000   |    £141,000       |     14,000    |        800    |       ..       |
+  |                                |            |                   |               |  (expended    |                |               |
+  |                                |            |                   |               |through agents)|                |               |
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great expansion of
+the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The herring fishery has been
+revolutionized partly by the successful introduction of steam drifters,
+which have markedly increased the aggregate catching power, and partly
+by the prosecution of the fishery on one part or other of the British
+coasts during the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish
+vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries in
+alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost entirely
+to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad fleets around all the
+coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian drifters carry on their
+operations at different seasons of the year from Shetland in the north
+(for herrings) to Newlyn in the west (for mackerel). In Scotland the
+value of the nets employed on steam drifters has increased from £3000 in
+1899 to £61,000 in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has
+increased from about four to about five million cwts. during the past
+ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings, which reached a
+total of two million cwts. for the first time in 1899, has exceeded
+three millions in each year from 1902 to 1905.
+
+In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In 1906 Messrs
+Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling fleet of 50 vessels for
+working the North Sea grounds, and the delivery of new steam trawlers at
+Grimsby was greater than at any previous period, these vessels being
+designed more especially to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the
+range of which has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About
+100 vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve
+months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length and over 20
+ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage, the accommodation both
+for fish and crews being considerably in excess of that provided in
+vessels of this class hitherto.
+
+Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief European
+countries show the expanse of this industry, and the enormous
+preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as follows:--
+
+  Belgium               23
+  Denmark                5
+  France               224
+  Germany              239
+  Netherlands           81
+  Norway                20
+  Portugal              13
+  Spain                 12-18
+  Sweden                11
+  Scotland             292
+  Ireland                6
+  England and Wales   1317
+
+A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been manifested in
+other maritime countries of Europe, particularly in Germany and Holland,
+but the total number of steam trawlers belonging to those countries in
+1905 scarcely exceeded the mere additions to the British fishing fleet
+in 1906.
+
+The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be gauged by a
+comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries of other European
+countries. The following table is based upon official returns and mainly
+derived from the _Bulletin Statistique_ of the International Council for
+the Study of the Sea. It represents in pounds sterling the value of the
+produce of the various national fisheries during the year 1904, except
+in the case of France, for which country the latest available figures
+are those for 1902.
+
+  _Values in Thousands of £._
+
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+  |               |Herring.| Cod.  |Plaice.| Other |   Total.  |
+  |               |        |       |       | Fish. |           |
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+  | British Isles | 1870   |1015   |1100   |5496   | 9,481,000 |
+  | Norway        |  352   | 834   |  ..   | 443   | 1,629,000 |
+  | Denmark       |  117   |  60   | 171   | 223   |   571,000 |
+  | Germany       |  220   |  64[2]|  40[2]| 512[2]|   836,000 |
+  | Holland       |  575   |  53   |  58   | 311   |   997,000 |
+  | France (1902) |  635   | 851[3]|  ..   |3562   | 5,048,000 |
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+
+The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions of
+the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the official returns,
+was as follows:
+
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |    Fish landed in      |  Excluding  |  Including  |
+  |                        |  Shellfish. |  Shellfish. |
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | England and Wales      | £7,200,644  | £7,502,768  |
+  | Scotland               |  2,649,148  |  2,719,810  |
+  | Ireland                |    360,577  |    414,364  |
+  |                        +-------------+-------------+
+  |            Total       |£10,210,369  |£10,636,942  |
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+These figures show an increase of £1,000,000 as compared with the total
+value in 1900, and of more than £3,000,000 as compared with 1895 (cf.
+Table I. at end).
+
+In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock, and flat fish
+yielded about three-quarters of the total, and the drift fisheries for
+herring and mackerel nearly the whole of the remaining quarter. The line
+fisheries in England and Wales are now relatively insignificant and
+yield only about one-fortieth of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).
+
+In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference in the
+relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905 herrings and
+other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half of the total,
+the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and the line fisheries
+one-eighth (cf. Table X.).
+
+  +-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+----------+
+  |                         |   Trawl and Line.   |Drift and Stake-nets.|Shellfish.|
+  |         Fishery.        +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                         |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |
+  |                         |  of cwt. |   of £.  |  of cwt. |   of £.  |   of £.  |
+  +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |England and Wales, 1905--|          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  East Coast             |   6017   |   4713   |   3042   |   1145   |   202    |
+  |  South Coast            |    303   |    245   |    728   |    268   |    64    |
+  |  West Coast             |   1002   |    720   |    219   |    111   |    36    |
+  |Scotland, 1906--         |          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  East Coast             |   2296   |   1202   |   2709   |    819   |    25    |
+  |  Orkney and Shetland    |    114   |     42   |   1735   |    642   |    10    |
+  |  West Coast             |    148   |     62   |    591   |    210   |    38    |
+  |Ireland, 1905--          |          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  North Coast            |      9   |      5   |    177   |     70   |     7    |
+  |  East Coast             |     79   |     70   |    110   |     32   |    18    |
+  |  South and West Coast   |     46   |     35   |    577   |    148   |    28    |
+  +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly
+three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief item
+in the south and west, and the herring on the north and east coasts.
+The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the trawl fisheries, the
+headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth and Balbriggan on the east,
+and at Galway and Dingle on the west coast.
+
+The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the Scottish
+fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly £4,120,000. Upon a moderate
+estimate, the total value of the boats and gear employed in the
+fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot be less than £12,000,000.
+
+The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the separate
+coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of landings from
+the latest data available.
+
+From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of the east
+coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate enormously over
+those of the western coasts, whether attention be paid to the drift-net
+fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries for bottom fish with
+trawls and lines.
+
+The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary
+tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British fishing
+industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity. The community at
+large has benefited by the more plentiful supply, and the merchant by
+the general lowering of prices at the ports of landing (see Tables
+I.-IV. at end). But it is to be noted that this wave of prosperity, as
+on previous occasions, has been attained by the application of increased
+and more powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new
+fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase, natural or
+artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,--unless perhaps the
+abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to the destruction of their
+enemies by trawling. British fisheries are still pursued as a form of
+hunting rather than of husbandry. In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay
+trawling banks were discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich
+plaice grounds in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a
+quarter of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England
+were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.
+
+_Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by
+Steam Trawlers on the East Coast of England from Fishing Grounds within
+and beyond the North Sea respectively._
+
+  +-----+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+  |     |      Within the North Sea.     |      Beyond the North Sea.     |
+  |Year.+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+  |     |Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.|Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.|
+  +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+  | 1903| 729|  2301  |  812  |   4776   | 470|   389  |  114  |   1189   |
+  | 1904| 637|  2032  |  658  |   4228   | 447|   429  |  284  |   1389   |
+  | 1905| 640|  1560  |  621  |   3739   | 603|   518  |  244  |   1682   |
+  +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+
+The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have
+distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within and beyond the
+North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers and liners. Neglecting the
+catch of the liners as relatively insignificant, and of the sailing
+trawlers as relatively small and practically constant during the three
+years in question, we see from the board's figures (see table above)
+that the total catch of English steam trawlers within the North Sea
+during 1904 and 1905 was in each year 500,000 cwt. less than in the year
+before, amounting to a gross decrease of more than 25% in 1905 as
+compared with 1903, and, in relation to the catching power employed, to
+an average decrease of 2½ cwt. per boat per diem. This decrease may be
+largely explained by the occurrence in 1903 of one of those periodic
+"floods" of small cod and haddock which take place in the North Sea from
+time to time; but the steady decline in the number of North Sea voyages
+by English steam trawlers--from 29,300 in 1903 to 26,700 in
+1905--affords a clear indication of the fact that many of our trawling
+skippers are deserting the North Sea for more profitable fishing
+grounds. The number of Scottish steam trawlers "employed" at Scottish
+North Sea ports has also declined during the same period from 240 in
+1903 to 228 in 1905.
+
+The following table shows the number of British and foreign steam
+trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English vessels the
+number of fishing voyages made within and beyond the North Sea
+respectively:--
+
+  +-----+-----------+-----------------------+---------+-----------+
+  |     |           |English Steam Trawlers.|         |           |
+  |     |           |       Voyages.[4]     |         |  German,  |
+  |Year.|  Boats    +-----------+-----------+Scottish.| Dutch and |
+  |     |Registered.|   Within  |   Beyond  |Employed.|  Belgian. |
+  |     |           | North Sea.| North Sea.|         |Registered.|
+  +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+
+  | 1903|   1060    |  29,328   |    1822   |   240   |    181    |
+  | 1904|   1049    |  28,589   |    2120   |   233   |    199    |
+  | 1905|   1064    |  26,670   |    2671   |   228   |    228    |
+  +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+
+
+Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal of
+British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled year after
+year by increasing numbers of continental fishing boats. The number of
+fishing steamers (practically all trawlers) registered at North Sea
+ports in Germany and Holland was 159 in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905,
+and 330 in 1907.
+
+It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased
+attention which has been paid in recent years to the acquisition of more
+exact knowledge upon the actual state of the fisheries and upon the
+biological and other factors which influence the supply.
+
+A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations, both
+scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the course of 1902
+under the International Council for the Study of the Sea (see below).
+The Fishery Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association for
+England were commissioned to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great
+Britain, and the English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards
+with the means for collecting more adequate statistics.
+
+Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of fish eggs
+have located important spawning grounds of cod, haddock, plaice, sole,
+eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod, plaice and eel have thrown much
+light upon the migrations of these fishes; and the rate of growth of
+plaice, cod and herring has been elucidated in different localities. The
+percentage of marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has
+been found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a
+significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions.
+It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock of plaice on the
+central grounds of the North Sea is mainly attributable to the excessive
+rate of capture of plaice during their annual off-shore migrations from
+the coast. On the other hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of
+plaice on the Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or
+six-fold in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are
+reared,--facts which open up the possibility of increasing the permanent
+supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption of some plan of
+commercial transplantation (see PISCICULTURE).
+
+_History._--A brief review may now be given of the history of the
+administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of the steps
+which have been taken for the attainment of scientific and statistical
+information in relation thereto.
+
+In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley, Mr
+(afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord
+Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition of the British
+sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise of existing methods of
+fishing, and the necessity or otherwise of the existing legislation. The
+important report of this commission, issued in 1866, embodied the
+following main conclusions and recommendations:--(1) the total supply of
+fish obtained upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of
+further augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a
+wastefully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament which
+profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued in the open
+sea should be repealed and "unrestricted freedom of fishing be
+permitted hereafter"; (4) all fishing boats should be lettered and
+numbered as a condition of registration and licence.
+
+In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by the passing of
+the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the registration of fishing boats
+were issued by order in council in the following year. (New regulations
+were introduced in 1902.)
+
+In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland and Walpole to inquire
+into the alleged destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,
+especially by the use of the beam-trawl and ground seine. Their report
+is an excellent summary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the
+time, and shows how little was then known with regard to the eggs and
+spawning habits of our marine food fishes.
+
+In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved and the
+Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter being empowered to
+take such measures for the improvement of the fisheries as the funds
+under their administration might admit of. Arrangements were made in the
+following year with Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the
+latter to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of
+studies on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed
+greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning the
+reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act
+of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay against
+trawlers as an experiment for the purpose of ascertaining the result of
+such prohibition on the supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The
+treasury also, by a further grant of £3000, enabled the board to
+purchase the steam-yacht "Garland" as a means of carrying out regular
+experimental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the
+results of these experiments have been annually published, and were
+summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's report for
+1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that "no very marked change took place
+in the abundance of food-fishes generally, either in the closed or open
+waters of the Firth of Forth or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the
+prohibition of trawling. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and
+lemon soles, which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in
+numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open, while
+dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if not quite
+universal, increase.
+
+The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the
+presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have now
+exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of eggs and fry
+for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable; and (2) that
+protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to check the
+impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore. (For critical
+examinations of Dr Fulton's account see M'Intosh, _Resources of the
+Sea_, London, 1889; Garstang, "The Impoverishment of the Sea," _Journ.
+Mar. Biol. Ass._ vol. vi., 1900; and Archer, _Report of Ichthyological
+Committee_, Cd. 1312, 1902.)
+
+A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established by the
+board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen in 1900.
+
+In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the late earl of
+Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints against the practice
+of beam-trawling on the part of line and drift-net fishermen. A small
+sum of money (£200) was granted to the commission for the purpose of
+scientific trawling experiments, which were carried out by Professor
+M'Intosh.
+
+The report of this commission was an important one, and its
+recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics for
+England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).
+
+In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom was
+founded for the scientific study of marine zoology and botany,
+especially as bearing upon the food, habits and life-conditions of
+British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs. Professor Huxley was its
+first president, and Professor Ray Lankester, who initiated the
+movement, succeeded him. A large and well-equipped laboratory was
+erected at Plymouth, and formally opened for work in 1888. The work of
+the association has been maintained by annual grants of £400 from the
+Fishmongers' Company and £1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the
+subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a half-yearly
+journal recording the results of its investigations.
+
+In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was organized under
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of that year. The department
+publishes annually a return of statistics of sea-fish landed, a report
+on salmon fisheries (transferred from the home office), and a report on
+sea fisheries. It consists of several inspectors under an assistant
+secretary of the board; it has no power to make scientific
+investigations or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries.
+In 1894 the administration of the acts relating to the registration of
+fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department.
+
+In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the constitution
+(by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local fisheries
+committees having, within defined limits, powers for the regulation of
+coast fisheries in England and Wales. The powers of district committees
+were extended under Part II. of the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under
+the Fisheries (Shell Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts
+have now been created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.
+Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been prohibited in
+nearly all the territorial waters of England and Wales, and trawling by
+smaller boats has been placed under a variety of restrictions. Local
+scientific investigations have been initiated under several of the
+committees, especially in Lancashire by Professor Herdman of Liverpool
+and his assistants.
+
+In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the west coast of
+Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin Society, with assistance from
+the government, and in the hands of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the
+acquisition of much valuable information concerning the spawning habits
+of fishes and the distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.
+
+In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act of
+1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole of the Moray
+Firth--including a large tract of extra-territorial waters--against
+trawling, in order to test experimentally the effect of protecting
+certain spawning grounds in the outer parts of the firth. The closure
+has given rise to a succession of protests from the leaders of the
+trawling industry in Aberdeen and England. It seems that the difficulty
+of policing so large an area, as well as the absence of any power to
+enforce the restriction on foreign vessels, have defeated the original
+intention; and the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in
+deference to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of
+whose industry--from economic causes which have been alluded to
+above--is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The controversy
+has had the effect of causing the transference of a number of English
+trawlers to foreign flags, especially the Norwegian.
+
+  _Statistics._--The following tables summarize the official statistics
+  of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and
+  Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of
+  fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.
+
+
+  TABLE I.--_Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and exported
+  for the United Kingdom._
+
+  +------+-------------------------+-----------+-------------+
+  | Year.|      Fish landed        |    Net    | Exports of  |
+  |      | (excluding Shell-fish). | Imports.  |British Fish.|
+  |------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
+  |      |     Cwt.   |            |           |             |
+  | 1890 | 12,774,010 | £6,361,487 |£2,315,572 |  £1,795,267 |
+  | 1895 | 14,068,641 |  7,168,025 | 2,453,676 |   2,282,406 |
+  | 1900 | 14,671,070 |  9,242,491 | 2,937,486 |   3,000,852 |
+  | 1905 | 20,164,276 | 10,210,369 | 2,250,259 |   4,164,869 |
+  +------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
+
+  _Note._--Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly of
+  salted or cured fish to the value of over £900,000 in 1905) are not
+  included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports
+  consist mainly of herrings.
+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes landed
+  on the Coasts of England and Wales (all caught with Trawl-nets, except
+  Halibut in part)._
+
+  +-----+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |     |             Quantity                |      Average Price (per Cwt.).      |
+  |Year.|      (in Thousands of Cwt.).        |                                     |
+  |     +-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+  |     |Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.|Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.|
+  +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+  |     |     |       |      |       |        |£ s. | £ s.  | £ s. |  £ s. |  £ s.  |
+  | 1890| 72.1| 51.9  | 15.4 |  623  |   95   |6  7 | 3 13  | 2  8 |  0 19 |  1 10  |
+  | 1895| 82.8| 77.9  | 19.0 |  789  |  114   |6 16 | 3 17  | 2 11 |  1  1 |  1 15  |
+  | 1900| 75.3| 60.7  | 20.7 |  752  |  136   |7 11 | 4  3  | 2 14 |  1  4 |  1 14  |
+  | 1905| 80.1| 89.5  | 22.4 | 1074  |  120   |5 18 | 3 11  | 2 11 |  0 19 |  1 17  |
+  +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE III.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes,
+  caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England and
+  Wales._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+  |     |            Quantity               |       Average Price (per Cwt.).      |
+  |Year.|      (in Thousands of Cwt.).      |                                      |
+  |     +----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+  |     |Cod.|Haddock.|Hake.|Ling.|Sundries.| Cod.|Haddock.| Hake.| Ling.|Sundries.|
+  +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+  |     |    |        |     |     |         |s. d.|  s. d. | s. d.| s. d.| s. d.   |
+  | 1890| 363|  1585  | ..  |  96 |  1151   |13 10|  9  7  |  ..  | 14  3| 14  0   |
+  | 1895| 496|  2433  | 132 | 114 |  1013   |12  5|  9  9  | 16  2| 11  8| 13  7   |
+  | 1900| 589|  2487  | 233 | 100 |  1190   |14  8| 13  8  | 15 10| 12 10| 14 10   |
+  | 1905|1423|  2148  | 484 | 165 |  1425   |12  4| 12  5  | 13  4| 11  3|  9  8   |
+  +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+
+
+  TABLE IV.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes
+  landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (caught with Drift-, Seine-,
+  and Stow-nets)._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+  |     |              Quantity             |      Average Price (per Cwt.).    |
+  |Year.|       (in Thousands of Cwt.).     |                                   |
+  |     +---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+  |     |Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.|Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.|
+  +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+  |     |         |        |         |      |  s. d.  |  s. d. |   s. d. | s. d.|
+  | 1890|   509   |  1332  |   61    |  99  |  15  5  |  7  2  |   5 10  | 3  0 |
+  | 1895|   375   |  1437  |   65    |  91  |  16  3  |  5 10  |   5  3  | 3  1 |
+  | 1900|   321   |  2425  |  106    |  73  |  15  9  |  7  8  |   4  6  | 4 11 |
+  | 1905|   682   |  3062  |  169    |  75  |   8 11  |  7  7  |   5  0  | 3  6 |
+  +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+
+
+  TABLE V.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed on
+  the Coasts of England and Wales._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+  |     |              Number.              |          Average Price.           |
+  |     +----------------+--------+---------+-------------------------+---------+
+  |Year.|   Thousands.   | Mills. |Thousands|       Per Hundred.      | Per Cwt.|
+  |     |                |        | of Cwt. |                         |         |
+  |     +----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+  |     |Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.|
+  +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+  |     |      |         |        |         | £. s.|  £. s.  |  s. d. |  s. d.  |
+  |1890 | 4808 |   922   |  47.6  |   505   | 1  4 |  4  18  |  6  1  |  5   0  |
+  |1895 | 4501 |   677   |  25.3  |   590   | 1  4 |  4   8  |  6  2  |  4  11  |
+  |1900 | 5177 |   654   |  37.8  |   539   | 1  2 |  4   7  |  7  0  |  5   8  |
+  |1905 | 5106 |   503   |  35.4  |   423   | 1  3 |  4  15  |  5  9  |  5   6  |
+  +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+
+  TABLE VI.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish
+  landed in Scotland._
+
+  +-----+----------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+
+  |     |                       In Thousands of Cwt.                           |  Cwt.  |         Number          |
+  |     |                                                                      |        |       (Thousands).      |
+  |Year.+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+  |     |        |     | Flounder,|        |    |     |        |        |      |        |      |         |        |
+  |     |Herring.|Lemon|  Plaice, |Halibut.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Skate.|Mussels.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|
+  |     |        |Sole.|and Brill.|        |    |     |        |        |      |        |      |         |        |
+  +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+  | 1890|  3980  | 17  |    81    |   20   | 449| 170 |  754   |   75   |  54  |  181   | 2882 |   643   |  350   |
+  | 1895|  4077  | 19  |    80    |   29   | 459| 165 | 1001   |   43   |  59  |  194   | 2548 |   610   |  239   |
+  | 1900|  3520  | 21  |   102    |   26   | 434| 157 |  761   |   75   |  72  |  143   | 3128 |   680   |  796   |
+  | 1905|  5343  | 31  |   561    |   36   | 677| 151 |  932   |  184   | 100  |  103   | 1990 |   760   |  218   |
+  +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE VII.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and
+  Shell-fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts._
+
+  +-----+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+
+  |     |                      In Thousands of Cwt.                         |   Number (Thousands).   |
+  |Year.+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+  |     |Mackerel.|Herring.|Sole.|Turbot.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Hake.|Oysters.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|
+  +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+  | 1890|   502   |   85   | 4.5 |  1.4  |39.6| 14.8|  16.4  |  13.5  | 25.3|  576   |  228 |   238   |
+  | 1895|   339   |  171   | 1.8 |  1.0  |43.6| 29.7|  30.9  |  11.9  | 18.7|  563   |  240 |   276   |
+  | 1900|   278   |  284   | 3.1 |  1.5  |33.6| 11.9|  12.4  |  11.9  | 16.3|  236   |  202 |   286   |
+  | 1905|   505   |  354   | 3.5 |  0.8  |18.6|  9.1|  11.3  |  18.3  |  7.1|  348   |  175 |   236   |
+  +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+
+  _Note._--The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing
+  to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for
+  collecting statistics over large sections of the coast.
+
+
+  TABLE VIII.--_Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register
+  for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or
+  Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed._
+
+  +----------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  |          |    England and Wales.   |        Scotland.        |        Ireland.         |
+  | Mode of  +---------+---------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------+
+  | Fishing. |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |
+  |          | 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.|
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+  |Trawling  |  1173   |  904  |  586  |   244   |  ..   |   68  |   10    |  142  |  283  |
+  |Drift-nets|   263   |  562  |  539  |    ..   |  ..   |  ..   |   ..    |   ..  |   ..  |
+  |Lines     |    56   |   29  |  685  |   209   | 3403  | 2910  |   ..    |  229  | 2776  |
+  |Various   |    21   |  215  | 2277  |    ..   |  ..   |  ..   |   ..    |   ..  |   ..  |
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+  |  Total   |  1513   | 1710  | 4087  |   453   | 3403  | 2978  |   10    |  371  | 3059  |
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+
+  _Note._--1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and
+  other boats of at least 15 tons registered tonnage (in Scotland
+  exceeding 30 ft. keel). 2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from
+  18 to 30 ft. keel.
+
+
+  TABLE IX.--_Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed and (B) of
+  other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing._
+
+  +-----+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+  |     |  England and  |    Scotland.    |    Ireland.     |     United      |
+  |Year.|     Wales.    |                 |                 |    Kingdom.     |
+  |     +--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |     |   A.   |  B.  |   A.   |   B.   |   A.   |   B.   |   A.   |   B.   |
+  +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | 1890| 32,503 | 9312 | 34,319 | 20,829 | 10,121 | 13,981 | 78,450 | 46,337 |
+  | 1895| 32,229 | 8995 | 31,044 | 12,329 |  8,692 | 18,218 | 73,090 | 41,230 |
+  | 1900| 31,589 | 7994 | 27,288 | 10,288 |  8,677 | 18,982 | 68,708 | 37,814 |
+  | 1905| 34,318 | 8132 | 29,064 | 10,487 |  8,744 | 17,079 | 73,293 | 36,131 |
+  +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE X.--_Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed in
+  Scotland._
+
+  +------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | Year.|  Line-caught Fish.   |     Trawled Fish.    |
+  +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+  |      |    Cwt.   |          |    Cwt.   |          |
+  | 1890 | 1,577,299 | £591,059 |   291,812 | £203,620 |
+  | 1895 | 1,479,654 |  548,629 |   531,695 |  291,165 |
+  | 1900 |   757,416 |  371,173 | 1,077,082 |  703,427 |
+  | 1905 |   735,654 |  348,610 | 1,745,431 |  948,117 |
+  +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+
+In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took evidence as to
+the expediency of adopting measures for the preservation of the
+sea-fisheries in the seas around the British Islands, with especial
+reference to the alleged wasteful destruction of under-sized fish. They
+recommended the adoption of a size-limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice,
+and 10 in. for turbot and brill, below which the sale of these fishes
+should be prohibited, on the ground that these limits would approximate
+to those already adopted by foreign countries.
+
+In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act
+transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish fisheries
+to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
+The department is provided with a steam cruiser, the "Helga," 375 tons,
+fully equipped for fishery research, as well as with a floating marine
+laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly of the Marine Biological Association, was
+appointed to take charge of the scientific work.
+
+In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons was appointed
+to consider and take evidence on the proposals of the Sea Fisheries
+Bill, which had been framed in accordance with the recommendations of
+the select committee of 1893, but had failed to pass in several sessions
+of parliament. Owing to marked divergencies of opinion on the question
+whether the low size-limits proposed would be effectual in keeping the
+trawlers from working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the
+committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate equipment
+of the government departments with means for undertaking the necessary
+scientific investigations.
+
+In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all the
+countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at Christiania to
+revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm in 1899 for a
+scientific exploration of these waters in the interest of the fisheries,
+to be undertaken concurrently by all the participating countries. The
+British government was represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M
+G., with Professor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.
+Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were subsequently
+accepted, with some restrictions, and an international council of
+management was appointed by the participating governments. The Fishery
+Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association from England
+were commissioned in 1902 to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great
+Britain, and a special grant of £5500 per annum was made to each body by
+the Treasury for this purpose. Two steamers, the "Huxley" and the
+"Goldseeker," were chartered for the investigations and began work in
+1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the
+work of the first five years were published in 1909.
+
+In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the Committee on
+Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report as to the best means by
+which scientific fishery research could be organized and assisted in
+relation to the state or local authorities. The committee consisted of
+Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P. (chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald
+Crawford, Rev. W.S. Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham,
+Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert Maxwell
+resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn up (September
+1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. The committee
+recommended the provision of more complete statistics; the provision and
+maintenance of five special steamers (where not already existing) to
+work in connexion with as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of
+the three coasts of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and
+Ireland; the provision of three biological assistants at each
+laboratory; the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries
+committees to expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a
+fishery council for England and Wales, and of a conference of
+representatives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and
+Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade was
+transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer, chief inspector
+of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of the new Board of
+Agriculture and Fisheries.
+
+In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed to inquire into
+the scientific and statistical investigations carried on in relation to
+the fishing industry of the United Kingdom. The committee consisted of
+Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman), Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald
+MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms, M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers
+Mitchell, F.R.S., Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H.
+Rew and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that had already
+been done and urged its continuation and extension under the direction
+of a central council composed of representatives of the government
+departments concerned with fishery matters in England, Scotland and
+Ireland, with a scientific chairman and director, and further insisted
+on the need of international co-operation in the investigations.
+
+_United States Fisheries._--The administration of the fisheries of the
+United States of America is under the control of the several coastal
+states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, which reports to the
+secretary of commerce and labour, conducts a vast amount of scientific
+fishery investigation, issues admirable statistical and biological
+reports, and conducts on a very large scale work on the replenishment of
+the fishing stations by artificial means (see PISCICULTURE). Although in
+recent years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support to
+the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an amount
+actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great Britain, the
+fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds that of Canada.
+A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American ships from the
+Newfoundland coasts and from those of other British provinces, is landed
+at American ports, but as the following recent table shows, it is much
+less than that taken from American waters.
+
+
+_Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston and
+Gloucester, Mass., in 1905._
+
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+  |                                          |  Quantities. |  Value.  |
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+  |(a) From fishing grounds off U.S.         |              |          |
+  |     coasts                               | 152,241,139  | £669,640 |
+  |(b) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland |  17,165,083  |  103,145 |
+  |(c) From fishing grounds off other        |              |          |
+  |     British provinces                    |  32,608,343  |  192,517 |
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+
+The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase from year
+to year. There has been a decline in some important branches owing to
+indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects of civilization on
+certain kinds of animal life and in certain restricted areas. Such
+diminution has been more than compensated for by growth resulting from
+the invasion of new fishing grounds made possible by increase in the
+sea-going capacity of the vessels employed, by improvement in the
+preservation and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization
+of products which until comparatively recently were disregarded or
+considered without economic value. The annual value of the water
+products taken and sold by the United States fishermen now amounts to
+over £11,000,000, and this sum does not include the very large
+quantities taken by the fishermen for home consumption or captured by
+sportsmen and amateurs. Between two and three hundred thousand persons
+make a livelihood by the industry, and the capital involved exceeds
+£16,000,000.
+
+The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output of the
+United States industry exceeds the combined output of all other
+countries in the world. The most notable feature of this fishery is that
+nearly half the total yield now comes from cultivated grounds, so that
+the business is being placed on a secure basis. Virginia has now taken
+the first rank as an oyster-producing state, oyster farming being now
+highly developed with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.
+
+The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,
+herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity, the
+annual value being between one and two million pounds. The lobster
+fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the diminution having been
+progressive since about 1890, and being attributed to over-fishing and
+violation of the restrictive regulations. At present a large part of the
+lobsters consumed in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there
+is evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural
+operations now being carried out.
+
+The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry of the
+country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific and Arctic
+oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain and often
+unremunerative. The annual value of the take is now under £200,000.
+
+The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon, shad,
+alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the rivers from the
+ocean) has continued to provide an increasing source of income to
+fishermen, the combined value of the catch on the Atlantic and Pacific
+seaboards now amounting to over £3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of
+the Great Lakes yield about £600,000 annually.     (W. Ga.; P. C. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For fisheries in the cases of CORAL, OYSTER, PEARL, SALMON,
+    SPONGES and WHALE, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see
+    ANGLING.
+
+  [2] Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.
+
+  [3] Including the Newfoundland fishery.
+
+  [4] Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply
+    London by means of carriers.
+
+
+
+
+FISHERY (LAW OF). This subject has (1) its international aspect; (2) its
+municipal aspect. On the high seas outside territorial waters the right
+of fishery is now recognized as common to all nations. Claims were made
+in former times by single nations to the exclusive right of fishing in
+tracts of open sea; such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the
+North Sea, as lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland,
+against England in the 17th century, and against England and Holland in
+the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing within 15
+German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland. This claim,
+however, was always effectively resisted on the ground stated in Queen
+Elizabeth's remonstrance to Denmark on the subject in 1602, that "the
+law of nations alloweth of fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas
+where a nation hath propertie of command." The enunciation of this
+principle is to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court
+which decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in
+1894. (See BERING SEA ARBITRATION; ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.) The
+right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be restrained or
+regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain has entered into
+conventions with other nations with regard to fishing in certain parts
+of the sea. The provisions of such conventions are made binding on
+British subjects by statutes.
+
+  Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between Great
+  Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern
+  coasts of British North America and the United States within certain
+  limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the
+  treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France in
+  1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these
+  countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of
+  the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the Newfoundland
+  fisheries (see NEWFOUNDLAND); the convention of 1882 between Belgium,
+  Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and Holland, regarding the
+  North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between the same parties concerning
+  the liquor traffic in the North Sea; and the declaration regarding the
+  same waters made between Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement
+  of differences between their fishermen subjects in such
+  extra-territorial waters. At the instance of the Swedish government
+  the British parliament also passed an act in 1875 to establish a close
+  time for the seal fishery in the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts
+  of Greenland.
+
+Cases have come before British courts with regard to the whale fishery
+in northern and southern seas; and the customs proved to exist among the
+whaling ships of the nations engaged in a particular trade have been
+upheld if known to the parties to the action. In territorial waters, on
+the other hand, fishery is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects
+of the country owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there
+except by convention.
+
+(a) _Tidal Waters._--In British territorial waters, it may be stated,
+as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental to the soil
+covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.
+
+  The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows, and
+  of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown; and
+  therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale's words, "the right of the
+  fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally
+  lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged
+  in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of
+  fishing belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland
+  river." "But," he continues, "though the king is the owner of this
+  great waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary
+  right of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the
+  common people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein
+  as a public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their
+  right be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable
+  rivers where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a
+  propriety exclusive of that common liberty." (_De Jure Maris_, ch.
+  iv.).
+
+This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the
+seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when taken in
+territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee, though caught by
+another person. These are whales, sturgeons and porpoises; and grampuses
+are also sometimes added (whales, porpoises and grampuses being "fishes"
+only in a legal sense). In Scotland only whales which are of large size
+can be so claimed; but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in
+public and private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing,
+except in private rivers, are _inter regalia_, and are only enjoyable by
+the crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was
+formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the mussel and
+oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the shore, the opinion
+was held at one time that angling for salmon was a public right, but the
+later decisions have established that the right of salmon fishing by
+whatever means is a _jus regale_ in Scotland. In England the crown in
+early times made frequent grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal
+waters, and instances of such fisheries belonging to persons and
+corporations are very common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the
+crown declared that "no rivers shall be defended from henceforth, but
+such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our grandfather, by
+the same places and the same bounds as they were wont to be in his
+time"; and thus bound itself not to create a private fishery in any
+navigable tidal river. Judicial decision and commentators having
+interpreted this statute according to the spirit and not the letter, at
+the present day the right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs
+to the public, and they can only be excluded by a particular person or
+corporation on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in
+its origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to
+prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant's
+predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or
+prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant may be
+presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either a franchise
+derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of ownership of the soil
+covered by the waters.
+
+  In Lord Hale's words: "Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily, viz.
+  fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the soil,
+  or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the soil
+  or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing
+  that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil,--such are
+  _gurgites_, wears, fishing-places, _borachiae_, _stachiae_, which are
+  the very soil itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such
+  as these a subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many
+  religious houses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors,
+  as both corporations and others have had; and this not only in
+  navigable rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and
+  havens, yea, and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to
+  the shore. And these kinds of fishings are not only for small
+  sea-fish, such as herrings, &c., but for great fish, as salmons, and
+  not only for them but for royal fish.... Most of the precedents
+  touching such rights of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks
+  thereof belonging by usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the
+  propriety of the very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some
+  of them even within parts of the seas" (_De Jure Maris_, ch. v.)
+
+An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the old case
+of _Royal Fishery of the River Bann_ (temp. James I., Davis 655), and
+the modern one of _Wilson_ v. _Crossfield_, 1885, 1 T.L.R. 601, where a
+right of fishery in gross was established; but the latter kind, as Hale
+says, is much more common, and the presumption is always in its favour;
+_à fortiori_ where the fishing is proved to have been carried on by
+means of engines or structures fixed in the soil. In England the public
+have not at common law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal
+waters, the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes
+incidental to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them,
+landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so by
+proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed); but statutes
+relating to particular parts of the realm, such as Cornwall for the
+pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In Scotland a right of salmon
+fishing separate from land implies the right of access to and use of the
+banks, foreshores or beach for the purposes of the fishing; and so does
+white fishing by statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, e.g.
+in a public river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to
+Irish fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There
+is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first taker;
+and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken or not, e.g. in
+the whale fishery the question whether a fish is "loose" or not has come
+before English courts.
+
+(b) _Fresh Waters._---In non-tidal waters in England and Ireland, for
+the reason given above, the presumption is in favour of the fishery in
+such waters belonging to the owners of the adjacent lands; "fresh waters
+of what kind soever do of common right belong to the owners of the soil
+adjacent, so that the owners of the one side have of common right the
+property of the soil, and consequently the right of fishing _usque ad
+filum aquae_, and the owners of the other side the right of soil or
+ownership and fishing unto the _filum aquae_ on their side; and if a man
+be owner of the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of
+the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the extent
+of his land in length" (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar presumption
+that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive right of fishery
+there, and this is so even though he does not own the banks; but these
+presumptions may be displaced by proof of a different state of things,
+e.g. where the banks of a stream are separately owned the owner of one
+bank may show by acts of ownership exercised over the whole stream that
+he has the fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never
+it seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a
+subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a subject,
+nor has it any right _de jure_ to the soil or fisheries of an inland
+lake such as Lough Neagh (_Bristow_ v. _Cormican_, 1878, 3 App. Cas.
+641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish in fresh waters by
+prescription or otherwise although they are navigable; such a right is
+unknown to law, because a profit _à prendre in alieno solo_ is neither
+to be acquired by custom nor by prescription under the Prescription Act.
+It has been decided that the "dwellers" in a parish cannot acquire such
+a right, being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may
+have it by custom; and the "free inhabitants of ancient tenements" in a
+borough have been held capable of acquiring a right to dredge for
+oysters in a fishery belonging to the corporation of the borough on
+certain days in each year by giving proof of uninterrupted enjoyment of
+it from time immemorial, on the presumption that this was a condition to
+which the grant made to the corporation was subject.
+
+In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout in private
+streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and owners of opposite
+banks may fish _usque ad medium filum aquae_; and where two owners own
+land round a private loch, both have a common of fishing over it. The
+public cannot prescribe for it, for a written title either to adjacent
+lands or to the fishery is necessary. A right of way along the bank of a
+river or loch does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be
+on or at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing
+carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in
+the same way.
+
+In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided into (a)
+several (_separalis_), (b) free (_libera_), (c) common of piscary
+(_communis_), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction
+between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain.
+Blackstone's opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in right
+of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined to a public
+river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil. He is supported by
+later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson. On the other hand, the
+opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed to this view. "A man may prescribe
+to have a several fishery in such a water, and the owner shall not fish
+there; but if he claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the
+owner of the soil shall fish there" (Co Littl. 122 A); "one man may have
+the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the river
+and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in that river"
+(_De Jure Maris_, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one instance he
+distinguished them, in a later case thought that they were "all one."
+Later decisions have established the latter view, and it is now settled
+that although the owner of the several fishery is prima facie owner of
+the soil of the waters, this presumption may be displaced by showing
+that the terms of the grant only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and
+that the words "sole and exclusive fishery" give a several fishery _in
+alieno solo_. In the words of Mr Justice Willes, "the only substantial
+distinction is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called
+'several,' and sometimes 'free,' as in 'free warren,' and a right in
+common with others, usually called 'common of fishery,' and sometimes
+'free,' as in 'free port.' A several fishery means an exclusive right to
+fish in a given place, either with or without the property in the soil"
+(_Malcolmson_ v. _O'Dea_, 1863, 10 H.L.). A common of piscary, or "a
+right to fish in common with certain other persons in a particular
+stream," is usually found in manors, the commoners of which may have the
+right to enjoy it to an extent sufficient for the sustenance of their
+tenements; but they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription,
+exclude the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the
+soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of "fishery" will
+prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered by water
+or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery therein; a
+several fishery will not merge on being resumed by the crown; and a
+fishery situate within a manor is presumed to belong to the owners of
+adjacent land, and not to the lord. A several fishery, as already seen,
+being an incorporeal hereditament, can only be transferred by deed, and
+therefore cannot be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on
+proof that the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the
+right of fishing in the _locus in quo_ to the knowledge of and without
+interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish a title
+to a several fishery, a "paper title," i.e. one founded on documentary
+evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be supported by evidence of
+acts of ownership in recent times, for otherwise it will be presumed
+that a person other than the alleged owner is the real owner. If the
+waters of a tidal river leave their old channel and flow into another,
+the owner of a several fishery in the old channel cannot claim to have
+it in the new one; but, on the other hand, the owner of a several
+fishery can take advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon
+and into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are
+ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal or
+fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and may do
+so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that in navigable
+waters he does not interfere with the right of navigation, and that in
+navigable and other waters he does not interfere with the fishing rights
+of his neighbours or infringe the provisions made by old or modern
+statutes as to the methods of taking the fish, e.g. by weirs. These were
+forbidden in rivers by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the
+seashore by a statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh
+waters traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful, for
+the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable waters. It
+seems, however, that at common law any fixed structures put up by the
+owner of a fishery in his part of a river, which at all prevent the free
+passage of fish to the waters above or below, give the owners of
+fisheries therein a right of action against him. So the grantee of an
+exclusive fishery with rod and line in an unnavigable river can prevent
+any person from polluting the river higher up and so damaging the
+fishery. At common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their
+natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they are
+caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of salmon by
+statute.
+
+Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in territorial
+or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England, the Board of
+Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it took it over from the
+Board of Trade) power by order to create sea fisheries districts,
+comprising any part of the sea within which British subjects have, by
+international law, the exclusive right of fishing, and to provide for
+the constitution of a local fisheries committee to regulate the sea
+fisheries in such district, which can make by-laws for that purpose. It
+appoints fishery officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for
+sea fish (which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act),
+has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea coast or at
+sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of summary jurisdiction,
+can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or regulate, protect and develop
+fisheries for all or any kind of shell fish. Special provision is also
+made by statute for the oyster fishery and herring fishery (applicable
+also to Scotland), and that of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs
+(applicable to all the United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board
+can constitute sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to
+those in England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea
+fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring, mussel
+and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of money intended
+to relieve local distress and taxation towards the encouragement of sea
+fisheries, and marine superintendence and enforcement of Scottish sea
+fisheries laws. In Ireland the sea fisheries are under the direction of
+the inspectors of Irish fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery
+commissioners and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special
+statutes, besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom,
+deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is also
+appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical instruction.
+In all three component parts of the United Kingdom there are also
+special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater fish: for England,
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1861-1907, and the Freshwater
+Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those
+of 1862-1868, and for trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for
+Ireland, the Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is
+adopted in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are
+set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish by
+fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection and
+the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of summary
+jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case are--for England the
+Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for Scotland the Fishery Board, and
+for Ireland the inspectors of fisheries, and in England a certain
+official number of conservators on such boards are appointed by the
+county councils. The Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the
+Board of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders for
+the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries within any
+area on the application of any board of conservators, or of a county
+council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value of private fisheries.
+There are also special acts dealing with the fishing in certain rivers,
+such as the Thames, Medway, Severn, Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907
+applies, however, to the Esk, but not otherwise to Scotland nor to
+Ireland.) Throughout the United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other
+explosive substance to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is
+prohibited, as it is also in England in any private waters subject to
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also
+forbidden to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish.
+Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to kill
+fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant it. There
+are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the protection of
+fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the acts already
+mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.
+
+Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts 1894-1906 for
+sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the colonies), relating to
+their registration, carrying official papers, carrying boats in
+proportion to their tonnage, the punishment of offences on board, the
+wages of their crews, and keeping record of all casualties, punishments
+and the like on board. As regards trawlers, especially in the case of
+those of 25 tons and upwards, a statutory form of agreement with the
+crew is prescribed, as well as accounts of wages and discharges; and
+skippers and second hands must have certificates of competency, which
+are granted under similar conditions to those required in the case of
+sea-going ships and are registered with the Board of Trade. Scottish
+fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886 (except as
+regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits, dealt with by the
+above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868, which applies to all
+British fishing boats. Particular lights must be carried by fishing
+boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The Cran Measures Act) legalized
+the use of cran measures in connexion with trading in fresh herrings in
+England and Wales, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries being
+empowered to make regulations under the act.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Green, _Encyclopaedia of Scots Law_ (Edinburgh, 1896);
+  Stewart, _Law of Fishing in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1869); Woolrych,
+  _Waters_ (London, 1851); Paterson, _Fishery Laws of the United
+  Kingdom_ (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore, _Foreshore_
+  (London, 1888); Phillimore, _International Law_ (3rd ed., London,
+  1879); Martens, _Causes célèbres du droit des gens_ (Leipzig, 1827);
+  Selwyn, _Nisi Prius_, _Fishery_ (London, 1869).     (G. G. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+FISHGUARD (_Abergwaun_), a market town, urban district, contributory
+parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembrokeshire, Wales, near the
+mouth of the river Gwaun, which here flows into Fishguard Bay of St
+George's Channel. Pop. (1901) 2002. Its railway station, which is the
+chief terminus of the South Wales system of the Great Western railway,
+is at the hamlet of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the
+south-west. Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save
+those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has long been
+recognized. After many years of labour and at a great expenditure of
+money the Great Western railway has constructed a fine breakwater and
+railway pier at Goodwick across the lower end of the bay, and an
+important passenger and goods traffic with Rosslare on the opposite
+Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.
+
+The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and the
+excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure. The chief
+historical interest of the town centres round the so-called "Fishguard
+Invasion" of 1797, in which year on the 22nd of February three French
+men-of-war with troops on board, under the command of General Tate, an
+Irish-American adventurer, appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the
+adjoining parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a
+body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated,
+practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the local
+militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and John Campbell,
+Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile sailing away towards Ireland.
+For many years the castles and prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke
+were filled to overflowing with French prisoners of war. Close to the
+banks of the Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years
+the residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated antiquary
+and historian of Pembrokeshire.
+
+
+
+
+FISHKILL LANDING, or FISHKILL-ON-THE-HUDSON, a village of Fishkill
+township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A., about 58 m. N. of New York
+City, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890)
+3617; (1900) 3673, of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910)
+3902, of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905) 13,183;
+(1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages of Matteawan
+(q.v.), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing is served by the New York
+Central & Hudson River and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways;
+by railway ferry and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the
+West Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway to
+Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is the village of
+Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579. In this village are
+two notable old churches, Trinity (1769), and the First Dutch Reformed
+(1731), in which the New York Provincial Congress met in August and
+September 1776. At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the
+Society of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manufactures
+of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss) and other
+machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile. The village of
+Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The first settlement in the
+township was made about 1690. The township of Fishkill was, like
+Newburgh, an important military post during the War of Independence, and
+was a supply depot for the northern Continental Army.
+
+
+
+
+FISK, JAMES (1834-1872), American financier, was born at Bennington,
+Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief period in school he ran
+away and joined a circus. Later he became a hotel waiter, and finally
+adopted the business of his father, a pedlar. He then became a salesman
+for a Boston dry goods firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning
+for him a share in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts
+during the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling,
+he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in
+speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York and was
+employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew in his war against
+Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway, and as a result of the
+compromise that was reached he and Jay Gould became members of the Erie
+directorate. The association with Gould thus began continued until his
+death. Subsequently by a well-planned "raid," Fisk and Gould obtained
+control of the road. They carried financial "buccaneering" to extremes,
+their programme including open alliance with the Tweed "ring," the
+wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges. Their
+attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the fateful Black Friday
+of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was shot and killed in New York City
+by E.S. Stokes, a former business associate, on the 6th of January 1872.
+
+
+
+
+FISK, WILBUR (1792-1839), American educationist, was born in
+Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 1792. He studied at the
+university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then entered Brown University,
+where he graduated in 1815. He studied law, and in 1817 came under the
+influence of a religious revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the
+following year he was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to
+the New England conference. His influence with the conference turned
+that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral in tendency
+to the establishment of secondary schools and colleges. Upon the removal
+in 1824 of the conference's academy at New Market, New Hampshire, to
+Wilbraham, Massachusetts, Fisk became one of its agents and trustees,
+and in 1826 its principal. He drafted the report of the committee on
+education to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined
+the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president of
+Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in 1831 until his
+death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middletown, Connecticut. His
+successful administration of the Wesleyan Academy at Wilbraham and of
+Wesleyan University were remarkable. He was an able controversialist,
+and in the interests of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism
+and Unitarianism; he published in 1837 _The Calvinistic Controversy_. He
+also wrote _Travels on the Continent of Europe_ (1838).
+
+  See _Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk_ (New York, 1842), edited by
+  Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston, 1890),
+  in the _American Religious Leaders Series_; also a sketch in _Memoirs
+  of Teachers and Educators_ (New, York, 1861), edited by Henry Barnard.
+
+
+
+
+FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical and
+scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 30th of
+March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July
+1901. His name was originally Edmund Fiske Green, but in 1855 he took the
+name of a great-grandfather, John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a
+grandmother in Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college
+he had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed most
+boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had studied several
+modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in 1863, continuing to study
+languages and philosophy with zeal; spent two years in the Harvard law
+school, and opened an office in Boston; but soon devoted the greater
+portion of his time to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one
+year, he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his
+graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures at
+Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was history tutor; in
+1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the Doctrine of Evolution,
+afterwards revised and expanded as _Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy_
+(1874); and between 1872 and 1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that
+time he devoted himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly
+all of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures
+or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general title, such
+as _Myths and Myth-Makers_ (1872), _Darwinism and Other Essays_ (1879),
+_Excursions of an Evolutionist_ (1883), and _A Century of Science_
+(1899). He did much, by the thoroughness of his learning and the lucidity
+of his style, to spread a knowledge of Darwin and Spencer in America. His
+_Outlines of Cosmic_ _Philosophy_, while Setting forth the Spencerian
+system, made psychological and sociological additions of original matter,
+in some respects anticipating Spencer's later conclusions. Of one part of
+the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of one of his later
+books (_Through Nature to God_, 1899): "The detection of the part played
+by the lengthening of infancy in the genesis of the human race is my own
+especial contribution to the Doctrine of Evolution." In _The Idea of God
+as affected by Modern Knowledge_ (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic
+problem, and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an
+illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great immanent
+cause includes and controls both physical and moral forces. More
+original, perhaps, is the argument in the immediately preceding work,
+_The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his Origin_ (1884), which is,
+in substance, that physical evolution is a demonstrated fact; that
+intellectual force is a later, higher and more potent thing than bodily
+strength; and that, finally, in most men and some "lower animals" there
+is developed a new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line
+of thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical that
+it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards, and may
+or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.
+
+It is principally, however, through his work as a historian that Fiske's
+reputation will live. His historical writings, with the exception of a
+small volume on _American Political Ideas_ (1885), an account of the
+system of _Civil Government in the United States_ (1890), _The
+Mississippi Valley in the Civil War_ (1900), a school history of the
+United States, and an elementary story of the American Revolution, are
+devoted to studies, in a unified general manner, of separate yet related
+episodes in American history. The volumes have not appeared in
+chronological order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial
+history, as follows: _The Discovery of America, with some Account of
+Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest_ (1892, 2 vols.); _Old
+Virginia and her Neighbours_ (1897, 2 vols.); _The Beginnings of New
+England_; or, _The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and
+Religious Liberty_ (1889); _Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America_
+(1899); _The American Revolution_ (1891, 2 vols.); and _The Critical
+Period of American History_, 1783-1789 (1888). Of these the most
+original and valuable is the _Critical Period_ volume, a history of the
+consolidation of the states into a government, and of the formation of
+the constitution.     (C. F. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN (1865-   ), American actress, was born in New
+Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As a child she played, under her
+mother's name of Maddern, with several well-known actors. In 1882 she
+first appeared as a "star," but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske
+and was absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared
+in _Hester Crewe_, a play written by her husband, and afterwards acted a
+number of Ibsen's heroines, and in _Becky Sharp_, a dramatization of
+Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_. In 1901 she opened, in opposition to the
+American theatrical "trust," an independent theatre in New York, the
+Manhattan. She won a considerable reputation in the United States as an
+emotional actress.
+
+
+
+
+FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to designate
+an abnormal communication leading either from the surface of the body to
+a normal cavity or canal, or from one normal cavity or canal to another.
+These communications are the result of disease or injury. They receive
+different names according to their situation: _lachrymal fistula_ is the
+small opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of
+the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; _salivary fistula_ is an
+opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; _anal fistula_, or _fistula
+in ano_, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the bowel; _urethral
+fistula_ is the result of a giving way of the tissues behind a
+stricture. These are examples of the variety of the first kind of
+fistula; while _recto-vesical fistula_, a communication between the
+rectum and bladder, and _vesico-vaginal fistula_, a communication
+between the bladder and vagina, are examples of the second. The abnormal
+passage may be straight or tortuous, of considerable diameter or of
+narrow calibre. Fistulae may be caused by an obstruction of the normal
+channel, the result of disease or injury, which prevents, for example,
+the tears, saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their
+retention gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an
+exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which bursts, for
+example, into the gut or through the skin; the cavity does not close,
+and a fistula is the result. The fistulous channel remains open as long
+as the contents of the cavity or canal with which it is connected can
+pass through it. To obliterate the fistula one must remove the
+obstruction and encourage the flow along the natural channel; for
+example, one must open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to
+reach the nasal cavity, and the _lachrymal fistula_ will close; and so
+also in the _salivary_ and _urethral_ fistulae. Sometimes it may be
+necessary to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy
+material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from its
+deepest part, as in _anal fistula_; in other cases it may be necessary
+to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch them together.
+     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIT, a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division of a poem,
+a canto, in this sense often spelled "fytte." (2) A sudden but temporary
+seizure or attack of illness, particularly one with convulsive paroxysms
+accompanied by unconsciousness, especially an attack of apoplexy or
+epilepsy, but also applied to a transitory attack of gout, of coughing,
+fainting, &c., also of an outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper.
+In a transferred sense, the word is also used of any temporary or
+irregular periods of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions
+as "by fits and starts." (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper,
+becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications for a
+specific purpose, "a fit and proper person"; and also as prepared for,
+or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The verb "to fit" is thus
+used intransitively and transitively, to be adapted for, to suit,
+particularly to be of the right measurement or shape, of a dress, of
+parts of a mechanism, &c., and to make or render a thing in such a
+condition. Hence the word is used as a substantive.
+
+The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one in origin,
+or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and spelling but with
+different origin in each different meaning. In Skeat's _Etymological
+Dictionary_ (ed. 1898) (1) and (2) are connected and derived from the
+root of "foot," which appears in Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. The evolution of
+the word is: step, a part of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word
+of Scandinavian origin, with the idea of "knitted together" (cf. Ice.
+_fitja_, to knit together, Goth, _fetjan_, to adorn); the ultimate
+origin is a Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. "fetch"). The _New
+English Dictionary_ suggests that this last root may be the origin of
+all the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting; the
+early use of "fit" (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed out that
+the meanings of "fit," suitable, proper, have been modified by "feat,"
+which comes through Fr. _fait_, from Lat. _factum_, _facere_, to do,
+make.
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, JOHN (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam navigation, was born
+at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January 1743. He was the son of
+a farmer, and received the usual common school education. At the age of
+seventeen he went to sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a
+few voyages and became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a
+silversmith. During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the
+American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum of money,
+with which he bought land in Virginia. He was appointed deputy-surveyor
+for Kentucky in 1780, and when returning to Philadelphia in the
+following year he was captured by the Indians, but shortly afterwards
+regained his liberty. About this time he began an exploration of the
+north-western regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district;
+and while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to him
+that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured by the sale of his
+map to find money for the carrying out of his projects, but was
+unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance to the legislatures of
+different states, but though each reported in favourable terms of his
+invention, none of them would agree to grant him any pecuniary
+assistance. He was successful, however, in 1786, in forming a company
+for the prosecution of his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a
+steam-packet of his invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to
+be the inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey of
+Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-navigation in New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar privilege was granted
+to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and New York. A steam-boat built by
+Fitch conveyed passengers for hire on the Delaware in the summer of
+1790, but the undertaking was a losing one, and led to the dissolution
+of the company. In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into
+France, but met with no success. On his return to America he found his
+property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention nothing
+but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide at Bardstown,
+Kentucky, on the 2nd of July 1798.
+
+  He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes,
+  "inscribed to his children and future posterity"; and from this a
+  biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia, 1857.)
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING (1824-1903), English educationist, second son
+of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was born in Southwark, London,
+in 1824. His parents were poor but intellectually inclined, and at an
+early age Fitch started work as an assistant master in the British and
+Foreign School Society's elementary school in the Borough Road, founded
+by Thomas Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous
+reading and attending classes at University College; he was made
+headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850 he took his B.A.
+degree at London University, proceeding MA. two years later. In 1852 he
+was appointed by the British and Foreign School Society to a tutorship
+at their Training College in the Borough Road, soon becoming
+vice-principal and in 1856 principal. He had previously done some
+occasional teaching there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the
+Lancasterian system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of
+schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which he
+was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-1867) on the
+Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commissioner (1869), and as an
+assistant commissioner under the Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was
+transferred in 1877 to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief
+inspector, to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief
+inspector of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894.
+In the course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique
+acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a recognized
+authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures and books
+having a great influence on the development of education in England. He
+was a strong advocate and supporter of the movement for the higher
+education of women, and he was constantly looked to for counsel and
+direction on every sort of educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe
+judgment and amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional
+value, and after he retired from official life his services were in
+active request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896 he was
+knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinctions as the LL.D.
+degree from St Andrews University, he was made a chevalier of the French
+Legion of Honour in 1889. He was a constant contributor to the leading
+reviews; he published an important series of _Lectures on Teaching_
+(1881), _Educational Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and
+Colleges_ (1887), and an authoritative criticism of _Thomas and Matthew
+Arnold, and their Influence on English Education_ (see also the article
+on ARNOLD, MATTHEW) in 1901; and he wrote the article on EDUCATION in
+the supplementary volumes (10th edition) of this encyclopaedia (1902).
+He died on the 14th of July 1903 in London. A civil list pension was
+given to his widow, whom, as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.
+
+  See also _Sir Joshua Fitch_, by the Rev. A.L. Lilley (1906),
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, RALPH (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of the earliest
+English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and
+Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China. In January 1583 he embarked
+in the "Tiger" for Tripoli and Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare,
+_Macbeth_, Act I. sc. 3), together with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two
+other merchants or employees of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he
+reached the Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed
+southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris to Basra
+(May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to trade, while Fitch and
+the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf to Ormuz, where they were arrested
+as spies (at Venetian instigation, as they believed) and sent prisoners
+to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the
+sureties procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly of
+New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have reached India by
+the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends regained their liberty,
+and escaping from Goa (April 1584) travelled through the heart of India
+to the court of the Great Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In
+September 1585 Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore
+(he disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while Fitch
+descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares, Patna, Kuch Behar,
+Hugli, Chittagong, &c. (1585-1586), and pushed on by sea to Pegu and
+Burma. Here he visited the Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some
+distance, acquired a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even
+penetrated to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588 he
+visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his homeward
+travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast, touching at
+Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian Gulf to Basra and up the
+Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates,
+Aleppo and Tripoli, to the Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the
+29th of April 1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of
+the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian affairs
+(e.g. 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 31st of December 1606).
+
+  See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599), vol. ii. part i. pp.
+  245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, _Voyages_ (_Itineraris_), part i.
+  ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &c., Hakluyt Soc. edition); Stevens
+  and Birdwood, _Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603_
+  (1886), esp. pp. 26, 123; _State Papers, East Indies_, &c.,
+  _1513-1616_ (1862), No. 36; Pinkerton, _Voyages and Travels_
+  (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.
+
+
+
+
+FITCHBURG, a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying from about 433
+ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester and about 45 m. W.N.W.
+of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429; (1890) 22,037; (1900) 31,531, of whom
+10,917 were foreign-born, including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English
+Canadians, 2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg is
+traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served by the
+Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by
+three interurban electric lines. The city area (27.7 sq.m.) is well
+watered, and is very uneven, with hill spurs running in all directions,
+affording picturesque scenery. The court house and the post office (in a
+park presented by the citizens) are the principal public buildings.
+Fitchburg is the seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and
+training schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace
+library and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home for
+old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which is a fine
+fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg has large mercantile and
+financial interests, but manufacturing is the principal industry. The
+principal manufactures are paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen
+goods, yarn and silk, machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and
+firearms (the Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In
+1905 the city's total factory product was valued at $15,390,507, of
+which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp product,
+$2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and $1,202,421 was the
+value of the foundry and machine shop products. The municipality owns
+and operates its (gravity) water works system. Fitchburg was included in
+Lunenburg until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was
+named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure
+incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872.
+
+  See W.A. Emerson, _Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present_
+  (Fitchburg, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+FITTIG, RUDOLF (1835-   ), German chemist, was born at Hamburg on the
+6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry at Göttingen, graduating as
+Ph.D. with a dissertation on acetone in 1858. He subsequently held
+several appointments at Göttingen, being privat docent (1860), and
+extraordinary professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at
+Tübingen, and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were
+erected from his designs. Fittig's researches are entirely in organic
+chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The aldehydes and
+ketones provided material for his earlier work. He observed that
+aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in neutral, alkaline, and
+sometimes acid solution to secondary and tertiary glycols, substances
+which he named pinacones; and also that certain pinacones when distilled
+with dilute sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines.
+The unsaturated acids, also received much attention, and he discovered
+the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones. In 1863 he
+introduced the reaction known by his name. In 1855 Adolph Wurtz had
+shown that when sodium acted upon alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues
+combined to form more complex hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method
+by showing that a mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar
+treatment, yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin's
+reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be
+more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of much
+difficulty, and the exact course of the reaction appears to await
+solution. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of
+coumarin, the odoriferous principle of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's
+observation that phenyl isocrotonic acid readily yielded
+[alpha]-naphthol by loss of water was of much importance, since it
+afforded valuable evidence as to the constitution of naphthalene. They
+also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling
+point fraction of the coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of
+phenanthrene. We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine
+to Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its
+constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used text-books;
+he edited several editions of Wohler's _Grundriss der organischen
+Chemie_ (11th ed., 1887) and wrote an _Unorganische Chemie_ (1st ed.,
+1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been recognized by many scientific
+societies and institutions, the Royal Society awarding him the Davy
+medal in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+FITTON, MARY (c. 1578-1647), identified by some writers with the "dark
+lady" of Shakespeare's sonnets, was the daughter of Sir Edward Fitton of
+Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized on the 24th of June 1578. Her
+elder sister, Anne, married John Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth
+year. About 1595 Mary Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth.
+Her father recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys,
+comptroller of the queen's household, who promised to defend the
+"innocent lamb" from the "wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the
+tame beasts of this place." Sir William was fifty and already married,
+but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the speedy death of
+the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have received considerable
+encouragement. There is no hint in her authenticated biography that she
+was acquainted with Shakespeare. William Kemp, who was a clown in
+Shakespeare's company, dedicated his _Nine Daies Wonder_ to Mistress
+Anne (perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, "Maid of Honour to Elizabeth";
+and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous volume, _A
+Woman's Woorth defended against all the Men in the World_ (1599). In
+1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivities at which William
+Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known to have been present; and
+shortly afterwards she became his mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke
+was sent to the Fleet in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton,
+whose child died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been
+dismissed from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister,
+Lady Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on Mary
+Fitton by George Ormerod, author of _History of Cheshire_, in a MS.
+quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (_Academy_, 27th Sept. 1884). Ormerod asserted,
+on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter Leycester, that she had two
+illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard Leveson, the friend and
+correspondent of her sister Anne. He also gives the name of her first
+husband as Captain Logher, and her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom
+she had a son and daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three
+years after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order of Mary
+Fitton's husbands, for her second husband, Logher, died in 1636. Her own
+will, which was proved in 1647, gives her name as "Mary Lougher." In
+Gawsworth church there is a painted monument of the Fittons, in which
+Anne and Mary are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated
+that from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman, which is
+of course essential to her identification with the lady of the sonnets,
+but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady Newdigate-Newdegate in
+her _Gossip from a Muniment Room_ (1897) she has brown hair and grey
+eyes.
+
+  The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was challenged by
+  Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their remarks see an
+  appendix by C.G.O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition of Lady
+  Newdigate-Newdegate's book.
+
+  The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false
+  mistress of Shakespeare's sonnets rests on a very thin chain of
+  reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory
+  that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of
+  course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William Archer
+  (_Fortnightly Review_, December 1897) found some support for Mary
+  Fitton's identification with the "dark lady" in the fact that Sir
+  William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three "Wills"
+  among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpretation, whether
+  right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:--
+
+    "Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy 'Will,'
+     And 'Will' to boot, and 'Will' in overplus."
+
+  Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle will
+  be found in Mr Thomas Tyler's _Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1890, pp.
+  73-92), and in the same writer's _Herbert-Fitton Theory of
+  Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1780-1861), British geologist was born in Dublin
+in January 1780. Educated at Trinity College, in that city, he gained
+the senior scholarship in 1798, and graduated in the following year. At
+this time he began to take interest in geology and to form a collection
+of fossils. Having adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808
+to Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and
+thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in geology
+steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809, where he further
+studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he brought before the Geological
+Society of London a description of the geological structure of the
+vicinity of Dublin, with an account of some rare minerals found in
+Ireland. He took a medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some
+years the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted
+M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of means, he
+settled in London, and devoted himself to the science of geology with
+such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon became a leading authority,
+and in the end, as Murchison said, "one of the British worthies who have
+raised modern geology to its present advanced position." His
+"Observations on some of the Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford
+Oolite, in the South-east of England" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol.
+iv.) embodied a series of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and
+form the classic memoir familiarly known as Fitton's "Strata below the
+Chalk." In this great work he established the true succession and
+relations of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and
+Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure. He had been
+elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the Geological Society
+of London 1827-1829. His house then became a meeting place for
+scientific workers, and during his presidency he held a conversazione
+open on Sunday evenings to all fellows of the Geological Society. From
+1817 to 1841 he contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_ many admirable
+essays on the progress of geological science; he also wrote "Notes on
+the Progress of Geology in England" for the _Philosophical Magazine_
+(1832-1833). His only independent publication was _A Geological Sketch
+of the Vicinity of Hastings_ (1833). He was awarded the Wollaston medal
+by the Geological Society in 1852. He died in London on the 13th of May
+1861.
+
+  Obituary by R.I. Murchison in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xviii.,
+  1862, p. xxx.
+
+
+
+
+FITZBALL, EDWARD (1792-1873), English dramatist, whose real patronymic
+was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, in 1792. His father was a
+well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball, after receiving his schooling at
+Newmarket, was apprenticed to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced
+some dramatic pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked
+success of his _Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber_
+(1820), together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at
+the Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in London.
+During the next twenty-five years he produced a great number of plays,
+most of which were highly successful. He had a special talent for
+nautical drama. His _Floating Beacon_ (Surrey theatre, 19th of April
+1824) ran for 140 nights, and his _Pilot_ (Adelphi, 1825) for 200
+nights. His greatest triumph in melodrama was perhaps _Jonathan
+Bradford, or the Murder at the Roadside Inn_ (Surrey theatre, 12th of
+June 1833). He was at one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at
+Covent Garden, and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable
+reputation as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years
+of his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on the
+27th of October 1873.
+
+  His autobiography, _Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author's Life_ (2
+  vol., 1859), is a naïve record of his career. Numbers of his plays are
+  printed in _Cumberland's Minor British Theatre, Dick's Standard Plays_
+  and _Lacy's Acting Edition of Plays_.
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, the name of an historic Irish house, which descends from
+Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the Domesday Survey (1086) was
+castellan of Windsor and a tenant-in-chief in five counties. From his
+eldest son William, known as "de Windsor," descended the Windsors of
+Stanwell, of whom Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a
+Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which barony is now
+vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant in the female line. Of
+Walter's younger sons, Robert was given by Henry I. the barony of Little
+Easton, Essex; Maurice obtained the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of the
+great Suffolk abbey of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry
+I.'s queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a _dapifer_) became the ancestor
+of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that Arnulf
+de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened his position in
+Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince of South Wales, who
+bore to him famous children, "by whom the southern coast of Wales was
+saved for the English and the bulwarks of Ireland stormed." Of these
+sons William, the eldest, was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as
+"de Carew," from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke
+peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh. The
+descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford, Berks, and
+some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the wild claims of Sir Peter
+Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast Irish estates, including half of
+"the kingdom of Cork," were based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de
+Carew's brothers, Reimund "Fitz William" (known as "Le Gros") and
+Griffin "Fitz William," took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.
+
+Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David "Fitz Gerald" became
+bishop of St David's (1147-1176), and their daughter Angharat mother of
+Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, q.v.), the well-known historian
+and the eulogist of his mother's family. A third son, Maurice, obtained
+from his brother the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of St David's, c. 1174,
+and having landed in Ireland in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod,
+founded the fortunes of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford,
+where he died and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however,
+was the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which
+Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were forced to
+give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded him as baron of the
+Naas and steward of St David's, but William's granddaughter carried the
+Naas to the Butlers and so to the Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of
+Maurice, who obtained lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice "Fitz
+Gerald," who held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to
+1245. In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal,
+Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king against the
+Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257. He held Maynooth
+Castle, the seat of his descendants.
+
+Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the justiciar
+leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son Gerald) and a younger
+son Maurice, of whom the latter was justiciar for a year in 1272, while
+the former, as heir male and head of the race, inherited the Ophaley
+lands, which he is said to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John
+"Fitz Thomas," whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle
+and town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the heirs
+male of his body (May 14th, 1316), Dying shortly after, he was succeeded
+by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard (de Burgh) the "red earl" of
+Ulster, who received the hereditary shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and
+was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar of Ireland for a year. His younger son
+Maurice "Fitz Thomas," 4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed
+justiciar, and was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl
+(1427-1477), who between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the
+government of Ireland as "deputy," and who founded the "brotherhood of
+St George" for the defence of the English Pale. He was also made lord
+chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the 8th earl (1477-1513),
+called "More" (the Great), was deputy governor of Ireland from 1481 for
+most of the rest of his life, though imprisoned in the Tower two years
+(1494-1496) on suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while
+fighting the Irish as "deputy." Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1534),
+followed in his father's steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till the
+enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his house,
+brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of temporary restorations
+he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.
+
+In his anger at his rival's successes the 9th earl had been led, it was
+suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in England his son
+Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, "Silken Thomas," broke out into open revolt
+(1534), and declared war on the government; his followers slew the
+archbishop of Dublin and laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made
+overtures to the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the
+Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege to his
+castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by a long struggle
+in the field, the earl, deserted by O'Conor, had eventually to surrender
+himself to the king's deputy. He was sent to the Tower, where he was
+subsequently joined by his five uncles, arrested as his accomplices.
+They were all six executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of
+attainder completed the ruin of the family.
+
+But the earl's half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth was the earl
+of Surrey's "fair Geraldine"), a mere boy, had been carried off, and,
+after many adventures at home and abroad, returned to England after
+Henry VIII.'s death, and to propitiate the Irish was restored to his
+estates by Edward VI. (1552). Having served Mary in Wyat's rebellion, he
+was created by her earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May
+1554, but the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained
+under attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion under
+Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their Spanish
+allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of treason in 1583.
+But the acts attainting his family had been repealed in 1569, and the
+old earldom was thus regained. In 1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry
+("of the Battleaxes"), who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone
+rebels in 1597. On the death of his brother in 1599 the earldom passed
+to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by
+Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the ancestral castle
+of Geashill with its territory and was recognized in 1620 as Lady
+Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-1660), had his castle of
+Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics in 1642, and after its
+subsequent occupation by them in 1646 it was finally abandoned by the
+family.
+
+The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful, save for
+the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth became the seat
+of the family, until James the 20th earl (1722-1773), who obtained a
+viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built Leinster House in Dublin, and
+formed a powerful party in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made
+lord deputy; in 1760 he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery;
+and in 1766 he received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only
+Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His wealth and
+connexions secured him a commanding position. Of his younger children
+one son was created Lord Lecale; another was the well-known rebel, Lord
+Edward Fitzgerald; another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a
+daughter was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke
+(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received nearly
+£30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1883 the family was
+still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but, after a tenure of
+nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to sell them to the tenants
+under the recent Land Purchase Acts. In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b.
+1887) succeeded his father Gerald, the 5th duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke
+of Leinster.
+
+The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond, who
+were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent from Maurice, the
+founder of the family in Ireland, through a younger son Thomas. It would
+seem that Maurice, grandson of Thomas, was father of Thomas "Fitz
+Maurice" _Nappagh_ ("of the ape"), justice of Ireland in 1295, who
+obtained a grant of the territory of "Decies and Desmond" in 1292, and
+died in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting vast
+estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marrying a
+daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created earl of
+Desmond (i.e. south Munster) on the 22nd of August 1329, and Kerry was
+made a palatine liberty for him. The greatest Irish noble of his day, he
+led the Anglo-Irish party against the English representatives of the
+king, and was attacked as the king's enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He
+surrendered in England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually
+regained favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died,
+however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in turn, Gerald,
+the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar (i.e. viceroy) in
+1367, despite his adopting his father's policy which the crown still
+wished to thwart. But he was superseded two years later, and defeated
+and captured by the native king of Thomond shortly after. Yet his
+sympathies were distinctly Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the
+south-west of Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native
+lines, and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422. His
+son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland as deputy from
+1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English rule by stubborn
+conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who superseded him, procured his
+attainder with that of the earl of Kildare, on the charge of alliance
+with the Irish, and he was beheaded on the 14th of February 1468, his
+followers in Munster avenging his death by invading the Pale. His
+younger son Maurice, earl from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck's
+Irish supporters, and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James
+(1520-1529) was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the
+French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession reverted
+to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man, at whose death there
+was a contest between his younger brother Sir John "of Desmond" and his
+grandson James, a court page of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured
+possession till his death (1536), when his son James succeeded _de
+facto_, and _de jure_ on the rightful earl being murdered by the
+usurper's younger brother in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains
+had by this time classed the earls among them, but although this James
+looked to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent a
+part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary foes
+of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and kept Munster
+quiet and in order for the English till his death in 1558. His four
+marriages produced a disputed succession and a break-up of the family.
+His eldest son Thomas "Roe" (the Red) was disinherited, and failed to
+obtain the earldom, which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother
+Gerald "the rebel earl" (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in his
+uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially, the famous
+James "Fitz Maurice" Fitz Gerald. Gerald's turbulence and his strife
+with the Butlers led to his detention in England (1562-1564) and again
+in 1565-1566. In 1567 Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence,
+with his brother, Sir John "of Desmond," he was sent to England and the
+Tower, and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the
+above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas "Roe," had usurped his
+position in his absence and induced the natives to choose him as
+"captain" or chieftain of Desmond. He formed a strong Irish Catholic
+party and broke into revolt in 1569. Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled
+again, till crushed by Perrot in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return
+would not join James in revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But
+Gerald himself, after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574),
+though he soon submitted to the queen's forces. On the continent James
+Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France and to
+Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII. With the papal
+nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in Kerry (June 1579) and
+called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond to join him, but the latter
+assured the English government of his loyalty, and James was killed in a
+skirmish. Yet Desmond was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by
+being proclaimed as a traitor (Nov. 1st, 1579), into a miserable
+rebellion. His castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a
+fugitive, till surprised and beheaded on the 11th of November 1583,
+after long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His ruin
+is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled policy.
+The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres, were
+forfeited by act of parliament.
+
+But the influence of his mighty house was still great among the Irish.
+The disinherited Thomas "Roe" left a son James "Fitz Thomas," who,
+succeeding him in 1595 and finding that the territory of the earls would
+never be restored, assumed the earldom and joined O'Neill's rebellion in
+1598, at the head of 8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the
+fidelity of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his
+kinsman the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he had
+married, and sent to the Tower. The "sugan" (sham) earl lingered there
+obscurely as "James M'Thomas" till his death. In consequence of his
+rebellion and the devotion of the Irish to his race, James, son of
+Gerald "the rebel earl," who had remained in the Tower since his
+father's death (1583), was restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to
+Munster in 1600, but he, known as "the queen's earl," could, as a
+Protestant, do nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The "sugan"
+earl's brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into
+Spain, and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title and
+was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the service of the
+emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin of the earls of Desmond and
+of Kildare had never been forgotten, and intermarriage had cemented the
+bond. Just before his death the exile wrote as "Desmond _alias_ Gerratt
+Fitz Gerald" to his "Most Noble Cosen" the earl of Kildare, that "wee
+must not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably
+observed betweene our antenates and elders."
+
+There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also of this
+stock, although their actual origin, in the 12th century, is doubtful.
+From a very early date they were feudal lords of Kerry, and their
+dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry VII. in 1489. The isolated
+position of their territory ("Clanmaurice") threw them even more among
+the Irish than the earls of Desmond, and they often adopted the native
+form of their name, "MacMorrish." Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry
+narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct of Thomas
+in the rebellion of James "Fitz Maurice" was suspicious, and his sons
+joined in that of the earl of Desmond, while he himself was a rebel in
+1582. Patrick, his successor (1590-1600), was captured in rebellion
+(1587), and when free, joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and
+heir Thomas, who continued in the field till he obtained pardon and
+restoration in 1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson
+withdrew to France with James II., but the next peer became a supporter
+of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir William Petty,
+and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From him descend the family of
+Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the marquessate of Lansdowne (q.v.) in
+1818, and still hold among their titles the feudal barony of Kerry
+together with vast estates in that county.
+
+From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of Desmond's
+ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights, Knights of Glin and
+Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities having, it is said, been
+bestowed upon them by their father, as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin
+Castle, county Limerick, is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of
+Glin. Valencia Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who
+received a baronetcy in 1880.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Calendars of Irish documents and state papers and Carew
+  papers; Gilbert's _Viceroys of Ireland_; Lord Kildare's _Earls of
+  Kildare_; G.E. C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_; Haymond Graves,
+  _Unpublished Geraldine Documents_; _Annals of the Four Masters_;
+  Calendar of the duke of Leinster's MSS. in 9th _Report on Historical
+  MSS._, part ii.; Ware's _Annals_; J.H. Round's "Origin of the
+  Fitzgeralds" and "Origin of the Carews" in the _Ancestor_; his
+  "Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley" in _Genealogist_, ix., and
+  "Barons of the Naas" in _Genealogist_, xv.; and his "Decies and
+  Desmond" in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xviii.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883), English writer, the poet of Omar
+Khayyám, was born as EDWARD PURCELL, at Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on
+the 31st of March 1809. His father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss
+FitzGerald, assumed in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family. From
+1816 to 1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in
+the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds. In 1826 he
+proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where, some two years later, he
+became acquainted with Thackeray and W.H. Thompson. With Tennyson, "a
+sort of Hyperion," his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to
+live in Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of
+Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly stationary and
+rustic life, presently moving into his native county of Suffolk, and
+never again leaving it for more than a week or two. Until 1835 the
+FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; from that year until 1853 the poet
+resided at Boulge, near Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until
+1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own
+house hard by, called Little Grange.
+
+During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost without
+interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature. He allowed
+friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to push on far before him,
+and long showed no disposition to emulate their activity. In 1851 he
+published his first book, _Euphranor_, a Platonic dialogue, born of
+memories of the old happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared
+_Polonius_, a collection of "saws and modern instances," some of them
+his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics.
+FitzGerald began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with
+Professor E.B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford in 1853.
+In the latter year he issued _Six Dramas of Calderon_, freely
+translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in 1856 he
+anonymously published a version of the _Salámán and Absál_ of Jámi in
+Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with which he has been so closely
+identified first occurs in FitzGerald's correspondence--"Hafiz and _Omar
+Khayyám_ ring like true metal." On the 15th of January 1859 a little
+anonymous pamphlet was published as _The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám_. In
+the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular
+friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The
+publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even (as he
+afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls. But in 1860
+Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord Houghton quickly
+followed. The _Rubáiyát_ became slowly famous, but it was not until 1868
+that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second and greatly revised
+edition. Meanwhile he had produced in 1865 a version of the _Agamemnon_,
+and two more plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately
+translations of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was
+_Readings in Crabbe_, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar's
+_Mantic-Uttair_ under the title of _The Bird Parliament_.
+
+From 1861 onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had centred in the sea.
+In June 1863 he bought a yacht, "The Scandal," and in 1867 he became
+part-owner of a herring-lugger, the "Meum and Tuum." For some years,
+till 1871, he spent the months from June to October mainly in "knocking
+about somewhere outside of Lowestoft." In this way, and among his books
+and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. On the 14th of June
+1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep. He was "an idle fellow, but
+one whose friendships were more like loves." In 1885 a stimulus was
+given to the steady advance of his fame by the fact that Tennyson
+dedicated his _Tiresias_ to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching
+reminiscent verses to "Old Fitz." This was but the signal for that
+universal appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English dress, which has
+been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years. The melody
+of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts he rearranges and
+strings together are so profound, and the general atmosphere of poetry
+in which he steeps his version is so pure, that no surprise need be
+expressed at the universal favour which the poem has met with among
+critical readers. But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it
+is now probably better known to the general public than any single poem
+of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers have almost
+transcended common sense in the extravagance of their laudation.
+FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the daughter of Bernard
+Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald as a man practically nothing was
+known until, in 1889, Mr W. Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and
+literary executor, published his _Letters and Literary Remains_ in three
+volumes. This was followed in 1895 by the _Letters to Fanny Kemble_.
+These letters constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they
+discovered that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic
+letter-writer. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived,
+FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary
+individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English
+_belles-lettres_, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and
+1900.
+
+  _The Works of Edward FitzGerald_ appeared in 1887. See also a
+  chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899);
+  notes for a bibliography by Col. W.F. Prideaux, in _Notes and Queries_
+  (9th series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901; _Letters and
+  Literary Remains_ (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903); and the _Life of
+  Edward FitzGerald_, by Thomas Wright (1904), which contains a
+  bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of sources (vol. i. pp.
+  xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series is by A.C. Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was celebrated in
+  March 1909. See the _Centenary Celebrations Souvenir_ (Ipswich, 1909)
+  and _The Times_ for March 25, 1909.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1798), Irish conspirator, fifth son of
+James, 1st duke of Leinster, by his wife Emilia Mary, daughter of
+Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond, was born at Carton House, near
+Dublin, on the 15th of October 1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died,
+and his widow soon afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended
+Lord Edward's early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord Edward
+served with credit in America on the staff of Lord Rawdon (afterwards
+marquess of Hastings), and at the battle of Eutaw Springs (8th of
+September 1781) he was severely wounded, his life being saved by a negro
+named Tony, whom Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his
+life. In 1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the
+duke of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament as
+member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small Opposition group
+led by Grattan (q.v.), but took no prominent part in debate. After
+spending a short time at Woolwich to complete his military education, he
+made a tour through Spain in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love
+for his cousin Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for
+New Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major. The
+love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young Irishman found
+congenial soil in the wild surroundings of unexplored Canadian forests,
+and the enthusiasm thus engendered for the "natural" life of savagery
+may have been already fortified by study of Rousseau's writings, for
+which at a later period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In
+February 1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically
+unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling in with
+Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in a subsequent
+expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit by the Bear tribe of
+Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his way down the Mississippi to
+New Orleans, whence he returned to England.
+
+Finding that his brother had procured his election for the county of
+Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independence, Lord Edward
+refused the command of an expedition against Cadiz offered him by Pitt,
+and devoted himself for the next few years to the pleasures of society
+and his parliamentary duties. He was on terms of intimacy with his
+relative C.J. Fox, with R.B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According
+to Thomas Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous
+suitors of Sheridan's first wife whose attentions were received with
+favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been its limits, a
+warm mutual affection subsisted between the two. His Whig connexions
+combined with his transatlantic experiences to predispose Lord Edward to
+sympathize with the doctrines of the French Revolution, which he
+embraced with ardour when he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged
+with Thomas Paine, and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a
+convivial gathering on the 18th of November he supported a toast to "the
+speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions," and
+gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own title--a
+performance for which he was dismissed from the army. While in Paris
+Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl whom he chanced to see at
+the theatre, and who is said to have had a striking likeness to Mrs
+Sheridan. Procuring an introduction he discovered her to be a _protégée_
+of Madame de Sillery, comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl,
+whose name was Pamela (?1776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is
+some evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela was
+born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims, the common
+belief that she was the daughter of Madame de Genlis herself by Philippe
+(Égalité), duke of Orleans, was probably well founded. On the 27th of
+December 1792 Fitzgerald and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the
+witnesses being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in
+January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.
+
+Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous, and was
+finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen, and in the
+Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few years previously,
+chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare, to watch the interests of
+the Catholics. French revolutionary doctrines had become ominously
+popular, and no one sympathized with them more warmly than Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald, who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris,
+returned to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively
+into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he denounced
+in the House of Commons a government proclamation, which Grattan had
+approved, in language so violent that he was ordered into custody and
+required to apologize at the bar of the House. As early as 1794 the
+government had information that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but
+it was not till 1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after
+the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establishment of
+an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald Wolfe Tone was in
+Paris endeavouring to obtain French assistance for an insurrection in
+Ireland. In the same month Fitzgerald and his friend Arthur O'Connor
+proceeded to Hamburg, where they opened negotiations with the Directory
+through Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke of
+York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way through London with
+her husband, had told her that "all was known" about his plans, and
+advised her to persuade him not to go abroad. The proceedings of the
+conspirators at Hamburg were made known to the government in London by
+an informer, Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband's
+secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and she
+appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her, though
+there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled prudence. The
+result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche's abortive expedition to
+Bantry Bay in December 1796. In September 1797 the government learnt
+from the informer MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing
+the conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly maturing.
+He was specially concerned with the military organization, in which he
+held the post of colonel of the Kildare regiment and head of the
+military committee. He had papers showing that 280,000 men were ready to
+rise. They possessed some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the
+leaders were hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency
+and to give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving
+dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided in
+opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without waiting for
+foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates of the bolder course.
+His opinions and his proposals for action were alike violent. He was on
+intimate terms with apologists for assassination; there is some evidence
+that he favoured a project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in
+procession to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May
+1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that converted Thomas
+Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer; at all events, by him and
+several others the authorities were kept posted in what was going on,
+though lack of evidence producible in court delayed the arrest of the
+ringleaders. But on the 12th of March 1798 Reynolds' information led to
+the seizure of a number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond.
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them. The
+government were anxious to save him from the consequences of his own
+folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family, "for God's sake
+get this young man out of the country; the ports shall be thrown open,
+and no hindrance whatever offered." Fitzgerald with chivalrous
+recklessness refused to desert others who could not escape, and whom he
+had himself led into danger. On the 30th of March a proclamation
+establishing martial law and authorizing the military to act without
+orders from the civil magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting
+cruelty in several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.
+
+The government had now no choice but to secure if possible the person of
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position more than his abilities
+made him the most important factor in the conspiracy. On the 11th of May
+a reward of £1000 was offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was
+the date fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond's,
+Fitzgerald had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a
+feather dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in
+disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and generally
+observed less caution than his situation required. The conspiracy was
+honeycombed with treachery, and it was long a matter of dispute to whose
+information the government were indebted for Fitzgerald's arrest; but it
+is no longer open to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was
+disclosed by a Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated
+reward was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer. On
+the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to Murphy's house
+with Major H.C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord Edward was discovered in
+bed. A desperate scuffle took place, Ryan being mortally wounded by
+Fitzgerald with a dagger, while Lord Edward himself was only secured
+after Sirr had disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He
+was conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare he was
+visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his wound on the
+4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed in 1819) was passed,
+confiscating his property; and his wife--against whom the government
+probably possessed sufficient evidence to secure a conviction for
+treason--was compelled to leave the country before her husband had
+actually expired.
+
+Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward himself, and
+whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression on Robert Southey,
+repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she married J. Pitcairn, the American
+consul. Since her marriage with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved
+and esteemed by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her
+second marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient
+evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct as open
+to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately devoted to the
+memory of her first husband; and she died in Paris in November 1831. A
+portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre. She had three children by Lord
+Edward Fitzgerald: Edward Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of
+General Sir Guy Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon,
+R.N.
+
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome features. His
+character and career have been made the subject of eulogies much beyond
+their merits. He had, indeed, a winning personality, and a warm,
+affectionate and generous nature, which made him greatly beloved by his
+family and friends; he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic,
+adventurous. But he was entirely without the weightier qualities
+requisite for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs.
+Hotheaded and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as conspicuously
+deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratorical genius of
+such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of his associates in
+conspiracy described him as "weak and not fit to command a sergeant's
+guard, but very zealous." Reinhard, who considered Arthur O'Connor "a
+far abler man," accurately read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald
+as that of a young man "incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank,
+energetic, and likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no
+experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be chief of a
+great party or leader in a difficult enterprise."
+
+  See Thomas Moore, _Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled _The Memoirs of Lord
+  Edward Fitzgerald_, edited with supplementary particulars by Martin
+  MacDermott (London, 1897); R.R. Madden, _The United Irishmen_ (7
+  vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C.H. Teeling, _Personal Narrative of the
+  Irish Rebellion of 1798_ (Belfast, 1832); W.J. Fitzpatrick, _The Sham
+  Squire, The Rebellion of Ireland and the Informers of 1798_ (Dublin,
+  1866), and _Secret Service under Pitt_ (London, 1892); J.A. Froude,
+  _The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London,
+  1872-1874); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth
+  Century_, vols. vii. and viii. (London, 1896); Thomas Reynolds the
+  younger, _The Life of Thomas Reynolds_ (London, 1839); _The Life and
+  Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox_, edited by the countess of Ilchester and
+  Lord Stavordale (London, 1901); Ida A. Taylor, _The Life of Lord
+  Edward Fitzgerald_ (London, 1903), which gives a prejudiced and
+  distorted picture of Pamela. For particulars of Pamela, and especially
+  as to the question of her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, _Edward and
+  Pamela Fitzgerald_ (London, 1904); _Memoirs of Madame de Genlis_
+  (London, 1825); Georgette Ducrest, _Chroniques populaires_ (Paris,
+  1855); Thomas Moore, _Memoirs of the Life of R.B. Sheridan_ (London,
+  1825).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or REDMOND (d. ca. 1182), surnamed Le Gros, was the
+son of William Fitzgerald and brother of Odo de Carew. He was sent by
+Strongbow to Ireland in 1170, and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford,
+where he was besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and
+Ostmen, whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow's second in command, and had
+the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the successful
+assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to hand over Strongbow's
+conquests to Henry II., but was back in Dublin in July 1171, when he led
+one of the sallies from the town. Strongbow offended him later by
+refusing him the marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de
+Quenci, constable of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and
+Hervey de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak of
+a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned with his
+uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of marriage with
+Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a series of successes, and
+with the fall of Limerick in October 1175 order was restored.
+Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained Raymond's recall on the ground that his
+power threatened the royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a
+fresh outbreak at Limerick, the earl's troops refusing to march without
+him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until the arrival
+of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over the royal fortresses. He
+was deprived of his estates near Dublin and Wexford, but the Geraldines
+secured the recall of Fitz Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their
+power and influence. In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen,
+who was besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to be
+1182, is not known.
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (10th earl of Kildare), (1513-1537), the eldest
+son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of Kildare, was born in London in
+1513. He spent much of his youth in England, but in 1534 when his father
+was for the third time summoned to England to answer for his
+maladministration as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held
+at Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the Ormond
+faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been executed in
+the Tower, and that his son's life was to be attempted. Inflamed with
+rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode at the head of his
+retainers[1] into Dublin, and before the council for Ireland (the 11th
+of June 1534) formally renounced his allegiance to the king and
+proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies, including Archbishop John Allen (of
+Dublin), who had been set by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took
+refuge in Dublin Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was
+taken by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by
+Fitzgerald's servants in his presence, but whether actually by his
+orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for absolution, but
+was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish Church. Leaving part of his
+army (with the consent of the citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle,
+Fitzgerald himself went against Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and
+succeeded at first in making a truce with him. But the citizens of
+Dublin now rose against him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of
+an English army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the
+English army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but
+taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir William
+Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth ravaged Kildare
+and Meath throughout the winter. He had now succeeded to the earldom of
+Kildare, his father having died in the Tower on the 13th of December
+1534, but he does not seem to have been known by that title. In March
+Skeffington stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which
+was defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese,
+Fitzgerald's foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535, and most
+of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved the final blow to the
+rebellion. The news of what is known as the "pardon of Maynooth" reached
+Fitzgerald as he was returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his
+men fell away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail
+for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months in raids
+against the English and their allies, but his party gradually deserting
+him, on the 18th of August 1535 he surrendered himself to Lord Leonard
+Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he made some conditions, but what
+they were is very uncertain. He was taken to England and placed in the
+Tower. In February 1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with
+great injustice, seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were
+hanged at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder against
+them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the Irish and English
+parliaments; but the family estates were restored by Edward VI. to
+Gerald, 11th earl of Kildare (stepbrother of Thomas), and the attainder
+was repealed by Queen Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances,
+youngest daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richard Stanihurst, _Chronicles of Ireland_ (vol. ii.
+  of _Holinshed's Chronicles_); Sir James Ware, _Rerum Hibernicarum
+  annales_ (Dublin, 1664); _The Earls of Kildare_, by C.W. Fitzgerald,
+  duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the
+  Tudors_ (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); _Calendar State Papers, Hen.
+  VIII., Irish_; G. E. C.'s _Peerage_; John Lodge, _Peerage of Ireland_,
+  ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of "Silken Thomas," either
+    from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished
+    manners.
+
+
+
+
+FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY (1470-1538), English jurist, was born at
+Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford, he was called to the
+English bar, and in 1523 became justice of the Court of Common Pleas,
+the duties of which office he continued to discharge till within a short
+time of his death in 1538. As a judge he left behind him a high
+reputation for fairness and integrity, and his legal learning is
+sufficiently attested by his published works.
+
+  He is the author of _La Graunde Abridgement_, a digest of important
+  legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; _The Office
+  and Authority of Justices of the Peace_, first printed in 1538 (last
+  ed. 1794); the _New Natura Brevium_ (1534, last ed. 1794), with a
+  commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are sometimes
+  attributed the _Book of Husbandry_ (1523), the first published work on
+  agriculture in the English language, and the _Book of Surveying and
+  Improvements_ (1523) (see AGRICULTURE).
+
+
+
+
+FITZHERBERT, THOMAS (1552-1640), English Jesuit, was the eldest son and
+heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton in Staffordshire, and grandson
+of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, judge of the common pleas. He was educated
+at Oxford, where, at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy.
+On his release he went to London, where he was a member of the
+association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits Edmund
+Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew to the continent, where
+he was active in the cause of Mary, queen of Scots. He married in this
+year Dorothy, daughter of Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire.
+After the death of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the
+recommendation of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king.
+He continued his intrigues against the English government, and in 1598
+he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen Elizabeth.
+After this he was for a short while in the service of the duke of Feria
+at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was ordained priest (1601-1602)
+and became agent for the English clergy. He was unpopular with them,
+however, owing to his subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the
+agency in 1607 owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest
+George Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was
+appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616, and in
+1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held this post to within
+a year of his death, which occurred at Rome on the 7th of August (O.S.)
+1640.
+
+  Father Fitzherbert, who is described as "a person of excellent parts,
+  a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous spirit,"
+  wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in the
+  article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_, together with authorities for his life.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ NEAL or (FITZ NIGEL), RICHARD (d. 1198), treasurer of Henry II. and
+Richard I. of England, and bishop of London, belonged to a great
+administrative family whose fortunes were closely linked with those of
+Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I. The founder of the family was Roger,
+bishop of Salisbury, the great minister of Henry I. Before the death of
+that sovereign (1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his
+nephew, Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the
+whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a partisan of
+the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession of her son, Henry
+II., who made him at first chancellor and then treasurer. Nigel's son,
+Richard, who was born before his father's elevation to the episcopate
+(1133), succeeded to the office of treasurer in 1158, and held it
+continuously for forty years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant
+justices for 1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which
+he exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln, and
+was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among three select
+candidates for the vacant see. The king passed him over in favour of
+Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this occasion to make a disinterested
+appointment. Richard I., however, rewarded the treasurer's services with
+the see of London (1189).
+
+Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked the broad
+statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided any connexion
+with political parties; he is only once mentioned as taking part in a
+debate of the Great Council (1193), and then spoke, in his character as
+a bishop, to support a royal demand for a special aid. But his work _De
+necessariis observantiis Scaccarii dialogus_, commonly called the
+_Dialogus de Scaccario_, is of unique interest to the historian. It is
+an account, in two books, of the procedure followed by the exchequer in
+the author's time. Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm
+because, as he explains, the "course" of the exchequer was largely the
+creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the Pipe Rolls
+the _Dialogus_ furnishes a most faithful and detailed picture of English
+fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The speakers in the dialogue are
+Richard himself and an anonymous pupil. The latter puts leading
+questions which Richard answers in elaborate fashion. The date of the
+conversation is given in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks
+the date at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178
+or 1179. Soon after the author's death we find it already recognized as
+the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was frequently
+transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians of every period.
+Hence it is the more necessary to insist that the historical statements
+which the treatise contains are sometimes demonstrably erroneous; the
+author appears to have relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as
+the work is only known to us through transcripts, it is possible that
+some of the blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected
+zeal of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years a
+register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three
+parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the time when
+he wrote the _Dialogus_, but has since disappeared. Stubbs' conjectural
+identification of this _Liber tricolumnis_ with the first part of the
+_Gesta Henrici_ (formerly attributed to Benedictus Abbas) is now
+abandoned as untenable.
+
+  See Madox's edition in his _History of the Exchequer_ (1769); and that
+  of A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902). F.
+  Liebermann's _Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario_ (Göttingen,
+  1875) contains the fullest account of the author.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom of Hereford and
+the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in 1071. He did not keep on
+good terms with William the Conqueror, and in 1075, disregarding the
+king's prohibition, married his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of
+Norfolk, at the famous bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two
+earls rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west to
+join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the
+Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought into the
+field against him. On the collapse of his confederate's rising, Roger
+was tried before the Great Council, deprived of his lands and earldom,
+and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; but he was released, with other
+political prisoners, at the death of William I. in 1087.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM, Earl of Hereford (d. 1071), was an intimate friend
+of William the Conqueror, and the principal agent in preparing for the
+invasion of England. He received the earldom of Hereford with the
+special duty of pushing into Wales. During William's absence in 1067,
+Fitz-Osbern was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from
+the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also acted as
+William's lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069. In 1070 William sent
+him to assist Queen Matilda in the government of Normandy. But Richilde,
+widow of Baldwin VI. of Flanders, having offered to marry him if he
+would protect her son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern
+accepted the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed,
+fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071.
+
+  See Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vols. iii. and iv.; Sir James Ramsay,
+  _Foundations of England_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM (d. 1196), was a Londoner of good position who had
+served in the Third Crusade, and on his return took up the cause of the
+poorer citizens against the magnates who monopolized the government of
+London and assessed the taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It
+is affirmed that he entered on this course of action through a quarrel
+with his elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears to be
+mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives Fitz Osbert a high
+character, and he was implicitly trusted by the poorer citizens. He
+attempted to procure redress for them from the king; but the city
+magistrates persuaded the justiciar Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and
+his followers meditated plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were
+sent to seize the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St
+Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily dragged to
+execution at Tyburn.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief justiciar of
+England, began his official career in the later years of Henry II., whom
+he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and a justice of the forest.
+During Richard's absence on Crusade he was one of the five justices of
+the king's court who stood next in authority to the regent, Longchamp.
+It was at this time (1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of
+Essex, in the right of his wife, who was descended from the famous
+Geoffrey de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights
+over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Longchamp, and
+revenged himself by taking an active part in the baronial agitation
+through which the regent was expelled from his office. The king,
+however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share in these proceedings; and,
+though refusing to give him formal investiture of the Essex earldom,
+appointed him justiciar in succession to Hubert Walter (1198). In this
+capacity Fitz Peter continued his predecessor's policy of encouraging
+foreign trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter
+received, during his administration, charters of self-government. He was
+continued in his office by John, who found him a useful instrument and
+described him in an official letter as "indispensable to the king and
+kingdom." He proved himself an able instrument of extortion, and
+profited to no small extent by the spoliation of church lands in the
+period of the interdict. But he was too closely connected with the
+baronage to be altogether trusted by the king. The contemporary
+_Histoire des ducs_ describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of
+disgrace and confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured
+to act as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his
+mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I. (at the
+council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz Peter died a few weeks
+later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed to Peter des Roches, one of
+the unpopular foreign favourites. Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted
+nor a disinterested statesman; but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert
+Walter, and maintained the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the
+first and second Henries had founded.
+
+  See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I.
+  and John. Also Miss K. Norgate's _Angevin England_, vol. ii. (1887),
+  and _John Lackland_ (1902); A. Ballard in _English Historical Review_,
+  xiv. p. 93; H.W.C. Davis' _England under the Normans and Angevins_
+  (1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZROY, ROBERT (1805-1865), English, vice-admiral, distinguished as a
+hydrographer and meteorologist, was born at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the
+5th of July 1805, being a grandson, on the father's side, of the third
+duke of Grafton, and on the mother's, of the first marquis of
+Londonderry. He entered the navy from the Royal Naval College, then a
+school for cadets, on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of
+September 1824 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in
+the "Thetis" frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South
+America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain Bingham,
+he was in August 1828 appointed to the "Ganges," as flag-lieutenant to
+Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the commander-in-chief on the South
+American station; and on the death of Commander Stokes of the "Beagle,"
+on the 13th of November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The
+"Beagle," a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had been for the
+two previous years, employed on the survey of the coasts of Patagonia
+and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of Commander King in the
+"Adventure," and, together with the "Adventure," returned to England in
+the autumn of 1830. Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one
+of whom died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the
+others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a rudimentary
+knowledge of religion and of some useful handicrafts; and, as he had
+pledged himself to restore them to their native country, he was making
+preparations in the summer of the following year to carry them back in a
+merchant ship bound to Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to
+the "Beagle," to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The
+"Beagle" sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying as
+a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous naturalist. After
+an absence of nearly five years, and having, in addition to the survey
+of the Straits of Magellan and a great part of the coast of South
+America, run a chronometric line round the world, thus fixing the
+longitude of many secondary meridians with sufficient exactness for all
+the purposes of ordinary navigation, the "Beagle" anchored at Falmouth
+on the 2nd of October 1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the
+rank of captain and was now for the next few years principally employed
+in reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he was
+awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; and in 1839 he
+published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative of the voyage of the
+"Adventure" and "Beagle," 1826-1830, and of the "Beagle," 1831-1836,
+with a third volume by Darwin--a book familiarly known as a record of
+scientific travel. Of Fitzroy's work as a surveyor, carried on under
+circumstances of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit
+that was semi-officially denounced as "shabby," Sir Francis Beaufort,
+the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the House of
+Commons, 10th of February 1848, that "from the equator to Cape Horn, and
+from thence round to the river Plata on the eastern side of America, all
+that is _immediately_ wanted has been already achieved by the splendid
+survey of Captain Robert Fitzroy." This was written before steamships
+made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The survey that
+was sufficient then became afterwards very far from sufficient.
+
+In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of Ipswich, and in
+the following year was returned to parliament as member for Durham.
+About the same time he accepted the post of conservator of the Mersey,
+and in his double capacity obtained leave to bring in a bill for
+improving the condition and efficiency of officers in the mercantile
+marine. This was not proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the
+"voluntary certificate" instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and
+furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act of 1850.
+
+Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of
+New Zealand, then recently established as a colony. He arrived in his
+government in December, whilst the excitement about the Wairau massacre
+was still fresh, and the questions relating to the purchase of land from
+the natives were in a very unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were
+greedy and unscrupulous; Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret
+of his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant elements
+agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the governor; the
+governor did not conciliate the settlers, who denounced his policy as
+adverse to their interests, as unjust and illegal; colonial feeling
+against him ran very high; petition after petition for his recall was
+sent home, and the government was compelled to yield to the pressure
+brought to bear on it. Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in
+November 1845.
+
+In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent of the
+dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the command of the
+"Arrogant," one of the early screw frigates which had been fitted out
+under his supervision, and with which it was desired to carry out a
+series of experiments and trials. When these were finished he applied to
+be superseded, on account at once of his health and of his private
+affairs. In February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor did
+he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by seniority to the
+ranks of rear-and vice-admiral on the retired list (1857, 1863). In 1851
+he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1854, after serving
+for a few months as private secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then
+commander-in-chief of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological
+department of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the
+peculiar title of "Meteorological Statist."
+
+From the date of his joining the "Beagle" in 1828 he had paid very great
+attention to the different phenomena foreboding or accompanying change
+of weather, and his narratives of the voyages of the "Adventure" and
+"Beagle" are full of interesting and valuable details concerning these.
+Accordingly, when in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal
+Society, was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its
+newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without hesitation,
+nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became from that time
+identified with the progress of practical meteorology. His _Weather
+Book_, published in 1863, embodies in broad outline his views, far in
+advance of those then generally held; and in spite of the rapid march of
+modern science, it is still worthy of careful attention and exact study.
+His storm warnings, in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of
+empiricism, were gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and
+gave a high percentage of correct results. They were continued for
+eighteen months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and
+though stopped when the department was transferred to the management of
+a committee of the Royal Society, they were resumed a few months
+afterwards; and under the successive direction of Dr R.H. Scott and Dr
+W.N. Shaw, have been developed into what we now know them. But though it
+is perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy's name has been most
+generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of gratitude, not
+only for his labours in reducing to a more practical form the somewhat
+complicated wind charts of Captain Maury, but also for his great
+exertions in connexion with the life-boat association. Into this work,
+in its many ramifications, he threw himself with the energy of an
+excitable temperament, already strained by his long and anxious service
+in the Straits of Magellan. His last years were fully and to an
+excessive degree occupied by it; his health, both of body and mind,
+threatened to give way; but he refused to take the rest that was
+prescribed. In a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence
+on the 30th of April 1865.
+
+  Besides his works already named mention may be made of _Remarks on New
+  Zealand_ (1846); _Sailing Directions for South America_ (1848); his
+  official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865); and occasional
+  papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
+  Royal United Service Institution.     (J. K. L.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZROY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 2 m. by rail N.E.
+of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 31,610. It is a prosperous
+manufacturing town, well served with tramways and containing many fine
+residences.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh princess and
+former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable of Cardigan, whom
+Robert succeeded in that office, took service with Dermot of Leinster
+when that king visited England (1167), In 1169 Robert led the vanguard
+of Dermot's Anglo-Welsh auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford,
+which he was then allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald.
+Taken prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to Henry
+II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of Ireland, Hugh de
+Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the troubles of 1173, and was
+rewarded by receiving, jointly with Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177).
+He had difficulty in maintaining his position and was nearly
+overwhelmed by a rising of Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is
+uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM (d. c. 1190), biographer of Thomas Becket and
+royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered Becket's service at
+some date between 1154 and 1162. The chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in
+legal work, made him sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a
+confidant. Fitz Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of
+Northampton (1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to
+the world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined Becket's
+household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the tragedy in
+Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most valuable among the
+extant biographies of his patron. Though he writes as a partisan he
+gives a precise account of the differences between Becket and the king.
+This biography contains a description of London which is our chief
+authority for the social life of the city in the 12th century. Despite
+his connexion with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial
+preferment from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171 to
+1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-1190.
+
+  See his "Vita S. Thomae" in J.C. Robertson's _Materials for the
+  History of Thomas Becket_, vol. iii. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T.D.
+  Hardy, in his _Catalogue of Materials_, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865),
+  discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W.H.
+  Hutton, _St Thomas of Canterbury_, pp. 272-274 (1889), gives an
+  account of the author.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD (d. 1274), London chronicler and merchant, was born
+in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both his parents were of German
+extraction. The family of his mother migrated to England from Cologne in
+the reign of Henry II.; his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of
+Bremen who had been attracted to London by the privileges which the
+Plantagenets conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in time
+to his father's wealth and position. He held an honourable position
+among the Hanse traders, and became their "alderman." He was also, as he
+tells us himself, alderman of a London ward and an active partisan in
+municipal politics. In the Barons' War he took the royal side against
+the populace and the mayor Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party
+planned, in 1265, to try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he
+was saved by the news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very
+day appointed for the trial. Even after the king's triumph Arnold
+suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that he should be
+unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon the city. He appealed
+for help to Henry III., and again to Edward I., with the result that his
+liability was diminished. In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to
+whose keeping the muniments of the city were entrusted. To this
+circumstance we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. _Chronica
+Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, which begins at the year 1188 and is continued
+to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of curious information.
+Though municipal in its outlook, it is valuable for the general history
+of the kingdom, owing to the important part which London played in the
+agitation against the misrule of Henry III. We have the king's word for
+the fact that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent
+from the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means blind to
+the faults of Henry's government, but preferred an autocracy to the
+mob-rule which Simon de Montfort countenanced in London. Arnold died in
+1274; the last fact recorded of him is that, in this year, he joined in
+a successful appeal to the king against the illegal grants which had
+been made by the mayor, Walter Hervey.
+
+  The _Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, with the other contents of
+  Arnold's common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society by T.
+  Stapleton (1846), under the title _Liber de Antiquis Legibus_. Our
+  knowledge of Arnold's life comes from the _Chronica_ and his own
+  biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited in G.H.
+  Pertz's _Mon. Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, vol. xxviii. See also
+  J.M. Lappenberg's _Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu
+  London_ (Hamburg, 1851).     (H. W. C. D)
+
+
+
+
+FITZWALTER, ROBERT (d. 1235), leader of the baronial opposition against
+King John of England, belonged to the official aristocracy created by
+Henry I. and Henry II. He served John in the Norman wars, and was taken
+prisoner by Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was
+implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his own
+statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest daughter; but
+Robert's account of his grievances varied from time to time. The truth
+seems to be that he was irritated by the suspicion with which John
+regarded the new baronage. Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to
+France. He was outlawed, but returned under a special amnesty after
+John's reconciliation with the pope. He continued, however, to take the
+lead in the baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak
+of hostilities was elected "marshal of the army of God and Holy Church"
+(1215). To his influence in London it was due that his party obtained
+the support of the city and used it as their base of operations. The
+famous clause of Magna Carta (§ 39) prohibiting sentences of exile,
+except as the result of a lawful trial, refers more particularly to his
+case. He was one of the twenty-five appointed to enforce the promises of
+Magna Carta; and his aggressive attitude was one of the causes which
+contributed to the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent
+leadership made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of
+France. He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and was
+the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered London.
+Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his natural lord, he
+served Louis with fidelity until captured at the battle of Lincoln (May
+1217). Released on the conclusion of peace he joined the Damietta
+crusade of 1219, but returned at an early date to make his peace with
+the regency. The remainder of his career was uneventful; he died
+peacefully in 1235.
+
+  See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The _Histoire des
+  ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre_ (ed. F. Michel, Paris,
+  1840) gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K.
+  Norgate's _John Lackland_ (1902), W. McKechnie's _Magna Carta_ (1905),
+  and Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897), should
+  also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM (1526-1599), lord deputy of Ireland, was the
+eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576) of Milton,
+Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson of another Sir William
+Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and sheriff of London, who was also
+treasurer and chamberlain to Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton
+in 1506. On his mother's side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell,
+1st earl of Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to
+Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a member of
+the Irish House of Commons; and between this date and 1571 he was
+(during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, and of his
+successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times lord justice of Ireland. In 1571
+Fitzwilliam himself was appointed lord deputy, but like Elizabeth's
+other servants he received little or no money, and his period of
+government was marked by continuous penury and its attendant evils,
+inefficiency, mutiny and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy
+quarrelled with the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton
+(1527-1579), but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He
+disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he had a
+further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness he was allowed
+to resign his office. Returning to England in 1575 he was governor of
+Fotheringhay Castle at the time of Mary Stuart's execution. In 1588
+Fitzwilliam was again in Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and
+ill he displayed great activity in leading expeditions, and found time
+to quarrel with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of
+Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later he died
+at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne, daughter of Sir
+William Sidney, were descended the barons and earls Fitzwilliam.
+
+  See R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol. ii. (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM, 2ND EARL (1748-1833),
+English statesman, was the son of the 1st earl (peerage of the United
+Kingdom), who died in 1756. The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed
+descent from a natural son of William the Conqueror, and among its
+earlier members were a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of
+London, who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in
+Northamptonshire, and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see above).
+The latter's grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620; and in later
+generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam
+(1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton (1742) and Viscount Milton
+and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were added. These were all in the English
+house of the Fitzwilliams of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the
+Irish Fitzwilliams of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English
+family who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the 12th
+century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam died out
+with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these was Richard, 7th
+viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam library and a fund for
+creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to Cambridge University.
+
+The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in
+Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the marquess of
+Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth estates in Yorkshire, and
+thus became one of the wealthiest noblemen of the day. He had been at
+Eton with C.J. Fox, and became an active supporter of the Whig party;
+and in 1794, with the duke of Portland, Windham and other "old Whigs" he
+joined Pitt's cabinet, becoming president of the council. At the end of
+the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy. Fitzwilliam,
+however, had set his face against the jobbery of the Protestant leaders,
+and threw himself warmly into Grattan's scheme for admitting the
+Catholics to political power; and in March 1795 he was recalled, his
+action being disavowed by Pitt, the result of a series of
+misunderstandings which appeared to Fitzwilliam to give him just cause
+of complaint. The quarrel was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam
+was appointed lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He
+continued to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president
+of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in opposition. He
+died in February 1833, his son, Charles William Wentworth, the 3rd earl
+(1786-1857), and later earls, being notable figures in the politics and
+social life of the north of England.
+
+
+
+
+FIUME (Slav. _Rjeka_, _Rieka_ or _Reka_, Ger. _St Veit am Flaum_), a
+royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern extremity
+of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and on a small stream
+called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m. by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop.
+(1900) 38,955; including 17,354 Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs
+and Slovenes), 2482 Hungarians and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume
+belongs to Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7
+sq. m., became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque old
+town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst; while the modern
+town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric light and electric trams,
+is crowded into the amphitheatre left between the hills and the shore.
+On the north-west there is a fine public garden. The most interesting
+buildings are the cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377,
+and completed with a modern façade copied from that of the Pantheon in
+Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria della Salute in
+Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with offerings from shipwrecked
+sailors, and approached by a stairway of 400 steps. In the old town is a
+Roman triumphal arch, said to have been erected during the 3rd century
+A.D. in honour of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a
+theatre and a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian
+emperor; a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of
+commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an industrial home
+for boys; and several large schools, including the marine academy (1856)
+and the school of seamanship (1903). Municipal affairs are principally
+managed by the Italians, who sympathize with the Hungarians against the
+Slavs.
+
+Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country it was
+connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through Karlstadt. It has
+two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch of the southern railway from
+Vienna to Trieste, the other of the Hungarian state railway from
+Karlstadt. There are several harbours, including the _Porto Canale_, for
+coasting vessels; the _Porto Baross_, for timber; and the _Porto
+Grande_, sheltered by the _Maria Theresia_ mole and breakwater, besides
+four lesser moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators.
+The development of the _Porto Grande_, originally named the _Porto
+Nuovo_, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals as trade
+increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the construction of a new
+mole and an enlargement of the quays and breakwater; these works to be
+completed within 5 years, at a cost of £420,000. The exports, worth
+£6,460,000 in 1902, chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and
+horses; the imports, worth £3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine,
+rice, fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large
+share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-Croat
+and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized by the state. A
+steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian emigrants, officially numbered
+in 1902 at 7500, passes through Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of
+1,963,000 tons, entered at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000,
+cleared. Foremost among the industrial establishments are Whitehead's
+torpedo factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie's paper-mill, the royal tobacco
+factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries and rope
+manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard was closed. The soil
+of the surrounding country is stony, but the climate is warm, and wine
+is extensively produced. The Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply
+of fish, and the tunny trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable
+importance. Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort
+of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of Veglia and
+Cherso.
+
+Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian town
+_Tersatica_; later it received the name of _Vitopolis_, and eventually
+that of _Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen_, from which its present name is
+derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne in 799, from which time it
+probably long remained under the dominion of the Franks. It was held in
+feudal tenure from the patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and
+afterwards, in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the
+end of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts of
+Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor Frederick
+III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the house of Austria.
+From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by imperial governors. In 1723
+it was declared a free port by Charles VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by
+the empress Maria Theresa, and in 1779 declared a _corpus separatum_ of
+the Hungarian crown. In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it
+was retaken by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the
+following year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the
+revolution of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under
+the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian control
+in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FIVES, a ball-game played by two or four players in a court enclosed on
+three or four sides, the ball being struck with the hand, usually
+protected by a glove, whence the game is known in America as "handball."
+The origin of the game is probably the French _jeu de paume_, tennis
+played with the hand, the hand in that case being eventually superseded
+by the racquet. Fives and racquets are probably both descended from the
+_jeu de paume_, of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may
+be derived from _la longue paume_, in which five on a side played, or
+from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be made
+by the winners (in modern times the game consists of fifteen points).
+Fives is played in Great Britain principally at the schools and
+universities, although its encouragement is included in the functions of
+the Tennis Racquets and Fives Association, founded in 1908. In America
+it is much affected for training purposes by professional athletes and
+boxers. There are two forms of fives--the Eton game and the Rugby
+game--which require separate notice, though the main features of the two
+games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the service, the
+necessity of hitting the ball before the second bounce, and of hitting
+it above a line and within the limits of the court.
+
+_Eton Fives._--The peculiar features of the Eton court arose from the
+fact that in early times the game was played against the chapel-wall, so
+that buttresses formed side walls and the balustrade of the chapel-steps
+projected into the court, while a step divided the court latitudinally.
+These were reproduced in the regular courts, the buttress being known as
+the "pepper-box" and the space between it and the step as the "hole."
+The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved;
+there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as the
+"line," 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted; 3 ft.
+8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play, two against
+two; one of each pair plays in the forward court, the other in the back
+court. The server stands on the left of the forward court, his partner
+in the right-hand corner of the back court; the taker of the service by
+the right wall of the forward court, his partner at the left-hand corner
+of the back court. The forward court is known as "on-wall," the other as
+"off-wall." The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall,
+above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls on
+the "off-wall," but the server's object is not, as at tennis and
+racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At fives he must
+send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed hand-out can refuse
+to take any service that he does not like, and if he fails to return the
+ball above the line no stroke is counted. After the service has been
+returned either of the opponents returns the ball if he can, and so on,
+each side and either member of it returning the ball above the line
+alternately till one side or the other hits it below the line or out of
+court. Only hand-in can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores
+a point; if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner
+becomes server, unless he has already served in this round, in which
+case the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points. If the
+score is "13 all," the out side may "set" the game to 5 or 3; i.e. the
+game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at "14 all" it may be set to three.
+The game and its terminology being somewhat intricate, can best be
+learnt in the court. No apparatus is required except padded gloves and
+fives-balls, which are covered with white leather tightly stretched over
+a hard foundation of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls
+are 1¾ in. in diameter and weigh about 1¼ oz. apiece.
+
+_Rugby Fives_ is much less complicated owing to the simpler form of the
+court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &c., are the same as
+in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The courts are larger,
+measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may be roofed or open. The
+side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft. Some courts have a dwarf back
+wall, some have none. The back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in.
+in height. In some courts the side walls are plain; in others, where
+there is no back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right
+angles to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the
+_tambour_ of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall
+about 10 ft. from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court.
+The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its upper
+edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.
+
+_Handball_, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played in the
+United States, is practically identical with fives, though there are
+minor differences. The usual American court is about 60 ft. long, 24½
+ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to 33 ft. at the back
+wall. The front wall is of brick faced with marble, the sides of cement
+and the floor of white pine laid on beams 10 in. apart. These are the
+dimensions of the Brooklyn court of the former American champion, Phil
+Casey (d. 1904), which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces
+constitute a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball is
+a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a "red ace"
+when made of solid red rubber, and "black ace" when made of black
+rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his prime about 1855, was the
+most celebrated Irish handball player. In his day nearly every village
+tavern in Ireland had a court. Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish
+championship in 1885, were his most prominent successors. In America
+Phil Casey and Michael Egan are the best-known names.
+
+  See A. Tait's _Fives_ in the All England Series: "Fives" in the
+  _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; and _Official Handball Guide_ in Spalding's
+  Athletic Library.
+
+
+
+
+FIX, THÉODORE (1800-1846), French journalist and economist, was born at
+Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His father was a French physician whose
+ancestors had been expatriated by the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
+At first a land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the _Bulletin
+universal des sciences_, to which he contributed most of the
+geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the _Revue mensuelle
+d'économie politique_, which he edited during the three years of its
+existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work, till his essay
+on _L'Association des douanes allemandes_ won him a prize from the
+Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1840, and also procured
+him work on the report on the progress of sciences since the Revolution,
+which the Institute was preparing. A few months before his death he
+published _Observations sur les classes ouvrières_, in which he argued
+against all attempts to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and
+attributed the condition of the working classes to their own
+thriftlessness and intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st
+of July 1846.
+
+
+
+
+FIXTURES (Lat. _figere_, to fix), in law, chattels which have been so
+fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law, "so
+annexed to the freehold"), as to become, in contemplation of law, a part
+of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction for certain
+purposes, between immovables and movables, between real and personal
+property, between land and all other things. In the case of fixtures the
+question arises under which set of rights they are to fall--under those
+of real or of personal property. The general rule of English law is that
+everything attached to the land goes with the land--_quicquid plantatur
+solo, solo cedit_. This, like many other rules of English law, is all in
+favour of the freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large
+number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the courts as
+occasion arose.
+
+In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree of annexation
+to the land, or to a building which forms part of it. Thus it has been
+held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but not fixed to the ground
+itself, is not a fixture; and the onus of showing that articles not
+otherwise attached to the land than by their own weight have ceased to
+be chattels, rests with those who assert the fact. On the other hand, an
+article, even slightly affixed to the land, is to be considered part of
+it, unless the circumstances show that it was intended to remain a
+chattel. The question is one of fact in each case--depending mainly on
+the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possibility of
+the removal of the article without injury to itself or the freehold. In
+certain cases the courts have recognized a constructive annexation, when
+the articles, though not fixed to the soil, pass with the freehold as if
+they were, e.g. the keys of a house, the stones of a dry wall, and the
+detached or duplicate portions of machines.
+
+Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise--(1) between
+landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor, (3) between executor
+and remainder-man or reversioner, (4) between seller and buyer.
+
+  1. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the freehold
+  during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the permission of
+  his landlord. But an exception was established in favour of _trade
+  fixtures_. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that a soap-boiler
+  might, _during his term_, remove the vats he had set up for trade
+  purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom, but "by the
+  common law in favour of trade, and to encourage industry," and it may
+  be stated as a general rule that things which a tenant has fixed to
+  the freehold for the purpose of trade or manufacture may be taken away
+  by him, whenever the removal is not contrary to any prevailing
+  practice, or the particular terms of the contract of tenancy, and can
+  be effected without causing material injury to the estate or
+  destroying the essential character of the articles themselves
+  (_Lambourn_ v. _M^cLellan_, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agricultural tenants are
+  not entitled, at common law, to remove trade fixtures. But the
+  Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such a right of removal in the
+  case of buildings or machinery erected by a tenant at his own
+  expense, and with his landlord's consent in writing, provided that the
+  freehold was not injured or that any injury was made good, and that
+  before removal a month's written notice was given to the landlord, who
+  had an option of purchase. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883
+  the tenant might, under similar conditions, remove fixtures, although
+  the landlord had not consented to their erection. The Agricultural
+  Holdings Act 1900 extended this provision to fixtures or buildings
+  acquired, although not annexed or erected, by the tenant. Similar
+  rights were created by the Allotments Compensation Act 1887, and by
+  the Market Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were
+  re-enacted by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.
+
+  Again, _ornamental_ fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and
+  convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry,
+  iron-backs to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble
+  chimney-pieces, are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable
+  without the landlord's consent. Here again the extent of the privilege
+  has been a matter of some uncertainty.
+
+  In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term. If
+  the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing the
+  fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a gift of
+  them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could not be
+  rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His right to
+  the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry of the
+  term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once left the
+  premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In one case where
+  the fixtures had actually been severed from the freehold after the end
+  of the term, it was held that the tenant had no right to recover them.
+
+  2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question of
+  fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person owning
+  land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures, set up for
+  the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental objects, the
+  rule _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_ was in early times somewhat
+  relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701, it was held
+  that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the executor;
+  and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently cut down,
+  it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming the
+  executor's right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for life
+  to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment as
+  chattels (_Leigh_ v. _Taylor_, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same has
+  been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in the
+  grounds of a mansion house.
+
+  3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures
+  arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to
+  the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man is
+  not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to
+  fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the
+  preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor's
+  fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor's fixtures
+  against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to be
+  that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life
+  would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures
+  are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.
+
+  4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes a
+  purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties is
+  of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases, e.g.
+  as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged the
+  fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in the
+  conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the subject
+  of a hire purchase agreement (_Reynolds_ v. _Ashby_, 1903, 1 K.B. 87).
+  Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises. Bills of
+  sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mortgages, the
+  possession remaining with the person selling them. To make them valid
+  they must be registered, and so the question has arisen whether deeds
+  conveying fixtures ought not to have been registered as bills of sale.
+  Unless it was the intention of the parties to make the fixtures a
+  distinct security, it seems that a deed of mortgage embracing them
+  does not require to be registered as a bill of sale. The question of
+  what is or is not a fixture must also often be considered in questions
+  of rating or assessment.
+
+  The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England. The
+  Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900 (as
+  to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal. The law
+  of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation sketched in
+  the article LANDLORD AND TENANT. The French Code Civil recognizes the
+  right of the usufructuary to remove articles attached by him to the
+  subject of his estate on the expiry of his term, on making good the
+  place from which they were taken (Art. 599); and there are similar
+  provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art. 495), Spain (Arts. 487,
+  489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany (Arts. 1037, 1049).
+
+  The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical
+  with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexation
+  is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law rule
+  _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_) as regards trade fixtures, and
+  ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.
+
+  In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without
+  modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St Lucia
+  (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in
+  substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
+  right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and Tenant
+  Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
+  settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act 1851
+  is in force.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--English law: Amos and Ferard, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd
+  ed., London, 1883); Brown, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd ed., London, 1875);
+  Ryde, on _Rating_ (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law: Hunter,
+  _Landlord and Tenant_; Erskine's _Principles_ (20th ed., Edin., 1903).
+  American Law: Bronson, _Law of Fixtures_ (St Paul, 1904); Reeves,
+  _Real Property_ (Boston, 1904); _Ruling Cases_ (London and Boston,
+  1894-1901), Tit. "Fixtures" (American Notes).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS (1819-1896), French physicist, was born
+at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819. His earliest work was concerned
+with improvements in photographic processes; and then, in association
+with J.B.L. Foucault, he engaged in a series of investigations on the
+interference of light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results
+obtained by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
+(see LIGHT), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity of
+electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser as a
+means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil. Subsequently
+he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and applied the phenomena of
+interference of light to the measurement of the dilatations of crystals.
+He died at Venteuil on the 18th of September 1896. He became a member of
+the French Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+FJORD, or FIORD, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long narrow arm of
+the sea running far inland, with more or less precipitous cliffs on each
+side. These "sea-lochs," as they are sometimes called, present many
+peculiar features. They differ entirely from an estuary in the fact that
+they are bounded seawards by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and
+they deepen inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up
+to the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water. It
+is pointed out by Dr H.R. Mill that Loch Morar on the west coast of
+Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep, with its surface 30 ft.
+above sea-level, which is connected with the sea by a short river, is
+exactly similar in configuration to Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled
+with sea-water which pours over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the
+retreating tide; that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill
+8 fathoms below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
+more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum depth of 700
+fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch Morar would become a fjord
+if the seaward portion sank below sea-level. The origin of these rock
+basins has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon
+somewhat similar basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering
+of surface rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where
+material is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
+in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations in
+such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the Yosemite Valley, where there
+is frequently a "reversed grade" similar to that near the seaward end of
+rock basins and fjords, seem to show, in some cases at least, that such
+a formation may be due to the "gouging" effect of a glacier coming down
+the valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and the
+supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several causes,
+but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys. The mass of
+sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected by the seasonal
+changes in surface temperature, which in Norway penetrate no deeper than
+200 fathoms, or else, as in Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water
+responds quickly to seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer
+penetrates so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
+to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found that
+where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the temperature
+may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from the surface. When the
+surface is warmest, on the other hand, the depths are coldest.
+
+
+
+
+FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the most
+illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that the family
+came from Tusculum, where some were still living in the middle of the
+1st century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacci the most important were the
+following:
+
+QUINTUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, son of the first of the family, Marcus, who was
+consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264. He especially distinguished
+himself during the second Punic War. He was consul four times (237, 224,
+212, 209), censor (231) pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215).
+During his first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians,
+Gauls and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum, and with
+his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege of Capua. The
+capture of this place was considered so important that their imperium
+was prolonged, but on condition that they should not leave Capua until
+it had been taken. Hannibal's unexpected diversion against Rome
+interfered with the operations for the moment, but his equally
+unexpected retirement enabled Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to
+protect the city, to return, and bring the siege to a successful
+conclusion. He punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in
+excuse that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He was
+nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which he was
+himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command of the army in
+Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further attempts at
+rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The chief authority for his
+life is the part of Livy dealing with the period (see PUNIC WARS).
+
+His brother GNAEUS was convicted of gross cowardice against Hannibal
+near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile at Tarquinii. His
+son, QUINTUS, waged war with signal success against the Celtiberians in
+182-181, and the Ligurians in 179. Having vowed to build a temple to
+Fortuna Equestris, he dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium
+of its marble slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to
+restore them, though they were never put back in their places.
+Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.
+
+MARCUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, grandnephew of the first Quintus, lived in the
+times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong supporter. After the death
+of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.) he was appointed in his place one of the
+commission of three for the distribution of the land. He was suspected
+of having had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129),
+but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul in 125, he
+proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the allies, and to allow
+even those who had not acquired it the right of appeal to the popular
+assembly against penal judgments. This proposal, though for the time
+successfully opposed by the senate, eventually led to the Social War.
+The attack made upon the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the
+Salluvii (Salyes) afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out
+of Rome. After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this
+time with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not
+remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates and the
+party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities, during which Flaccus
+was killed, together with Gracchus and a number of his supporters. It is
+generally agreed that Flaccus was perfectly honest in his support of the
+Gracchan reforms, but his hot-headedness did more harm than good to the
+cause. Cicero (_Brutus_, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate
+powers, but a diligent student.
+
+  See Livy, _Epit._ 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6; Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 10. 13; also
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (1904), and authorities quoted under
+  GRACCHUS.
+
+
+
+
+FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846-   ), French jurist and historian, was born
+at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February 1846, of a family known
+at least as early as the 16th century, when Sigismond Flach was the
+first professor of law at Strassburg University. G.J. Flach studied
+classics and law at Strassburg, and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of
+law. In his theses as well as in his early writings--such as _De la
+subrogation réelle, La Bonorum possessio_, and _Sur la durée des effets
+de la minorité_ (1870)--he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws
+by means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time. The
+Franco-German War engaged Flach's activities in other directions, and he
+spent two years (described in his _Strasbourg après le bombardement_,
+1873) at work on the rebuilding of the library and the museum, which had
+been destroyed by Prussian shells. When the time came for him to choose
+between Germany and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he
+completed his scientific training at the École des Chartes and the École
+des Hautes Études. Having acted for some time as secretary to Jules
+Sénard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he published an
+original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as possible resumed
+the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant to the jurist Edouard
+Laboulaye at the Collège de France, and succeeded him in 1884 in the
+chair of comparative legislation. Since 1877 he had been professor of
+comparative law at the free school of the political sciences. To qualify
+himself for these two positions he had to study the most diverse
+civilizations, including those of the East and Far East (e.g. Hungary,
+Russia and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other
+Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published,
+particularly those concerning Ireland: _Histoire du régime agraire de
+l'Irlande_ (1883); _Considérations sur l'histoire politique de
+l'Irlande_ (1885); and _Jonathan Swift, son action politique en Irlande_
+(1886).
+
+His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history of ancient
+French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded by his friend and
+compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his interest by reviving the
+question of the origin of the feudal laws, and gradually led him to
+study the formation of those laws and the early growth of the feudal
+system. His great work, _Les Origines de l'ancienne France_, was
+produced slowly. In the first volume, _Le Régime seigneurial_ (1886), he
+depicts the triumph of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after
+Charlemagne's great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle
+of sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the various
+functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity disappeared;
+and how the only living organisms were vassalage and clientship. The
+second volume, _Les Origines communales, la féodalité et la chevalerie_
+(1893), deals with the reconstruction of society on new bases which took
+place in the 10th and 11th centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman
+_villa_ gave place to the village, with its fortified castle, the
+residence of the lord; how new towns were formed by the side of old,
+some of which disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations;
+and how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument of
+cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism from the
+germs of the Gallo-Roman personal _comitatus_; and shows how the bond
+that united the different parties was the contract of the fief; and how,
+after a slow growth of three centuries, feudalism was definitely
+organized in the 12th century. In 1904 appeared the third volume, _La
+Renaissance de l'état_, in which the author describes the efforts of the
+Capetian kings to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the
+whole of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the
+imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords of the
+kingdom (the "princes," as Flach calls them), whether as allies or foes,
+pursued the same end; and how, before the close of the 12th century, the
+Capetian kings were in possession of the organs and the means of action
+which were to render them so powerful and bring about the early downfall
+of feudalism.
+
+In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals, the author's
+theories are not always in complete harmony, nor are they always
+presented in a very luminous or coherent manner, but they are marked by
+originality and vigour. Flach gave them a solid basis by the wide range
+of his researches, utilizing charters and cartularies (published and
+unpublished), chronicles, lives of saints, and even those dangerous
+guides, the _chansons de geste_. He owed little to the historians of
+feudalism who knew what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He
+pursued the same method in his _L'Origine de l'habitation et des lieux
+habités en France_ (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories
+circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubainville ville
+in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F.C. von Savigny,
+Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle ages and the
+Renaissance, and produced _Cujas, les glossateurs et les Bartolistes_
+(1883), and _Études critiques sur l'histoire du droit romain au moyen
+âge, avec textes inédits_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+FLACIUS (Ger. _Flach_; Slav. _Vlakich_), MATTHIAS (1520-1575), surnamed
+ILLYRICUS, Lutheran reformer, was born at Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd
+of March 1520. Losing his father in childhood, he was in early years
+self-educated, and made himself able to profit by the instructions of
+the humanist, Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he
+decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His
+intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, provincial of the
+Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation, who induced him to enter
+on a university career, from 1539, at Basel, Tübingen and Wittenberg.
+Here he was welcomed (1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from
+Tübingen, and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In
+1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He married in
+the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the festivities. He took his
+master's degree on the 24th of February 1546, ranking first among the
+graduates. Soon he was prominent in the theological discussions of the
+time, opposing strenuously the "Augsburg Interim," and the compromise of
+Melanchthon known as the "Leipzig Interim" (see ADIAPHORISTS).
+Melanchthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade ("aluimus in sinu
+serpentem"), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He removed to
+Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with Melanchthon was patched
+up. On the 17th of May 1557 he was appointed professor of New Testament
+theology at Jena; but was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his
+colleague, on the synergistic question (relating to the function of the
+will in conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he
+unwittingly fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean view of
+sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in its substance,
+since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure, he left Jena (Feb.
+1562) to found an academy at Regensburg. The project was not successful,
+and in October 1566 he accepted a call from the Lutheran community at
+Antwerp. Thence he was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and
+betook himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces
+against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received by the
+superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an asylum. But here also
+his religious views stood in his way; the authorities eventually
+ordering him to leave the city by Mayday 1573. Again betaking himself to
+Frankfort, the prioress, Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White
+Ladies, harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities. He
+fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to leave by
+Mayday 1575; but death released him on the 11th of March 1575. His first
+wife, by whom he had twelve children, died in 1564; in the same year he
+remarried and had further issue. His son Matthias was professor of
+philosophy and medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the
+literary fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over; he
+stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church history,
+and--if we except, a great exception, the work of Laurentius Valla--of
+hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling motive was to prove popery to
+be built on bad history and bad exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the
+extirpation of bad history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal
+interest to all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value
+of the principles embodied in Flacius' _Catalogus testium veritatis_
+(1556; revised edition by J.C. Dietericus, 1672) and his _Clavis
+scripturae sacrae_ (1567), followed by his _Glossa compendiaria in N.
+Testamentum_ (1570). His characteristic formula, "historia est
+fundamentum doctrinae," is better understood now than in his own day.
+
+  See J.B. Ritter, _Flacius's Leben u. Tod_ (1725); M. Twesten, _M.
+  Flacius Illyricus_ (1844); W. Preger, _M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine
+  Zeit_ (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_
+  (1899).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE (1607-1660), French governor of Madagascar, was
+born at Orleans in 1607. He was named governor of Madagascar by the
+French East India Company in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the
+French soldiers, who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives
+he was less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in
+continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he returned
+to France. Not long after he was appointed director general of the
+company; but having again returned to Madagascar, he was drowned on his
+voyage home on the 10th of June 1660. He is the author of a _Histoire de
+la grande isle Madagascar_ (1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).
+
+  See A. Malotet, _Ét. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation
+  française à Madagascar (1648-1661)_, (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FLAG (or "FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently
+first recorded in English), a piece of bunting or similar material,
+admitting of various shapes and colours, and waved in the wind from a
+staff or cord for use in display as a standard, ensign or signal. The
+word may simply be derived onomatopoeically, or transferred from the
+botanical "flag"; or an original meaning of "a piece of cloth" may be
+connected with the 12th-century English "flage," meaning a baby's
+garment; the verb "to flag," i.e. droop, may have originated in the idea
+of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the O. Fr.
+_flaguir_, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as soon as men
+began to collect together for common purposes some kind of conspicuous
+object was used, as the symbol of the common sentiment, for the rallying
+point of the common force. In military expeditions, where any degree of
+organization and discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be
+necessary to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep
+in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In addition, it
+cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents have often served, by
+reminding men of past resolves, past deeds and past heroes, to arouse to
+enthusiasm those sentiments of _esprit de corps_, of family pride and
+honour, of personal devotion, patriotism or religion, upon which, as
+well as upon good leadership, discipline and numerical force, success in
+warfare depends.
+
+_History._--Among the remains of the people which has left the earliest
+traces of civilization, the records of the forms of objects used as
+ensigns are frequently to be found. From their carvings and paintings,
+supplemented by ancient writers, it appears that several companies of
+the Egyptian army had their own particular standards. These were formed
+of such objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the
+minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred animals,
+boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king's name, fan and
+feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end of a staff as standards,
+and the office of bearing them was looked upon as one of peculiar
+privilege and honour (Fig. 1). Somewhat similar seem to have been the
+customs of the Assyrians and Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by
+Layard and others at Nineveh, only two different designs have been
+noticed for standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on
+a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite directions
+(Fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and peace which were
+attached to the yoke of Darius's chariot. They are borne upon and
+attached to chariots; and this method of bearing such objects was the
+custom also of the Persians, and prevailed during the middle ages. That
+the custom survived to a comparatively modern period is proved from the
+fact that the "Guns," which are the "standards" of the artillery, have
+from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours prescribed
+by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol of authority. In
+days comparatively recent there was a "flag gun," usually the heaviest
+piece, which emblemized authority and served also as the "gun of
+direction" in the few concerted movements then attempted. No
+representations of Egyptian or Assyrian naval standards have been found,
+but the sails of ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices,
+another custom which survived into the middle ages.
+
+In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the emblem is
+frequently ornamented immediately below with flag-like streamers.
+Rabbinical writers have assigned the different devices of the different
+Jewish tribes, but the authenticity of their testimony is extremely
+doubtful. Banners, standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the
+Bible. "Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard,
+with the ensign of their father's house" (Num. ii. 2). "Who is she that
+looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun,
+terrible as an army with banners?" (Cant. vi. 10. See also Num. ii. 10,
+x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, lx. 4; Cant. ii. 4; Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer.
+iv. 21).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Egyptian Standards.]
+
+The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the sun, as
+their divinity, was also represented upon their standards, which appear
+to have been formed of some kind of textile, and were guarded with the
+greatest jealousy by the bravest men of the army. The Carian soldier who
+slew Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of
+carrying a golden cock at the head of the army, it being the custom of
+the Carians to wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North
+American Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of
+eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other
+semi-savage peoples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Assyrian Standards.]
+
+The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early times;
+afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or letters chosen for
+their particular associations--the Athenians the olive and the owl, the
+Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the
+Messenians their initial M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was
+placed on the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians
+carried a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon
+was the military sign of many peoples--of the Chinese, Dacians and
+Parthians among others--and was probably first used by the Romans as the
+ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Roman Standards.]
+
+The question of the _signa militaria_ of the Romans is a wide and very
+important one, having direct bearing on the history of heraldry, and on
+the origin of national, family and personal devices. With them the
+custom was reduced to system. "Each century, or at least each maniple,"
+says Meyrick, "had its proper standard and standard-bearer." In the
+early days of the republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence
+probably came the name _manipulus_ (Lat. _manus_, a hand). The forms of
+standards in later times were very various; sometimes a cross piece of
+wood was placed at the end of a spear and surmounted by the figure of a
+hand in silver, below round or oval discs, with figures of Mars or
+Minerva, or in later times portraits of emperors or eminent generals
+(Fig. 3). Figures of animals, as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were
+borne, and it was not till a later period that the eagle became the
+special standard of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius
+who, in his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should
+only have the eagle for their standard; "for before that time the eagle
+marched foremost with four others--wolves, minotaurs, horses and
+bears--each one in its proper order. Not many years passed before the
+eagle alone began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left
+behind in the camp. But Marius rejected them altogether, and since this
+it is observed that scarcely is there a camp of a legion wintered at any
+time without having a pair of eagles."
+
+The _vexillum_, which was the cavalry flag, is described by Livy as a
+square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed crosswise to the
+end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval _gonfalon_. Examples of
+these vexilla are to be seen on various Roman coins and medals, on the
+sculptured columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus.
+The _labarum_, which was the imperial standard of later emperors,
+resembled in shape and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly
+embroidered with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum
+from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags, that is
+to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff. After
+Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ (fig. 5, A). It is
+supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval days was often
+attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop, was derived from
+the labarum of the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great. The
+Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples at
+Rome; and the reverence of this people for their ensigns was in
+proportion to their superiority to other nations in all that tends to
+success in war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to
+be cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of his
+soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps the most
+sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier swore by his ensign.
+
+Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for standards,
+and was often appended as ornament to those of other material, it was
+probably not until the middle ages that it became the special material
+of military and other ensigns; and perhaps not until the practice of
+heraldry had attained to definite nomenclature and laws does anything
+appear which is in the modern sense a flag.
+
+Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In Bede's
+description of the interview between the heathen king Æthelberht and the
+Roman missionary Augustine, the followers of the latter are said to have
+borne banners on which silver crosses were displayed. The national
+banner of England for centuries--the red cross of St George--was a
+religious one; in fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been
+sought to give sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be
+traced to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme of
+France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the legend runs that
+King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops to battle against the enemy
+in 1219, saw at a critical moment a cross in the sky. This was at once
+taken as an answer to his prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It
+was forthwith adopted as the Danish flag and called the "Dannebrog,"
+i.e. the strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag
+undoubtedly dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is
+therefore the oldest now in existence.
+
+The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin upon their
+standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally in the keeping of the
+monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the right to take this blue flag
+into battle with them was claimed by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore
+this banner against Alaric in 507, for victory was promised him by a
+verse of the Psalms which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered
+the church of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the
+battle of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At what
+precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply the banner of
+the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de St Martin as the sacred
+banner of all France is not known. Probably, however, it gradually
+became the national flag after the kings of France had transferred the
+seat of government to Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was
+held in high honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in
+the abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals of
+the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his
+quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner from
+the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having been the first
+French king to have taken the banner to war, and it appeared for the
+last time on the field of fight at Agincourt in 1415. The accounts also
+of its appearance vary considerably. Guillaume Guiart, in his
+_Chronicle_ says:--
+
+  "Oriflambe est une bannière
+     De cendal voujoiant et simple
+   Sans portraiture d'autre affaire."
+
+It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst an
+English authority states "the celestial auriflamb, so by the French
+admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner." The _Chronique
+de Flandres_ describes it as having three points with tassels of green
+silk attached. The banner of William the Conqueror was sent to him by
+the pope, and the early English kings fought under the banners of Edward
+the Confessor and St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St
+Andrew and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united
+kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron saints they
+severally were.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.]
+
+The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest of England,
+contains abundant representations of the flags of the period borne upon
+the lances of the knights of William's army. They appear small in size,
+and pointed, frequently indented into three points and bearing pales,
+crosses and roundels. One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly
+indented into four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed,
+and bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent the
+raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4). In all,
+thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights are represented
+in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight have triple points,
+whilst others have two, four or five. The devices on these pennons are
+very varied and distinctive, although the date is prior to the period in
+which heraldry became definitely established. In fact, the flags and
+their charges are probably not really significant of the people bearing
+them; for, even admitting that personal devices were used at the time,
+the figures may have been placed without studied intention, and so give
+the general figure only of such flags as happened to have come under the
+observation of the artists. The figures are probably rather ornamental
+and symbolic than strictly heraldic,--that is, personal devices, for the
+same insignia do not appear on the shields of the several bearers. The
+dragon standard which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold;
+but similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which fact
+has induced a writer in the _Journal of the Archaeological Association_
+(vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of the Saxons they
+represent only trophies torn from the shields of the Normans, and that
+they are not ensigns at all. Standards in form much resembling these
+dragons appear on the Arch of Titus and the Trajan column as the
+standards of barbarians.
+
+At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard was formed of
+the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the top and bearing three
+sacred banners, dedicated severally to St Peter, St John of Beverley and
+St Wilfrid of Ripon, the whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle.
+Representations of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on
+seals of as early date as the Norman era, and the warriors in the first
+crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the three points
+with the three roundels and cross, which so often appear on these
+banners, have some reference to the faith of the bearers in the Trinity
+and in the Crucifixion, for in contemporary representations of Christ's
+resurrection and descent into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with
+cross above. The triple indentation so common on the flags of this
+period has been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable
+ordinaries--the pile. The "pile," it may be explained, is in the form
+of a wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies the
+central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle chief. It
+may, however, issue from any other extremity of the shield, and there
+may be more than one. More secular characters were, however, not
+uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order for a "dragon to be made in
+fashion of a standard of red silk sparkling all over with fine gold, the
+tongue of which should be made to resemble burning fire and appear to be
+continually moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones."
+_The Siege of Carlaverock_, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th century,
+describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the knights at the
+siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the writer says:--
+
+  "En sa bannière trois luparte
+    De or fin estoient mis en rouge;"
+
+and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may be
+supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one of Sir
+Christopher Barker's heraldic collection, Harl. 4632) gives drawings of
+the standards of English kings from Edward III. to Henry VIII., which
+are roughly but artistically coloured.
+
+The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle ages were the
+pennon, the banner and the standard. The "guydhommes" or "guidons,"
+"banderolls," "pennoncells," "streamers" or pendants, may be considered
+as minor varieties. The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign,
+sometimes pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the
+end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart from the
+knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged with his personal
+armorial bearings so displayed that they stood in true position when he
+couched his lance for action. A MS. of the 16th century (Harl. 2358) in
+the British Museum, which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape
+and bearings of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes,
+pennoncells, &c., says "a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made
+round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner," and warns that
+"from a standard or streamer a man may flee but not from his banner or
+pennon bearing his arms."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B,
+Medieval Pennon; C. Medieval Banner; D., Standard of Henry V.]
+
+A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried by the
+esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on any special
+occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state funerals. For
+instance, we find "XII. doz. penselles" amongst the items that figured
+at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in 1554, and in the description of
+the lord mayor's procession in the following year we read of "ij goodly
+pennes (state barges) deckt with flages and stremers, and a m (1000)
+penselles." Amongst the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of
+Oliver Cromwell up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of
+thirty dozen of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a
+dozen, and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a
+dozen.
+
+The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag, though
+at a later date it is often found greater in length than in depth,
+precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of to-day. In
+some very early examples it is found considerably longer in the depth on
+the staff than in its outward projection from the staff. The banner was
+charged in a manner exactly similar to the shield of the owner, and it
+was borne by knights banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough
+guide it may be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of
+a king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount
+or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to display the
+armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the right to carry it, it is
+evident that the square form was the most convenient and akin to the
+shield of primal heraldry. In fact, flags were originally heraldic
+emblems, though in modern devices the strict laws of heraldry have often
+been departed from.
+
+The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary knights,
+and they could be created on the field of battle only. To create a
+knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief in person tore off the
+fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight, thus turning it roughly
+into the square flag or banner, and so making the knight a banneret. The
+date in which this dignity originated is uncertain, but it was probably
+about the period of Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a
+banneret by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the
+3rd of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the reign of
+Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the Scottish king, at
+the battle of Durham. In more modern times Captain John Smith, of Lord
+Bernard Stuart's troop of the King's Guards, who saved the royal banner
+from the parliamentary troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by
+Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights banneret ceased
+until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen in 1743, when the
+dignity was again conferred. It is true, however, that, when in 1763 Sir
+William Erskine presented to George III. sixteen stands of colours
+captured by his regiment [now the 15th (king's) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he
+was raised to the dignity of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was
+not performed on the field of battle, the creation was considered
+irregular, and his possession of the rank was not generally recognized.
+
+The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it also denoted
+that he who bore it was the leader of a military force, large or small
+according to his degree or estate. It was, in fact, the battle flag of
+the leader who controlled the particular force that followed it into the
+fight. Every baron who in time of war had furnished the proper number of
+men to his liege was entitled to charge with his arms the banner which
+they followed. There could indeed be at present found no better
+representative of the medieval "banner" than what we now term the "royal
+standard"; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of the
+United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other royal and
+imperial standards have now become "standards," inasmuch as they are
+to-day used for display in the same fashion, and for the same purposes
+as was the "standard" of old. The "gonfalon" or "gonfannon" was a battle
+flag differing from the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to
+the pole but hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape
+but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The gonfalon was
+in action borne close to the person of the commander-in-chief and
+denoted his position. In certain of the Italian cities chief magistrates
+had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon, and for this reason were known
+as "gonfaloniere."
+
+The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering
+towards the fly (the "fly" is that portion of the flag farther from the
+pole, the "hoist" the portion of the flag attached to the pole), the
+edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with the ends split and
+rounded off. The shape was not, however, by any means uniform during
+the middle ages nor were there any definite rules as to its charges. It
+varied in size according to the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS.
+mentioned above says of the royal standard of that time--"the Standard
+to be sett before the king's pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in
+battayle; to be in length eleven yards." A MS. of the time of Henry VII.
+gives the following dimensions for standards: "The King's had a length
+of eight yards; that of a duke, seven; a marquis, six and a half; an
+earl, six; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five; a knight
+banneret, four and a half; and a knight four yards." The standard was,
+in fact, from its size, and as its very name implies, not meant to be
+carried into action, as was the banner, but to denote the actual
+position of its possessor on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the
+tilting ground, and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his
+following when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle.
+It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner was the
+rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its uses are now
+fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the "banner" which has
+now become the "royal standard," and which floats over the palace where
+the king is in residence, is hoisted at the saluting point when he
+reviews his troops, and is broken from the mainmast of any ship in his
+navy the moment that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition
+of the standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George
+conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately contiguous to
+the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided fesse-wise by two
+or more stripes of colours exactly as the heraldic "ordinary" termed
+"fesse" crosses the shield horizontally. The colours used as stripes, as
+also those used in the fringe or bordering of the standard, were those
+which prevailed in the arms of the bearer or were those of his livery.
+The standard here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours
+white and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and in
+the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the Harleian MS.
+above mentioned: "Every standard and guidon to have in the chief the
+cross of St George, the beast or crest with his devyce and word, and to
+be slitt at the end." The motto indeed usually figured on most
+standards, though occasionally it was missing. An excellent type of the
+old standard is that of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion,
+the crescent, and the fetterlock--all badges of the family--whilst, as
+tokens of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan and
+Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were respectively
+displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto, _Espérance en Dieu_.
+No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess more than one banner, since
+it displayed his heraldic arms, which were unchangeable. A single
+individual, however, might possess two or three standards since this
+flag displayed badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto
+that he could at any time change. For example, the standards of Henry
+VII., mostly green and white--the colours of the Tudor livery--had in
+one "a red firye dragon," in another "a donne kowe," in a third "a
+silver greyhound and two red roses." The standard was always borne by an
+eminent person, and that of Henry V. at Agincourt is supposed to have
+been carried upon a car that preceded the king. At Nelson's funeral his
+banner and standard were borne in the procession, and around his coffin
+were the banderolls--square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms
+of his family lineage. Nelson's standard bore his motto, _Palmam qui
+meruit ferat_, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the union
+of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick, the medieval
+England having expanded into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke of Wellington we find amongst
+the flags his personal banner and standard, and ten banderolls of the
+duke's pedigree and descent.
+
+The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. _Guyd-homme_, was somewhat
+similar to the standard, but without the cross of St George, rounded at
+the end, less elongated and altogether less ornate. It was borne by a
+leader of horse, and according to a medieval writer "must be two and a
+half yards or three yards long, and therein shall no armes be put, but
+only the man's crest, cognisance, and devyce."
+
+The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known as the
+pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was directed
+"shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle, and therein be
+put no armes, but the man's cognisance or devyce, and may be of length
+twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and is slitt as well as a guidon
+or standard." Amongst the fittings of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl
+of Warwick, to France in the reign of Henry VII. was a "grete stremour
+for the shippe xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede." In the hoist
+was "a grete bere holding a raggid staffe," and the rest of the fly
+"powdrid full of raggid staves."
+
+NATIONAL FLAGS.--_British._ The royal standard of England was, when it
+was hoisted on the Tower on the 1st of January 1801, thus heraldically
+described:--"Quarterly; first and fourth, gules, three lions passant
+gardant, in pale, or, for England; second, or, a lion rampant, gules,
+within a double tressure flory counter flory of the last, for Scotland;
+third, azure, a harp or, stringed argent, for Ireland." The present
+standard connects in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror.
+These were two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same
+until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for leopards,
+and a third added. The next change that took place was in the reign of
+Edward III. when the royal arms were for the first time quartered;
+_fleurs-de-lis_ in the first and fourth quarters, and the three lions of
+England in the second and third. The _fleurs-de-lis_ were assumed in
+token of the monarch's claim to the throne of France. In the "coats" of
+Edward III. and the two monarchs that succeeded him, the _fleurs-de-lis_
+were powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the _fleurs-de-lis_
+were reduced in number to three, and the "coat" so devised remained the
+same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion of Scotland and the
+Irish harp were added to the flag on the accession of James I., and the
+flag then had the French and English arms quartered in the first and
+fourth quarters, the lion of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the
+second quarter, and the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the
+third quarter. With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to
+which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until the
+accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart standard a
+central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen Anne made further
+alterations; the first and fourth quarters were subdivided, the three
+lions of England being in one half, the lion of Scotland in the other.
+The _fleurs-de-lis_ were in the second quarter; the Irish harp in the
+third. Under George I. and George II. the first, second and third
+quarters remained the same, the arms of Hanover being placed in the
+fourth quarter, and this continued to be the royal standard until 1801,
+when the standard was rearranged as first described with the addition of
+the Hanoverian arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the
+accession of Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the
+flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however, that
+in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in the chapel of
+St George at Windsor, the ordinary "winged woman" form of the harp in
+the Irish third quartering is altered to a harp of the old Irish
+pattern. At King Edward's accession this banner replaced that of Queen
+Victoria which for sixty-two years had hung in this, the chapel of the
+order of the Garter.
+
+Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of the lord high
+admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly the royal standard as
+deputy of the sovereign. When royalty ceased to be, a new flag was
+devised by the council of state for the Commonwealth, which comprised
+the "arms of England and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red
+flag within a compartment." In other words, it was a red flag containing
+two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white
+ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the shields
+was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these flags is still in
+existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept in a wooden chest which
+was taken out of a Spanish galleon at Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke
+in 1704. When Cromwell became protector of the commonwealth of England,
+Scotland and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This
+had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the cross
+of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the second, and the
+Irish harp in the third. His own arms--a lion on a black shield--were
+imposed on the centre of the flag. No one but royalty has a right to fly
+the royal standard, and though it is constantly seen flying for purposes
+of decoration its use is irregular. There has, however, always been one
+exception, namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command
+of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard. For
+example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the "Ark Royal" when
+he defeated the Spanish Armada; the duke of Buckingham flew it as lord
+high admiral in the reign of Charles I., and the duke of York fought
+under it when he commanded during the Dutch Wars.
+
+The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack, in which are
+combined in union the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick. St
+George had long been a patron saint of England, and his banner, argent,
+a cross gules, its national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the
+patron saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the
+national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns James I.
+issued a proclamation ordaining that "henceforth all our subjects of
+this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and the members thereof, shall
+bear in their main-top the red cross commonly called St George's cross,
+and the white cross commonly called St Andrew's cross, joined together
+according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral
+to be published to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects
+of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont, and
+our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white cross only as
+they were accustomed." This was the first Union Jack, as it is generally
+termed, though strictly the name of the flag is the "Great Union," and
+it is only a "Jack" when flown on the jackstaff of a ship of war.
+Probably the name of the Stuart king "Jacques," which James I. always
+signed, gave the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was
+hoisted. At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being
+dissolved, the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of
+St George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became
+protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the
+Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original union flag
+was restored, and continued as described until the year 1801, when, on
+the legislative union with Ireland, the cross of St Patrick, a saltire
+gules, on a field argent, was incorporated in the union flag. To so
+combine these three crosses without losing the distinctive features of
+each was not easy; each cross must be distinct, and retain equally
+distinct its fimbriation, or bordering, which denotes the original
+ground. In the first union flag, the red cross of St George with the
+white fimbriation that represented-the original white field was simply
+imposed upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To
+place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St Andrew
+would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the red saltire have
+its proper bordering denoting its original white field; even were the
+red saltire narrowed in width the portion of the white saltire that
+would appear would not be the St Andrew saltire, but only the
+fimbriation appertaining to the saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty
+has been got over by making the white broader on one side of the red
+than the other. In fact, the continuity of direction of the arms of the
+St Patrick red saltire has been broken by its portions being removed
+from the centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew's saltire.
+Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distinguished
+from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white fimbriation.
+
+The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns, and is
+flown by representatives of the empire all the world over. It flies from
+the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy. With the Irish harp on a
+blue shield displayed in the centre, it is flown by the lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland. When flown by the governor-general of India the star and
+device of the order of the Star of India are borne in the centre.
+Colonial governors fly it with the badge of their colony displayed in
+the centre. Diplomatic representatives use it with the royal arms in the
+centre. As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and
+headquarters, and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at
+the mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the fleet.
+
+Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours, and
+flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will here be
+only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty flags.
+
+The origin of the three ensigns--the red, white, and blue--had its
+genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as prevailed in
+the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides the admiral in supreme
+command, a vice-admiral as second in command, and a rear-admiral as
+third in command, each controlling his own particular group or squadron.
+These were designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost
+invariably being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the
+van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any vessel in
+any group could distinguish its own admiral's ship, the flagships of
+centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain red, white, or blue
+flag, and so came into being those naval ranks of admiral, vice-admiral,
+and rear-admiral of the red, white, and blue which continued down to as
+late as 1864. As the admiral in supreme command flew the union at the
+main, there was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until
+November 1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy
+as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so that each
+individual ship in the squadron should be distinguishable as well as the
+flagships, each vessel carried a large red, white, or blue flag
+according as to whether she belonged to the centre, van, or rear, each
+flag having in the left-hand upper corner a canton, as it is termed, of
+white bearing the St George's cross. These flags were called ensigns,
+and it is, of course, due to the fact that the union with Scotland was
+for the time dissolved that they bore only the St George's cross. Even
+when the restoration of the Stuarts restored the _status quo_ the cross
+of St George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered
+until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland passed
+the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined the Union, the
+flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All these three ensigns
+belonged to the royal navy, and continued to do so until 1864, but as
+far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile marine were instructed to fly
+the red ensign. As ironclads replaced the wooden vessels and fleets
+became smaller the inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest,
+and in 1864 the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral,
+vice-admiral, and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use of the
+red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as its distinctive
+flag. The mercantile marine retained the red ensign which they were
+already using, whilst the blue ensign was allotted to vessels employed
+on the public service whether home or colonial.
+
+The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal navy. It
+should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion except by a ship (or
+shore establishment) of the royal navy, with but one exception. By a
+grant of William IV. dating from 1829 vessels belonging to the Royal
+Yacht Squadron, the chief of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the
+white ensign. From 1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red
+ensign, as that of highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant
+ships, they then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more
+distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when the
+privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some oversight the
+order was not conveyed to the Royal Western of Ireland, whose ships flew
+the white ensign until in 1857 the usage was stopped. Since that date
+the Royal Yacht Squadron has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any
+sort flying the white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a
+grave offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His
+Majesty's service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the
+authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or both.
+The penalty incurred is £500 fine for each offence, as laid down in the
+73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In 1883 Lord Annesley's
+yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, was detained at the
+Dardanelles in consequence of her flying the white ensign of the royal
+navy which brought her under the category of a man-of-war, and no
+foreign man-of-war is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first
+obtaining an imperial _irade_. Since then owners belonging to the
+squadron have been warned that they must either sail their ships through
+the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British owned, or
+obtain imperial permission if they wish to display the white ensign.
+
+Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer from the
+maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a pennant, is flown only
+by ships in commission; it is, in fact, the sign of command, and is
+first hoisted when a captain commissions his ship. The pennant, which
+was really the old "pennoncell," was of three colours for the whole of
+its length, and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and
+so continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however, the
+pennant is a long white streamer with the St George's cross in the inner
+portion close to the mast. Pennants have been carried by men-of-war from
+the earliest times, prior to 1653 at the yard-arm, but since that date
+at the maintopgallant masthead.
+
+The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service other than
+the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal naval reserve. It
+is flown also by certain authorized vessels of the British mercantile
+marine, the conditions governing this privilege being that the captain
+and a certain specified portion of the officers and crew shall belong to
+the ranks of the royal naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to
+British government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed
+in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow anchor
+in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade has in the fly
+the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph branch of the post-office
+shows in the fly a device representing Father Time with his hour-glass
+shattered by lightning; the ordnance department displays upon the fly a
+shield with a cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are
+also authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign.
+Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinctive
+badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular agents also
+have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing badge in their
+case being the royal arms.
+
+The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant
+service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen Anne in
+1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order of Queen Anne
+directed that merchant vessels should fly a red flag "with a Union Jack
+described in a canton at the upper corner thereof next the staff," and
+this is probably the first time that the term "Union Jack" was
+officially used. In some cases those yacht clubs which fly the red
+ensign change it slightly from that flown by the merchant service, for
+they are allowed to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial
+merchantmen usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they
+have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can use the
+ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.
+
+In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they are purely
+maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured in the breach than
+in the observance, the only flag that a private individual or a
+corporation has a right to display on shore is the national flag, the
+Union Jack, in its plain condition and without any emblazonment.
+
+There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of brief notice.
+These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the master of Trinity
+House. The admiralty flag is a plain red flag with a clear anchor in the
+centre in yellow. In a sense it is a national flag, for the sovereign
+hoists it when afloat in conjunction with the royal standard and the
+Union Jack. It would appear to have been first used by the duke of York
+as lord high admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had
+the royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of commissioners
+was appointed to execute the office of lord high admiral this was the
+flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the admiralty, minuting the navy
+board, then a subordinate department, "requiring and directing it to
+cause a fitting red silk flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be
+provided against Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this
+board." In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable
+in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It was thus
+made into a "foul anchor," the thing of all others that a sailor most
+hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord at the time, the
+earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The anchor retained its
+unseamanlike appearance, and was not "cleared" till 1815, and even to
+this day the buttons of the naval uniform bear a "foul anchor." The
+"anchor" flag is solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does
+not carry the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the
+royal standard, the union or an admiral's flag, but on two occasions it
+has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719 the earl of Berkeley,
+who at the time was not only first lord of the admiralty, but
+vice-admiral of England, obtained the special permission of George I. to
+hoist it at the main instead of the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr
+Childers, then first lord, accompanied by some members of his board,
+went on board the "Agincourt" he hoisted the admiralty flag and took
+command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons, thus
+superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who at the time
+were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly necessary to add that
+throughout the navy there was a very distinct feeling of dissatisfaction
+at the innovation. When the admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it
+is hoisted at the fore, his own standard being of course at the main,
+and the union at the mizzen.
+
+The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross of St
+George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on the waves in
+each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a precisely similar device
+and surmounted by a lion.
+
+The sign of a British admiral's command afloat is always the same. It is
+the St George's cross. Of old it was borne on the main, the fore, or the
+mizzen, according as to whether the officer to whom it pertained was
+admiral, vice-admiral, or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded
+wooden ships, and a single pole mast took the place of the old three
+masts, a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day
+the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George's cross.
+When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the white ground in
+the upper canton next to the staff; if flown by a rear-admiral there is
+a red ball in both the upper and lower cantons. As nowadays most
+battleships have two masts, the admiral's flag is hoisted at the one
+which has no masthead semaphore. The admiral's flag is always a square
+one, but that of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St
+George's cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of
+the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next to the
+staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails in most navies,
+though very often a star takes the place of the ball. In some cases,
+however, the indications of rank are differently shown. For instance,
+both in the Russian and Japanese navies the distinction is made by a
+line of colour on the upper or lower edges of the flag.
+
+The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the mother
+country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony being placed in
+the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or in the fly if it be
+the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are shown in the Plate, where
+the blue ensign illustrated is that of New Zealand, the device of the
+colony being the southern cross in the fly. Precisely the same flag,
+with a large six-pointed star, emblematic of the six states immediately
+under the union, forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of
+Australia. The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the
+device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion. As the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty, flies the
+Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy of India flies the
+same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the order of the Star of
+India, so too colonial governors or high commissioners fly the union
+flag with the arms of the colony they preside over on a white shield in
+the centre and surrounded by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the
+wreath, however, is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special
+emblem of the Dominion.
+
+_French._--To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have historical
+events caused so much change in the standards and national ensigns of a
+country as in the case of France. The oriflamme and the Chape de St
+Martin were succeeded at the end of the 16th century, when Henry III.,
+the last of the house of Valois, came to the throne, by the white
+standard powdered with _fleurs-de-lis_. This in turn gave place to the
+famous tricolour. The tricolour was introduced at the time of the
+Revolution, but the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed
+question. Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag
+the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme, and the
+white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are said to be those
+of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities assert that the flag
+is copied from the shield of the Orleans family as it appeared after
+Philippe Égalité had knocked off the _fleurs-de-lis_. The tricolour is
+divided vertically into three parts of equal width--blue, white and red,
+the red forming the fly, the white the middle, and the blue the hoist of
+the flag. During the first and second empires the tricolour became the
+imperial standard, but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the
+eagle, whilst all three stripes were richly powdered over with the
+golden bees of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of
+France.
+
+_American._--Before the Declaration of Independence the flags of those
+colonies which now form the United States of America were very various.
+In the early days of New England the Puritans objected to the red cross
+of St George, not from any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a
+conscientious objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the
+year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish their
+vessels from those of England and of each other. In the early stages of
+the revolution each state adopted a flag of its own; thus, that of
+Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South Carolina displayed a rattlesnake,
+New York had a white flag with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white
+flag with a blue anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of
+Independence, and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter
+underwent many changes in the manner of their arrangement before taking
+the position at present established. In 1775 a committee was appointed
+to consider the question of a single flag for the thirteen states. It
+recommended that the union be retained in the upper corner next to the
+staff, the remainder of the field of the flag to be of thirteen
+horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white. This flag,
+curiously enough, was precisely the same as the flag of the old
+Honourable East India Company. On the 14th of June 1777 congress
+resolved "that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes,
+alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a
+blue field, representing a new constellation." This was the origin of
+the national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were
+unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven white and
+six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six white, and it was
+not for some considerable time that it was authoritatively laid down
+that the latter arrangement was the one to be adopted. It has also been
+held that the stars and stripes of the American national flag, as well
+as the eagle, were suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington
+family. The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a
+raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two horizontal red
+bars, and above these a row of three red stars. This might, by a stretch
+of imagination, be supposed to have inspired the original idea of the
+flag which was that each state in the Union should be represented in the
+national flag by a star and stripe. Naturally other states coming into
+the Union expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and
+Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes were
+changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other states
+joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars and stripes.
+It was, however, found objectionable to be constantly altering the
+national flag, and in the year 1818 it was determined to go back to the
+original thirteen stripes, but to place a star for each state in the
+blue union canton in the top corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the
+stars always show the exact number of states that are in the Union,
+whilst the stripes denote the original number of the states that formed
+the union.[1] The presidential flag of the president of the United
+States is an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield
+displaying stripes, and above the national motto _E pluribus unum_, and
+a design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union.
+
+_Other Countries._--The most general and important of the various
+national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line representing
+Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the Union Jack (the national
+flag), the white ensign of the royal navy, the blue ensign of government
+service, and the red ensign of the commercial marine, colonial flags
+being shown in the case of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese
+flags shown are the man-of-war ensign--a rising sun, generally known as
+the sun-burst--and the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red
+ball is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white
+field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum on a red
+field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should invariably have
+sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler character than that of
+Europe, and is practically limited to the employment of "Mon," which
+correspond very nearly to the "crests" of European heraldry. The great
+families of Japan possess at least one, and in many cases even three,
+"Mon." The imperial family use two, the one _Kiku no go Mon_ (the august
+chrysanthemum crest) and _Kiri no go Mon_ (the august Kiri crest). The
+first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum, and, although the
+use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge is not necessarily confined
+to the imperial family, they alone have the right to use the
+sixteen-petalled form. If used by any other family, or society or
+corporation, it must be with a number of petals less or more than
+sixteen. The second imperial "Mon" is composed of three leaves and three
+flower spikes of the Kiri (_Paulownia imperialis_). This, however, is
+not displayed as an official emblem, that being reserved for the
+chrysanthemum. The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example,
+the chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri "Mon"
+adorns the harness of the emperor's horses. It is very probable that the
+chrysanthemum crest did not originally represent the chrysanthemum
+flower at all but the sun with sixteen rays, and it will be noticed that
+in the "sun-burst" flag the sun's rays are sixteen in number. The use of
+the number sixteen is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.
+
+  The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next
+  depicted. The "iron cross" in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic
+  Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five
+  centuries black and white have been the Hohenzollern colours, and the
+  first verse of the German war song, _Ich bin ein Preusse_, runs:--
+
+    "I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?
+       Before me floats my flag of black and white!
+     My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
+       So say these colours floating in your sight."
+
+  The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is emblematic
+  of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with the red and
+  white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League. This flag came
+  into being when the North German Confederacy was established (November
+  25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-Prussian War.
+
+  The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white border
+  displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four
+  quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the
+  cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown,
+  and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the
+  four arms of the crown are the legend _Gott mit uns_ 1870. The United
+  States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt
+  with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-war
+  and ships of the mercantile marine.
+
+  The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile marine
+  flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the introduction
+  of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the Austrian red,
+  white and red with the Hungarian red, white and green. The shields
+  with which the flag is charged contain respectively the arms of
+  Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is borne on the
+  man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of the ancient
+  dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191. The Austrian
+  imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black double-headed
+  eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed shields bearing
+  the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag is bordered all
+  round, the border being composed of equal-sided triangles with their
+  apices alternately inwards and outwards, those with their apices
+  pointing inwards being alternately yellow and white, the others
+  alternately scarlet and black.
+
+  The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805, when
+  Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted again in
+  1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the king of
+  Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it became the
+  flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely similar to
+  that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of the former
+  the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal standard is a
+  blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and displaying on
+  its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded by the collar of
+  the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all European orders.
+  In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.
+
+  For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are
+  parti-coloured. It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the
+  arms of Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same
+  both in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal
+  standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the
+  royal arms, as shown in the national flag.
+
+  In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours, and
+  here again the arrangement differs from that generally used. The navy
+  flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below. To be
+  correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each of
+  the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central yellow
+  stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing the arms
+  of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown. In the
+  mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon, and is
+  one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds being
+  divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above in the
+  upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal standards
+  that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarterings of
+  the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as much an
+  anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day to be
+  quartered with the _fleur-de-lis_. In all, the quarterings displayed
+  are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy,
+  Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The flag is usually
+  depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We believe, however,
+  that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre of which the
+  quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted by a crown and
+  encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden Fleece.
+
+  The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour of
+  white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white and
+  red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by Peter
+  the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the flag then
+  stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to make it more
+  distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places, leaving the
+  tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian navy is the
+  blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew is the patron
+  saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial standard is of a
+  character akin to that of Austria; the ground is yellow, and the
+  centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a badge that dates back
+  to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a niece of Constantine
+  Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek empire. On the breast of
+  the eagle is an escutcheon charged with the emblem of St George and
+  the Dragon on a red ground, and this is surrounded by the collar of
+  the order of St Andrew. On the splayed wings of the eagle are small
+  shields bearing the arms of the various provinces of the empire.
+
+  The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes
+  vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a
+  horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the
+  lower white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the
+  royal arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro
+  is a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the
+  lowermost white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white,
+  green and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war
+  ensign there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is
+  a golden lion on a red ground.
+
+  The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat similar
+  in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already alluded
+  to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish navy.
+  The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangular
+  instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cross on
+  a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as in the
+  Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but pointed,
+  thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the mercantile
+  marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated from Denmark in
+  1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it, and the arms of
+  Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this was found to
+  resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross with a white border
+  was substituted for the white cross. This, it will be seen, is the
+  Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the white one. For a
+  man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of Sweden in shape;
+  that is to say, converted from the rectangular into the three-pointed
+  design. While Sweden and Norway remained united the flag of each
+  remained distinct, but each bore in the top canton of the hoist a
+  union device, being the combination of the Norwegian and Swedish
+  national colours and crosses. In each of the three above nationalities
+  the flag used for a royal standard is the man-of-war flag with the
+  royal arms imposed on the centre of the cross.
+
+  The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the
+  hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the
+  Netherlands is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre
+  and blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy
+  and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard
+  the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black, yellow
+  and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of Brabant,
+  and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded. The original
+  Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its independence were
+  orange, white and blue, the colours of the house of Orange, and when
+  and how the orange became red is not quite clear, though it was
+  certainly prior to 1643.
+
+  The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag shown in
+  our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria, and were
+  adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected to the throne
+  of Greece. The stripes are nine in number--five blue and four
+  white--with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton bearing a
+  white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy is similar
+  to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception that it has
+  the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross. The royal
+  standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre of which the
+  royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar to that in the
+  Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are not of equal
+  length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.
+
+  The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for it
+  was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably
+  considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss
+  confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each case
+  the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance,
+  is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red,
+  black and white, &c., &c.
+
+  The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by Mahomet
+  II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally they were the
+  symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and were adopted by the
+  Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always been the special emblem of
+  Constantinople, and even now in Moscow and elsewhere the crescent
+  emblem and the cross may be seen combined in Russian churches, the
+  crescent badge, of course, indicating the Byzantine origin of the
+  Russian church. The symbol originated at the time of the siege of
+  Constantinople by Philip the father of Alexander the Great, when a
+  night attempt of the besiegers to undermine the walls was betrayed by
+  the light of a crescent moon, and in acknowledgment of their escape
+  the Byzantines raised a statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol
+  of the city. Both the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the
+  same, but the imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in
+  its centre the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known
+  as the "Tughra," and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of
+  khan, and the epithet _al-Muzaffar Daima_, which means "the ever
+  victorious." The origin of the "Tughra" is that the sultan Murad I.,
+  who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open
+  hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and
+  third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth
+  finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the scribes
+  wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above quoted.
+  The "Tughra" dates from the latter part of the 14th century. The
+  smaller characters in the "Tughra" change, of course, on the accession
+  of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the device always
+  remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left denoting the
+  thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little finger made
+  impression, and three upright lines indicating the other fingers.
+
+  The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the crescent
+  and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where they use an
+  ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate having
+  the British union in the centre of the red field.
+
+  The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge of
+  the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge.
+  On the white ground are the lion and sun.
+
+  The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of Korea,
+  a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue, the
+  colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely as if
+  two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue, were
+  united to form a complete circle.
+
+  The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the
+  dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag, but
+  an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with
+  the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red
+  with a yellow ball in the centre.
+
+  Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar
+  inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto.
+
+  Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in the
+  case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe with
+  the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war ensign.
+
+  The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when used
+  by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central white
+  stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.
+
+  The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the
+  mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of the
+  state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner near
+  the hoist, as in the naval flag.
+
+  The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and vessels
+  in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of the
+  president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the centre of
+  the flag.
+
+  The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the
+  mercantile marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged
+  on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our
+  illustration. In fact, in nearly every case with the South American
+  republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the war
+  navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is used
+  in the same way as a presidential flag.
+
+  In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics are
+  tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no means
+  such combinations as would meet with the approval of European heralds.
+  All flag devising should be in accordance with heraldic laws, and one
+  of the most important of these is that colour should not be placed on
+  colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry being the equivalent of
+  gold and white of silver. Hence, properly devised tricolours are such
+  as, for example, those of France, where the red and blue are divided
+  by white, or Belgium, where the black and red are divided by yellow.
+  On the other hand, the yellow, blue, red of Venezuela is heraldically
+  an abomination.
+
+_Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses._--Flags, the manufacture, of which
+is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made from bunting, a
+very light, tough and durable woollen material. The regulation bunting
+as used in the navy is made in 9 in. widths, and the flag classes in
+size according to the number of breadths of bunting of which it is
+composed. The great centre of the manufacture of flags, as far as the
+royal navy is concerned, is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks
+are made in different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by
+16½ ft. in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft.
+wide.
+
+The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be either square
+or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this latter dimension that
+is used in the navy and generally.
+
+Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see SIGNAL), and here it will
+only be necessary to make brief allusion to some international customs
+with regard to the use of flags to indicate certain purposes. For long a
+blood-red flag has always been used as a symbol of mutiny or of
+revolution. The black flag was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate;
+to-day, in the only case in which it survives, it is flown after an
+execution to indicate that the requirements of the law have been duly
+carried out. All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of
+infectious illness. A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on
+board suffering from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious
+malady, and it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This
+flag is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is
+universally used as a flag of truce.
+
+At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the flag of one
+country is placed over that of another the victory of the former is
+denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an insult to hoist the flag
+of one friendly nation above that of another. If such were done by
+mistake, say in "dressing ship" for instance, an apology would have to
+be made. This custom of hoisting the flag of the vanquished beneath that
+of the victor is of comparatively modern date, as up to about a century
+ago the sign of victory was to trail the enemy's flag over the taffrail
+in the water. Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff,
+and this is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are
+in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour and respect
+a flag is "dipped." Ships at sea salute each other by "dipping" the
+flag, that is to say, by running it smartly down from the masthead, and
+then as quickly replacing it. When troops parade before the sovereign
+the regimental flags are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying
+half-mast high is the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to
+make the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national
+ensign reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to
+accentuate the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag
+into a "weft," that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of
+showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval works
+written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the "weft"
+mentioned as a method of showing distress.
+
+We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting
+nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many other
+purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held on board any
+ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court is sitting, its
+hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun. In a fleet in company
+the ship that has the guard for the day flies it. With a white border it
+forms the signal for a pilot, and in this case is known as a Pilot Jack.
+In all combinations of signalling flags which denote a ship's name the
+Union Jack forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor
+or soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours at his
+funeral.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _Flags: Some Account of their History and Uses_, by
+  A. MacGeorge (1881); _National Banners: Their History and
+  Construction_, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic Tracts,
+  1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this pamphlet gives the
+  design of the national banners of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick,
+  and illustrates and tells the story of the composition of the three
+  flags into the great union flag, commonly known as the Union Jack);
+  _Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions_, by Rear-Admiral S.
+  Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise, historical and
+  narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; _A History of the
+  Flag of the United States_ (Boston, 1872), by G.H. Preble; _Flags of
+  the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations_, by Edward Hulme,
+  F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete monograph on the subject,
+  illustrated with a very complete series of plates; _Admiralty Book of
+  Flags of all Nations_, printed for H.M. Stationery office, 1889, kept
+  up to date by the publication periodically of Errata, officially
+  issued under an admiralty covering letter; _Flags of Maritime
+  Nations_, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of the navy,
+  printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two works have no
+  letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale, delineations of all
+  the flags at present used officially by all nations. Between the two
+  there are no discrepancies, and the delineation of a flag taken from
+  either may be assumed as absolutely correct. Both are respectively the
+  guides for flag construction in the royal navy and the United States
+  navy.     (H. L. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of
+    stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus: 8, 7,
+    8, 7, 8, 8 = 46.
+
+
+
+
+FLAGELLANTS (from Lat. _flagellare_, to whip), in religion, the name
+given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged, by way of
+discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a form of exalted
+devotion, occurs in almost all religions. According to Herodotus (ii.
+40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient Egyptians to beat themselves
+during the annual festival in honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta
+children were flogged before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood
+flowed (Plutarch, _Instit. Laced._ 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese,
+women were flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The
+priests of Cybele, or _archigalli_, submitted to the discipline in the
+temple of the goddess (Plutarch, _Adv. Colot._ p. 1127; Apul., _Metam._
+viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were flogged by the celebrants
+to avert sterility or as a purificatory ceremony (W. Mannhardt, _Mythol.
+Forsch._, Strassburg, 1884, p. 72 seq.).
+
+Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according to Buxtorf
+(_Synagoga judaica_, Basel, 1603), was one of the ceremonies of the day
+of the Great Pardon. In the Christian church flagellation was originally
+a punishment, and was practised not only by parents and schoolmasters,
+but also by bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St
+Augustine, _Ep. 159 ad Marcell._; cf. _Conc. Agd._ 506, can. ii.).
+Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the _libri
+poenitentiales_ as a very efficacious means of penance. In the 11th
+century this new form of devotion was extolled by some of the most
+ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west, such as Abbot Popon
+of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so called from his practice of
+wearing next his skin an iron _lorica_, or cuirass of thongs), and
+especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani. Damiani advocated the substitution
+of flagellation for the recitation of the penitential psalms, and drew
+up a scale according to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten
+psalms, and 15,000 to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers
+exemplified their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained
+great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six days. The
+custom of collective flagellation was introduced into the monastic
+houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday after confession.
+
+The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with characteristic rigour,
+and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan, St Anthony of
+Padua, preaching the praises of this means of penance. It is incorrect,
+however, to suppose that St Anthony took any part in the creation of the
+flagellant fraternities, which were the result of spontaneous popular
+movements, and later than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri,
+a monk of Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities
+has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant brotherhood
+in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were distributed over the
+greater part of northern Italy. The contagion spread very rapidly,
+extending as far as the Rhine provinces, and, across Germany, into
+Bohemia. Day and night, long processions of all classes and ages, headed
+by priests carrying crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in
+double file, reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies
+with leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns, and
+especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled the flagellants with
+threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders of the 14th
+century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and the Black Death, which
+had spread over the greater part of Europe, produced a condition of
+ferment and mystic fever which was very favourable to a recrudescence of
+morbid forms of devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state
+of religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between the
+papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the spring of 1349
+bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary, began their propaganda in
+the south of Germany. Each band was under the command of a leader, who
+was assisted by two lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was
+enjoined upon every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants
+paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed to accept
+board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted 33½ days, during which
+they flogged themselves with thongs fitted with four iron points. They
+read letters which they said had fallen from heaven, and which
+threatened the earth with terrible punishments if men refused to adopt
+the mode of penance taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they
+incited the populations of the towns through which they passed against
+the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propaganda. Many
+towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite of discouragement, they
+spread from Poland to the Rhine, and penetrated as far as Holland and
+Flanders. Finally, a band of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the
+court of Pope Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by
+several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a menace to
+the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement published a bull
+commanding the bishops and inquisitors to stamp out the growing heresy,
+and in pursuance of the pope's orders numbers of the sectaries perished
+at the stake or in the cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal
+justices. In 1389 the leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the
+_bianchi_ was burned by order of the pope, and his following dispersed.
+In 1417, however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded the
+cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council of Constance,
+and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson (_Epistola ad
+Vincentium_), who declared that the flagellants were showing a tendency
+to slight the sacramental confession and penance, were refusing to
+perform the _cultus_ of the martyrs venerated by the church, and were
+even alleging their own superiority to the martyrs.
+
+The justice of Gerson's protest was borne out by events. In Germany, in
+1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic of flagellation, which
+then became a clearly-formulated heresy. A certain Conrad Schmidt placed
+himself at the head of a community of Thuringian flagellants, who took
+the name of Brethren of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the
+incarnation of Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church
+of Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph of
+flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of Beghards joined
+the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects were confounded in the
+rigorous persecution conducted in Germany by the inquisitor Eylard
+Schöneveld, who almost annihilated the flagellants. This mode of
+devotion, however, held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic
+piety. In the 16th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern
+France. Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to
+acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into various
+orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The king and his
+courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of penitents, and
+scourged themselves with ostentation. The king's encouragement seemed at
+first to point to a successful revival of flagellation; but the practice
+disappeared along with the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at
+the time of the league, and Henry III.'s successor suppressed the Paris
+brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a means of
+salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the 18th century, and
+also, towards the end of the 18th century, by a little Jansenist sect
+known as the Fareinists, founded by the brothers Bonjour, _curés_ of
+Fareins, near Trévoux (Ain). In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared
+during a procession at Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season
+of great festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents
+flagellating themselves before the assembled faithful.
+
+  For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, _Cultes,
+  mythes et religions_ (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a
+  bibliography of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in
+  medieval times, see M. Röhricht, "Bibliographische Beiträge zur Gesch.
+  der Geissler" in _Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_, i. 313.
+       (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAGELLATA, the name given to the Protozoa whose dominant phase is a
+"flagellula," or cell-body provided with one, few or rarely many long
+actively vibratile, cytoplasmic processes. Nutrition is variable:--(1)
+"Holozoic"; food taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either
+unspecialized or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an
+aperture (mouth); (2) "Saprophytic"; food taken in in solution through
+the general surface of the body; (3) "Holophytic"; food-material formed
+in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon from the medium, with
+liberation of oxygen, in presence of light, as in green plants. Fission
+in the "active" state occurs and is usually longitudinal. Multiple
+fission rarely occurs save in a sporocyst, and produces microzoospores,
+which in some cases may conjugate with others as isogametes or with
+larger forms (megagametes). "Hypnocysts" to tide over unfavourable
+conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to
+reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard shell:
+again a distinct cell-wall of chitin or cellulose may be formed:
+finally, an open cup, "theca," of firm or gelatinous material may be
+present, with or without a stalk: such a cup and stalk are often found
+in colonial species, and are subject to much the same conditions as in
+Infusoria. The nucleus is simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates
+it is connected with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate
+relation with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the
+"tropho-nucleus," the latter the "kineto-nucleus."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flagellata.
+
+  1. _Chlamydomonas pulvisculus_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_)
+  free-swimming individual.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch corpuscle.
+      d = cellulose investment.
+      e = stigma (eye-spot).
+
+  2. Resting stage of the same, with fourfold division of the
+  cell-contents. Letters as before.
+
+  3. Breaking up of the cell-contents into minute biflagellate
+  swarm-spores, which escape, and whose history is not further known.
+
+  4. _Syncrypta volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). A colony enclosed by
+  a common gelatinous test c.
+      a = stigma.
+      b = vacuole (non-contractile).
+
+  5. _Uroglena volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). Half of a large
+  colony, the flagellates embedded in a common jelly.
+
+  6. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch grain.
+      d = eye-spot.
+
+  7. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_). Copulation of
+  two liberated microgonidia.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      d = eye-spot (so-called).
+
+  8. Colony of _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_).
+
+  9. _Haematococcus palustris_, Girod (= _Chlamydococcus_, Braun,
+  _Protococcus_, Cohn), one of the _Chrysomonadidae_; ordinary
+  individual with widely separated test.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus (pyrenoid).
+
+  10. Dividing resting stage of the same, with eight fission products in
+  the common test e.
+
+  11. A microgonidium of the same.
+
+  12. _Phalansterium consociatum_, Cienk. (_Choanoflagellata_); × 325.
+  Disk-like colony.
+
+  13. _Euglena viridis_, Ehr.; × 300 (_Euglenidae_).
+      a = pigment spot (stigma).
+      b = clear space.
+      c = paramylum granules.
+      d = chromatophor (endochrome
+            plate).
+  14. _Gonium pectorale_, O. F. Müller (_Volvocineae_). Colony seen from
+  the flat side; × 300.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus.
+
+  15. _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus.
+      d = free colourless flagellates, probably not belonging to
+            Dinobryon.
+      e = stigma (eye-spot).
+      f = chromatophors.
+
+  16. _Peranema trichophorum_, Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping individual
+  seen from the back; × 140.
+      c = pharynx.
+      d = mouth.
+
+  17. Anterior end of _Euglena acus_, Ehr., in profile.
+      a = mouth.
+      b = vacuoles.
+      c = pharynx.
+      d = stigma (eye-spot).
+      e = paramylum-body.
+      f = chlorophyll corpuscles.
+
+  18. Part of the surface of a colony of _Volvox globator_, L.
+  (_Volvocidae_), showing the intercellular connective fibrils.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch granule.
+
+  19. Two microgametes (spermatozoa) of _Volvox globator_, L.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+
+  20. Ripe asexually produced daughter-individual of _Volvox minor_,
+  Stein, still enclosed in the cyst of the partheno-gonidium.
+      a = young, partheno-gonidia.
+
+  21. 22. _Trypanosoma sanguinis_, Gruby (_Haematoflagellates_), from
+  the blood of _Rana esculenta_.
+      a = nucleus; × 500.
+
+  23-26. Reproduction of _Bodo caudatus_, Duj. (_Bodonidae_), after
+  Dallinger and Drysdale:--23, fusion of several individuals
+  (plasmodium);
+
+  24, encysted fusion-product dividing into four; 25, later into eight;
+  26, cyst filled with swarm-spores.
+
+  27. _Distigma proteus_, Ehbg., O.F. Müller (_Euglenidae_); × 440.
+  Individual with the two flagella, and strongly contracting hinder
+  region of the body.
+
+  28. The same devoid of flagella.
+      c, c = the two dark pigment spots (so-called eyes) near the mouth.
+
+  29. _Oicomonas termo_ (_Monas termo_) Ehr. (one of the
+  _Oicomonadidae_).
+      c = food-ingesting vacuole.
+      d = food-particle; × 440.
+
+  30. The food-particle d has now been ingested by the vacuole.
+
+  31. _Oicomonas mutabilis_, Kent (_Oicomonadidae_), with adherent stalk.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = food-particle in food vacuole.
+
+  32, 33. _Cercomonas crassicauda_, Duj. (_Oicomonadidae_), showing two
+  conditions of the pseudo-podium-protruding tail.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuoles.
+      c = mouth.]
+
+As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum, leucosin
+(a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful composition), proteid
+granules. In the holophytic forms the cytoplasm contains specialized
+parts of more or less definite form, known generally as "plastids" or
+"chromatophores" impregnated with a lipochrome pigment, whether green
+(chlorophyll), yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or
+again red (chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of
+such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one anterior
+"eye-spot," of a refractive globule embedded behind in a collection of
+red pigment granules. The single anterior "flagellum tractellum" of so
+many of the larger forms acts by the bending over of its free end in
+consecutive meridians, so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex
+backwards: we may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling
+round and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to
+push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body forwards,
+the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves on (Y. Delage).
+An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may modify this axial rotation,
+and help in steering. When the animal is at rest--attached by its base
+or with its body so curved as to resist onward motion--the current
+produced by the tractellum will bring suspended particles up against the
+protoplasm at its base of insertion. As noted by E.R. Lankester, the
+posterior flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the
+spermatozoon of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind;
+he terms it a "pulsellum." Such flagellar motion is distinct from that
+of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards, with a swift
+downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane; though where the
+flagella are numerous they may behave in this way, and indeed flagella
+agree with cilia in being mere vibratory extensions of cytoplasm.
+Symmetrically placed flagella may have a symmetrical reciprocating
+motion like that of cilia.
+
+Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic); the majority
+live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in sea and fresh waters,
+but are not known to be active as agents of putrefaction. Dallinger and
+Drysdale have shown that the spores of _Bodo_ and others will survive an
+exposure to a higher temperature than do any known Schizomycetes
+(Bacteria), viz. 250° to 300° Fahr., for ten minutes, although the
+adults are killed at 180°.
+
+The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Protomastigopoda
+rarely exceeding 20 µ in length. The Euglenaceae contain the largest
+species, up to 130 µ in length, exclusive of the flagellum.
+
+Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler and Prantl,
+_Pflanzenfamilien_) and Hartog (in _Cambridge Natural History_).
+
+
+  I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA)
+
+  Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body.
+
+  Order 1.--HOLOMASTIGACEAE. Body homaxial with uniform flagella.
+  _Multicilia_ (Cienkowski); _Grassia_ (Fisch, in frog's blood and
+  gastric mucus).
+
+  Order 2.--RHIZOMASTIGACEAE. Flagellum 1, 2 or few, diverging from
+  anterior end. _Mastigamoeba_ (F.E. Schulze).
+
+
+  II. EUFLAGELLATA
+
+  Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true mouth,
+  or by absorption; or nutrition holophytic.
+
+  Order 1.--PROTOMASTIGACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple, one or more,
+  or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-spot (or 2 or
+  more), saprophytic, or parasitic.
+
+    Family 1.--OICOMONADIDAE. Flagellum 1, sometimes with a tail-like
+    posterior prominence passing into a temporary flagellum, but without
+    other cytoplasmic processes. _Oicomonas_ (Kent); _Cercomonas_
+    (Dujardin) (Fig. 1, 32, 33); _Codonoeca_ (James-Clark), with a
+    gelatinous theca.
+
+    Family 2.--BICOECIDAE. Differs from _Oicomonadidae_ in a unilateral
+    proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often thecate and
+    stalked, forming branched colonies, like Choanoflagellates in habit.
+    _Bicoeca_ (J.-Cl.), _Poteriodendron_.
+
+    Family 3.--CHOANOFLAGELLIDAE (Choanoflagellata, Kent;
+    Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but with
+    flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical rim of
+    cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive area. The cells of
+    this group have the morphology of the flagellate cells (choanocytes)
+    of sponges. They are often colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of
+    _Proterospongia_, the more internal cells (Fig. 2, 15) pass into a
+    definite "reproductive state." Many stalked forms are epizoic on
+    Entomostracan Crustacea.
+
+      (a) Naked forms often stalked: _Monosiga_ (Kent), stalked
+      solitary; _Codosiga_ (Kent) (Fig. 2, 3), stalked social;
+      _Desmarella_ (Kent), unstalked, and _Astrosiga_ (Kent), stalked,
+      form floating colonies.
+
+      (b) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: _Salpingoeca_ (J.-Cl.);
+      (Fig. 2, 1, 6, 7) recalling the habit of _Monosiga_ and _Cod
+      siga_; _Polyoeca_ forming a branched free swimming colony.
+
+      (c) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath: _Proterospongia_
+      (Kent) (Fig. 2, 15); _Phalansterium_ (Cienk.) (Fig. 1, 12), has a
+      slender cylindrical collar, and a branching tubular stalk.
+
+    Family 4.--HAEMOFLAGELLIDAE. Forms with a complex nuclear apparatus,
+    and a muscular undulating membrane with which one or two flagella
+    are connected, parasitic in Metazoa (often in the blood).
+    _Trypanosoma_ (Gruby) (Fig. 1, 21, 22), _Herpetomonas_(Kent),
+    _Treponema_ (Vuillemin)(= _Spirochaete_, auctt., nec. Ehrbg.).
+
+    Family 5.--AMPHIMONADIDAE. Flagella 2 anterior, both directed
+    forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &c., often recalling
+    Choanoflagellata, _Amphimonas_ (Kent), _Diplomitus_ (Kent);
+    _Spongomonas_ (St.), with thick branching gelatinous sheath.
+
+    Family 6.--MONADIDAE. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed
+    forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short.
+
+    _Monas_ (St.); _Anthophysa_ (Bory) (Fig. 2, 12, 13), with the stalk
+    composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder end of the
+    cells of the colony.
+
+    Family 7.--BODONIDAE. Flagella 2 (or 3) 1 anterior, the other (1 or
+    2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the end to form
+    a temporary anchor.
+
+    _Bodo_ (Ehrb.) (figs. 1, 23-26 and 2, 10). _B. lens_ is the "hooked"
+    and _B. saltans_ the "springing monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale;
+    _Dallingeria_ (Kent) with a pair of antero-lateral flagella; _Costia
+    necatrix_ (Leclerq) is also 3-flagellate; causes destructive
+    epidemics in fish-hatcheries.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flagellata.
+
+  1. _Salpingoeca fusiformis_, S. Kent (Choanoflagellata). The
+  protoplasmic body is drawn together within the goblet-shaped shell,
+  and divided into numerous spores.
+
+  2. Escape of the spores of the same as monoflagellate and
+  swarm-spores.
+
+  3. _Codosiga umbellata_, Tatem (Choanoflagellata); adult colony formed
+  by dichotomous growth.
+
+  4. A single zooid of the same.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = the characteristic "collar" of naked streaming protoplasm.
+
+  5. _Hexamita inflata_, Duj.(_Distomatidae_); normal adult.
+
+  6, 7 _Salpingoeca urceolata_, S Kent (_Choanoflagellata_)--6, with
+  collar extended; 7, with collar retracted within the stalked cup.
+
+  8 _Polytoma uvella_, Mull. sp. (_Chlamydomonadidae_).
+
+  9. _Lophomonas blattarum_, Stein (_Trichonymphidae_) from the
+  intestine of _Blatta orientalis_.
+
+  10. _Bodolens_, Mull. (_Bodonidae_), the wavy filament is a
+  tractellum, the straight one is a trailing thread.
+
+  11. _Tetramitus sulcatus_, Stein (_Tetramitidae_)
+
+  12. _Anthophysa vegetans_, O.F. Müller (_Monadidae_). A typical,
+  erect, shortly-branching colony stock with four terminal
+  monad-clusters.
+
+  13. Monad cluster of the same in optical section, showing the
+  relation of the individual monads or flagellate zooids to the stem d.
+
+  14. _Tetramitus rostratus_, Perty (_Tetramitidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+
+  15. _Proterospongia Haeckeli_, Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata); A
+  social colony of about forty flagellate zooids.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amoebiform cell sunk within the colonial gelatinous test
+            compared by S. Kent to a mesoderm cell of the sponges.
+      d = similar cell reproducing by transverse fission.
+      e = normal cells, with their collars contracted.
+      f = substance of test.
+      g = individual reproducing by multiple fission, producing
+            microzoospores, comparable to the spermatozoa of sponges.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.
+
+  1. _Trichonympha agilis_, Leidy, from gut of White Ant (Termite).
+
+  2. _Opalina ranarum_, Purkinje parasitic in frog rectum multinucleate
+  adult.
+
+  3, 4. Binary fissions of same, 1-nucleat individual at final stage of
+  fission.
+
+  5. Same encysted dejected from rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.
+
+  6. Young 1-nucleate individual emerged from cyst, destined to grow,
+  proliferating its nuclei to adult form.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = food (?) particles in Fig. 1.]
+
+    Family 8.--TETRAMITIDAE. Body pyriform, the pointed end posterior;
+    flagella 4 anterior.
+
+    _Tetramitus_ (Perty) (_T. calycinus_ of Kent, Fig. 2, 11, 14), is
+    the "calycine monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale; _Trichomonas_,
+    Donné, possesses a longitudinal undulating membrane, and is an
+    innocuous human parasite; it is possibly related to Haemoflagellates
+    on one hand and to _Trichonymphidae_ on the other.
+
+    Family 9.--DISTOMATIDAE. Mouth-spots two, or one, with a distinct
+    construction; flagella symmetrically arranged; nucleus bilobed or
+    geminate. _Hexamitus_ (Duj.) (Fig. 2, 5), saprophytic and parasitic;
+    _Trepomonas_ (Duj.), freshwater; _Megastoma_ (Grassi) (= _Lamblia_
+    of Blanchard), with constricted mouth-spot and blepharoplast
+    (kineto-nucleus) parasitic in the small intestine of Mammals,
+    including Man.
+
+    Family 10.--TRICHONYMPHIDAE. Flagella numerous, sometimes
+    accompanied by one or more undulating membranes; cytoplasm highly
+    differentiated; contractile vacuole absent; all parasitic in insects
+    (all except _Lophomonas_ in Termites--the so-called White Ants.)
+
+    _Lophomonas_(St.) (Fig. 2, 9); parasitic in the cockroach;
+    _Dinenympha_ (Leidy), _Pyrsonympha_ (Leidy); _Trichenympha_ (Leidy)
+    (Fig. 3, 1).
+
+    Family 11.--OPALINIDAE. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform.
+    uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small,
+    numerous, uniform.
+
+    Only genus, _Opalina_ (Purkinje and Valentin) (Fig. 3, 2-6), in
+    bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an aberrant
+    ciliate, but E.R. Lankester expressed doubts as to its position in
+    the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia).
+
+  Order 2.--CHRYSOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple (in fresh-water
+  forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always present; reserves
+  fat.
+
+    Family 1.--CHRYSOMONADIDAE. Body naked, often amoeboid in active
+    state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gelatinous investment,
+    a firm cuticle, or silicified shell; reserves fat or leucosin
+    (starch in _Zooxanthella_); eye-spot present. _Chromulina_ (Cienk.)
+    often forms a golden scum on tanks; _Chrysamoeba_ (Klebs);
+    _Hydrurus_ (Agardh), theca of colony forming branching tubes,
+    simulating a yellow Conferva in mountain torrents; _Dinobryon_
+    (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 8, 15); _Stylochrysalis_ (St.); _Uroglena_ (Ehrb.);
+    _Syncrypta_ (Ehrb.), and _Synura_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 5) form floating
+    spherical colonies; _Zooxanthella_ (Brandt), symbiotic as "yellow
+    cells" in Radiolaria _Foraminifera_, _Millepora_, and many
+    Actinozoa.
+
+    Family 2.--COCCOLITHOPHORIDAE. Body invested in a spherical test
+    strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential circular plates,
+    "coccoliths," "discoliths," "cyatholiths," or radiating rods
+    "rhabdoliths." These are often found in Foraminiferal ooze and its
+    fossil condition, chalk; when coherent as in the complete test, they
+    are known as "coccospheres" and "rhabdospheres." _Coccolithophora_
+    (Lohmann), _Rhabdosphaera_ (Haeckel).
+
+  Order 3.--CRYPTOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole (in freshwater forms)
+  simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or absent; reserves
+  starch; holophytic or saprophytic. _Cryptomonas_ (Ehrb.); _Paramoeba_
+  (Greeff) has yellow plastids and shows two cycles, in the one
+  amoeboid, finally encysting to produce a brood of flagellulae; in the
+  other flagellate, and multiplying by longitudinal fission (it differs
+  from _Mastigamoeba_ in possessing no flagellum in the amoeboid state,
+  though it takes in food amoeba-fashion); _Chilomonas_ (Ehrb.).
+
+  Order 4.--CHLOROMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a complex of
+  variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids discoid
+  chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in active
+  state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior blind
+  tubular depression simulating a pharynx. _Coelomonas_ (St.),
+  _Vacuolaria_ (Cienk.).
+
+  Order 5.--EUGLENACEAE. Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or more
+  accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface by a canal
+  ("pharynx") in which are planted one or two strong flagella; pellicle
+  strong often striated; nucleus large, chromatophores green, complex or
+  absent; reserves paramylum granules of definite shape, and oil;
+  nutrition variable; body stiff or "metabolic," never amoeboid. Among
+  the true Flagellates these are the largest, few being below 40 µ and
+  several attaining 130 µ in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum).
+  Encysted condition common; the green forms sometimes multiply in this
+  state and simulate unicellular Algae.
+
+    Family 1.--EUGLENIDAE. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition
+    saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1) Chromatophore
+    large; eye-spot conspicuous. _Euglena_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 13, 17),
+    with flexible cuticle and metabolic movements (this is probably
+    Priestley's "green matter" through which he obtained oxygen gas)--a
+    very common genus; _Colacium_ (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic
+    on Copepoda, which it colours green; _Eutreptia_ (Perty),
+    biflagellate; _Ascoglena_ (St.); _Trachelomonas_ (Ehrb.), with a
+    hard brown cuticle; _Phacus_ (Nitszche), with a firm rigid pellicle,
+    often symmetrically flattened; _Cryptoglena_ (Ehbg.). (2)
+    Chromatophores absent. _Astasia_ (Duj.), body metabolic; _Menoidium_
+    (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat inflected and crescentic;
+    _Sphenomonas_ (Stein), with a short accessory trailing flagellum in
+    front peeled; _Distigma_ (Ehbg.) (Fig. 1, 27, 28), very metabolic,
+    with two unequal flagella and two dark pigment spots.
+
+    Family 2.--PERANEMIDAE. Bilaterally symmetrical, often creeping,
+    pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like skeleton, sometimes
+    protrusible; nutrition saprophytic and holozoic. _Peranema_ (Ehbg.)
+    and _Urceolus_ (Mereschowsky), uni-flagellate creeping, very
+    metabolic. _Petalomonas_ (St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep
+    ventral groove, not metabolic; _Heteronema_ (Duj.) and
+    _Tropidoscyphus_ (St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing
+    flagellum; _Anisonema_ (Duj.) and _Entosiphon_ (St.), with the
+    trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much longer.
+
+  Order 6.--VOLVOCACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple anterior; cell
+  always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous) perforated
+  by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior flagella;
+  reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present, except in
+  _Polytoma_, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutrition usually
+  holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic. Brood-division in
+  active state common, radial.
+
+    Family 1.--CHLAMYDOMONADIDAE. Cell-wall firm not gelatinous, rarely
+    forming colonies. Fore-end of the body with two or four (seldom
+    five) flagella. Almost always green in consequence of the presence
+    of a very large single chromatophore. Generally a delicate
+    shell-like envelope of membranous consistence. 1 to 2 simple
+    contractile vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one
+    eye-speck. Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may
+    produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may occur in the
+    swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more continuous fission
+    microgametes of various sizes are formed. Conjugation is frequent.
+
+  Genera.--_Chlorangium_ (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll;
+  _Chlorogonium_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 6, 7); _Polytoma_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 2, 8);
+  _Chlamydomonas_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 1, 2, 3); _Haematococcus_ (Agardh) (=
+  _Chlamydococcus_, A. Braun, Stein); _Protococcus_ (Conn, Huxley and
+  Martin); _Chlamydomonas_ (Cienkowski), causes red snow and "bloody
+  rain"; _Carteria_ (Diesing), quadri-flagellate; _Spondytomorum_
+  (Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; _Coccomonas_ (St.); _Phacotus_
+  (Perty); _Zoochlorella_ (Brandt), is the name given to undetermined
+  Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state within and in
+  symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the freshwater sponge,
+  _Ephydatia_, _Hydra viridis_, and to the Turbellarian, _Convoluta
+  viridis_ (in which last species the active form has been recognized as
+  a _Carteria_).
+
+    Family 2.--VOLVOCIDAE. Cell-wall gelatinous; always associated in
+    colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number of individuals united to
+    form a colony varies very much, as does the shape of the colony.
+    Reproduction by the continuous division of all or of only certain
+    individuals of the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter
+    colony (from each such individual). In some, probably in all, at
+    certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct sexual
+    colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation of the
+    colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female. The result
+    of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also called zygote or
+    oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a time develops itself into
+    one or more new colonies.
+
+  Genera.--_Gonium_ (O.F. Müller) (Fig. 1, 14); _Stephanosphaera_
+  (Cohn); _Pandorina_ (Bory de Vine); _Eudorina_ (Ehr.); _Volvox_
+  (Ehr.)(Fig. 1, 18, 20).
+
+  The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one of
+  the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In some
+  families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid, fuse,
+  encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop simply
+  to the parental form (Fig. 1, 23 to 26). In the _Chlamydomonadidae_ a
+  single adult individual by division produces small individuals,
+  so-called "microgametes." These conjugate with one another or with
+  similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chlorogonium, Fig.
+  1, 7); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete conjugates with
+  an ordinary individual megagamete. The result in either case is a
+  "zygote," a cell formed by fusion of two which divides in the usual
+  way to produce new individuals. The microgamete in this case is the
+  male element and equivalent to a spermatozoon; the megagamete is the
+  female and equivalent to an egg-cell. The zygote is a "fertilized
+  egg," or oosperm. In some colony-building forms we find that only
+  certain cells produce by division microgametes; and, regarding the
+  colony as a multicellular individual, we may consider these cells as
+  testis-cells and their microgametes as spermatozoa.
+
+  CYSTOFLAGELLATA(RHYNCHOFLAGELLATA of E.R. Lankester) and
+  DINOFLAGELLATA are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata; but,
+  following O. Bütschli, we describe them separately; the three groups
+  being united into his MASTIGOPHORA.
+
+  _Further Remarks on the Flagellates._--Besides the work of special
+  Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Bütschli, F. v. Stein, F.
+  Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &c., the Flagellates have been a favourite
+  study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite N.
+  Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W.C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P.A. Dangeard, G.
+  Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schütt; the reason for this is obvious. They
+  present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera to
+  the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex
+  colonies of _Proterospongia_ and _Volvox_. By some they are regarded
+  as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa--a position which may
+  perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa; but they seem
+  undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as
+  well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the only
+  distinction between the _Chlamydomonadidae_ and the true green Algae
+  or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting
+  condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older
+  cell-walls (_Palmella_ state), they round off and separate, while the
+  latter divide by a "party wall" so as to give rise either to a
+  cylindrical filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of
+  growth constant (_Conferva_ type), or to a plate of tissue when the
+  directions alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the
+  Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae, so that these little groups are
+  included in all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores
+  of the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae,
+  Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the _Bodonidae_. Thus in two
+  directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Probably also
+  the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the Conjugatae in the
+  widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the Diatomaceae; both groups
+  of obscure affinity, since even the reproductive bodies have no
+  special organs of locomotion. For these reasons the Volvocaceae,
+  Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae have been
+  united as Phytoflagellates; and the Euglenaceae might well be added to
+  these. It is easy to understand the relation of the saprophytic and
+  the holophytic Flagellates to true plants. The capacity to absorb
+  nutritive matter in solution (as contrasted with the ingestion of
+  solid matter) renders the encysted condition compatible with active
+  growth, and what in holozoic forms is a true hypnocyst, a state in
+  which all functions are put to sleep, is here only a rest from active
+  locomotion, nutrition being only limited by the supply of nutritive
+  matter from without, and--in the case of holophytic species--by the
+  illumination: this latter condition naturally limits the possible
+  growth in thickness in holophytes with undifferentiated tissues. The
+  same considerations apply indeed to the larger parasitic organisms
+  among Sporozoa, such as Gregarines and Myxosporidia and
+  Dolichosporidia, which are giants among Protozoa.
+
+  LITERATURE.--W.S. Kent, _Manual of the Infusoria_, vol. i. Protozoa
+  (1880-1882); O. Bütschli, _Die Flagellaten_ (in Bronn's _Thierreich_,
+  vol. i. Protozoa, 1885); these two works contain full bibliographies
+  of the antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on
+  Chlamydomonads) in _Bull. Soc. Nat._ (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G.
+  Klebs, "Flagellatenstudien" in _Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool._ lv. (1892);
+  Doflein, _Protozoen als Krankheitserreger_ (1900); Senn,
+  "Flagellaten," in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, 1 Teil, Abt.
+  1a (1900); R. Francé, _Der Organismus der Craspedomonaden_ (1897);
+  Grassi and Sandias, "Trichonymphidae," in _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._
+  xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzenberger, "Opa inidae" in _Arch. Protist_, iii.
+  (1903); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol. i.
+  (1906).     (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of _flute-à-bec_ with a new fingering,
+invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and in vogue in
+England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century.
+The instrument is described and illustrated by Mersenne,[1] who states
+that the most famous maker and player in his day was Le Vacher. The
+flageolet differed from the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in
+front and two thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in
+front and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived in the
+French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in small
+orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the holes was as
+follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near mouthpiece; 2 and 3,
+finger-holes stopped by the left hand; 4, finger-hole stopped by right
+hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back; 6, hole near the open end. According to
+Dr Burney (_History of Music_) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur
+Juvigny, who played it in the _Ballet comique de la Royne_, 1581. Dr
+Edward Browne,[2] writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June
+1673, relates, "We have with us here one ... and Mr Hadly upon the
+flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to invent large ones
+and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever upon any other
+instrument." About the same time was published Thomas Greeting's
+_Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet_
+(London, 1675 or 1682), a rare book of which the British Museum does not
+possess a copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the
+beginning of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and
+triple flageolets.[3] The three tubes were bored parallel through one
+piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which was common to all
+three. The lowest notes of the respective tubes were [Musical notes: D B
+G]
+
+The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval Fr.
+_flajol_, the primitive whistle-pipe.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.
+
+  [2] See Sir Thomas Browne's Works, vol. i. p. 206.
+
+  [3] See Capt. C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
+    Instruments_ (London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also _Complete
+    Instructions for the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1825); and _The
+    Preceptor, or a Key to the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1815).
+
+
+
+
+FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the symbol of
+authority of an admiral.
+
+
+
+
+FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870),
+French general and statesman, son of Alexandre Sébastien de Flahaut de
+la Billarderie, comte de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793,
+and his wife Adélaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (q.v.), was born
+in Paris on the 21st of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally
+recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talleyrand,
+with whom he was closely connected throughout his life. His mother took
+him with her into exile in 1792, and they remained abroad until 1798. He
+entered the army as a volunteer in 1800, and received his commission
+after the battle of Marengo. He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was
+wounded at the battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne
+Poniatowski, Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became intimate.
+After the battle of Friedland he received the Legion of Honour, and
+returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in 1808, and then in
+Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka had established herself in
+Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by this time entered on his liaison
+with Hortense de Beauharnais, queen of Holland. The birth of their son
+was registered in Paris on the 21st of October 1811 as Charles Auguste
+Louis Joseph Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought
+with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813 became
+general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and, after the battle
+of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 he
+submitted to the new government, but was placed on the retired list in
+September. He was assiduous in his attendance on Queen Hortense until
+the Hundred Days brought him into active service again. A mission to
+Vienna to secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was
+present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II. on the
+throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand's influence, but was
+placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected to retire to
+Germany, and thence to England, where he married Margaret, daughter of
+Admiral George Keith Elphinstone, Lord Keith, and after the latter's
+death Baroness Keith in her own right. The French ambassador opposed the
+marriage, and Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter,
+Emily Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts
+returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the count
+the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of France. He
+remained intimately associated with Talleyrand's policy, and was, for a
+short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin. He was afterwards attached to
+the household of the duke of Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador
+to Vienna, where he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and
+retired from the army. After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 he was again
+actively employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court of
+St James's. He died on the 1st of September 1870. The comte de Flahaut
+is perhaps better remembered for his exploits in gallantry, and the
+elegant manners in which he had been carefully trained by his mother,
+than for his public services, which were not, however, so inconsiderable
+as they have sometimes been represented to be.
+
+  See A. de Haricourt, _Madame de Souza et sa famille_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+FLAIL (from Lat. _flagellum_, a whip or scourge, but used in the Vulgate
+in the sense of "flail"; the word appears in Dutch _vlegel_, Ger.
+_Flegel_, and Fr. _fléau_), a farm hand-implement formerly used for
+threshing corn. It consists of a short thick club called a "swingle" or
+"swipple" attached by a rope or leather thong to a wooden handle in such
+a manner as to enable it to swing freely. The "flail" was a weapon used
+for military purposes in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as
+a threshing-flail but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It
+also took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end
+swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was known as the
+"morning star" or "holy water sprinkler." During the panic over the
+Popish plot in England from 1678 to 1681, clubs, known as "Protestant
+flails," were carried by alarmed Protestants (see GREEN RIBBON CLUB).
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBARD, RANULF, or RALPH (d. 1128), bishop of Durham and chief
+minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman parish priest who
+belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating at an early age to England,
+the young Ranulf entered the chancery of William I. and became
+conspicuous as a courtier. He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed
+him Flambard in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he
+acquired the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played
+an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey. In that
+record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as holding land
+both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death of the old king he
+became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London, under whom he had formerly
+served in the chancery. But early in the next reign Ranulf returned to
+the royal service. He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he
+seems in that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the
+custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer; and there
+can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a fiscal character.
+His name is regularly connected by the chroniclers with the ingenious
+methods of extortion from which all classes suffered between 1087 and
+1100. He profited largely by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king
+a large proportion of the ecclesiastical preferments which were
+illegally kept vacant, and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of
+Durham (1099). His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of
+Henry I., by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry.
+A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard soon
+succeeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London. A popular
+legend represents the bishop as descending from the window of his cell
+by a rope which friends had conveyed to him in a cask of wine. He took
+refuge with Robert Curthose in Normandy and became one of the advisers
+who pressed the duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger
+brother; Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the
+administration of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai
+(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with Henry, and
+was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham he passed the
+remainder of his life. His private life was lax; he had at least two
+sons, for whom he purchased benefices before they had entered on their
+teens; and scandalous tales are told of the entertainments with which he
+enlivened his seclusion. But he distinguished himself, even among the
+bishops of that age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but
+completed the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef,
+had begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the priory of
+Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch, Hampshire. As a
+politician he ended his career with his submission to Henry, who found
+in Roger of Salisbury a financier not less able and infinitely more
+acceptable to the nation. Ranulf died on the 5th of September 1128.
+
+  See Orderic Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_, vols. iii. and iv. (ed.
+  le Prévost, Paris, 1845); the first continuation of Symeon's _Historia
+  Ecclesiae Dunelmensis_ (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury in the
+  _Gesta pontificum_ (Rolls ed., 1870); and the _Peterborough Chronicle_
+  (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E.A. Freeman in his _William
+  Rufus_ (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also T.A. Archer
+  in the _English Historical Review_, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs's
+  _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.H.
+  Round's _Feudal England_ (London, 1895).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a promontory on the Yorkshire coast of England,
+between the Filey and Bridlington bays of the North Sea. It is a lofty
+chalk headland, and the resistance it offers to the action of the waves
+may be well judged by contrast with the low coast of Holderness to the
+south. The cliffs of the Head, however, are pierced with caverns and
+fringed with rocks of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata
+is seen at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on
+the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54° 7' N., 0° 5' W.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBOYANT STYLE, the term given to the phase of Gothic architecture in
+France which corresponds in period to the Perpendicular style. The word
+literally means "flowing" or "flaming," in consequence of the
+resemblance to the curved lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest
+examples of flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of
+the Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the
+enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the foliations
+resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form and hence the term
+flowing tracery. In the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley,
+dating from 1320 and 1330, are the earliest examples in England; in
+France its first employment dates from about 1460, and it is now
+generally agreed that the flamboyant style was introduced from English
+sources. One of the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in
+France is that known as "interpenetration," in which the base mouldings
+of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which the
+faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was in a sense a
+_tour de force_ of French masons, was carried to such an extent that in
+a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating the base-mould would be
+found to be those of a diagonal buttress situated 20 to 30 ft. above it.
+It was not limited, however, to internal work; in late 15th and early
+16th century ecclesiastical architecture it is found on the façades of
+some French cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in
+later times.
+
+
+
+
+FLAME (Lat. _flamma_; the root _flag_-appears in _flagrare_, to burn,
+blaze, and Gr. [Greek: phlégein]). There is no strict scientific
+definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be
+regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in consequence
+of chemical action. It is well known that the luminosity of gases can be
+induced by the electrical discharge, and with rapidly alternating
+high-tension discharges in air an oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced
+which is long and flickering, can be blown out, yields nitrogen
+peroxide, and is in fact indistinguishable from an ordinary flame except
+by its electrical mode of maintenance. The term "flame" is also applied
+to solar protuberances, which, according to the common view, consist of
+gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even with the restricted
+definition given above, difficulties present themselves. It is found,
+for example, with a hydrogen flame that the luminosity diminishes as the
+purity of the hydrogen is increased and as the air is freed from dust,
+and J.S. Stas declared that under the most favourable conditions he was
+only able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it,
+an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum of the
+flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand, there are many
+examples of chemical combination between gases where the attendant
+radiation is below the pitch of visibility, as in the case of ethylene
+and chlorine. It will be obvious from these facts that a strict
+definition of flame is hardly possible. The common distinction between
+luminous and non-luminous flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and
+only corresponds to a rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.
+
+The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may be
+liberated during combination or decomposition. A single substance like
+gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and gives gaseous products, will
+produce a bright flame of decomposition if a single piece be heated in
+an evacuated flask. Combination is the more common case, and this means
+that we have two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed _en
+masse_ before combination, the one which flows as a current into the
+other is called conventionally the "combustible," but the simple
+experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show the unreality of
+this distinction between combustible and supporter of combustion, which,
+in fact, is only one of the many partial views that are explained and
+perhaps justified by the dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.
+
+Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most interesting, it
+will be well to consider simpler flames first in order to discuss some
+fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon flames the complexity of the
+combustible, its susceptibility to change by heating, and the
+possibilities of fractional oxidation, create special difficulties. In
+the flame of hydrogen and oxygen or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have
+simpler conditions, though here, too, things may be by no means so
+simple as they seem from the equations 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O and 2CO + O2 =
+2CO2. The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well known,
+and the molecular transactions may in reality be complicated. We shall,
+however, assume for the sake of clearness that in these cases we have a
+simple reaction taking place throughout the mass of flame. There are
+various ways in which a pair of gases may be burned, and these we shall
+consider separately. Let us first suppose the two gases to have been
+mixed _en masse_ and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If
+the mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which vary for
+each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light is applied,
+and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame may be very slow in its
+progress or it may attain a velocity of the order of one or two thousand
+metres per second. Until comparatively recent times great
+misunderstanding prevailed on this subject. The slow rate of movement of
+flame in short lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity
+of explosion, but more recent researches by M.P.E. Berthelot, E.
+Mallard and H.L. le Chatelier and H.B. Dixon have shown that a
+distinction must be made between the slow _initial rate of inflammation_
+of gaseous mixtures and the _rapid rate of detonation_, or rate of the
+_explosive wave_, which in many cases is subsequently set up. We shall
+here deal only with the slow movements of flame. The development of a
+flame in such a gaseous mixture requires that a small portion of it
+should be raised to a temperature called the _temperature of ignition_.
+Here again considerable misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature
+of ignition has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical
+combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at which
+combination has reached a certain rate. The combination of hydrogen and
+oxygen begins at temperatures far below that of ignition. It may indeed
+be supposed that the combination occurs with extreme slowness even at
+ordinary temperatures, and that as the temperature is raised the
+velocity of the reaction increases in accordance with the general
+expression according to which an increase of 10°C. will approximately
+double the rate. However that may be, it has been proved experimentally
+by J.H. van't Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination of
+hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below the
+temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be greatly influenced
+by the solid surfaces which are present; thus in a plain glass vessel
+the combination only began to be perceptible at 448°, whilst in a
+silvered glass vessel it would be detected at 182°C.
+
+The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances, including
+ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the application of heat to a
+combustible mixture as resulting in an increase of the rate of
+combination locally. Let us suppose that we are dealing with a stratum
+of the mixture in small contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature
+of the first section _a_°C., an increased rate of combination is set up.
+The heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduction
+and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite suffice to
+raise the adjacent section of the mixture to _a_°C. The combination in
+that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in the first one, and
+so evidently the impulse to combination will go on abating as we pass
+along the stratum. Suppose now we start again and heat the first section
+of the mixture to a temperature _c_°C., such that the rate of
+combination is very rapid and the heat developed by combination suffices
+to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to a temperature higher
+than _c_°C. The rate of combination will then be greater than in the
+first section, and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the
+same way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum
+temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a temperature
+of _b_°C. between _a_° and _c_° which will satisfy this condition, that
+the heat which results from the combination stimulated in the first
+section just suffices to raise the temperature of the second section to
+_b_°. This temperature _b_° is the temperature of ignition of the
+mixture; so soon as it is attained by a portion of the mixture the
+combustion becomes self-sustaining and flame spreads through the
+mixture. Ignition temperature may be defined briefly as the temperature
+at which the initial loss of heat due to conduction, &c., is equal to
+the heat evolved in the same time by the chemical reaction (van't Hoff).
+From the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition
+will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the proportions
+of the same gases are varied, and also when the pressure is varied. We
+can see also that outside certain limiting proportions a mixture of
+gases will have no practicable ignition temperature, that is to say, the
+cooling effect of the gas which is in excess will carry off so much heat
+that no attainable initial heating will suffice to set up the
+transmission of a constant temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and
+air, mixtures containing less than 5 and more than 72% of hydrogen are
+not inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us to
+understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric spark may
+not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will indeed take place in
+the path of the spark, but the amount of it is not sufficient to meet
+the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It must be added that the theory of
+ignition temperatures given above does not explain all the observed
+facts. F. Emich states that the inflammability of gaseous mixtures is
+not necessarily greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions
+theoretically required for complete combination, and the influence of
+foreign gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence of
+a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence on the
+ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of ethylene to
+hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a mixture of methane and
+air is raised to its ignition temperature a sensible interval (about 10
+seconds) elapses before inflammation occurs.
+
+The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases which has
+been ignited depends on the proportions in which the gases are mixed.
+Fig. 1 (Bunte) represents this relationship for several common gases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with
+air.]
+
+If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the production of a
+steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and ignited at the end; it
+is obvious that the velocity of efflux must be greater than the initial
+rate of inflammation of the mixture, for otherwise the mixture would
+fire back down the tube. If the velocity of efflux be considerably
+greater than the rate of inflammation, the flame will be separated from
+the end of the tube, and only appear as a flickering crown where the
+velocity and inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by
+admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux the flame
+will be blown out. J.B.A. Dumas used to show the experiment of blowing
+out a candle with electrolytic gas. A steady flame formed by burning a
+ready-made gaseous mixture at the end of a tube of circular section has
+the form shown in fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower
+limiting surface of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the
+velocity of efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation, and
+its conical form is explained by the fact that the rate of efflux of gas
+is greatest in the vertical axis of the tube where the flow is not
+retarded by friction with the walls, as well as by the further fact that
+the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards, the inflammation
+proceeding directly against it. The flame, it will be seen, is of
+considerable thickness. If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen,
+or carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious features of
+structure beyond those shown in the figure; that is to say, the shaded
+region of burning gas has the appearance of homogeneity and uniform
+colour which might be expected to accompany a uniform chemical
+condition. Some admixture of the external air will, of course, take
+place, especially in the upper parts of the flame, and detectable
+quantities of oxides of nitrogen may be found in the products of
+combustion, but this is an inconsiderable feature. The flame just
+described is essentially that of a blowpipe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of allowing one
+gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases as before, hydrogen
+or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find again that the flame is conical
+in form and uniform in colour, but in this case, if the velocity of
+efflux be not immoderate, the burning gas only extends over a
+comparatively thin shell, limited on the inside by the pure combustible
+and on the outside by a mixture of the products of combustion with
+oxygen. The combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with
+the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of gas to be
+burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned gas thus becomes
+thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a point. The external
+surface of a flame of this kind will for the same consumption of gas be
+larger than that of a flame where the ready-made mixture of gases is
+used. If a jet of one gas be sent with a sufficient velocity into
+another, turbulent admixture takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame
+of uniform colour is obtained.
+
+A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one gas, mixed
+with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient for complete
+combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the second. This is the case
+with what are generally known as atmospheric burners, of which the
+Bunsen burner is the prototype. The development of a flame of this kind
+can be well studied in the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon
+monoxide is fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the
+burner-tube being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a
+cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now the
+air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same blue
+colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered through the
+air-valve ("primary" air) has become mixed with the carbon monoxide and
+so oxidizes its quota in an internal cone, the rest of the carbon
+monoxide (diluted now, of course, with carbon dioxide and nitrogen)
+wandering into the external atmosphere to burn (with "secondary" air) in
+a second cone. The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent
+thermal effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If
+the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion can
+take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement of the inner
+cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of inflammation of the
+mixture, and the inner cone (which only maintains its stability because
+the rate of efflux of the mixture is greater than the velocity of
+inflammation) contracts, and will, as the proportion of primary air is
+increased, soon evince a tendency to enter the burner-tube. At this
+stage an interesting phenomenon is to be noticed. When we have reached
+the point of aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture
+just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the
+burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion checks the
+suction flow of air through the valve at the base of the burner, whilst
+it does not appreciably check the pressure flow of the carbon monoxide
+through the gas nozzle. The result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor
+in air, and therefore of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when
+the descending disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the
+disk returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The
+full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated.
+This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely long if
+the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant. With still
+more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires back to the burner
+nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have enough air entering to
+produce a flame of the blast blowpipe type, namely, one where the carbon
+monoxide mixed with an _excess_ of primary air burns with a single cone
+in a steady flame.
+
+By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells a two-coned
+flame of the kind described may be resolved into its components. The
+apparatus is like a half-extended telescope made of two glass tubes, and
+it is evident that the velocity of a mixture of gases flowing through it
+must be greater in the narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of
+the narrower tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at
+the end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a
+certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and attach
+itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs when the
+velocity of inflammation is just greater than the upward velocity of the
+gaseous stream in the wide tube and less than the upward velocity in the
+narrow tube. If the outer tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame
+burns at the end of the inner tube; if the outer tube be slid up again,
+it detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus has
+been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in various
+flames.
+
+_Temperature of Flames._--The term "flame-temperature" is used very
+vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by some description.
+It is least ambiguous when used in reference to flames where the
+combining gases are mixed in theoretical proportions before issuing from
+the burner. The flame in such a case has considerable thickness and
+uniformity, and, though the temperature is not constant throughout,
+flames of this type given by different combustibles admit of comparison.
+In other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop
+large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how
+temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will not, from
+the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient temperature
+for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum wire may be melted at the
+edge of the lower part of such a flame. The maximum temperature of the
+flame is therefore not in any serious sense an available temperature. It
+will suffice to point out here that in order to burn a gas so that it
+may have the highest available temperature, we must burn it with the
+smallest external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the
+combining gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner.
+Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the Bunsen type,
+and arrange matters so that a large amount of primary air is supplied.
+It is in this direction that modern improvements have been made with a
+view to obtaining hot flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern
+burner, for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where
+much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being well
+mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be produced with a
+great tendency to light back. The burner head is therefore usually
+provided with a mixing chamber and the mixture issues through a slit or
+a mesh. A great many modified Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim
+in all of them being to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness
+with the smallest attainable external surface.
+
+To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have been
+employed. The method of calculation, based on the supposition that the
+whole heat of combustion is localized in the product (or products) of
+combustion and heats it to a temperature depending on its specific heat,
+cannot be applied in a simple way. Apart from the assumption (which
+there is reason to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy
+assumes the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change
+of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation
+and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of temperature
+must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules and not to a single
+one, and therefore any influence which means delay in combination will
+result in reduction of temperature by radiation and conduction. It can
+hardly be maintained that in the present state of knowledge we have the
+requisite data for the calculation of flame temperature, though good
+approximations may be made. Many attempts have been made to determine
+flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples and by radiation
+pyrometers. The couple most employed is that known as H.L. le
+Chatelier's, consisting of two wires, one of platinum and the other an
+alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of rhodium. When all possible precautions
+are taken it is possible by means of such thermo-couples to measure
+local flame temperatures with a considerable degree of accuracy.
+Subjoined are some results obtained at different times and by different
+observers with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:--
+
+  Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896)        1770° C.
+   "      "     "      "    (Berkenbusch, 1899)     1830°
+   "      "     "      "    (White & Traver, 1902)  1780°
+   "      "     "      "    (Féry, 1905)            1871°
+
+The following are given by Féry:--
+
+  Acetylene               2548° C.
+  Alcohol                 1705°
+  Hydrogen (in air)       1900°
+  Oxy-hydrogen            2420°
+  Oxy-coal gas blowpipe   2200°
+
+_Source of Light in Flames._--We may consider first those flames where
+solid particles are out of the question; for example, the flame of
+carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the luminosity was due to the
+thermal glow of the highly heated product of combustion has been
+challenged independently by a number of observers, and the view has been
+advanced that the emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a
+kind of discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules. E.
+Wiedemann proposed the name "chemi-luminescence" for radiation of this
+kind. The fact is that colourless gases cannot be made to glow by any
+purely thermal heating at present available, and products of combustion
+heated to the average temperature of the flames in which they are
+produced are non-luminous. On the other hand, it must be remembered that
+in a mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules are
+engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination, and that the
+energy liberated in such individual transactions, if localized
+momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules a unique condition
+of temperature far transcending that of the average, and the
+distribution of heat in a flame would be very different from that
+existing in the same mixture of gases heated from an external source to
+the same average temperature. The view advocated by Smithells is that in
+the chemical combination of gases the initial phase of the formation of
+the new molecule is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and
+that the damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the
+source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat. This, it
+will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.
+
+The view of Sir H. Davy that "whenever a flame is remarkably brilliant
+and dense it may always be concluded that some solid matter is produced
+in it" can be no longer entertained. The flames of phosphorus in oxygen
+and of carbon disulphide in nitric oxide contain only gaseous products,
+and Frankland showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
+became highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frankland
+was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames is
+associated with high density of the gases, and he does not draw a
+distinction in this respect between high density due to high molecular
+weight and high density due to the close packing of lighter molecules.
+The increased luminosity of a compressed flame is not difficult to
+understand from the kinetic theory of gases, but no explanation has
+appeared of the luminosity considered by Frankland to be due merely to
+high molecular weight. It is possible that the electron theory may
+ultimately afford a better understanding of these phenomena.
+
+_Structure of Flame._--The vagueness of the term structure, as applied
+to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting accounts which are
+current as to the number of differentiated parts in different flames.
+Unless this term is restricted to sharp differences in appearance, there
+is no limit to the number of parts which may be selected for mention.
+The flame of carbon monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before
+it issues from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure,
+but is a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity--a hollow cone if
+the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas not
+immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have a slit or
+two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas to spread each
+other out. Such a flame has but one single distinct feature, and this is
+not surprising, as there is no reason to suppose that there is any
+difference in the chemical process or processes that are occurring in
+different quarters of the flame. The amount of materials undergoing this
+transformation in different parts of the flame may and does vary; the
+gases become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular
+vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a variation in the
+intensity of the light in different quarters, but the differences
+induced are not sharp or in any proper sense structural. A flame of this
+kind may develop a secondary feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be
+burnt in oxygen which is mixed or combined with another element there
+may be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in
+air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a greenish
+cast, apparently associated with the combination of nitrogen with oxygen
+(H.B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being strongly heated begins to
+dissociate into carbon and carbon dioxide; if the unburnt carbon
+monoxide within a flame of that gas were so highly heated by its own
+burning walls as to reach the temperature of dissociation, we might
+expect to see a special feature of structure due to the separated
+carbon. Such a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.
+
+Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published in reference
+to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is of peculiar
+interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists of an almost crimson
+shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue. Investigations have shown
+that these two colours correspond to two steps in the progress of the
+combustion, in the first of which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized
+to carbon monoxide and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to
+carbon dioxide.
+
+The inversion of combustion may bring new features of structure into
+existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt in oxygen no solid
+carbon can be found in the flame, but when a jet of oxygen is burnt in
+cyanogen solid carbon separates on the edge of the flame.
+
+_Hydrocarbon Flames._--As already stated the flames of carbon compounds
+and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more studied than any
+other kind, as is natural from their common use and practical
+importance. The earliest investigations were made with coal gas,
+vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite and complex nature of these
+substances led to difficulties and confusion in the interpretation of
+results. One such difficulty may be illustrated by the fact, often
+overlooked, that when a mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the
+individual component gases will separate spontaneously in accordance
+with their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer
+edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.
+
+The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of course on the
+manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme cases are (i.) when the
+issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the burner with sufficient air
+for complete combustion, as in the blast blowpipe, in which case we have
+a sheet of blue undifferentiated flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to
+find all the air it requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate
+stage is when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with
+a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame is
+produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already been
+discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one kind of flame
+into the others can be effected gradually, and this is seen with
+particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene vapour admixed with
+gradually increasing quantities of air. The key to the explanation of
+the structure of an ordinary luminous flame, such as that of a candle,
+is to be found, according to Smithells, by observing the changes
+undergone by a well-aerated Bunsen flame as the "primary" air is
+gradually cut off by closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It
+is then seen that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the
+two recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst the
+appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes increasingly
+emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper part of the blue
+sheath. There are thus three recognizable features of structure in an
+ordinary luminous flame, each region being as it were a mere shell and
+the interior of the flame filled with gas which has not yet entered into
+active combustion. If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary
+luminous flame are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the
+chemistry of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What
+happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen burner? The
+air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete combustion so
+that the inner cone of the flame may be considered as air burning in an
+excess of coal gas. What will be the products of this combustion? This
+question has been answered at different times in very different ways.
+There are many conceivable answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be
+wholly oxidized and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air
+and burn as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has
+been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner cone
+whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon set free or
+oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon might be oxidized to
+carbon dioxide or monoxide and the hydrogen set free. There might of
+course be other intermediate kinds of action. Now it is important at
+this point to insist upon a distinction between what can be found by
+direct analysis as to the products of partial combustion, and what can
+be imagined or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of
+which the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We shall
+consider only in the first instance what substances are found by
+analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner in which coal gas was
+used, and the gases withdrawn directly from the flame by aspiration,
+gave no very clear results, but the introduction of the cone-separating
+apparatus and the use of single hydrocarbons led to more definite
+conclusions. The analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene
+flame gave the following numbers:--carbon dioxide = 3.6; water = 9.5;
+carbon monoxide = 15.6; hydrocarbons = 1.3; hydrogen = 9.4; nitrogen =
+60.6.
+
+It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a
+considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst practically
+all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide. As the gases have
+cooled down before analysis and as the reaction CO + H2O<-->CO2 + H2 is
+reversible, it may be objected that the inter-conal gases may have a
+composition when they are hot very different from what they show when
+cold. Experiments made to test this question have not sustained the
+objection. Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons have
+made it appear undesirable to use the expression "preferential
+combustion" or "selective combustion" in connexion with the facts just
+stated; but for the purpose of describing in brief the chemistry of a
+hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say that in the inner cone of a
+Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon monoxide are the result of the limited
+oxidation, and that the combustion of these gases with the external air
+generates the outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the
+limited oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable work
+has been carried out by W.A. Bone and his collaborators. Different
+hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated continuously through
+a vessel heated to various temperatures, beginning with that (about 250°
+C.) at which the rate of oxidation is easily appreciable. Proceeding in
+this way, Bone, without effecting a complete transformation of the
+hydrocarbon into partially oxidized substances, has isolated large
+quantities of such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a
+hydrocarbon involves nothing in the nature of a selective or
+preferential oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He
+maintains that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which
+oxygen enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule,
+forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are alcohols and
+aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and ethylene with an equal
+volume of oxygen would be represented as follows:--
+
+                    Stage 1.               Stage 2.
+
+  CH3·CH3  ---->   CH3·CH2OH      ---->  CH3·CH(OH)2
+   Ethane.       Ethyl alcohol.         _____/\______
+                  ____/\____           / CH3·CHO+H2O \
+                 / C2H4+H2O \           Acetaldehyde.
+                / 2C+2H2+H2O \           ____/\_____
+                                        /  CH4+CO   \
+                                       /  C+2H2+CO   \
+  CH2 : CH2 ---> CH2 : CHOH   ----->  / HO·CH : CH·OH \
+                  ____/\____           ______/\_______
+  Ethylene.      / C2H2+H2O \         / 2CH2O=2CO+2H2 \
+                /  2C+H2+H2O \          Formaldehyde.
+
+The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high temperature
+is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is sufficient to carry the
+oxidation as far as the second stage, practically no decomposition of
+the monohydroxy molecule formed in the first stage occurs. This is
+especially the case with unsaturated hydrocarbons.
+
+As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential carbon
+oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture of equal
+volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb. In such a case a
+lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a black cloud of carbon
+particles and considerable condensation of water. About 10% of methane
+is also found. It is impossible within the limits of this article to
+give a more extended account of these later researches on the oxidation
+of hydrocarbons. They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of
+carbon and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the
+combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view that
+hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference from the
+behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own volume of oxygen, viz.
+that carbon is the more oxidizable element in hydrocarbons, are not in
+harmony with experimental facts.
+
+The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is due "to the
+deposition of solid charcoal" was first put forward by Sir Humphry Davy
+in 1816. In explaining the origin of this charcoal, Davy used somewhat
+ambiguous language, stating that it "might be owing to a decomposition
+of a part of the gas towards the interior of the flame where the air was
+in smallest quantity." This statement was interpreted commonly as
+implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential combustion of
+the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was given explicitly by
+Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy's view with regard to this part of
+the theory, his conclusion that finely divided carbon was the cause of
+luminosity in hydrocarbon flames was not questioned until 1867, when E.
+Frankland, in connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained
+that the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important degree
+to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of dense
+hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced against this view the
+most decisive is furnished by the optical test first used by J.L. Soret.
+If the image of the sun be focussed upon the glowing part of a
+hydrocarbon flame the scattered light is found to be polarized, and it
+is indisputable that the luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of
+finely divided solid matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by
+H.H.C. Bunte to be 0.1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft.
+per hour) is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy's
+original view may be said to be now universally accepted.
+
+The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a hydrocarbon
+flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is set free. The
+fact-that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in absence of air will
+deposit carbon has long been known and is daily evident in the operation
+of coal-gas making, when gas carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the
+highly-heated crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing
+therefore that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon
+within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls of the
+flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm this view. It is
+sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire be so disposed in a
+small flame as to make a girdle within the blue walls towards the base,
+the withdrawal of heat is rapid enough to prevent the maintenance of a
+temperature sufficient to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright
+luminosity disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed
+through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral gas such as
+nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of the burning gas and
+the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great that the temperature of
+separation is not attained, no carbon is separated and the flame
+consists of a single blue shell.
+
+Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon becomes
+separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to trace the
+processes by which the carbon becomes separated in the case of a given
+hydrocarbon. According to M.P.E. Berthelot, who made prolonged and
+elaborate researches on the pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons,
+these compounds only liberate carbon by a process of the continual
+coalescence of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen,
+until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly
+distinguishable from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot of
+flames.
+
+V.B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a study of the
+thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on temperature measurements of
+flames and analysis of their gases, has more recently developed a theory
+of flame luminosity in which the formation and sudden exothermic
+decomposition of acetylene are regarded as the essential incidents
+productive of carbon separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed
+the evidence on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained
+no adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but as it has
+not been formally disavowed by the author and has found its way into
+some text-books, it is mentioned here.
+
+W.A. Bone and H.F. Coward (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1908) published the
+results of a very careful study of the decomposition of hydrocarbons
+when heated in a stationary condition and when continually circulated
+through hot vessels. Their results disclose once more the great
+difficulty of tracing the processes of decomposition and of arriving at
+a generalization of wide applicability, but they appear to be conclusive
+against the views both of Berthelot and of Lewes.
+
+They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons can be
+adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations owing to the
+complexity of the changes which really take place. Methane, which is the
+most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears to be resolved at high
+temperatures directly into carbon and hydrogen, but the phenomenon is
+dependent mainly on surface action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene
+undergo decomposition throughout the body of the gas (loc. cit. p. 1197
+et seq.).
+
+  "In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the
+  _primary_ effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of
+  hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond
+  between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution)
+  residues such as : CH2 and [·:] CH. These residues, which can only
+  have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (a) form H2C :
+  CH2 and HC [·:] CH, as the result of encounters with other similar
+  residues, or (b) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen, or
+  (c) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in
+  hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simultaneously
+  in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent on the
+  temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present. The whole
+  process may be represented by the following scheme, the dotted line
+  indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the carbon atoms
+  which becomes actually effective at higher temperatures:--
+
+      H·:H
+    --------                     / (a) C2H4 + H2
+    H·C·:C·H = [2(:CH2) + H2] = <  (b) 2C + 2H2 + H2
+      H·:H                       \ (c) plus H2 = 2CH4
+
+      H·:H                       / (a) C2H2 + H2
+    -------- = [2(·:CH) + H2] = <  (b) 2C + H2 + H2
+    H·C·:C·H                     \ (c) _plus_ 2H2 = CH4.
+
+  "In the ease of acetylene, the main primary change may be either one
+  of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature, and
+  if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down across
+  the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to 2([·:]CH),
+  and that these residues are subsequently either resolved into carbon
+  and hydrogen or "hydrogenized" according to circumstances, thus:--
+
+       H·C·:C·H    = [2(·:CH)] = / (a) 2C + H2
+          \/                     \ (b) _plus_ 3H2 = 2CH4.
+    Polymerization.
+
+  "Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of polymerization
+  at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas initially
+  heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decomposition of
+  another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an extent dependent
+  on temperature."
+
+We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to the genesis
+of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:--
+
+The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick, let us suppose,
+in a cylindrical column. This column is not sharply marked off from the
+air but is so penetrated by it that we must suppose a gradual transition
+from the pure hydrocarbon in the centre of column to the pure air on the
+outside. Let us take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the
+lower part of the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral
+distance from the centre will combustion begin? Clearly, where enough
+oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combustion as
+takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This then defines the
+blue region. Outside this the combustion of the carbon monoxide,
+hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which pass from the blue region takes
+place in a faintly luminous fringe. These two layers form a sheath of
+active combustion, surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed
+hydrocarbons in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise
+and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They are
+accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the higher parts of
+the flame, giving the region of bright yellow luminosity. There remains
+a central core in which neither is there any oxygen for combustion nor a
+sufficiently high temperature to cause carbon separation. This
+constitutes the dark interior region of the flame. We thus account for
+the different parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the
+bright blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst the
+pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame. The flame also
+is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing explanation is therefore
+not quite complete. Let us suppose that the changes have gone on in the
+small section of the flame exactly as described and consider how the
+processes will differ in parts above this section. The central core of
+unburned gases will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new
+cylindrical column which will undergo changes just as the original one,
+leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other words,
+each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller diameter. This
+gives us the conical form of the flame. Again, the higher we ascend the
+flame the greater proportionally is the amount of separated carbon, for
+we have not only the heat of laterally outlying combustion to effect
+decomposition, but also that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower
+part of a luminous flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than
+the upper. Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion
+we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in the
+upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades away. The
+luminous fringe would, however, be continued, for the separated hydrogen
+has still to burn. In this way then we may reasonably account for the
+existence, position and relative sizes of the four regions of an
+ordinary luminous flame.     (A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMEL, NICOLAS (c. 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist and scrivener
+to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or Pontoise about 1330,
+and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the bulk of his property to the
+church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, where he was buried. During his
+life he contributed freely to charitable and religious purposes from the
+considerable wealth he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or,
+as some surmise without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or
+money lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a document
+purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in Waite's _Lives
+of the Alchemystical Philosophers_, London, 1888), there fell into his
+hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book on alchemy by Abraham
+the Jew, which taught in plain words the transmutation of metals. It did
+not, however, explain the _materia prima_, but merely figured or
+depicted it, and for more than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find
+out the secret. Then, returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with
+a Christian Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after
+three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the _materia prima_,
+thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into both silver and
+gold. But this fantastic story was disposed of by the facts, derived
+from parish records, set forth in Vilain's _Essai sur l'histoire de
+Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie_, 1758, and his _Histoire critique de Nicolas
+Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme, recueillie d'actes anciens qui
+justifient l'origine et la médiocrité de leur fortune contre les
+imputations des alchimistes_, 1761.
+
+  A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibliothèque, _Le Trésor de
+  philosophie_, professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with
+  his own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises
+  bearing his name, such as the _Sommaire philosophique de Nicolas
+  Flamel_, published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises
+  entitled _Transformation métallique_, are certainly spurious.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMEN (from _flare_, "to blow up" the altar fire), a Roman sacrificial
+priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.) maximus, and
+were consecrated to the service of some particular deity. The highest in
+rank were the _flamen Dialis_, _flamen Martialis_ and _flamen
+Quirinalis_, who were always selected from among the patricians. Their
+institution is generally ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens
+was raised from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled
+_majores_, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were called
+_minores_, as connected with less important deities, and were chosen
+from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the number of the lesser
+flamens seems to have diminished. The flamens were held to be elected
+for life, but they might be compelled to resign office for neglect of
+duty, or on the occurrence of some ill-omened event (such as the cap
+falling off the head) during the performance of their rites. The
+characteristic dress of the flamens in general was the _apex_, a white
+conical cap, the _laena_ or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official
+insignia of the _flamen Dialis_ (of Jupiter), the highest of these
+priests, were the white cap (_pileus, albogalerus_), at the top of which
+was an olive branch and a woollen thread; the _laena_, a thick woollen
+_toga praetexta_ woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a rod to
+keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice. He was
+never allowed to appear without these emblems of office, every day being
+considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his office he was entitled
+to a seat in the senate and a curule chair. The sight of fetters being
+forbidden him, his toga was not allowed to be tied in a knot but was
+fastened by means of clasps, and the only kind of ring permitted to be
+worn on his finger was a broken one. If a person in fetters took refuge
+in his house he was immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal
+on his way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself at
+his feet he was respited for that day. The _flamen Dialis_ was not
+allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even touch a
+horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the consulship), to
+swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything unclean, or to look
+upon people working. His marriage, which was obliged to be performed
+with the ceremonies of _confarreatio_ (q.v.), was dissoluble only by
+death, and on the death of his wife (called _flaminica Dialis_) he was
+obliged to resign his office. The _flaminica Dialis_ assisted her
+husband at the sacrifices and other religious duties which he performed.
+She wore long woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her
+hair being plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (_tutulus_);
+and shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband,
+she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens was the
+offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of October the three major
+flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to _Fides Publica_ (the
+Honour of the People). Some of the municipal towns in Italy had flamens
+as well as Rome.
+
+We may mention, as distinct from the above, the _flamen curialis_, who
+assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the religious affairs of
+each curia (q.v.); the flamens of various sacerdotal corporations, such
+as the Arval Brothers; the _flamen Augustalis_, who superintended the
+worship of the emperor in the provinces.
+
+  See Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336,
+  473; H. Dessau, in _Ephemeris epigraphica_, iii. (1877); and the
+  exhaustive article by C. Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio,
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINGO (Port. _Flamingo_, Span. _Flamenco_), one of the tallest and
+most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright flame-coloured or
+scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known by its classical name
+_Phoenicopterus_, as an inhabitant of most of the countries bordering
+the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos have a very wide distribution, and the
+sole genus comprises only a few species. _Ph. roseus_ or _antiquorum_,
+white, with a rosy tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the
+remiges are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde
+Islands to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards
+through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as _P. minor_. _P. ruber_,
+entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the
+Galapagos; _P. chilensis_ s. _ignipalliatus_, from Peru to Patagonia,
+more resembles the classical species; while _P. andinus_, the tallest of
+all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the elevated
+desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and Argentina. Fossil
+remains of flamingos have been described from the Lower Miocene of
+France as _P. croizeti_, and from the Pliocene of Oregon. From the
+Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene of France are known several species of
+_Palaelodus_, _Elornis_ and _Agnopterus_, which have relatively shorter
+legs, longer toes and a complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier
+family, less specialized although not directly ancestral to the
+flamingos. _Palaelodidae_ and _Phoenicopteridae_ together form the
+larger group Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly
+intermediate between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact
+that T.H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as _Amphimorphae_.
+However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos obviously
+reveal themselves as much nearer related to the _Ciconiae_, especially
+to _Platalea_ and _Ibis_, than to the Anseres. This is the opinion
+arrived at by W.F.R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer and Gadow, while others
+prefer the goose-like voice and the webbed toes as reliable characters.
+(For a detailed analysis of this instructive question see Bronn's
+_Thierreich_, Aves Syst. p. 146.)
+
+[Illustration: The Flamingo.]
+
+The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small aquatic
+invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons, for instance
+Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low salt-water algae. Whilst
+feeding, the bird wades about, stirs up the mud with its feet, and,
+reversing the ordinary position of its head so as to hold the crown
+downwards and to look backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is
+abruptly bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather
+flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished with
+numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and large tongue, act
+like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the considerable movability of
+the upper jaw. Then the bird erects its long neck to swallow the
+selected food. When flying, flamingos present a striking and beautiful
+sight, with legs and neck stretched out straight, looking like white and
+rosy or scarlet crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock
+of these sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with
+their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable
+position.
+
+The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat conical
+structure rising above the water according to the depth, of which the
+cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as often happens, the
+water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher. On the top is a shallow
+cup for the reception of the one or two eggs, which have a bluish-white
+shell with chalky incrustation. Of course the hen sits with her legs
+doubled up under her, as does any other long-legged bird. It seems
+strange that many ornithologists should have given credence to W.
+Dampier's statement of the mode of incubation (_New Voyage round the
+World_, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): "And when they lay their eggs,
+or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock, but close
+by it with their legs on the ground and in the water, resting themselves
+against the hillock, and covering the hollow nest upon it with their
+rumps," &c. P.S. Pallas (_Zoograph. Rosso-Asiatica_, ii. p. 208) tried
+to improve upon this by stating that the standing bird leans upon the
+nest with its breast! The young, which are hatched after about four
+weeks' incubation, look very different from the adult. The small bill is
+still quite straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered
+with a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour.
+These _neossoptiles_ or first feathers bear no resemblance to those of
+the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills, the
+young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking extent, but
+they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift for themselves like
+ducks and geese.     (H. F. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINIA, VIA, an ancient high road of Italy, constructed by C.
+Flaminius during his censorship (220 B.C.). It led from Rome to
+Ariminum, and was the most important route to the north. We hear of
+frequent improvements being made in it during the imperial period.
+Augustus, when he instituted a general restoration of the roads of
+Italy, which he assigned for the purpose among various senators,
+reserved the Flaminia for himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except
+the Pons Mulvius, by which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built
+by M. Scaurus in 109 B.C.), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal
+arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at Ariminum,
+the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian constructed a new
+tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern Furlo, in A.D. 77 (see
+CALES), and Trajan, as inscriptions show, repaired several bridges along
+the road.
+
+The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable remains of its
+pavement being extant in the modern high road, passing slightly E. of
+the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it
+crossed the Nar by a splendid four-arched bridge to which Martial
+alludes (_Epigr._ vii. 93, 8), one arch of which and all the piers are
+still standing; and went on, followed at first by the modern road to
+Sangemini which passes over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past
+Carsulae to Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more
+circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted, passing by
+Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which a branch diverged to
+Perusia), and increasing the distance by 12 m. The road thence went on
+to Nuceria (whence a branch road ran to Septempeda and thence either to
+Ancona or to Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed
+the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus standing
+at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to Cales (where it turned
+N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa to Forum Sempronii
+(Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae, when it reached the coast of the
+Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W. through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total
+distance from Rome was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer.
+The road gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd
+century A.D. onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was at
+first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under Augustus it had
+formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after Constantine was
+always administered with Picenum.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS (c. 228-174 B.C.), Roman general and
+statesman. He began his public life as a military tribune under M.
+Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse. In 199 he was quaestor,
+and the next year, passing over the regular stages of aedile and
+praetor, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the rising school
+of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow patriotism of which Cato
+was the type, the disciples of Greek culture, and the advocates of a
+wide imperial policy. His winning manners, his polished address, his
+knowledge of men, his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge
+of Greek, all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in
+the East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct of the
+war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years, Rome had as
+yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him. Flamininus modified
+both the policy and tactics of his predecessors. After an unsuccessful
+attempt to come to terms, he drove the Macedonians from the valley of
+the Aous by skilfully turning an impregnable position. Having thus
+practically made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece,
+where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean League (q.v.)
+at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis, the tyrant of
+Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome; Acarnania and Boeotia
+submitted in less than a year, and, with the exception of the great
+fortresses, Flamininus had the whole of Greece under his control. The
+demand of the Greeks for the expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from
+Demetrias, Chalcis and Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of
+Greece, was refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were
+renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field supported by
+nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae the Macedonian phalanx and
+the Roman legion for the first time met in open fight, and the day
+decided which nation was to be master of Greece and perhaps of the
+world. It was a victory of superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman
+army was retiring in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip
+in person, when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged
+the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights. Before
+the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon them, and a massacre
+rather than a fight ensued. This defeat was turned into a general rout
+by a nameless tribune, who collected twenty companies and charged in the
+rear the victorious Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left
+the Roman right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome, but
+Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands. Philip lost all
+his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian kingdom almost
+entire. He was required to reduce his army, to give up all his decked
+ships except five, and to pay an indemnity of 1000 talents (£244,000).
+Ten commissioners arrived from Rome to regulate the final terms of
+peace, and at the Isthmian games a herald proclaimed to the assembled
+crowds that "the Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having
+conquered King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states
+which had been subject to the king henceforward free and independent."
+Flamininus's last act before returning home was characteristic. Of the
+Achaeans, who vied with one another in showering upon him honours and
+rewards, he asked but one personal favour, the redemption of the Italian
+captives who had been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic
+War. These, to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of
+his departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his
+triumph.
+
+In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III. the Great,
+Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil representative of
+Rome. His personal influence and skilful diplomacy secured the wavering
+Achaean states, cemented the alliance with Philip, and contributed
+mainly to the Roman victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook
+an embassy to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up
+Hannibal, who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is
+known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his end was
+peaceful and happy.
+
+There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a genuine love of
+Greece and its people. To attribute to him a Machiavellian policy, which
+foresaw the overthrow of Corinth fifty years later and the conversion of
+Achaea into a Roman province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more
+force in the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from
+seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek states of
+that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay in submitting to
+the protectorate of the Roman republic. But if the event proved that the
+liberation of Greece was a political mistake, it was a noble and
+generous mistake, and reflects nothing but honour on the name of
+Flamininus, "the liberator of the Greeks."
+
+  His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by F.D.
+  Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. iii.
+  chs. 8, 9.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general, of plebeian family.
+During his tribuneship (232 B.C.), in spite of the determined opposition
+of the senate and his own father, he carried a measure for distributing
+among the plebeians the _ager Gallicus Picenus_, an extensive tract of
+newly-acquired territory to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, _De
+senectute_, 4, _Brutus_, 14). As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting
+gratitude of the people of his province (Sicily) by his excellent
+administration. In 223, when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the
+field against the Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his
+agrarian law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at
+first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate. Reinforced
+by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the banks of the Addua.
+He had previously been recalled by the optimates, but ignored the order.
+The victory seems to have been due mainly to the admirable discipline
+and fighting qualities of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a
+triumph only after the decree of the senate against it had been
+overborne by popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly
+limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see COMITIA). His name is
+further associated with two great works. He erected the Circus Flaminius
+on the Campus Martius, for the accommodation of the plebeians, and
+continued the military road from Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto
+only reached as far as Spoletium (see FLAMINIA, VIA). He probably also
+instituted the "plebeian" games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic
+opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the measure
+brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which prohibited senators
+and senators' sons from possessing sea-going vessels, except for the
+transport of the produce of their own estates, and generally debarred
+them from all commercial speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective
+support of this measure vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius
+with his own order, and secured his second election as consul in the
+following year (217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus
+at the Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of the
+western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the Apennines,
+but was defeated and killed at the battle of the Trasimene lake (see
+PUNIC WARS).
+
+The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)--no
+friendly critics--shows that Flaminius was a man of ability, energy and
+probity. A popular and successful democratic leader, he cannot, however,
+be ranked among the great statesmen of the republic. As a general he was
+headstrong and self-sufficient and seems to have owed his victories
+chiefly to personal boldness favoured by good fortune.
+
+His son, GAIUS FLAMINIUS, was quaestor under P. Scipio Africanus the
+elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture of New Carthage.
+Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he distributed large
+quantities of grain among the citizens at a very low price. In 193, as
+praetor, he carried on a successful war against the insubordinate
+populations of his recently constituted province of Hispania Citerior.
+In 187 he was consul with M. Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the
+warlike Ligurian tribes. In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia
+connecting Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he
+founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life is the
+portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMSTEED, JOHN (1646-1719), English astronomer, was born at Denby, near
+Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a
+maltster, he was educated at the free school of Derby, but quitted it
+finally in May 1662, in consequence of a rheumatic affection of the
+joints, due to a chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved
+of no avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be "stroked" by Valentine
+Greatrakes, but "found not his disease to stir." Meanwhile, he solaced
+his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Beginning with J.
+Sacrobosco's _De sphaera_, he read all the books on the subject that he
+could buy or borrow; observed a partial solar eclipse on the 12th of
+September 1662; and attempted the construction of measuring instruments.
+A tract on the equation of time, written by him in 1667, was published
+by Dr John Wallis with the _Posthumous Works_ of J. Horrocks (1673); and
+a paper embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon,
+which appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ (iv. 1099), signed
+_In Mathesi a sole fundes_, an anagram of "Johannes Flamsteedius,"
+secured for him, from 1670, general scientific recognition.
+
+On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became acquainted with
+Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name at Jesus college, and took,
+four years later, a degree of M.A. by letters-patent. An essay composed
+by him in 1673 on the true and apparent diameters of the planets
+furnished Newton with data for the third book of the _Principia_, and he
+fitted numerical elements to J. Horrocks's theory of the moon. In 1674,
+and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas Moore, governor
+of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in a private observatory at
+Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated by the determination of Charles
+II. to have the tables of the heavenly bodies corrected, and the places
+of the fixed stars rectified "for the use of his seamen," and Flamsteed
+was appointed "astronomical observator" by a royal warrant dated 4th of
+March 1675. His salary of £100 a year was cut down by taxation to £90;
+he had to provide his own instruments, and to instruct, into the
+bargain, two boys from Christ's hospital. Sheer necessity drove him, in
+addition, to take many private pupils; but having been ordained in 1675,
+he was presented by Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in
+Surrey; and his financial position was further improved by a small
+inheritance on his father's death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense
+of £120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began to observe
+systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_).
+The latter part of Flamsteed's life passed in a turmoil of controversy
+regarding the publication of his results. He struggled to withhold them
+until they could be presented in a complete form; but they were urgently
+needed for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a
+public servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting of his
+lunar theory upon "places of the moon" reluctantly doled out from
+Greenwich, led the movement for immediate communication; whence arose
+much ill-feeling between him and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince
+George of Denmark undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the
+Royal Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed,
+protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only partially
+through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of October 1708, and
+its completion devolved upon a board of visitors to the observatory
+endowed with ample powers by a royal order of the 12th of December 1712.
+As the upshot, the _Historia coelestis_, embodying the first Greenwich
+star-catalogue, together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705,
+was issued under Edmund Halley's editorship in 1712. Flamsteed denounced
+the production as surreptitious; he committed to the flames three
+hundred copies, of which he obtained possession through the favour of
+Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of bodily infirmities, vigorously
+prosecuted his designs for the entire and adequate publication of the
+materials he continued to accumulate. They were but partially executed
+when he died on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his
+monumental work, _Historia coelestis Britannica_ (3 vols. folio, 1725),
+was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by Abraham
+Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of Flamsteed's
+observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third contained the _British
+Catalogue_ of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous errors in this valuable record
+having been detected by Sir William Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up
+a list of 560 stars observed, but not catalogued, while 111 of those
+catalogued proved to have never been observed (_Phil. Trans._ lxxxvii.
+293; see also F. Baily, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, iv. 129). The
+appearance of the _Atlas coelestis_, corresponding to the _British
+Catalogue_, was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by
+Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society. The
+extent and quality of his performance were the more remarkable
+considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened means, and
+the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable in private life, he
+was highly susceptible in professional matters, and hence failed to keep
+on terms with his contemporaries.
+
+  Francis Baily's _Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed_ (1835) is the
+  leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical
+  narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of
+  Flamsteed's letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the _British
+  Catalogue_, besides authoritative and detailed introductory
+  discussions. Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame
+  for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell
+  vindicated his character in _Flamsteed and Newton_ (1836).
+
+  See also _General Dictionary_, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied
+  by James Hodgson, Flamsteed's nephew-in-law; _Biographia Britannica_,
+  iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud's _Correspondence of Scientific Men_;
+  Cunningham's _Lives of Eminent Englishmen_, iv. 366 (1835); Mark
+  Noble's Continuation of James Granger's Biog. _Hist. of England_, ii.
+  132; R. Grant's _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, p. 467; W. Whewell's
+  _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. 162; J.S. Bailly's _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre's _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 93; _Observatory_, xv. 355, 379,
+  382.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FLANDERS (Flem. _Vlaanderen_), a territorial name for part of the
+Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges and the
+immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries it was gradually
+extended to the whole of the coast region from Calais to the Scheldt. In
+the middle ages this was divided into two parts, one looking to Bruges
+as its capital, and the other to Ghent. The name is retained in the two
+Belgian provinces of West and East Flanders.
+
+1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and its
+coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for a little
+over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns of the
+province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agriculture is the
+chief occupation of the population, and the country is under the most
+careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration of the foreign observer
+for the Belgian system of market gardening is not diminished on learning
+that the subsoil of most of this tract is the sand of the "dunes."
+Fishing employs a large proportion of the coast population. The area of
+West Flanders is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1263 sq. m. In
+1904 the population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.
+
+2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western province, and
+extends northwards to the neighbourhood of Antwerp. It is still more
+productive and richer than Western Flanders, and is well watered by the
+Scheldt. The district of Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory
+of man, is supposed to be the most productive district of its size in
+Europe. The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St
+Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is given at
+749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,073,507,
+showing an average of 916 per sq. m.
+
+_History._--The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not only the
+modern provinces known as East and West Flanders, but the southernmost
+portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland and a considerable district in
+north-western France. In the time of Caesar it was inhabited by the
+Morini, Atrebates and other Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that
+followed the land was repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally
+became a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the
+Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun (843)
+made the line of division between the kingdom of East Francia
+(Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the kingdom of West Francia
+(Neustria) under Charles the Bald. In virtue of this compact Flanders
+was henceforth attached to the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus
+acquired a position unique among the provinces of the territory known in
+later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that
+northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor Lothaire
+(855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called Lotharingia or
+Lorraine.
+
+The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record is
+Baldwin, surnamed _Bras-de-fer_ (Iron-arm). This man, a brave and daring
+warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with the king's daughter
+Judith, the youthful widow of two English kings, married her, and fled
+with his bride to Lorraine. Charles, though at first very angry, was at
+last conciliated, and made his son-in-law margrave (_Marchio Flandriae_)
+of Flanders, which he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at
+this time continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was
+entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the west
+Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders. He was the
+first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date early in the 10th
+century exchanged the title of margrave for that of count. His son,
+Baldwin II.--the Bald--from his stronghold at Bruges maintained, as did
+his father before him, a vigorous defence of his lands against the
+incursions of the Northmen. On his mother's side a descendant of
+Charlemagne, he strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by
+marrying Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918
+his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the Elder and
+Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time and Arnulf succeeded
+to the whole inheritance. His reign was filled with warfare against the
+Northmen, and he took an active part in the struggles in Lorraine
+between the emperor Otto I. and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the
+government in the hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the
+count of Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very
+short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial progress
+of the country, establishing the first weavers and fullers at Ghent, and
+instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges and other places.
+
+On Baldwin III.'s death in 961 the old count resumed the control, and
+spent the few remaining years of his life in securing the succession of
+his grandson Arnulf II.--the Younger. The reign of Arnulf was terminated
+by his death in 989, and he was followed by his son Baldwin IV., named
+_Barbatus_ or the Bearded. This Baldwin fought successfully both against
+the Capetian king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found
+himself obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the
+burgraveship of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count of
+Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of the French
+crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish history as Crown Flanders
+(_Kroon-Vlaanderen_), the German fiefs as Imperial Flanders
+(_Rijks-Vlaanderen_). Baldwin's son--afterwards Baldwin V.--rebelled in
+1028 against his father at the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter
+of Robert II. of France; but two years later peace was sworn at
+Oudenaarde, and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036.
+Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the people the
+surname of _Débonnaire_. He was an active enterprising man, and greatly
+extended his power by wars and alliances. He obtained from the emperor
+Henry IV. the territory between the Scheldt and the Dender as an
+imperial fief, and the margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become
+that the Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060 was
+appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see FRANCE). Before
+his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda (d. 1083) sharing the
+English throne with William the Conqueror, his eldest son Baldwin of
+Mons in possession of Hainaut in right of his wife Richilde, heiress of
+Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see
+HAINAUT), and his second son Robert the Frisian regent (_voogd_) of the
+county of Holland during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude
+of Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had married
+(see HOLLAND). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin of Mons, already
+count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship of Flanders. Baldwin V. had
+granted to Robert the Frisian on his marriage in 1063 his imperial
+fiefs. His right to these was disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out
+between the two brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert
+now claimed the tutelage of Baldwin's children and obtained the support
+of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin's widow, appealed to
+Philip I. of France. The contest was decided at Ravenshoven, near
+Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071, where Robert was victorious.
+Richilde was taken prisoner and her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain.
+Robert obtained from Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and
+from Henry IV. the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.
+
+The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut (see
+HAINAUT), which was thus after a brief union separated from Flanders.
+Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son Robert II., who
+acquired great renown by his exploits in the first crusade, and won the
+name of the Lance and Sword of Christendom. His fame was second only to
+that of Godfrey of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1100. He
+fought with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English,
+and was drowned in 1111 by the breaking of a bridge. His son and
+successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also fought against
+the English in France. He died at the age of twenty-seven from the wound
+of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no heir. He nominated as his successor his
+cousin Charles, son of Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of
+Robert the Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and
+to promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname of "the
+Good." His determination to enforce the right made him many enemies, and
+he was foully murdered on Ash Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died
+childless, and there were no less than six candidates to the countship.
+The contest lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of
+Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders,
+and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother Gertrude was a daughter of
+Robert the Frisian. William Clito, through the support of Louis of
+France, was at first accepted by the Flemish nobles as count, but he
+gave offence to the communes, who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued
+and William was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without
+further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good, Marguerite
+of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise and prudent prince,
+encouraging the growth of popular liberty and of commerce. In 1146 he
+took part in the second crusade and distinguished himself by his
+exploits. In 1157 he resigned the countship to his son Philip of Alsace
+and betook himself once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East
+twenty years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own
+land.
+
+Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did much to promote
+the growth of the municipalities for which Flanders was already becoming
+famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, Lille and Douai under him made much
+progress as flourishing industrial towns. He also conferred rights and
+privileges on a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel,
+Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the development of
+the communes and "free towns," Philip sternly repressed any spirit of
+independence or attempted uprisings against his authority. This count
+was a powerful prince. He acted for a time as regent in France during
+the minority of his godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his
+niece Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third
+crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence in 1191.
+
+As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of Hainaut, who
+had married Philip's sister Margaret. The countships of Flanders and
+Hainaut were thus united under the same ruler. Baldwin did not obtain
+possession of Flanders without strong opposition on the part of the
+French king, and he was obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin
+and a great part of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of
+Portugal, the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in
+right of her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following
+year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both countships.
+Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the Latin empire at
+Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in 1206. The emperor's two
+daughters were both under age, and the government was carried on by
+their uncle Philip, marquess of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent
+on his departure to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his
+charge, and he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip
+Augustus, who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his
+nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to the French
+king's supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as governor in the name of
+his wife, joined himself to the confederacy formed by Germany, England,
+and the leading states of the Netherlands against Philip Augustus.
+Ferdinand was, however, taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of
+Bouvines (1214) and was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre.
+The countess Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and
+courage. On Ferdinand's death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died in
+1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities by her
+younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly known amongst her
+contemporaries as "Black Meg" (_Zwarte Griet_). Margaret had been twice
+married. Her first husband was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the
+first of Hainaut's nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally
+destined for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by
+Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with the result
+that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him. She married in second
+wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre. Two sons were the issue of the
+first marriage, three sons and three daughters of the second.
+
+When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and Hainaut, she
+wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknowledged as her successor.
+John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly protested against this and was
+supported by the French king. A civil war ensued, which ended in a
+compromise (1246), the succession to Flanders being granted to William
+of Dampierre, that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however,
+ruled with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons,
+dying at the age of eighty in 1280. On her death her grandson, John II.
+of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut: Guy of Dampierre, her second son by
+her second marriage, count of Flanders.
+
+The two counties were once more under separate dynasties. The government
+of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was the interest of the Flemish
+weavers to be on good terms with England, the wool-producing country,
+and Guy entered into an alliance with Edward I. against France. This led
+to an invasion and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his
+sons and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris, and
+Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though in the principal
+towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a powerful French
+faction--known as _Leliaerts_ (adherents of the lily)--the arbitrary
+rule of the French governor and officials stirred up the mass of the
+Flemish people to rebellion. The anti-French partisans (known as
+_Clauwaerts_) were strongest at Bruges under the leadership of Peter de
+Conync, master of the cloth-weavers, and John Breydel, master of the
+butchers. The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May 19th, 1302),
+and on the following 11th of July a splendid French army of invasion was
+utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was concluded in 1305, but owing
+to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading Flemish nobles being in the hands
+of the French king, on terms very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very
+shortly afterwards the aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair.
+Robert of Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties
+with France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a
+stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence.
+Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers. Louis had
+been brought up at the French court, and had married Margaret of France.
+His sympathies were entirely French, and he made use of French help in
+his contests with the communes.
+
+Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the status of
+a French province. In his time the long contest between Flanders and
+Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland was brought to an
+end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March 1323, by which West Zeeland
+was assigned to the count of Holland, the rest to the count of Flanders.
+The latter part of the reign of Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the
+successful revolt of the Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to
+great material prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE,
+JACOB VAN). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in his
+contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while Louis of
+Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle of Crécy
+(1346). He was followed in the countship by his son Louis II. of Mâle.
+The reign of this count was one long struggle with the communes, headed
+by the town of Ghent, for political supremacy. Louis was as strong in
+his French sympathies as his father, and relied upon French help in
+enforcing his will upon his refractory subjects, who resented his
+arbitrary methods of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon
+them by his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with
+their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their opposition
+to the count's despotism, they would have proved successful, but Ghent
+and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out into open feud. The power of
+Ghent reached its height under Philip van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE,
+PHILIP VAN) in 1382. He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made
+_ruward_ of Flanders. But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular
+party was called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382
+Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at
+Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years later,
+leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in 1369 Philip the
+Bold, duke of Burgundy.
+
+Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian domain, which in
+the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret's grandson, had absorbed almost
+the whole of the Netherlands (see BURGUNDY; NETHERLANDS). The history of
+Flanders as a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of
+the countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts from time to
+time of great towns against the exactions even of these powerful
+princes, but they were in vain. The conquest and humiliation of Bruges
+by Philip the Good in 1440, and the even more relentless punishment
+inflicted on rebellious Ghent by the emperor Charles V. exactly a
+century later are the most remarkable incidents in the long-continued
+but vain struggle of the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their
+privileges. The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of
+Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders and its rich
+commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished to them no small part
+of their resources, but for this very reason, while fostering the
+development of Flemish industry and trade, they were the more determined
+to brook no opposition which sought to place restrictions upon their
+authority.
+
+The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of Dutch
+Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders. Albert and Isabel
+on their accession to the sovereignty of the southern Netherlands in
+1599 found "the great cities of Flanders and Brabant had been abandoned
+by a large part of their inhabitants; agriculture hardly in a less
+degree than commerce and industry had been ruined." In 1633 with the
+death of Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty
+of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known as States
+(or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces
+(1648). By a succession of later treaties--of the Pyrenees (1659),
+Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679) and others--a large slice of
+the southern portion of the old county of Flanders became French
+territory and was known as French Flanders.
+
+From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic provinces, was
+incorporated in France, and was divided into two departments--_département
+de l'Escaut_ and _département de la Lys_. This division has since been
+retained, and is represented by the two provinces of East Flanders and
+West Flanders in the modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of
+Flanders was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son,
+Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905).     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864), French painter, was born at Lyons
+in 1809. His father, though brought up to business, had great fondness
+for art, and sought himself to follow an artist's career. Lack of early
+training, however, disabled him for success, and he was obliged to take
+up the precarious occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the
+second of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third
+son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern landscape
+school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest, passed the greater
+part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he died. After studying
+for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and Paul, who had long determined on
+the step and economized for it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to
+place themselves under the tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to
+enter the atelier of Ingres, who became not only their instructor but
+their friend for life. At first considerably hampered by poverty,
+Hippolyte's difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832,
+the Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the "Recognition of
+Theseus by his Father." This allowed him to study five years at Rome,
+whence he sent home several pictures which considerably raised his fame.
+"St Clair healing the Blind" was done for the cathedral of Nantes, and
+years after, at the exhibition of 1855, brought him a medal of the first
+class. "Jesus and the Little Children" was given by the government to
+the town of Lisieux. "Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck
+with Blindness," and "Euripides writing his Tragedies," belong to the
+museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in 1838 he soon
+received a commission to ornament the chapel of St John in the church of
+St Séverin at Paris, and reputation increased and employment continued
+abundant for the rest of his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above,
+and others of a similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits.
+The works, however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his
+monumental decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those
+executed in the following churches:--in the sanctuary of St Germain des
+Prés at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same church (1846-1848),
+in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-1849), of St Vincent de Paul at
+Paris (1850-1854), in the church of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave
+of St Germain des Prés (1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was
+elected to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health,
+rendered worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts
+of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of smallpox at
+Rome on the 21st of March 1864. As might naturally be expected in one
+who looked upon painting as but the vehicle for the expression of
+spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too little pride in the technical
+qualities of his art. There is shown in his works much of that austerity
+and coldness, expressed in form and colour, which springs from a faith
+which feels itself in opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life.
+He has been compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long
+processions of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity
+of souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted
+life which shines from the work of the early master.
+
+  See Delaborde, _Lettres et pensées de H. Flandrin_ (Paris, 1865);
+  Beulé, _Notice historique sur H. F._ (1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLANNEL, a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and fineness, made
+usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of the word is uncertain, but
+in the 16th century flannel was a well-known production of Wales, and a
+Welsh origin has been suggested. The French form _flanelle_ was used
+late in the 17th century, and the Ger. _Flanell_ early in the 18th
+century. Baize, a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to
+have been first introduced to England about the middle of the 16th
+century by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture of
+flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases,
+deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture of silk
+or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become the
+predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine quality from a
+Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was principally in favour with the
+flannel manufacturers of Rochdale, who also used largely the wool from
+the Norfolk breed, a cross between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In
+Wales the short staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in
+Ireland that of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the
+New Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively employed, and
+English wools are not commonly used alone. Over 2000 persons are
+employed in flannel manufacture in Rochdale alone, which is the historic
+seat of the industry, and a good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen
+Valley district, Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch
+of the flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and
+Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation, and make
+an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There are also flannel
+manufactories in Ireland.
+
+A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain. The
+following table gives the quantities exported during three years:--
+
+            1904.       1905.       1906.
+  Yards   9,758,300   9,220,500   8,762,200
+
+In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this trade has
+varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel are not very large.
+
+Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture of cotton,
+but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something to limit the
+indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the development of the
+flannel trade has been checked by the great increase in the production
+of flannelettes, the better qualities of which have become formidable
+competitors with flannel. There must, however, be a regular and large
+demand for flannel while theory and experience confirm its value as a
+clothing particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body.
+
+
+
+
+FLANNELETTE, a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel. The word seems to
+have been first used in the early 'eighties, and there is a reference in
+the _Daily News_ of 1887 to "a poverty-stricken article called
+flannelette." Now it is used very extensively for underclothing, night
+gear, dresses, dressing-gowns, shirts, &c. It is usually made with a
+much coarser weft than warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained
+by the raising or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing
+processes. Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may
+be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is
+required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed, and also in
+woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any heavy or coarse cotton
+cloth can be made into flannelette. It is now largely used by the poorer
+classes of the community, and the flimsier kinds have been a frequent
+source of accident by fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in
+a fair quality, a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented
+under the title of "Non-flam," has been made with fire-resisting
+properties, but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in
+the lower and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the
+continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great
+Britain.
+
+
+
+
+FLASK, in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for carrying
+liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applications in current
+usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood, formerly of horn, used for
+carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-necked, round-bodied glass vessel,
+usually covered with plaited straw or maize leaves, containing olive or
+other oil or Italian wines--it is often known as a "Florence flask":
+similarly shaped vessels are used for experiments, &c., in a
+laboratory; (3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine
+or other liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster,
+usually covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance,
+and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup. "Flask"
+is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or case to contain part
+of the mould. The word "flagon," which is by derivation a doublet of
+"flask," is usually applied to a larger type of vessel for holding
+liquor, more particularly to a type of wine-bottle with a short neck and
+circular body with flattened sides. The word is also used of a
+jug-shaped vessel with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be
+decanted from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped
+vessel to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the
+chalice. "Flask" (in O. Eng. _flasce_ or _flaxe_) is represented both in
+Teutonic and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in Med.
+Lat. _flasco_, _flasconis_, whence come Ital. _fiascone_, O. Fr.
+_flascon_ (mod. _flacon_), adapted in the Eng. "flagon." Another Lat.
+form is _flasca_, this gave a Fr. _flasque_, which in the sense of
+"powder flask" remained in use till later than the 16th century. In
+Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the common one for
+"bottle," so in Ger. _Flasche_, Dutch _flesch_, &c. If the word is of
+Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized form of the Lat.
+_vasculum_, diminutive of _vas_, vessel. There is no very satisfactory
+etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin; the New English Dictionary
+considers a connexion with "flat" probable phonetically, but finds no
+evidence that the word was used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.
+
+
+
+
+FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. _flet_, an obsolete word of Teutonic
+origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term commonly used as an
+adjective, signifying level in surface, level with the ground, and so,
+figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate, tasteless, dull; or, by another
+transference, downright; or, in music, below the true pitch. In a
+substantival form, the term is used in physical geography for a level
+tract.
+
+The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a self-contained
+residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the term _flatted house_
+is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which form a portion,
+usually on a single floor, of a larger building, called the tenement
+house, the remainder being similarly divided. The approach to it is over
+a hall, passage and stairway, which are common to all residents in the
+building, but from which each private flat is divided off by its own
+outer door (Clode, _Tenement Houses and Flats_, pp. 1, 2).
+
+There is in England a considerable body of special law applicable to
+flats. The following points deserve notice:--(i.) The occupants of
+distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into flats are generally,
+and subject, of course, to any special terms in their agreements, not
+lodgers but tenants with exclusive possession of separate
+dwelling-houses placed one above the other. They are, therefore, liable
+to distress by the immediate landlord, and each flat is separately
+rateable, though as a general rule by the contract of tenancy the rates
+are payable by the landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes are
+exempt from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878 (see
+_Grant_, v. _Langston_, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue Act 1903
+(s. 11), provision is made for excluding from assessment or for
+assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate dwellings
+at rents not exceeding £60 a year. It appears that tenants of a flat
+would not come within the meaning of "lodger" for the purposes of the
+Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871. (ii.) The owner of an upper storey,
+without any express grant or enjoyment for any given time, has a right
+to the support of the lower storey (_Dalton_ v. _Angus_, 1881, 6 A.C.
+740, 793). The owner of the lower storey, however, so long as he does
+nothing actively in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to
+repair, in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation
+upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of the owner
+of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in law entitled to
+enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing the necessary
+repairs. It appears, however, that there is an implied obligation by the
+landlord to the tenants to keep the common stair and the lift or
+elevator in repair, and, for breach of this duty, he will be liable to
+a third party who, while visiting a tenant in the course of business, is
+injured by its defective condition (_Miller_ v. _Hancock_, 1893, 2 Q.B.
+177). No such liability would be involved in a mere licence to the
+tenants to use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of
+their flats. (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the
+rent abates _pro tanto_ and an apportionment is made; _pari ratione_,
+where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether (Clode, p.
+14); unless the tenant has entered into an express and unqualified
+agreement to pay rent, when he will remain liable till the expiration of
+his tenancy. (iv.) Where the agreements for letting the flats in a
+single building are in common form, an agreement by the lessor not to
+depart from the kind of building there indicated may be held to be
+implied. Thus an injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion
+into a club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in
+residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an
+agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules suitable only
+for residential purposes (_Hudson_ v. _Cripps_, 1896, 1 Ch. 265). (v.)
+The porter is usually appointed and paid by the landlord, who is liable
+for his acts while engaged on his general duties; while engaged on any
+special duty for any tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who
+is liable for his conduct within the scope of his employment.
+
+In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and lessees of
+flats, or--as they are called--"flatted houses," spring partly from the
+exclusive possession by each lessee of his own flat, partly from the
+common interest of all in the tenement as a whole. The "law of the
+tenement" may be thus summed up. The _solum_ on which the flatted house
+stands, the area in front and the back ground are presumed to belong to
+the owner of the lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally,
+subject to the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury
+to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external
+walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat; but the
+other owners can prevent operations on them which would endanger the
+security of the building. The roof and uppermost storey belong to the
+highest owner or owners, but he or they may be compelled to keep them in
+repair and to refrain from injuring them. The gables are common to the
+owner of each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner
+of the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building have
+cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the stability of
+the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are divided in
+ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle of the joists; they
+may be used for ordinary purposes, but may not be weakened or exposed to
+unusual risk from fire. The common passages and stairs are the common
+property of all to whose premises they form an access, and the walls
+which bound them are the common property of those persons and of the
+owners on their farther side.
+
+In the United States the term "apartment-house" is applied to what in
+England are called flats. The general law is the same as in England. The
+French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that where the different storeys
+of a house belong to different owners the main walls and roof are at the
+charge of all the owners, each one in proportion to the value of the
+storey belonging to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible
+for his own flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the
+staircase which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning
+from where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and so
+on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (Art.
+664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH LAW: Clode, _Law of Tenement-Houses and Flats_
+  (London, 1889); Daniels, _Manual of the Law of Flats_ (London, 1905).
+  SCOTS LAW: Erskine, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (10th ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1899). AMERICAN LAW: Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and
+  London, 1897). FOREIGN LAWS: Burge, _Foreign and Colonial Laws_ (2nd
+  ed., London, 1906).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FLATBUSH, formerly a township of Kings county, Long Island, New York,
+U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and after the 1st of January 1898 a
+part of the borough of Brooklyn, New York City. The first settlement
+was made here by the Dutch about 1651, and was variously called
+"Midwout," "Midwoud" and "Medwoud" (from the Dutch words, _med_,
+"middle" and _woud_, "wood") for about twenty years, when it became more
+commonly known as Vlachte Bos (_vlachte_, "wooded"; _bos_, "plain") or
+Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the present name. Farming was
+the chief occupation of the early settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776
+the village was occupied by General Cornwallis's division of the
+invading force under Lord Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous
+battle of Long Island (or "battle of Flatbush," as it is sometimes
+called), "Flatbush Pass," an important strategic point, was vigorously
+defended by General Sullivan's troops.
+
+
+
+
+FLAT-FISH (_Pleuronectidae_), the name common to all those fishes which
+swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill, plaice, flounder,
+sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the bottom, and in some kinds
+is the right, in others the left, is generally colourless, and called
+"blind," from the absence of an eye on this side. The opposite side,
+which is turned upwards and towards the light, is variously, and in some
+tropical species even vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this
+side of the head. All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more
+strongly developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these
+fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are symmetrical
+like other fishes.
+
+Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes, the
+question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans may be
+regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old notion that they
+are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was the result of the artificial
+classification of the past and is now generally abandoned. The condition
+of the caudal fin, which in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that
+of ordinary Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing
+the idea of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the
+Anacanthini, and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks
+against such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as
+noticed in the article DORY, that considerable, deep-seated resemblances
+exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the more generalized of the
+Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish from the Upper Eocene,
+_Amphistium paradoxum_, evidently allied to the Zeidae, appears to
+realize in every respect the prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they
+had assumed the asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In
+accordance with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G.A. Boulenger
+in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called _Zeorhombi_. The
+three families included in that division can be traced back to the Upper
+Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably be found in the Upper
+Cretaceous associated with the _Berycidae_, to which they will no doubt
+prove to be related. The very young are transparent and symmetrical,
+with an eye on each side, and swim in a vertical position. As they grow,
+the eye of one side moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes
+the upper eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the
+frontal region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the
+profile, temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some of
+the less modified genera, such as _Psettodes_; in other genera, the
+dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the migration takes
+place, and the eye, passing between the frontal bone and the tissues
+supporting the fin, appears to make its way from side to side through
+the head, as was believed by some of the earlier observers.
+
+About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a few species
+allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters of South America,
+West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago, whilst a few others, such as the
+English flounder, ascend streams, though still breeding in the sea. They
+range from the Arctic Circle to the southern coasts of the southern
+hemisphere and may occur at great depths.     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FLATHEADS, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan stock. They
+formerly occupied the mountains of north-western Montana and the country
+around. They have always been friendly to the whites. Curiously enough
+they have not the custom, so general among American tribes, of
+flattening the heads of their infants. Father P.J. de Smet in 1841
+founded among them a mission which proved the most successful in the
+north-west. With the Pend d'Oreille tribe and some Kutenais they are on
+a reservation in Montana, and number a few hundreds.
+
+
+
+
+FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880), French novelist, was born at Rouen on the
+12th of December 1821. His father, of whom many traits are reproduced in
+Flaubert's character of Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at
+Rouen; his mother was connected with some of the oldest Norman families.
+He was educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840,
+when he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at
+school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age of
+eleven. Flaubert in his youth "was like a young Greek," full of vigour
+of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and
+apparently without any species of ambition. He loved the country, and
+Paris was extremely distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of
+Victor Hugo, and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees
+and Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre dreams,
+living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left quite alone
+through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline, Flaubert
+gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law together, to make a home
+for her at Croisset, close to Rouen. This estate, a house in a pleasant
+piece of ground which ran down to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for
+the remainder of his life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations
+with the poetess, Mlle Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved,
+and according to M. Émile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode
+of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. His
+principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with whom he travelled
+in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in 1849. Greece and Egypt made
+a profound impression upon the imagination of Flaubert. From this time
+forth, save for occasional visits to Paris, he did not stir from
+Croisset.
+
+On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the composition of
+_Madame Bovary_. He had hitherto scarcely written anything, and had
+published nothing. The famous novel took him six years to prepare, but
+was at length submitted to the _Revue de Paris_, where it appeared in
+serial form in 1857. The government brought an action against the
+publisher and against the author, on the charge of immorality, but both
+were acquitted; and when _Madame Bovary_ appeared in book-form it met
+with a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in 1858,
+and now settled down to the archaeological studies which were required to
+equip him for _Salammbô_, which, however, in spite of the author's
+ceaseless labours, was not finished until 1862. He then took up again the
+study of contemporary manners, and, making use of many recollections of
+his youth and childhood, wrote _L'Éducation sentimentale_, the
+composition of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869.
+Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert had been
+comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather around him. He felt
+the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly that the break-up of his health
+has been attributed to it; he began to suffer greatly from a distressing
+nervous malady. His best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal
+misunderstanding; in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances
+became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by his niece, Mme
+Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of friendship with George Sand,
+with whom he carried on a correspondence of immense artistic interest,
+and occasionally he saw his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet,
+Tourgenieff, the Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's
+life from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, to
+work with the same intensity and thoroughness. _La Tentation de
+Saint-Antoine_, of which fragments had been published as early as 1857,
+was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In that year he was
+subjected to a disappointment by the failure of his drama _Le Candidat_.
+In 1877 Flaubert published, in one volume, entitled _Trois contes, Un
+Coeur simple, La Légende de Saint-Julien-l'Hospitalier and Hérodias_.
+After this something of his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the
+remainder of his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the
+futility of human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he
+left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering _Bouvard et
+Pécuchet_ (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious irony, he
+believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly and prematurely aged
+since 1870, and he was quite an old man when he was carried off by a
+stroke of apoplexy at the age of only 58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died
+at Croisset, but was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen.
+A beautiful monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen
+in 1890.
+
+The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. He was
+shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed from silence to
+an indignant and noisy flow of language. The same inconsistencies marked
+his physical nature; he had the build of a guardsman, with a magnificent
+Viking head, but his health was uncertain from childhood, and he was
+neurotic to the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by
+misanthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the "bourgeois" began in
+his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania. He despised his
+fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, their contempt for
+beauty, with a passionate scorn which has been compared to that of an
+ascetic monk. Flaubert's curious modes of composition favoured and were
+emphasized by these peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude,
+sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never
+satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for
+the best turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It
+cannot be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His private
+letters show that he was not one of those to whom easy and correct
+language is naturally given; he gained his extraordinary perfection with
+the unceasing sweat of his brow. One of the most severe of academic
+critics admits that "in all his works, and in every page of his works,
+Flaubert may be considered a model of style." That he was one of the
+greatest writers who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and
+his greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour and
+exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other writer, not of
+France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields admission to the inexact,
+the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary
+methods of composition. He never allowed a _cliché_ to pass him, never
+indulgently or wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which
+"almost" expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost
+equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous propriety
+of his style has been helpful to later writers of both schools, of every
+school. The absolute exactitude with which he adapts his expression to
+his purpose is seen in all parts of his work, but particularly in the
+portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree
+and manner in which, since his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended,
+form an interesting chapter of literary history. The publication of
+_Madame Bovary_ in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than
+admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the
+beginning of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.
+Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to crowd out
+all others. At the time of his death he was famous as a realist, pure
+and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary
+influence over É. de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet and M. Zola. But even
+since the decline of the realistic school Flaubert has not lost
+prestige; other facets of his genius have caught the light. It has been
+perceived that he was not merely realistic, but real; that his
+clairvoyance was almost boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more
+clearly than the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who
+must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at large,
+because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of perfect
+expression, were always before him, and because he hated the lax
+felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most sacred
+procedures of the literary artist.
+
+  His _Oeuvres complètes_ (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original
+  manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the
+  two plays, _Le Candidat_ and _Le Château des coeurs_. Another edition
+  (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert's correspondence with
+  George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de
+  Maupassant. Other posthumous works are _Par les champs et par les
+  grèves_ (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four volumes of
+  _Correspondance_ (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget, _Essais de
+  psychologie contemporaine_ (1883); Émile Faguet, _Flaubert_ (1899);
+  Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_ (1878); Émile Zola, _Les
+  Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  lundi_, vol. xiii., _Nouveaux lundis_, vol. iv.; and the _Souvenirs
+  littéraires_ (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAVEL, JOHN (c. 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine, was born at
+Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627. He was the elder son of
+Richard Flavel, described in contemporary records as "a painful and
+eminent minister." After receiving his early education, partly at home
+and partly at the grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered
+University College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he obtained
+a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the vicar he was
+appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he removed in 1656 to Dartmouth.
+He was ejected from his living by the passing of the Act of Uniformity
+in 1662, but continued to preach and administer the sacraments privately
+till the Five Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away.
+He then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth, where he
+laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four times. He was a
+vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without a play of fine fancy.
+
+  His principal works are his _Navigation Spiritualized_ (1671); _The
+  Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons_ (1672); _The Method of Grace_
+  (1680); _Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man_ (1698); _A
+  Token for Mourners_; _Husbandry Spiritualized_ (1699). Collected
+  editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles
+  Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN I. (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was born about 320,
+most probably in Antioch. He inherited great wealth, but resolved to
+devote his riches and his talents to the service of the church. In
+association with Diodorus, afterwards bishop of Tarsus, he supported the
+Catholic faith against the Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius
+as bishop of Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside
+the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion; and,
+according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the practice of
+antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services of the church.
+When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch in 361 he raised Flavian
+to the priesthood, and on the death of Meletius in 381 Flavian was
+chosen to succeed him. The schism between the two parties was, however,
+far from being healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt
+refused to acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme
+Eustathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius, still
+exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the death of
+Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor, but after the
+death of Evagrius (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in preventing his receiving
+a successor, though the Eustathians still continued to hold separate
+meetings. Through the intervention of Chrysostom, soon after his
+elevation to the patriarchate of Constantinople (398), and the influence
+of the emperor Theodosius, Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate
+bishop of Antioch by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was
+not finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is
+venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.
+
+  See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article "Flavianus
+  von Antiochien" by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's _Real-encyklop._ (ed. 3).
+  For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack's, _Hist. of Dogma_, iv.
+  95.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN II. (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was chosen by the
+emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most probably in 498. He
+endeavoured to please both parties by steering a middle course in
+reference to the Chalcedon (q.v.) decrees, but was induced after great
+hesitation to agree to the request of Anastasius that he should accept
+the Henoticon, or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing
+so, while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of
+Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who in 511
+found in the riots which were occurring between the rival parties in the
+streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian, and banishing him to
+Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was soon after his death enrolled
+among the saints of the Greek Church, and after some opposition he was
+also canonized by the Latin Church.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent of the
+Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided at the council
+which deposed Eutyches (q.v.) in 448, but in the following year he was
+deposed by the council of Ephesus (the "robber synod"), which reinstated
+Eutyches in his office. Flavian's death shortly afterwards was
+attributed, by a pious fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his
+theological opponents. The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a
+martyr, and in the Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of
+February.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIGNY, a town of eastern France, in the department of Côte-d'Or,
+situated on a promontory overlooking the river Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of
+Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725. Among its antiquities are the remains of
+an abbey of the 8th century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the
+manufacture of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as
+the 17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th centuries,
+containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine rood-screen (early
+16th century). A Dominican convent, some old houses and ancient gateways
+are also of interest. About 3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont
+Auxois, the probable site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in A.D. 52
+defeated the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been
+erected on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman
+period have been discovered on the hill.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIN (Lat. _flavus_, yellow), the commercial name for an extract or
+preparation of quercitron bark (_Quercus tinctoria_), which is used as a
+yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered bark (see QUERCITRON).
+
+
+
+
+FLAX. The terms flax or lint (Ger. _Flachs_, Fr. _lin_, Lat. _linum_)
+are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and the plant from
+which it is prepared. The flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_) belongs to
+the natural order _Linaceae_, and, like most plants which have been long
+under cultivation, it possesses numerous varieties, while its origin is
+doubtful. As cultivated it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a
+height of from 20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly
+lance-shaped leaves, branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet
+ending in a bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical,
+having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin, five
+petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing five
+distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five cells, each
+of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten divisions, each of
+which contains a single seed. The seeds of the flax plant, well known as
+linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and of a bright greenish-brown
+colour. They are oval in section, but their maximum contour represents
+closely that of a pear with the stalk removed. The contents are of an
+oily nature, and when liquefied are of great commercial value.
+
+The earliest cultivated flax was _Linum angustifolium_, a smaller plant
+with fewer and narrower leaves than _L. usitatissimum_, and usually
+perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by the inhabitants of
+the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild in south and west Europe
+(including England), North Africa, and western Asia. The annual flax
+(_L. usitatissimum_) has been cultivated for at least four or five
+thousand years in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the
+districts included between the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the
+Black Sea. This annual flax appears to have been introduced into the
+north of Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by the
+western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians; lastly,
+into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after their separation from the
+European Aryans. (De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_.)
+
+The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most ancient of
+all textile industries, very distinct traces of their existence during
+the stone age being preserved to the present day. "The use of flax,"
+says Ferdinand Keller (_Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, translated by
+J.E. Lee), "reaches back to the very earliest periods of civilization,
+and it was most extensively and variously applied in the lake-dwellings,
+even in those of the stone period. But of the mode in which it was
+planted, steeped, heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we
+can form no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by
+the settlers in its cultivation.... Rough or unworked flax is found in
+the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what are technically called
+heads, and, as much attention was given to this last operation, it was
+perfectly clean and ready for use." As to its applications at this early
+period, Keller remarks: "Flax was the material for making lines and nets
+for fishing and catching wild animals, cords for carrying the
+earthenware vessels and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly
+imagine how navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings
+themselves be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the
+erection of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to
+whatever people these monuments may belong, would be altogether
+impracticable without the use of strong ropes."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flax Plant (_Linum usitatissimum_).]
+
+_Manufacture._--That flax was extensively cultivated and was regarded as
+of much importance at a very early period in the world's history there
+is abundant testimony. Especially in ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a
+most important place, linen having been there not only generally worn by
+all classes, but it was the only material the priestly order was
+permitted to wear, while it was most extensively used as wrappings for
+embalmed bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are
+told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph "in vestures of fine linen" (Gen. xlii.
+42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail destroyed the flax and
+barley crops, "for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled"
+(Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous pictorial representations of flax
+culture and preparation exist to the present day on the walls of tombs
+and in Egypt. Sir J. G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt
+shows clearly the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing
+flax. "At Beni Hassan," he says, "the mode of cultivating the plant, in
+the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much resembling our
+salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and making them into
+ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth are distinctly pointed
+out." The preparation of the fibre as conducted in Egypt is illustrated
+by Pliny, who says: "The stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed
+by the heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon them,
+for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind, becoming loose
+is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated. They are then taken out
+and repeatedly turned over in the sun until perfectly dried, and
+afterwards beaten by mallets on stone slabs. That which is nearest the
+rind is called _stupa_ ['tow'], inferior to the inner fibres, and fit
+only for the wicks of lamps. It is combed out with iron hooks until the
+rind is all removed. The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality.
+Men are not ashamed to prepare it" (Pliny, _N.H._ xix. 1). For many
+ages, even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax
+occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent into all
+regions with which open intercourse was maintained. Among Western
+nations it was, without any competitor, the most important of all
+vegetable fibres till towards the close of the 18th century, when, after
+a brief struggle, cotton took its place as the supreme vegetable fibre
+of commerce.
+
+Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a
+moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it requires
+the soil to be in fresh condition without being too rich. Lands newly
+broken up from pasture suit it well, as these are generally freer from
+weeds than those that have been long under tillage. It is usually
+inexpedient to apply manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency
+of this is to produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of
+the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason it
+must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall,
+slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been ploughed in
+autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with the grubber, harrow
+and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the
+seed is sown broadcast by hand or machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per
+acre, and covered in the same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable
+immediately to hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove
+all stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants.
+When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully
+hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and hence the
+importance of sowing the crop on land as free as possible from weeds of
+all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind, move slowly on hands and
+knees, and should remove every vestige of weed in order that the flax
+plants may receive the full benefit of the land. When flax is cultivated
+primarily on account of the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before
+the capsules are quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from
+a green to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have
+become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.
+
+The various operations through which the crop passes from this point
+till flax ready for the market is produced are--(1) Pulling, (2)
+Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling, (6) Scutching.
+
+_Pulling_ and _rippling_ may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is always
+pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it cut or shorn
+like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in dry clear weather;
+and care is to be taken in this, as in all the subsequent operations, to
+keep the root-ends even and the stalks parallel. At the same time it is
+desirable to have, as far as possible, stalks of equal length
+together,--all these conditions having considerable influence on the
+quality and appearance of the finished sample. As a general rule the
+removal of the "bolls" or capsules by the process of rippling
+immediately follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the
+field; but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the
+Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into sheaves,
+dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the early part of
+the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or apparatus for separating
+the seed capsules from the branches, consists of a kind of comb having,
+set in a wooden frame, iron teeth made of round-rod iron 3/16ths of an
+inch asunder at the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in.
+long, to allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The
+points should begin to taper 3 in, from the top. A sheet or other cover
+being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the middle of it,
+and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with the machine between
+them, work at the same time. It is unadvisable to ripple the flax so
+severely as to break or tear the delicate fibres at the upper part of
+the stem. The two valuable commercial products of the flax plant, the
+seeds and the stalk, are separated at this point. We have here to do
+with the latter only.
+
+_Retting_ or _rotting_ is an operation of the greatest importance, and
+one in connexion with which in recent years numerous experiments have
+been made, and many projects and processes put forth, with the view of
+remedying the defects of the primitive system or altogether supplanting
+it. From the earliest times two leading processes of retting have been
+practised, termed respectively water-retting and dew-retting; and as no
+method has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these
+operations, they will first be described.
+
+_Water-retting._--For this--the process by which flax is generally
+prepared--pure soft water, free from iron and other materials which
+might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much impregnated with
+lime is also specially objectionable. The dams or ponds in which the
+operation is conducted are of variable size, and usually between 4 and 5
+ft. in depth. The rippled stalks are tied in small bundles and packed,
+roots downwards, in the dams till they are quite full; over the top of
+the upper layer is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with
+the grassy side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to
+keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a process of
+fermentation should immediately be set up, which soon makes itself
+manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles. After a few days the
+fermentation subsides; and generally in from ten days to two weeks the
+process ought to be complete. The exact time, however, depends upon the
+weather and upon the particular kind of water in which the flax is
+immersed. The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies
+in deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain under
+water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed "over-retting,"
+a condition which increases the amount of codilla in the scutching
+process; whilst "under-retting" leaves part of the gummy or resinous
+matter in the material, which hinders the subsequent process of
+manufacture. As the steeping is such a critical operation, it is
+essential that the stalks be frequently examined and tested as the
+process nears completion. When it is found that the fibre separates
+readily from the woody "shove" or core, the beets or small bundles are
+ready for removing from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly
+and equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes from a
+week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the fibres may spin
+equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is necessary to turn the
+material over several times during the process. It is ready for
+gathering when the core cracks and separates easily from the fibre. At
+this point advantage is taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax,
+which is now ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stooking
+and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching mill.
+
+_Dew-retting_ is the process by which all the Archangel flax and a large
+portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are prepared. By this method
+the operation of steeping is entirely dispensed with, and the flax is,
+immediately after pulling, spread on the grass where it is under the
+influence of air, sunlight, night-dews and rain. The process is tedious,
+the resulting fibre is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly
+liable to undergo heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of
+the flax) if exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little
+access of air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in
+structure, although in all probability water-retting would result in a
+fibre as good or even better in quality.
+
+The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb, is
+that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence of heat and
+moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular substance--pectose
+or an analogue of that body--into pectin and pectic acid. The former,
+being soluble, is left in the water; but the latter, an insoluble body,
+is in part attached to the fibres, from which it is only separated by
+changing into soluble metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline
+ley in the subsequent process of bleaching.
+
+To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the primitive
+fashions above described, although numerous and persistent attempts have
+been made to improve upon it, or to avoid the process altogether. The
+uniform result of all experiments has only been to demonstrate the
+scientific soundness of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all
+the proposed improvements of recent times seek to obviate the
+tediousness, difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on
+in the open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention
+was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by Mr James
+Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely mechanical means
+without any retting whatever; but after the Irish Linen Board had
+expended many thousands of pounds and much time in making experiments
+and in erecting his machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete
+failure. About the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a
+process of "cottonizing" flax--a method of proceeding which had been
+suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen's process
+consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours in a weak
+solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two hours in a
+similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution containing 5% of
+carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed in a vat containing water
+acidulated with ½% of sulphuric acid. The action of the acid on the
+carbonate of soda with which the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre
+to split up into a fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to
+manufacture in the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax
+into bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recommend
+it to public acceptance; and Claussen's process therefore remains only
+as an interesting and suggestive experiment.
+
+The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto endured the
+test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm position as a distinct
+improvement, is the warm-water retting patented in England in 1846 by an
+American, Robert B. Schenck. For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes
+large wooden vats under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in
+an upright position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and
+maintained at a temperature of from 75° to 95° F. during the whole time
+the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermentation is set up,
+gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently becoming very
+repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy scum over the surface
+of the water. The whole process occupies only from 50 to 60 hours. A
+still further improvement, due to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at
+this point, which consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are
+taken out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream of pure
+water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all the slimy
+glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but the subsequent
+processes of breaking and scutching are much facilitated.
+
+A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of Glasgow in
+1852, and subsequently modified and improved by J. Buchanan. The system
+possessed the advantages of rapidity, being completed in about ten
+hours, and freedom from any noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh,
+ill-spinning fibre, and consequently failed to meet the sanguine
+expectations of its promoters.
+
+In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael Andrews, secretary
+of the Belfast Flax Supply Association, made some suggestions and
+experiments which deserve close attention. In a paper contributed to the
+International Flax Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details
+regarding an experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of
+imitating by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary
+methods. In brief, Mr Andrews' method consists in introducing water at
+the proper temperature into the retting vat, and maintaining that
+temperature by keeping the air of the chamber at a proper degree of
+heat. By this means the flax is kept at a uniform temperature with great
+certainty, since even should the heat of the air vary considerably
+through neglect, the water in the vat only by slow degrees follows such
+fluctuations. "It may be remarked," says Mr Andrews, "that the
+superiority claimed for this method of retting flax over what is known
+as the 'hot-water steeping' is uniformity of temperature; in fact the
+experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control can be exercised
+over the means adopted to produce the artificial climate in which the
+vats containing the flax are situated."
+
+Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtaining a quick
+and practical method of retting flax. The one by Messrs Doumer and
+Deswarte appears to have been well received in France, but in Ireland
+the invention of Messrs Loppens and Deswarte has recently received the
+most attention. The apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the
+partition being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and
+covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other.
+Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately under the
+perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters the upper
+chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams, the latter being
+prevented from rising too high. The soluble substances are dissolved by
+the water, and the liquid thus formed being heavier than water, sinks to
+the bottom of the tank where it is allowed to escape through an outlet.
+By this arrangement the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh
+water, a condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids,
+in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow, and hence
+the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the operation is
+completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the flax remains on
+the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly before being removed to
+dry.
+
+The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, and
+the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly made some experiments
+with this method, and the following extract from the Association's
+report for 1905 shows the success which attended their efforts:--
+
+  "By desire of the department (which has taken up the position of an
+  impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was
+  divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the
+  patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to Courtrai
+  and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched were
+  examined by an inspector of the department and by several flax
+  spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced superior to
+  the other"....
+
+  "To summarise results up to date--
+
+    1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in the field
+    in Ireland.
+
+    2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.
+
+    3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte's patent) is at
+    least equal to the Lys, as to quality and yield of fibre produced."
+
+Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to expect
+further attempts with the same object of supplanting the ordinary
+steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical or other method would
+probably be the means of reviving the flax industry in the remote parts
+of the British Isles.
+
+_Scutching_ is the process by which the fibre is freed from its woody
+core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-retted flax two
+operations are required, first breaking and then scutching, and these
+are done either by hand labour or by means of small scutching or lint
+mills, driven either by water or steam power. Hand labour, aided by
+simple implements, is still much used in continental countries; also in
+some parts of Ireland where labour is cheap or when very fine material
+is desired; but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these
+being more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks
+between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these rollers,
+of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes arranged to work
+alternately forwards and backwards in order to thoroughly break the
+woody material or "boon" of the straw, while the broken "shoves" are
+beaten out by suspending the fibre in a machine fitted with a series of
+revolving blades, which, striking violently against the flax, shake out
+the bruised and broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching
+machines and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view
+of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of fibre, both
+in respect of cleanness and in producing the least proportion of codilla
+or scutching tow.
+
+The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable staple in
+the market, on account of its fineness, strength and particularly bright
+colour. There the flax is dried in the field, and housed or stacked
+during the winter succeeding its growth, and in the spring of the
+following year it is retted in crates sunk in the sluggish waters of the
+river Lys. After the process has proceeded a certain length, the crates
+are withdrawn, and the sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter
+once more tied up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to
+complete the retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably
+practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in cones,
+instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored for some time
+previous to undergoing the operation of scutching. In all operations the
+greatest care is taken, and the cultivators being peculiarly favoured as
+to soil, climate and water, Courtrai flax is a staple of unapproached
+excellence.
+
+  An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb. of
+  air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he separated
+  1946 lb. of bolls which yielded 910 lb. of seed. The 5824 lb. (52 cwt.)
+  of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving 39 cwt. of
+  retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lb. (702 lb.) of finished
+  flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal to about 9%
+  of the dried flax with the bolls, 12% of the boiled straw, and over
+  16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by Schenck's method
+  gave 33 tons bolls, with 27.50 tons of loss in steeping; 32.13 tons
+  were separated in scutching, leaving 5.90 tons of finished fibre, with
+  1.47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following analysis of two
+  varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo Müller (Hoffmann's
+  _Berichte über die Entwickelung der chemischen  Industrie_):--
+
+    Ash                                          0.70    1.32
+    Water                                        8.65   10.70
+    Extractive matter                            3.65    6.02
+    Fat and wax                                  2.39    2.37
+    Cellulose                                   82.57   71.50
+    Intercellular substance and pectose bodies   2.74    9.41
+
+  According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (_Die Rohstoffe des
+  Pflanzenreiches_), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140
+  centimetres, the length of the individual cells being from 2.0 to 4.0
+  millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0.012 and 0.025 mm.,
+  the average being 0.016 mm.
+
+Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement both in the
+growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till comparatively recent
+times, the whole industry was conducted only on a domestic scale has had
+much influence. At no very remote date it was the practice in Scotland
+for every small farmer and cotter not only to grow "lint" or flax in
+small patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven,
+bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own premises,
+and all by members or dependents of the family. The same practice
+obtained and still largely prevails in other countries. Thus the flax
+industry was long kept away from the most powerful motives to apply to
+it labour-saving devices, and apart from the influence of scientific
+inquiry for the improvement of methods and processes. As cotton came to
+the front, just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving
+were being introduced, the result was that in many localities where flax
+crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually drooped and
+ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by degrees ceased to be a
+domestic industry, and began to centre in and become the characteristic
+factory employment of special localities, which depended, however, for
+their supply of raw material primarily on the operations of small
+growers, working, for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote
+thinly populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the
+preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day, not
+come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities) of
+scientific knowledge and experience.
+
+_Cultivation._--The approximate number of acres (1905) under cultivation
+in the principal flax-growing countries is as follows:--
+
+  Russia     3,500,000 acres.
+  Caucasia     450,000   "
+  Austria      175,000   "
+  Italy        120,000   "
+  Poland        95,000   "
+  Rumania       80,000   "
+  Germany       75,000   "
+  France        65,000   "
+  Belgium       53,000   "
+  Hungary       50,000   "
+  Ireland       46,000   "
+  Holland       38,000   "
+
+Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably the combined
+quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned countries, the quality
+of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is cultivated in the Russian
+provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia, Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod,
+Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka, Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or
+Jaroslav, while the bulk of the material is exported through the Baltic
+ports. Riga and St Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal
+ports, but flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau,
+Narva and Königsberg. Sometimes it is exported from Archangel, but this
+port is frost-bound for a great period of the year; moreover, most of
+the districts are nearer to the Baltic.
+
+
+  _The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the
+  Change in Price of a few well-known Varieties._
+
+  +---------------+----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  |               |   Dec.   |   Dec.   |   Dec.   | Dec.|  Dec.  | Dec.| Dec.| Dec.| Dec.| Dec.|
+  |               |  1897.   |  1898.   |  1899.   |1900.| 1901.  |1902.|1903.|1904.|1905.|1906.|
+  |               +----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  |Riga--         |     £    |    £     |    £     |  £  |   £    |  £  |  £  |  £  |  £  |  £  |
+  |   SPK         |    23½   |21  to 22 |28  to 32 | 42  |28 to 32| 32  | 39  | 33  | 35  | 32  |
+  |  XHDX         |    27    |   26½    |32½ to 33 | 43½ |   34   | 35  | 42  | 34  | 36  | 33  |
+  |     W         |16 to 16¼ |15½ to 16 |22½ to 24 | 31  |18 to 19| 22  | 29  | 23  | 24  | 24  |
+  |St Petersburg--|          |          |          |     |        |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |  Bajetsky     |28 to 29  |26  to 27 |32  to 32½| 46  |   37   | 33  | 49  | 36  | 42  | 38  |
+  |  Jaropol      |24 to 25  |23 to  23½|   30     | 42  |   32   | 30  | 42  | 33  | 35  | 33  |
+  |Tows--         |          |          |          |     |        |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |  Mologin      |24 to 24¼ |23 to  23½|24½ to 25 | 31½ |   32   | 32  | 42  | 32  | 34  | 32½ |
+  |  Novgorod     |23½ to 24 |   23[1]  |26  to 26½| 33  |   31½  | 32½ | 41  | 31½ | 37  | 34½ |
+  |               | [1]      |          | [1]      |     |        |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Archangel--    |          |          |          |     |        |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |  ½ and ½ tow  |    25    |24  to 24½|26  to 27 | 32  |   31   | 32  | 41  | 31½ | 32½ | 31  |
+  |  2nd Codilla  |    25    |24  to 24 |25½ to 26 | 32  |   31   | 32  | 41  | 32  | 33  | 31  |
+  +---------------+----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as the district
+in which it is grown, and it is further classified by special marks.
+The following names amongst others are given to the fibre:--Archangel,
+Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher, Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin,
+Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz, Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol,
+Jaroslav, Kama, Kashin, Königsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns,
+Krasnoholm, Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Malmuish,
+Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky, Nolinsk, Novgorod,
+Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy, Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel,
+Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg, Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk,
+Sytcheffka, Taroslav. Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni,
+Vologda, Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk.
+
+These names indicate the particular district in which the flax has been
+grown, but it is more general to group the material into classes such as
+Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs, Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens,
+Pernau, Archangel, &c.
+
+  The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one or
+  other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not
+  necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October 1906
+  quotations appeared as under:--
+
+    Livonian     basis K    £26 to £27     per ton,
+    Hoffs          "   HD   £21 to £22        "
+    Pernau.        "   D    £28 to £28: 10    "
+    Dorpat         "   D    £32 to £32: 10    "
+                 cleaned.
+
+  It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to
+  variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and
+  demand.
+
+  The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:--
+
+    K means Crown and is usually the base mark.
+    H   "   Light and represents a rise of about £1
+    P   "   Picked        "       "         "    £3
+    G   "   Grey          "       "         "    £3
+    S   "   Superior      "       "         "    £4
+    W   "   White         "       "         "    £4
+    Z   "   Zins          "       "         "    £10
+
+  Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be
+  understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two
+  letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more, since
+  every mark has not the same value.
+
+  If we take £25 as the value of the base mark, the value per ton for
+  the different groups would be:--
+
+      K   £25     HSPK   £33
+     HK   £26     GSPK   £35
+     PK   £28     WSPK   £36
+    HPK   £29       ZK   £35
+    GPK   £31      HZK   £36
+    SPK   £32      GZK   £38, &c.
+
+  The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for Hoffs, D
+  for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and R for
+  Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before, after or
+  in both places. With £20 as base mark we have:--
+
+       HD    £20 per ton.
+      PHD    £23  "   "
+     FPHD    £26  "   "
+    SFPHD    £29  "   "
+     XHDX    £32  "   "
+      XRX    £35  "   "
+
+  Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named;
+
+      W, Wrack flax.                 PD, Picked Dreiband flax.
+     PW, Picked wrack flax.          LD, Livonian Dreiband.
+    WPW, White picked wrack.        PLD, Picked Livonian Dreiband.
+    GPW, Grey picked wrack flax.     SD, Slanitz Dreiband.
+      D, Dreiband (Threeband).      PSD, Picked Slanitz Dreiband.
+
+  The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped from Riga
+  either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or Wiasma Slanitz,
+  showing from what district they come, as there are differences in the
+  quality of the produce of each district. The lowest quality of Riga
+  flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband Wrack.
+
+  Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is imported
+  is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few. The leading
+  marks are:--
+
+    LOD, indicating Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).
+     OD,     "      Ordinary Dreiband.
+      D,     "      Dreiband.
+     HD,     "      Light Dreiband.
+      R,     "      Risten.
+      G,     "      Cut.
+      M,     "      Marienburg.
+
+  Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being
+  the best.
+
+  Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Petersburg,
+  the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
+  Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. 2, while all the Archangel
+  flax is dew-retted.
+
+  Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered from
+  the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this quantity
+  a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom. The Chief
+  British ports for the landing of flax are:--Belfast, Dundee, Leith,
+  Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the chief centres
+  of the flax industry.
+
+  The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast Flax
+  Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all sources
+  into the different parts of the United Kingdom:--
+
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+    |       | Imports to | Imports to | Imports to  |
+    | Year. | the United |  Ireland.  | England and |
+    |       |  Kingdom.  |            |  Scotland.  |
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+    |       |   Tons.    |    Tons.   |     Tons.   |
+    | 1895  |  102,622   |   33,506   |    67,116   |
+    | 1896  |   95,199   |   36,650   |    58,549   |
+    | 1897  |   98,802   |   37,715   |    61,087   |
+    | 1898  |   97,253   |   34,440   |    62,813   |
+    | 1899  |   99,052   |   40,145   |    58,907   |
+    | 1900  |   71,586   |   31,563   |    40,023   |
+    | 1901  |   75,565   |   28,785   |    46,780   |
+    | 1902  |   73,611   |   29,727   |    43,884   |
+    | 1903  |   94,701   |   38,168   |    56,533   |
+    | 1904  |   74,917   |   33,024   |    41,893   |
+    | 1905  |   90,098   |   40,063   |    50,035   |
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the
+  acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864 it
+  reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433.
+  After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that
+  year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated
+  considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to 89,225
+  acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage was above
+  108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000, while the
+  average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000 acres.
+       (T. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] 8 and 2, which means 80% of one quality and 20% of another.
+    Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not unusual to have
+    quotations for flaxes containing four different kinds.
+
+
+
+
+FLAXMAN, JOHN (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughtsman, was born on
+the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary residence of his parents at
+York. The name John was hereditary in the family, having been borne by
+his father after a forefather who, according to the family tradition,
+had fought on the side of parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled
+as a carrier or farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the
+father of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder
+and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New Street,
+Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was See, and John was
+their second son. Within six months of his birth the family returned to
+London, and in his father's back shop he spent an ailing childhood. His
+figure was high-shouldered and weakly, the head very large for the body.
+His mother having died about his tenth year, his father took a second
+wife, of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and that
+she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother. Of regular
+schooling the boy must have had some, since he is reputed as having
+remembered in after life the tyranny of some pedagogue of his youth; but
+his principal education he picked up for himself at home. He early took
+delight in drawing and modelling from his father's stock-in-trade, and
+early endeavoured to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the
+light of translations from classic literature.
+
+Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped him with
+books, advice, and presently with commissions. The two special
+encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney, and a cultivated
+clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose house in Rathbone Place
+the young Flaxman used to meet the best "blue-stocking" society of those
+days, and, among associates of his own age, the artists Blake and
+Stothard, who became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to
+work with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve
+years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal, and
+became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society of Artists;
+at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of Arts and began to
+exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the second year of its existence.
+In the same year, 1770, he entered as an Academy student and won the
+silver medal. But all these successes were followed by a discomfiture.
+In the competition for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman,
+who had made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged by
+the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor named
+Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement, and indeed seemed
+to have had a wholesome effect in curing the successful lad of a
+tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency which made Thomas Wedgwood say
+of him in 1775: "It is but a few years since he was a most supreme
+coxcomb."
+
+He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the schools
+and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy, occasionally also
+attempting diversions into the sister art of painting. To the Academy he
+contributed a wax model of Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax
+(1771); a terracotta bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History
+(1772); a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During
+these years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew family,
+for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work of this class he
+could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The means of such a
+livelihood, however, presented themselves in his twentieth year, when he
+first received employment from Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley,
+as a modeller of classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental
+vessels and medallion portraits, in those varieties of "jasper" and
+"basalt" ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the
+manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention. In the same
+year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from New Street, Covent Garden,
+to a more commodious house in the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years,
+from his twentieth to his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted
+chiefly by his work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the
+minute refinements of figure outline and modelling which these
+manufacturers aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities
+best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the gifts of
+an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long upon such a minor
+and half-mechanical art of household decoration; but the beauty of the
+product it would be idle to deny, or the value of the training which the
+sculptor by this practice acquired in the delicacies and severities of
+modelling in low relief and on a minute scale.
+
+By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another branch of his
+profession, which was in the future to furnish his chief source of
+livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for the dead. Three of the
+earliest of such monuments by his hand are those of Chatterton in the
+church of St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in
+Gloucester cathedral (1784), and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in
+the cathedral at Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman's career
+memorial bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his
+industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches throughout the
+length and breadth of England, and in them the finest qualities of his
+art are represented. The best are admirable for pathos and simplicity,
+and for the alliance of a truly Greek instinct for rhythmical design and
+composition with that spirit of domestic tenderness and innocence which
+is one of the secrets of the modern soul.
+
+In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married to Anne
+Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until almost his life's
+end. She was a woman of attainments in letters and to some extent in
+art, and the devoted companion of her husband's fortunes and of his
+travels. They set up house at first in Wardour Street, and lived an
+industrious life, spending their summer holidays once and again in the
+house of the hospitable poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five
+years, in 1787, they found themselves with means enough to travel, and
+set out for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice.
+Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman's residence in
+Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than in the shape of
+correspondence. He soon ceased modelling himself for Wedgwood, but
+continued to direct the work of other modellers employed for the
+manufacture at Rome. He had intended to return after a stay of a little
+more than two years, but was detained by a commission for a marble group
+of a Fury of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with
+circumstances of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious
+Comte-Évêque, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of Derry. He
+did not, as things fell out, return until the summer of 1794, after an
+absence of seven years,--having in the meantime executed another ideal
+commission (a "Cephalus and Aurora") for Mr Hope, and having sent home
+models for several sepulchral monuments, including one in relief for the
+poet Collins in Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord
+Mansfield in Westminster Abbey.
+
+But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and European fame
+was not his work in sculpture proper, but those outline designs to the
+poets, in which he showed not only to what purpose he had made his own
+the principles of ancient design in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but
+also by what a natural affinity, better than all mere learning, he was
+bound to the ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the _Iliad_
+and _Odyssey_ were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for Dante by
+Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer; they were all engraved by
+Piroli, not without considerable loss of the finer and more sensitive
+qualities of Flaxman's own lines.
+
+During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled through central and
+northern Italy. On their return they took a house, which they never
+afterwards left, in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square. Immediately
+afterwards we find the sculptor publishing a spirited protest against
+the scheme already entertained by the Directory, and carried out five
+years later by Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of
+art with the spoils of conquered Europe.
+
+The record of Flaxman's life is henceforth an uneventful record of
+private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious industry,
+with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not loud but
+loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best worth
+having--Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a son of Hayley's,
+who presently afterwards sickened and died. In 1797 he was made an
+associate of the Royal Academy. Every year he exhibited work of one
+class or another: occasionally a public monument in the round, like
+those of Paoli (1798), or Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey,
+of Sir William Jones for St Mary's, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or
+Howe for St Paul's; more constantly memorials for churches, with
+symbolic Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both
+commonly in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell,
+Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and many more];
+and these pious labours he would vary from time to time with a classical
+piece like those of his earliest predilection. Soon after his election
+as associate, he published a scheme, half grandiose, half childish, for
+a monument to be erected on Greenwich Hill, in the shape of a Britannia
+200 ft. high, in honour of the naval victories of his country. In 1800
+he was elected full Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to
+Paris to see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself
+according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next event which
+makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a chair specially
+created for him by the Royal Academy--the chair of Sculpture: this took
+place in 1810. We have ample evidence of his thoroughness and
+judiciousness as a teacher in the Academy schools, and his professorial
+lectures have been often reprinted. With many excellent observations,
+and with one singular merit--that of doing justice, as in those days
+justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval
+schools--these lectures lack point and felicity of expression, just as
+they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are somewhat
+heavy reading. The most important works that occupied Flaxman in the
+years next following this appointment were the monument to Mrs Baring in
+Micheldever church, the richest of all his monuments in relief
+(1805-1811); that for the Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire,
+which is the next richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's
+(1807), to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and
+Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of Wales's
+Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813). At this time
+the antiquarian world was much occupied with the vexed question of the
+merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman was one of those whose evidence
+before the parliamentary commission had most weight in favour of the
+purchase which was ultimately effected in 1816.
+
+After his Roman period he produced for a good many years no outline
+designs for the engraver except three for Cowper's translations of the
+Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets of outline illustrations drawn
+about the same time, but not published, were one to the _Pilgrim's
+Progress_, and one to a Chinese tale in verse, called "The Casket,"
+which he wrote to amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to
+his old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the
+happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod,
+excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Immediately
+afterwards he was much engaged designing for the goldsmiths--a
+testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and following that, the great
+labour of the famous and beautiful (though quite un-Homeric) "Shield of
+Achilles." Almost at the same time he undertook a frieze of "Peace,
+Liberty and Plenty," for the duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at
+Woburn, and an heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord
+Egremont's house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is
+shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed to Rees's
+_Encyclopaedia_ (1819-1820).
+
+In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis six years
+earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the sculptor's own
+sister,, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house, and his industry was
+scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he delivered at the Academy a lecture
+in memory of his old friend and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then
+lately dead; in 1823 he received from A.W. von Schlegel a visit of which
+that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring soon after
+this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work and exhibition, but
+on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold in church, and died four days
+later, in his seventy-second year. Among a few intimate associates, he
+left a memory singularly dear; having been in companionship, although
+susceptible and obstinate when his religious creed--a devout
+Christianity with Swedenborgian admixtures--was crossed or slighted, yet
+in other things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of
+modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true friend
+and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.
+
+Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or of his age,
+which in England offered neither training nor much encouragement to a
+sculptor, that he is weakest when he is most ambitious, and most
+inspired when he makes the least effort; but so it is. Not merely does
+he fail when he seeks to illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival
+the tumultuousness of Michelangelo--to be intense or tumultuous he was
+never made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his
+work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as it is
+partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures, the "St
+Michael" at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably composed from
+all points of view; but it lacks fire and force, and it lacks the finer
+touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like the diploma piece of the
+"Apollo" and "Marpessa" in the Royal Academy compares with it
+favourably. This is one of the very few things which he is recorded to
+have executed in the marble entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he
+entrusted the finishing work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his
+employ, and was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they
+imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked at the
+Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman's complicated monuments in
+the round, such as the three in Westminster Abbey and the four in St
+Paul's, there is scarcely one which has not something heavy and
+infelicitous in the arrangement, and something empty and unsatisfactory
+in the surface execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in
+relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The truth is
+that he did not thoroughly understand composition on the great scale and
+in the round, but he thoroughly understood relief, and found scope in it
+for his remarkable gifts of harmonious design, and tender, grave and
+penetrating feeling. But if we would see even the happiest of his
+conceptions at their best, we must study them, not in the finished
+marble but rather in the casts from his studio sketches (marred though
+they have been by successive coats of paint intended for their
+protection) of which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the
+Flaxman gallery at University College And the same is true of his
+happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-known
+relief of "Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury." Nay, going farther
+back still among the rudiments and first conceptions of his art, we can
+realize the most essential charm of his genius in the study, not of his
+modelled work at all, but of his sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of
+these the principal public collections are at University College, in the
+British Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are
+dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the excellence
+of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus and Hesiod, in all
+cases save when the designer aims at that which he cannot hit, the
+terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman at his best it is necessary
+to be acquainted not only with the original studies for such designs as
+these (which, with the exception of the Hesiod series, are far finer
+than the engravings), but still more with those almost innumerable
+studies from real life which he was continually producing with pen, tint
+or pencil. These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor's notes
+in existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and
+expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that struck his
+fancy. There are groups of Italy and London, groups of the parlour and
+the nursery, of the street, the garden and the gutter; and of each group
+the artist knows how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual
+secret, expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art of
+sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and balancings of
+the various figures in any given group, and not less happily the charm
+of the affections which link the figures together and inspire their
+gestures.
+
+  The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various
+  biographical and other publications; the principal are the
+  following:--An anonymous sketch in the _European Magazine_ for 1823;
+  an anonymous "Brief Memoir," prefixed to _Flaxman's Lectures_ (ed.
+  1829, and reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan
+  Cunningham's _Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters_, &c., vol.
+  iii.; notices in the _Life of Nollekens_, by John Thomas Smith; in the
+  _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the
+  _Diaries and Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson_ (London, 1869), the
+  latter an authority of great importance; in the _Lives_ of Stothard,
+  by Mrs Bray, of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and
+  of Blake, by Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated
+  essays, principally on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the
+  _Art Journal_ for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G.F. Teniswood; _Essays in
+  English Art_, by Frederick Wedmore; _The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32
+  plates, with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and
+  Genius of Flaxman_, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article
+  "Flaxman" in the _Dictionary of National Biography_.     (S. C)
+
+
+
+
+FLEA (0. Eng. _fléah_, or _fléa_, cognate with _flee_, to run away from,
+to take flight), a name typically applied to _Pulex irritans_, a
+well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other mammals,
+remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly cosmopolitan. In
+ordinary language the name is used for any species of _Siphonaptera_
+(otherwise known as _Aphaniptera_), which, though formerly regarded as a
+suborder of _Diptera_ (q.v.), are now considered to be a separate order
+of insects. All _Siphonaptera_, of which more than 100 species are
+known, are parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
+belong to the family _Pulicidae_, of which _P. irritans_ may be taken as
+the type; but the order also includes the _Sarcopsyllidae_, the females
+of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the _Ceratopsyllidae_,
+or bat-fleas.
+
+Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body, small and
+indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae situated in
+cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes, which are always
+minute and sometimes absent. The structure of the mouth-parts is
+different from that seen in any other insects. The actual piercing
+organs are the mandibles, while the upper lip or labrum forms a sucking
+tube. The maxillae are not piercing organs, and their function is to
+protect the mandibles and labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of
+the host. Maxillary and labial palpi are also present, and the latter,
+together with the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.
+
+Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis. The
+footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very active; they feed upon
+almost any kind of waste animal matter, and when full-grown form a
+silken cocoon. The human flea is considerably exceeded in size by
+certain other species found upon much smaller hosts; thus the European
+_Hystrichopsylla talpae_, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small
+mammals, attains a length of 5½ millimetres; another large species
+infests the Indian porcupine. Of the _Sarcopsyllidae_ the best known
+species is the "jigger" or "chigoe" (_Dermatophilus penetrans_),
+indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West Africa
+during the second half of last century. Since then this pest has spread
+across the African continent and even reached Madagascar. The
+impregnated female jigger burrows into the feet of men and dogs, and
+becomes distended with eggs until its abdomen attains the size and
+appearance of a small pea. If in extracting the insect the abdomen be
+ruptured, serious trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At
+least four species of fleas (including _Pulex irritans_) which infest
+the common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the active
+agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human beings.
+     (E. E. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FLÈCHE (French for "arrow"), the term generally used in French
+architecture for a spire, but more especially employed to designate the
+timber spire covered with lead, which was erected over the intersection
+of the roofs over nave and transepts; sometimes these were small and
+unimportant, but in cathedrals they were occasionally of large
+dimensions, as in the flèche of Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly
+100 ft. high; this, however, is exceeded by the example of Amiens
+cathedral, which measures 148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its
+finial.
+
+
+
+
+FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT (1632-1710), French preacher and author, bishop of
+Nîmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse, on the 10th of June
+1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by his uncle, Hercule Audiffret,
+superior of the Congrégation des Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered
+the order. On the death of his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the
+strictness of its rules, and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to
+writing poetry. His French poems met with little success, but a
+description in Latin verse of a tournament (_carrousel, circus regius_),
+given by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
+subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefèvre de Caumartin,
+afterwards _intendant_ of finances and counsellor of state, whom he
+accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (q.v.), where the king had ordered the
+_Grands Jours_ to be held (1665), and where Caumartin was sent as
+representative of the sovereign. There Fléchier wrote his curious
+_Mémoires sur les Grand Jours tenus à Clermont_, in which he relates, in
+a half romantic, half historical form, the proceedings of this
+extraordinary court of justice. In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured
+for him the post of _lecteur_ to the dauphin. The sermons of Fléchier
+increased his reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest
+pitch by his funeral orations. The most important are those on Madame de
+Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership of the Academy, the
+duchesse d'Aiguillon (1675), and, above all, Marshal Turenne (1676). He
+was now firmly established in the favour of the king, who gave him
+successively the abbacy of St Séverin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the
+office of almoner to the dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of
+Lavaur, from which he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nîmes. The edict
+of Nantes had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were
+still very numerous at Nîmes. Fléchier, by his leniency and tact,
+succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even gained
+the esteem of those who declined to change their faith. During the
+troubles in the Cévennes (see HUGUENOTS) he softened to the utmost of
+his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed himself so indulgent even
+to what he regarded as error, that his memory was long held in
+veneration amongst the Protestants of that district. It is right to add,
+however, that some authorities consider the accounts of his leniency to
+have been greatly exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond
+what the edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of
+February 1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
+Fléchier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust and
+sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal Bourdaloue in
+earnestness of thought and vigour of expression; nor can he rival the
+philosophical depth or the insinuating and impressive eloquence of
+Massillon. But he is always ingenious, often witty, and nobody has
+carried farther than he the harmony of diction, sometimes marred by an
+affectation of symmetry and an excessive use of antithesis. His two
+historical works, the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more
+remarkable for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive
+insight.
+
+  The last complete edition of Fléchier's works is by J.P. Migne (Paris,
+  1856); the _Mémoires sur les Grands Jours_ was first published in 1844
+  by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as _Mém. sur les Gr. J. d'Auvergne_, with notice
+  by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M. Chéruel, 1862). His chief works
+  are: _Histoire de Théodose le Grand_, _Oraisons funèbres_, _Histoire
+  du Cardinal Ximénès_, _Sermons de morale_, _Panégyriques des saints_.
+  He left a _portrait_ or _caractère_ of himself, addressed to one of
+  his friends. The _Life of Theodosius_ has been translated into English
+  by F. Manning (1693), and the "Funeral Oration of Marshal Turenne" in
+  H.C. Fish's _History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence_ (ii., 1857).
+  On Fléchier generally see Antonin V.D. Fabre, _La Jeunesse de
+  Fléchier_ (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, _Fléchier, orateur_ (1886); A.
+  Delacroix, _Hist, de Fléchier_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED (1820-1899), German
+philologist and critic, was born at Wolfenbüttel on the 23rd of
+September 1820. He was educated at the Helmstedt gymnasium and the
+university of Göttingen. After holding several educational posts, he was
+appointed in 1861 to the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum'sches
+Gymnasium at Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died
+on the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his labours
+on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these authors he was
+unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-long friend and a worker
+in the same field. His chief works are: _Exercitationes Plautinae_
+(1842), one of the most masterly productions on the language of Plautus;
+"Analecta Plautina," printed in _Philologus_, ii. (1847); _Plauti
+Comoediae_, i., ii. (1850-1851, unfinished), introduced by an _Epistula
+critica ad F. Ritschelium_; _P. Terenti Afri Comoediae_ (new ed., 1898).
+In his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance with
+the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin language and
+metre. He attached great importance to the question of orthography, and
+his short treatise _Fünfzig Artikel_ (1861) is considered most valuable.
+Fleckeisen also contributed largely to the _Jahrbücher fur Philologie_,
+of which he was for many years editor.
+
+  See obituary notice by G. Götz in C. Bursian's _Biographisches
+  Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde_ (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener
+  in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (where the date of birth is given
+  as the 20th of September).
+
+
+
+
+FLECKNOE, RICHARD (c. 1600-1678?), English dramatist and poet, the
+object of Dryden's satire, was probably of English birth, although there
+is no corroboration of the suggestion of J. Gillow (_Bibliog. Dict. of
+the Eng. Catholics_, vol. ii., 1885), that he was a nephew of a Jesuit
+priest, William Flecknoe, or more properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few
+known facts of his life are chiefly derived from his _Relation of Ten
+Years' Travels in Europe, Asia, Affrique and America_ (1655?),
+consisting of letters written to friends and patrons during his travels.
+The first of these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to
+escape the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Béatrix de
+Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him to Rome to
+secure the legalization of her marriage. There in 1645 Andrew Marvell
+met him, and described his leanness and his rage for versifying in a
+witty satire, "Flecknoe, an English Priest at Rome." He was probably,
+however, not in priest's orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in
+1648 crossed the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a
+detailed description. On his return to Europe he entered the household
+of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back to England.
+His royalist and Catholic convictions did not prevent him from writing a
+book in praise of Oliver Cromwell, _The Idea of His Highness Oliver_ ...
+(1659), dedicated to Richard Cromwell. This publication was discounted
+at the restoration by the _Heroick Portraits_ (1660) of Charles II. and
+others of the Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking
+horse from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in _Mac Flecknoe_
+(1682). The opening lines run:--
+
+  "All human things are subject to decay.
+   And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.
+   This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
+   Was called to empire, and had governed long;
+   In prose and verse was owned, without dispute,
+   Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute."
+
+Dryden's aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe's affectation of
+contempt for the players and his attacks on the immorality of the
+English stage. His verse, which hardly deserved his critic's sweeping
+condemnation, was much of it religious, and was chiefly printed for
+private circulation. None of his plays was acted except _Love's
+Dominion_, announced as a "pattern for the reformed stage" (1654), that
+title being altered in 1664 to _Love's Kingdom_, with a _Discourse of
+the English Stage_. He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the
+actors whom he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been
+staged. Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and is
+said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted with the
+nobility than with the muses. He died probably about 1678.
+
+  A _Discourse of the English Stage_, was reprinted in W.C. Hazlitt's
+  _English Drama and Stage_ (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert Southey,
+  in his _Omniana_ (1812), protested against the wholesale depreciation
+  of Flecknoe's works. See also "Richard Flecknoe" (Leipzig, 1905, in
+  _Munchener Beiträge zur ... Philologie_), by A. Lohr, who has given
+  minute attention to his life and works.
+
+
+
+
+FLEET, a word in all its significances, derived from the root of the
+verb "to fleet," from O. Eng. _fleotan_, to float or flow, which
+ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in Gr. [Greek:
+pleein], to sail, and Lat. _pluere_, to rain; cf. Dutch _vliessen_, and
+Ger. _fliessen_. In English usage it survives in the name of many
+places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream in
+London that formerly ran into the Thames between the bottom of Ludgate
+Hill and the present Fleet Street. From the idea of "float" comes the
+application of the word to ships, when in company, and particularly to a
+large number of warships under the supreme command of a single officer,
+with the individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and
+subordinate command. The distinction between a fleet and a squadron is
+often one of name only. In the British navy the various main divisions
+are or have been called fleets and squadrons indifferently. The word is
+also frequently used of a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is
+also applied to a row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original
+meaning of the word "flowing" comes the adjectival use of the word,
+swift, or speedy; so also "fleeting," of something evanescent or fading
+away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.
+
+
+
+
+FLEET PRISON, an historic London prison, formerly situated on the east
+side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from the Fleet stream,
+which flowed into the Thames. Concerning its early history little is
+known, but it certainly dated back to Norman times. It came into
+particular prominence from being used as a place of reception for
+persons committed by the Star Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and
+persons imprisoned for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It
+was burnt down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was
+destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782. In
+pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842), by which
+the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen's Bench prisons were consolidated into
+one under the name of Queen's prison, it was finally closed, and in 1844
+sold to the corporation of the city of London, by whom it was pulled
+down. The head of the prison was termed "the warden," who was appointed
+by patent. It became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to
+"farm out" the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which
+made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted on
+prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly evil repute,
+by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid, with another, the sum of
+£5000 to John Huggins for the wardenship. He was guilty of the greatest
+extortions upon prisoners, and, in the words of a committee of the House
+of Commons appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the
+kingdom, "arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into
+dungeons, and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most
+barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of the laws
+of this kingdom." He was committed to Newgate, and an act was passed to
+prevent his enjoying the office of warden or any other office
+whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the Fleet were the limits within
+which particular prisoners were allowed to reside outside the prison
+walls on observing certain conditions.
+
+_Fleet Marriages._--By the law of England a marriage was recognized as
+valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by a person in holy orders,
+even if those orders were not of the Church of England. Neither banns
+nor licence were necessary, and the time and place were alike
+immaterial. Out of this state of the marriage law, in the period of
+laxness which succeeded the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable
+clandestine marriages. They were contracted at first to avoid the
+expenses attendant on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which
+imposed a penalty of £100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted
+another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or licence,
+acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned for debt in the
+Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors, for they had "neither
+liberty, money nor credit to lose by any proceedings the bishop might
+institute against them." The earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage
+is 1613, while the earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in
+1674, but it was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or
+licence that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition,
+and "many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the neighbourhood
+fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or houses as a chapel,"
+and employed touts to solicit custom for them. The scandal and abuses
+brought about by these clandestine marriages became so great that they
+became the object of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke's Act
+(26 Geo. ii. c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity,
+that banns should be published according to the rubric, or a licence
+obtained, and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in
+church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must be by
+the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect of putting a
+stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England was concerned,
+and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna Green (q.v.).
+
+The _Fleet Registers_, consisting of "about two or three hundred large
+registers" and about a thousand rough or "pocket" books, eventually came
+into private hands, but were purchased by the government in 1821, and
+are now deposited in the office of the registrar-general, Somerset
+House. Their dates range from 1686 to 1754. In 1840 they were declared
+not admissible as evidence to prove a marriage.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.S. Burn, _The Fleet Registers; comprising the History
+  of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and Marriage-house
+  Keepers_, &c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, _The Fleet: its River, Prison
+  and Marriages_ (London, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, CHARLES (d. 1692), English soldier and politician, third son
+of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, and of Anne,
+daughter of Nicholas Luke of Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into
+Gray's Inn on the 30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great
+Rebellion, like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished
+themselves in the field, he joined Essex's life-guard, was wounded at
+the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and fought at
+Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of the court of wards,
+and in 1646 became member of parliament for Marlborough. In the dispute
+between the army and parliament he played a chief part, and was said to
+have been the principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at
+Holmby, but he did not participate in the king's trial. In 1649 he was
+appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as
+lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell's campaign in
+Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next year he was
+elected a member of the council of state, and being recalled from
+Scotland was entrusted with the command of the forces in England, and
+played a principal part in gaining the final triumph at Worcester. In
+1652 he married [1] Cromwell's daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and
+was made commander-in-chief in Ireland, to which title that of lord
+deputy was added. The chief feature of his administration, which lasted
+from September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the
+soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of the
+original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed also great
+severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic priests, and favoured
+the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan sects to the disadvantage of the
+moderate Presbyterians, exciting great and general discontent, a
+petition being finally sent in for his recall.
+
+Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell's policy. He
+supported his assumption of the protectorate and his dismissal of the
+parliaments. In December 1654 he became a member of the council, and
+after his return to England in 1655 was appointed one of the
+major-generals. He approved of the "Petition and Advice," only objecting
+to the conferring of the title of king on Cromwell, became a member of
+the new House of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell's foreign policy
+in Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the
+Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell's death,
+naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said that Cromwell
+had in fact so nominated him. He, however, gave his support to Richard's
+assumption of office, but allowed subsequently, if he did not instigate,
+petitions from the army demanding its independence, and finally
+compelled Richard by force to dissolve parliament. His project of
+re-establishing Richard in close dependence upon the army met with
+failure, and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of
+May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the committee of
+safety and of the council of state, and one of the seven commissioners
+for the army, while on the 9th of June he was nominated
+commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his power was undermined and
+was attacked by parliament, which on the 11th of October declared his
+commission void. The next day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of
+the parliament and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk's
+approach from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order. While
+hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on the point
+of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th of December restored
+the Rump, when he was deprived of his command and ordered to appear
+before parliament to answer for his conduct. The Restoration therefore
+took place without him. He was included among the twenty liable to
+penalties other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding
+any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he survived
+till the 4th of October 1692.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a
+    third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward
+    Hartopp.
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM (1656-1723), English divine, was descended of an
+ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the Tower of London on New
+Year's Day 1656. He received his education at Eton and at King's
+College, Cambridge. About the time of the Revolution he took orders, and
+was shortly afterwards made rector of St Austin's, London, and lecturer
+of St Dunstan's in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in 1702, and
+in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from which he was
+translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at Tottenham, Middlesex, on
+the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood was regarded as the best preacher of
+his time. He was accurate in learning, and effective in delivery, and
+his character stood deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal
+administration he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a
+zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite of his
+Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance brought him
+into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with Swift, but he
+never entered into personal controversy.
+
+  His principal writings are---_An Essay on Miracles_ (1701); _Chronicum
+  preciosum_ (an account of the English coinage, 1707); and _Free
+  Sermons_ (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary,
+  the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last was
+  condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384 of _The
+  Spectator_, circulated more widely than ever. A collected edition of
+  his works, with a biographical preface, was published in 1737.
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of the Wyre, 230 m. N.W.
+by N. from London, the terminus of a joint branch of the London &
+North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274;
+(1901) 12,082. It dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir
+Peter Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward views,
+especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine, but the neighbouring
+country is flat and of little interest. The two railways jointly are the
+harbour authority. The dock is provided with railways and machinery for
+facilitating traffic, including a large grain elevator. The shipping
+traffic is chiefly in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers
+serve Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other
+ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there are
+salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant promenade, with
+other appointments of a watering-place. There are also barracks with a
+military hospital and a rifle range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one
+of the principal public schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall
+was the seat of Sir Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of
+the school on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided
+into classical and modern sides, with a special department for
+preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A number of
+entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships tenable at the
+universities are offered annually. The number of boys is about 350.
+
+
+
+
+FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT (1855-1886), German traveller in West Africa, was
+born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna, Russia. After receiving a
+commercial education he obtained in 1875 a position in Lagos, West
+Africa. In 1879 he ascended the Benue river some 125 m. above the
+farthest point hitherto reached. His careful survey of the channel
+secured him a commission from the German African Society to explore the
+whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba, and then
+visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct from the sultan for his
+intended expedition to Adamawa. This expedition was undertaken in 1882,
+and on the 18th of August in that year Flegel discovered the source of
+the Benue at Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the
+Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed. After a
+short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in April 1885 with a
+commission from the German African Company and the Colonial Society to
+open up the Niger-Benue district to German trade. This expedition had
+the support of Prince Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to
+obtain for Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of
+influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger Company).
+Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue to Yola, but was
+unable to accomplish his mission. He returned to the coast and died at
+Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the 11th of September 1886. (See
+further GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE.)
+
+  Flegel wrote _Lose Blatter aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaafreunde_
+  (Hamburg, 1885), and _Vom Niger-Benue. Briefe aus Afrika_ (edited by
+  K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT (1801-1888), German Orientalist, was born
+at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he
+studied theology and oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently
+continuing his studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of
+oriental languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till
+his death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda's
+_Historia ante-Islamica_ (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi's _Commentary on
+the Koran_ (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue of the oriental MSS, in
+the royal library at Dresden (1831); published an edition and German
+translation of Ali's _Hundred Sayings_ (1837); the continuation of
+Babicht's edition of _The Thousand and One Nights_ (vols. ix.-xii.,
+1842-1843); and an edition of Mahommed Ibrihim's _Persian Grammar_
+(1847). He also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS.
+at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the 10th of February
+1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members of the French
+Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the German _Ordre pour le
+mérite_.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640), German poet, was born at Hartenstein in the
+Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October 1609, the son of the village
+pastor. At the age of fourteen he was sent to school at Leipzig and
+subsequently studied medicine at the university. Driven away by the
+troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he was fortunate enough to become
+attached to an embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller
+Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned to Reval, and
+here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined to settle as a
+physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a doctor's diploma, but
+died suddenly at Hamburg on his way home on the 2nd of April 1640.
+
+Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming is distinguished
+from most of his contemporaries by the ring of genuine feeling and
+religious fervour that pervades his lyric poems, even his occasional
+pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite form of verse, he was particularly
+happy. Among his religious poems the hymn beginning "In allen meinen
+Taten lass ich den Höchsten raten" is well known and widely sung.
+
+  Fleming's _Teutsche Poëmata_ appeared posthumously in 1642; they are
+  edited by J.M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des litterarischen
+  Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains Fleming's Latin
+  poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann in the second
+  volume of the series entitled _Deutsche Dichter des siebzehnten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Österley (Stuttgart, 1885). A
+  life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ense's _Biographische
+  Denkmale_, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1826). See also J. Straumer, _Paul
+  Flemings Leben und Orientreise_ (1892); L.G. Wysocky, _De Pauli
+  Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and founder of Lincoln
+College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in Yorkshire. He was descended from
+a good family, and was educated at University College, Oxford. Having
+taken his degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next
+year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he became an
+ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some of high rank, to the
+side of the reformer, and incurring the censure of Archbishop Arundel.
+He afterwards became one of Wycliffe's most determined opponents. Before
+1415 he was instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in
+1420 he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended the
+councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope, Martin V.,
+made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native country, and in
+eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this occasion that he was named
+chamberlain to the pope. To Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution
+of the decree of the council for the exhumation and burning of
+Wycliffe's remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it
+on Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the appointment.
+In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence empowering him to found a
+college at Oxford for the special purpose of training up disputants
+against Wycliffe's heresy. He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January
+1431. Lincoln College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its
+endowments were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827-   ), Canadian engineer and publicist, was
+born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of January 1827, but emigrated
+to Canada in 1845. Great powers of work and thoroughness in detail
+brought him to the front, and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of
+the Dominion government. Under his control was constructed the
+Intercolonial railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his
+retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian and
+Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning throughout
+the world, and the construction of a state-owned system of telegraphs
+throughout the British empire. After years of labour he saw the first
+link forged in the chain, in the opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable
+between Canada and Australia. Though not a party man he strongly
+advocated Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the
+Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States. He
+took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became chancellor of
+Queen's University, Kingston.
+
+  He published _The Intercolonial: a History_ (Montreal and London,
+  1876); _England and Canada_ (London, 1884); and numerous _brochures_
+  and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1544-1613), English judge, was born at Newport,
+Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
+in 1574. He represented Winchester in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when
+he was returned for Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of
+London, and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon.
+This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603. In 1604
+he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided over many
+important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted to the chief justiceship
+of the king's bench, and was one of the judges at the trial of the
+_post-nati_ in 1608, siding with the majority of the judges in declaring
+that persons born in Scotland after the accession of James I. were
+entitled to the privileges of natural-born subjects in England. He was
+praised by his contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his "great
+judgments, integrity and discretion." He died on the 7th of August 1613
+at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.
+
+  See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMISH LITERATURE. The older Flemish writers are dealt with in the
+article on DUTCH LITERATURE; after the separation of Belgium, however,
+from the Netherlands in 1830 there was a great revival of Flemish
+literature. The immediate result of the revolution was a reaction
+against everything associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard
+the French language as the speech of liberty and independence. The
+provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the
+Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois. For some
+years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems[1] (1793-1846) had been advocating
+the claims of the Flemish language. He had done his best to allay the
+irritation between Holland and Belgium and to prevent a separation. As
+archivist of Antwerp he made use of his opportunities by writing a
+history of Flemish letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies
+had made it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he
+settled at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish. He
+edited old Flemish classics, _Reinaert de Vos_ (1836), the rhyming
+Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c., and gathered round
+him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the chevalier Philipp Blommaert
+(1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874),
+F.A. Snellaert (1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others.
+Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809, founded in
+1834 in his native town the _Nederduitsche letteroefeningen_, a review
+for the new writers, and it was speedily followed by other Flemish
+organs, and by literary societies for the promotion of Flemish. In 1851
+a central organization for the Flemish propaganda was provided by a
+society, named after the father of the movement, the "Willemsfonds." The
+Catholic Flemings founded in 1874 a rival "Davidsfonds," called after
+the energetic J.B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of
+Louvain, and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium (_Vaderlandsche
+historie_, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda the
+Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in law, and in
+administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools in 1883. Finally in
+1886 a Flemish Academy was established by royal authority at Ghent,
+where a course in Flemish literature had been established as early as
+1854.
+
+The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified by the
+appearance (1837) of _In't Wonderjaar_ 1566 (In the Wonderful year) of
+Hendrik Conscience (q.v.), who roused national enthusiasm by describing
+the heroic struggles of the Flemings against the Spaniards. Conscience
+was eventually to make his greatest successes in the description of
+contemporary Flemish life, but his historical romances and his popular
+history of Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which
+had been started by professors and scholars.
+
+The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best known of whose
+poems are those on the "three sister cities" of Bruges, Ghent and
+Antwerp (_Die drie zustersteden, vaderlandsche trilogie_, Ghent, 1846),
+in which he makes an impassioned protest against the adoption of French
+ideas, manners and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The
+book speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who was a
+magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish. Jan Theodoor
+van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a volunteer in the campaign
+of 1830, settled down as a clerk in Antwerp, and became one of the
+hottest champions of the Flemish movement. He wrote a series of
+political and satirical songs, admirably suited to his public. The
+romantic and sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (q.v.), was typically
+Flemish in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse,
+whose most ambitious work was the epic _Artavelde_ (1859), is perhaps
+best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for children. Peter
+Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native of Antwerp, wrote novels,
+poems, dramas, and a work on the Flemish revival (_De Vlaemsche
+Beweging_, 1847).
+
+Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht Damien Sleeckx
+(1818-1901). An inspector of schools by profession, he was an
+indefatigable journalist and literary critic. He was one of the founders
+in 1844 of the _Vlaemsch België_, the first daily paper in the Flemish
+interest. His works include a long list of plays, among them _Jan Steen_
+(1852), a comedy; _Grétry_, which gained a national prize in 1861; _De
+Visschers van Blankenberg_ (1863); and the patriotic drama of _Zannekin_
+(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to the
+idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete in his
+methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of carefully
+observed detail. He was particularly successful in describing the life
+of the shipping quarter of his native town. Among his novels are: _In't
+Schipperskwartier_ (1856), _Dirk Meyer_ (1860), _Tybaerts en K^ie_
+(1867), _Kunst en Liefde_ ("Art and Love," 1870), and _Vesalius in
+Spanje_ (1895). His complete works were collected in 17 vols.
+(1877-1884).
+
+Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with North Brabant;
+his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by writing historical
+novels in the manner of Conscience, but his later novels are satires on
+contemporary society. A more original talent was displayed by Anton
+Bergmann (1835-1874), who, under the pseudonym of "Tony," wrote _Ernest
+Staas, Advocat_, which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in
+1874. In the same year appeared the _Novellen_ of the sisters Rosalie
+(1834-1875) and Virginie Loveling (b. 1836). These simple and touching
+stories were followed by a second collection in 1876. The sisters had
+published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie Loveling's gifts of fine
+and exact observation soon placed her in the front rank of Flemish
+novelists. Her political sketches, _In onze Vlaamsche gewesten_ (1877),
+were published under the name of "W.G.E. Walter." _Sophie_ (1885), _Een
+dure Eed_ (1892), and _Het Land der Verbeelding_ (1896) are among the
+more famous of her later works. Reimond Stÿns (b. 1850) and Isidoor
+Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular novel,
+_Arm Vlaanderen_ (1884), and some others, and have since written
+separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling, is a disciple of
+Zola. _Het Recht van den Sterkste_ ("The Right of the Strongest," 1893)
+is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders; _Schoppenboer_ ("The Knave of
+Spades," 1898) deals with brutalized peasant life; and _Sursum corda_
+(1895) describes the narrowness and religiosity of village life.
+
+In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed translation of
+_Reinaert_ (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888), &c., produced a
+social epic in three parts, _Drie menschen van in de wieg tot in het
+graf_ ("Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave," 1861), in which he
+propounded radical and humanitarian views. The songs of Julius Vuylsteke
+(1836-1903) are full of liberal and patriotic ardour; but his later life
+was devoted to politics rather than literature. He had been the leading
+spirit of a students' association at Ghent for the propagation of
+"_flamingant_" views, and the "Willemsfonds" owed much of its success to
+his energetic co-operation. His _Uit het studenten leven_ appeared in
+1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of Mme van Ackere
+(1803-1884), _née_ Maria Doolaeghe, were modelled on Dutch originals.
+Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890), née Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her
+tales than her poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales
+are sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets were
+Emmanuel Hiel (q.v.), author of comedies, opera libretti and some
+admirable songs; the abbé Guido Gezelle (1830-1899), who wrote religious
+and patriotic poems in the dialect of West Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck
+(b. 1838), who attempted a great epic subject in _Menschdon Verlost_
+(1872); J.M. Dautzenberg (1808-1869), author of a volume of charming
+_Volksliederen_. The best of Dautzenberg's work is contained in the
+posthumous volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort
+(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs from
+Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The _Makamen en Ghazelen_
+(1866), adapted from Rückert's version of Hariri, and other volumes by
+"Jan Ferguut" (J.A. van Droogenbroeck, b. 1835) show a growing
+preoccupation with form, and with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b.
+1840), they prepare the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of
+the younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is the
+leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and became professor
+in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp. He introduced something of
+the ideas and methods of contemporary French writers into Flemish verse;
+and explained his theories in 1898 in an _Inleiding tot de Poëzie_.
+Among Pol de Mont's numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards
+are _Claribella_ (1893), and _Iris_ (1894), which contains amongst other
+things a curious "_Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef_," a version
+of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.
+
+Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (_Gent van den
+vroegsten Tijd tot heden_, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter (b. 1834), and
+of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839), curator of the Plantin
+museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe (b. 1846).
+
+  See Ida van Düringsfeld, _Von der Schelde bis zur Maas_. _Das geistige
+  Leben der Vlamingen_ (Leipzig, 3 vols., 1861); J. Stecher, _Histoire
+  de la littérature néerlandaise en Belgique_ (1886); _Geschiedenis der
+  Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden_ (1899), by Theodoor
+  Coopman and L. Scharpé; A. de Koninck, _Bibliographie nationale_ (3
+  vols., 1886-1897); and _Histoire politique et littéraire du mouvement
+  flamand_ (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The _Vlaamsche Bibliographie_,
+  issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans de Potter, contains a
+  list of publications between 1830 and 1890; and there is a good deal
+  of information in the excellent _Biographisch woordenboeck der Noord-
+  en Zuid- Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (1878) of Dr W.J.A. Huberts and
+  others.     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Max Rooses, _Keus van Dicht- en Prozawerken van J.F.
+    Willems_, and his _Brieven_ in the publications of the Willemsfonds
+    (Ghent, 1872-1874).
+
+
+
+
+FLENSBURG (Danish, _Flensborg_), a seaport of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the Flensburg Fjord, 20
+m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction of the main line Altona-Vamdrup
+(Denmark), with branches to Kiel and Glücksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The
+principal public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored
+1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval
+church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the
+exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineering,
+navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery contains the
+remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle of Idstedt (25th
+of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument, erected by the Danes to
+commemorate their victory, was removed to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a
+busy centre of trade and industry, and is the most important town in
+what was formerly the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent
+wharves, does a large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards,
+breweries, distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works,
+copper-works, soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade
+with the West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous
+development of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in
+the Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.
+
+Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It attained
+municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged by the Swedes
+after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under Danish rule, of
+Schleswig.
+
+  See Holdt, _Flensburg fruher und jetzt_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+FLERS, a manufacturing town of north-western France, in the
+arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on the Vère, 41 m.
+S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906) 11,188. A modern church
+in the Romanesque style and a restored château of the 15th century are
+its principal buildings. There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, a communal college and a branch of the Bank of
+France. Flers is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region
+which includes the towns of Condé-sur-Noireau and La Ferté-Macé.
+Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton and linen
+fabrics, of which the annual value is about £1,500,000, drugs and
+chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour mills and
+dyeworks.
+
+
+
+
+FLETA, a treatise, with the sub-title _seu Commentarius juris
+Anglicani_, on the common law of England. It appears, from internal
+evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward I., about the year
+1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation of Bracton. The author is
+supposed to have written it during his confinement in the Fleet prison,
+hence the name. It has been conjectured that he was one of those judges
+who were imprisoned for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first
+printed by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845-   ), American ethnologist, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She studied the remains of Indian
+civilization in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, became a member of the
+Archaeological Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with
+the Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American
+Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she was appointed
+special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes, in 1884 prepared and
+sent to the New Orleans Exposition an exhibit showing the progress of
+civilization among the Indians of North America in the quarter-century
+previous, in 1886 visited the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands
+on a mission from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United
+States special agent in the distribution of lands among the Winnebagoes
+and Nez Percés. She was made assistant in ethnology at the Peabody
+Museum in 1882, and received the Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president
+of the Anthropological Society of Washington and of the American
+Folk-Lore Society, and vice-president of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Science; and, working through the Woman's National
+Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans to
+Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In 1888 she published
+_Indian Education and Civilization_, a special report of the Bureau of
+Education. In 1898 at the Congress of Musicians held at Omaha during the
+Trans-Mississippi Exposition she read "several essays upon the songs of
+the North American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of
+Omaha Indians ... sang their native melodies." Out of this grew her
+_Indian Story and Song from North America_ (1900), illustrating "a stage
+of development antecedent to that in which culture music appeared."
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish politician, was the
+son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-1664), and was born at
+Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet,
+afterwards bishop of Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of
+Saltoun, he completed his education by spending some years in travel and
+study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament which
+met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher was a
+fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced by John
+Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of Charles II. in
+Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York, afterwards King James
+II.; but he left Scotland about 1682, subsequently spending some time in
+Holland as an associate of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents.
+
+Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the rising of 1685,
+he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England, but left the army after
+killing one of the duke's trusted advisers. This incident is thus told
+by Sir John Dalrymple:
+
+  "Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of danger to
+  be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the horse of a
+  country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood ready equipt for
+  its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion to Fletcher, gave
+  him opprobrious language, shook his cane and attempted to strike.
+  Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality, yet having been
+  accustomed to foreign services both by sea and land in which he had
+  acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier and a gentleman and of
+  the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol and shot him dead on the
+  spot. The action was unpopular in countries where such refinements
+  were not understood. A clamour was raised against it among the people
+  of the country, in a body they waited upon the duke with their
+  complaints; and he was forced to desire the only soldier and almost
+  the only man of parts in his army, to abandon him."
+
+Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as quitting the
+rebel army because he disapproved of the action of Monmouth in
+proclaiming himself king.
+
+His history during the next few years is rather obscure. He probably
+travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks in Hungary; and having
+in his absence lost his estates and been sentenced to death, he joined
+William of Orange at the Hague, and returned to Scotland in 1689 in
+consequence of the success of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were
+restored to him; and he soon became a leading member of the "club," an
+organization which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland,
+and in general an active opponent of the English government. In 1703, at
+a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher again became a
+member of the Scottish parliament. The failure of the Darien expedition
+had aroused a strong feeling of resentment against England, and Fletcher
+and the national party seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree
+of independence for their country.
+
+His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the union of
+the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third edition of
+the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:--
+
+  "The thought of England's domineering over Scotland was what his
+  generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression which
+  Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his learned and
+  elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted courage and
+  pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union, he performed
+  essential service. He got the act of security passed, which declared
+  that the two crowns should not pass to the same head till Scotland was
+  secured in her liberties civil and religious. Therefore Lord Godolphin
+  was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war after the queen's
+  demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some of the articles, and
+  indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as the act of security
+  was his own work, he had all the merit of that important transaction."
+
+Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired from public
+life. Employing his abilities in another direction, he did a real, if
+homely, service to his country by introducing from Holland machinery for
+sifting grain. He died unmarried in London in September 1716.
+
+Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher's integrity, but he was
+also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as "a Scotch gentleman
+of great parts and many virtues, but a most violent republican and
+extremely passionate." In appearance he was "a low, thin man, of a brown
+complexion; full of fire; with a stern, sour look." Fletcher was a fine
+scholar and a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford
+bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his time. His
+chief works are: _A Discourse of Government relating to Militias_
+(1698); _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698); and
+_An Account of a Conversation concerning a right regulation of
+Governments for the common good of Mankind_ (1704). In Two Discourses he
+suggests that the numerous vagrants who infested Scotland should be
+brought into compulsory and hereditary servitude; and in _An Account of
+a Conversation_ occurs his well-known remark, "I knew a very wise man
+so much of Sir Christopher's (Sir C. Musgrave) sentiment, that he
+believed if a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not
+care who should make the laws of a nation."
+
+  _The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher_ were published in London in
+  1737. See D.S. Erskine, 11th earl of Buchan, _Essay on the Lives of
+  Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792); J.H. Burton,
+  _History of Scotland_, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang,
+  _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611), English author, son of Richard Fletcher,
+vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the poets Phineas and Giles
+Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549. He was educated at Eton and at
+King's College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1569. He was a
+fellow of his college, and was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had
+married Joan Sheafe of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr
+Bridgwater, chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for
+Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland, Germany
+and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the court of the czar
+Theodore with instructions to conclude as alliance between England and
+Russia, to restore English trade, and to obtain better conditions for
+the English Russia Company. The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey,
+had already obtained large concessions through the favour of the
+protector, Boris Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he
+found that Godunov's interest was alienated, and that the Russian
+government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The envoy was badly
+lodged, and treated with obvious contempt, and was not allowed to
+forward letters to England, but the English victory over the Armada and
+his own indomitable patience secured among other advantages for English
+traders exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from
+the infliction of torture. Fletcher's treatment at Moscow was later made
+the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth. He returned to
+England in 1589 in company with Jerome Horsey, and in 1591 he published
+_Of the Russe Commonwealth, Or Maner of Government by the Russe Emperour
+(commonly called The Emperour of Moskovia) with the manners and fashions
+of the people of that Countrey_. In this comprehensive account of
+Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare, church and
+manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to arrange his material
+during the return journey, doubtless received some assistance from the
+longer experience of his travelling companion, who also wrote a
+narrative of his travels, published in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (1626).
+The Russia Company feared that the freedom of Fletcher's criticisms
+would give offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage
+their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was not reprinted
+in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from a copy of the
+original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an introduction by Mr
+Edward A. Bond.
+
+Fletcher was appointed "Remembrancer" to the city of London, and an
+extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and became treasurer of St
+Paul's in 1597. He contemplated a history of the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord Burghley he suggested that it might
+be well to begin with an account from the Protestant side of the
+marriage of Henry VIII. and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties
+prevented the execution of this plan. He had become security to the
+exchequer for the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of
+London, who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprisonment by
+the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually in prison in 1601,
+when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous letter to Burghley from which it
+may be gathered that his prime offence had been an allusion to Essex's
+disgrace as being the work of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed
+in 1610 to negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the "Eastland Merchants,"
+and he died next year, and was buried on the 11th of March in the parish
+of St Catherine Colman, London.
+
+  _The Russe Commonwealth_ was issued in an abridged form in _Hakluyt's
+  Principal Navigations, Voyages_, &c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of 1598), a
+  somewhat completer version in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (pt. iii. ed.
+  1625), also as _History of Russia_ in 1643 and 1657. Fletcher also
+  wrote _De literis antiquae Britanniae_ (ed. by Phineas Fletcher,
+  1633), a treatise on "The Tartars," printed in _Israel Redux_ (ed. by
+  S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost tribes of
+  Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and _Licia, or
+  Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular vertues of his
+  Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets ... whereunto is added
+  the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third_ (1593). This series of
+  love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was published anonymously.
+  Most critics, with the notable exception of Alexander Dyce (Beaumont
+  and Fletcher, _Works_, i. p. xvi., 1843) have accepted it as the work
+  of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence afforded in the first of the
+  _Piscatory Eclogues_ of his son Phineas, who represents his father
+  (Thelgon), as having "raised his rime to sing of Richard's climbing."
+
+  See E.A. Bond's Introduction to the Hakluyt Society's edition; also Dr
+  A.B. Grosart's prefatory matter to _Licia_ (_Fuller Worthies Library_,
+  Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of Phineas
+  Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher's letters relative to the
+  college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved in the
+  Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in
+  Grosart's edition.
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623), English poet, younger son of the
+preceding, was born about 1584. Fuller in his _Worthies of England_ says
+that he was a native of London, and was educated at Westminster school.
+From there he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A.
+degree in 1606, and became a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was
+reader in Greek grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he
+contributed a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to _Sorrow's Joy_.
+His great poem of _Christ's Victory_ appeared in 1610, and in 1612 he
+edited the _Remains_ of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall. It is not known in
+what year he was ordained, but his sermons at St Mary's were famous.
+Fuller tells us that the prayer before the sermon was a continuous
+allegory. He left Cambridge about 1618, and soon after received, it is
+supposed from Francis Bacon, the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk
+coast, where "his clownish and low-parted parishioners ... valued not
+their pastor according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy
+and hastened his dissolution." (Fuller, _Worthies of England_, ed. 1811,
+vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, _The Reward of the Faithful_, appeared
+in the year of his death (1623).
+
+The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is _Christ's
+Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and after Death_ (1610).
+An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page illustrative engravings by
+George Tate. It is in four cantos and is epic in design. The first
+canto, "Christ's Victory in Heaven," represents a dispute in heaven
+between Justice and Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ's life on earth;
+the second, "Christ's Victory on Earth," deals with an allegorical
+account of the Temptation; the third, "Christ's Triumph over Death,"
+treats of the Passion; and the fourth, "Christ's Triumph after Death,"
+treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes with an
+affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher (q.v.) as
+"Thyrsilis." The metre is an eight-line stanza owing something to
+Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and the stanza concludes with
+a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit which nearly every verse
+embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his brother Phineas, to whom he was
+deeply attached, was a close follower of Spenser. In his very best
+passages Giles Fletcher attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear
+of Milton, who did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the
+_Christ's Victory and Triumph_ in his _Paradise Regained_. Fletcher
+lived in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and
+Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion with the
+sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away by his theme and
+forgets to be ingenious, he attains great solemnity and harmony of
+style. His descriptions of the Lady of Vain Delight, in the second
+canto, and of Justice and of Mercy in the first, are worked out with
+much beauty of detail into separate pictures, in the manner of the
+_Faerie Queene_.
+
+  Giles Fletcher's poem was edited (1868) for the _Fuller Worthies
+  Library_, and (1876) for the _Early English Poets_ by Dr A.B. Grosart.
+  It is also reprinted for _The Ancient and Modern Library of
+  Theological Literature_ (1888), and in R. Cattermole's and H.
+  Stebbing's _Sacred Classics_ (1834, &c.) vol. 20. In the library of
+  King's College, Cambridge, is a MS. _Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica
+  Lamentationum Jeremiae_.
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (1729-1785), English divine, was born at Nyon in
+Switzerland on the 12th of September 1729, his original name being DE LA
+FLÉCHIÈRE. He was educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to
+a clerical one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his
+sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders,
+where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went to
+England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutor in a
+Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of the new Methodist
+preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being ordained by the bishop of
+Bangor. He often preached with John Wesley and for him, and became known
+as a fervent supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of
+Dunham, he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five
+years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and zeal.
+Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood Wesley and his
+work, yet he never wrote or said anything inconsistent with his own
+Anglican position. In theology he upheld the Arminian against the
+Calvinist position, but always with courtesy and fairness; his
+resignation on doctrinal grounds of the superintendency (1768-1771) of
+the countess of Huntingdon's college at Trevecca left no unpleasantness.
+The outstanding feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and
+saintliness of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his
+godliness is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the
+words "Mark the perfect man." Southey said that "no age ever provided a
+man of more fervent piety or more perfect charity, and no church ever
+possessed a more apostolic minister." His fame was not confined to his
+own country, for it is said that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a
+character as perfect as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of
+Madeley. He died on the 14th of August 1785.
+
+  Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836. The
+  chief of them, written against Calvinism, are _Five Checks to
+  Antinomianism_, _Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth_,
+  and the _Portrait of St Paul_. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L.
+  Tyerman (1882); F.W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also C.J.
+  Ryle, _Christian Leaders of the 18th Century_, pp. 384-423 (1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650), English poet, elder son of Dr Giles
+Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed above, was born at
+Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the 8th of April 1582. He was
+admitted a scholar of Eton, and in 1600 entered King's College,
+Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of
+the contributors to _Sorrow's Joy_ (1603). His pastoral drama,
+_Sicelides or Piscatory_ (pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance
+before James I., but only produced after the king's departure at King's
+College. He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow of
+his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently because
+certain emoluments were refused him. He became chaplain to Sir Henry
+Willoughby, who presented him in 1621 to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk,
+where he married and spent the rest of his life. In 1627 he published
+_Locustae, vel Pietas Jesuitica_. _The Locusts or Apollyonists_, two
+parallel poems in Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr
+Grosart saw in this work one of the sources of Milton's conception of
+Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, _Brittains Ida_, with Edmund
+Spenser's name on the title-page. It is certainly not by Spenser, and is
+printed by Dr Grosart with the works of Phineas Fletcher. _Sicelides_, a
+play acted at King's College in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632
+appeared two theological prose treatises, _The Way to Blessedness_ and
+_Joy in Tribulation_, and in 1633 his _magnum opus, The Purple Island_.
+The book was dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his
+_Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies_. He died in 1650,
+his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December of that year.
+_The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man_, is a poem in twelve cantos
+describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological structure of the human
+body and the mind of man. The intellectual qualities are personified,
+while the veins are rivers, the bones the mountains of the island, the
+whole analogy being worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of
+Spenser is preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his
+moral aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the _Faerie
+Queene_. What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses
+in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem lies in its
+descriptions of rural scenery. The _Piscatory Eclogues_ are pastorals
+the characters of which are represented as fisher boys on the banks of
+the Cam, and are interesting for the light they cast on the biography of
+the poet himself (Thyrsil) and his father (Thelgon). The poetry of
+Phineas Fletcher has not the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother
+Giles. The mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more
+far-fetched, but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor
+music.
+
+  A complete edition of his works (4 vols.) was privately printed by Dr
+  A.B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK, SEIGNEUR DE (1491-1537), marshal
+of France and historian, was the son of Robert II. de la Marck; duke of
+Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the
+celebrated William de la Marck, "The Wild Boar of the Ardennes." A
+fondness for military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years,
+and at the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed
+in charge of the count of Angoulême, afterwards King Francis I. In his
+twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d'Amboise, but after
+three months he quitted his home to join the French army in the
+Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself into Verona, then
+besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was protracted, and being
+impatient for more active service, he rejoined the army. He then took
+part in the relief of Mirandola, besieged by the troops of Pope Julius
+II., and in other actions of the campaign. In 1512 the French being
+driven from Italy, Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of
+10,000 men, in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy
+in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara. But the
+French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped with his life,
+having received more than forty wounds. He was rescued by his father and
+sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons. Returning to Italy with Francis
+I. in 1515, he distinguished himself in various affairs, and especially
+at Marignano, where he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so
+powerfully to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with
+his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called home by the
+news of his father's illness. In 1519 he was sent into Germany on the
+difficult errand of inducing the electors to give their votes in favour
+of Francis I.; but in this he failed. The war in Italy being rekindled,
+Fleuranges accompanied the king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was
+taken prisoner with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the
+defection of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into
+confinement in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this
+imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed his enforced
+leisure in writing his _Histoire des choses mémorables advenues du règne
+de Louis XII et de François I, depuis 1499 jusqu'en l'an 1521_. In this
+work he designates himself _Jeune Adventureux_. Within a small compass
+he gives many curious and interesting details of the time, writing only
+of what he had seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was
+first published in 1735, by Abbé Lambert, who added historical and
+critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections. The
+last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active service was at
+the defence of Péronne, besieged by the count of Nassau in 1536. In the
+following year he heard of his father's death, and set out from Amboise
+for his estate of La Marck; but he was seized with illness at
+Longjumeau, and died there in December 1537.
+
+  See his own book in the _Nouvelle Collection des mémoires pour servir
+  à l'histoire de France_ (edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. Poujoulat,
+  series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.).
+
+
+
+
+FLEUR-DE-LIS (Fr. "lily flower"), an heraldic device, very widespread in
+the armorial bearings of all countries, but more particularly associated
+with the royal house of France. The conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littré
+says, represents very imperfectly three flowers of the white lily
+(_Lilium_) joined together, the central one erect, and each of the
+other two curving outwards. The fleur-de-lis is a common device in
+ancient decoration, notably in India and in Egypt, where it was the
+symbol of life and resurrection, the attribute of the god Horus. It is
+common also in Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the
+conventional fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or
+white iris--the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare--or an arrow-head, a
+spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the evil eye,
+&c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the fleur-de-lis is a
+frequent sculptured ornament. As early as 1120 three fleurs-de-lis were
+sculptured on the capitals of the Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The
+fleur-de-lis was first definitely connected with the French monarchy in
+an _ordonnance_ of Louis le Jeune (c. 1147), and was first figured on a
+seal of Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry
+dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became a very
+common charge in France, England and Germany, where every gentleman of
+coat-armour desired to adorn his shield with a loan from the shield of
+France, which was at first _d'azur, semé de fleurs de lis d'or_. In
+February 1376 Charles V. of France reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis
+to three--in honour of the Trinity--and the kings of France thereafter
+bore _d'azur, à trois fleurs de lis d'or_. Tradition soon attributed the
+origin of the fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish
+monarchy, and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an
+angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation for this
+legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William Newton
+(_Display of Heraldry_, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was the figure of
+a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre at the proclamation
+of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the true origin of the fleur-de-lis
+as a conventional decoration, it is demonstrably far older than the
+Frankish monarchy, and history does not record the reason of its
+adoption by the royal house of France, from which it passed into common
+use as an heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the
+Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman states
+by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged to defend the
+patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the church. Another order
+of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII. in 1816, in memory of the silver
+fleurs-de-lis which the comte d'Artois had given to the troops in 1814
+as decorations; it was abolished by the revolution of 1830.
+
+[Illustration: Middle Ages. 17th century. 18th and 19th centuries.]
+
+
+
+
+FLEURUS, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, 5 m. N.E. of
+Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles. The first of these
+was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between the forces of Count Mansfeld
+and Christian of Brunswick and the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter
+being defeated. The second is described below, and the third and fourth,
+incidents of Jourdan's campaign of 1794, under FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
+WARS. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms the battlefield
+of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fleurus 1690.]
+
+The second battle was fought on the 1st of July 1690 between 45,000
+French under François-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville, duke of Luxemburg,
+and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and Imperialists under George
+Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The latter had formed up his army between
+Heppignies and St Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a
+double barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a
+village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army exactly.
+But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard from Velaine, decided,
+after a cursory survey of the ground, to attack the front and both
+flanks of the Allies' position at once--a decision which few, if any,
+generals then living would have dared to make, and which of itself
+places Luxemburg in the same rank as a tactician as his old friend and
+commander Condé. The left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of
+woods, houses and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect
+with the frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop
+Waldeck's right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of cavalry and
+some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep round the enemy's left by
+way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes, concealed by the high-standing
+corn. At 8 o'clock the frontal attack began by a vigorous artillery
+engagement, in which the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns,
+held their own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been
+absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy already
+formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second line back to oppose
+them, but while he was doing so the French leader filled up the gap
+between himself and the frontal assailants by posting infantry around
+Wagnelée, and also guns on the neighbouring hill whence their fire
+enfiladed both halves of the enemy's army up to the limit of their
+ranging power. At 1 P.M. Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole
+line. He himself scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the
+Dutch infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded. The
+left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and in their
+first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean Christophe,
+comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers in the service. But
+Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary success, sent a portion of
+his right wing towards St Amand, where it merely shared the fate of his
+left, and the day was decided. Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14
+battalions of infantry (English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck
+could do no more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the
+Spaniards at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the
+infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them--the French cavalry,
+eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest. Then slowly and in
+perfect order, they retired into the broken ground above Mellet, where
+they were in safety. The French slept on the battlefield, and then
+returned to camp with their trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost
+some 2500 killed, amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of
+artillery, the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg
+was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-Dame. But
+the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV. ordered Luxemburg to
+keep in line with other French armies which were carrying on more or
+less desultory wars of manoeuvre on the Meuse and Moselle.
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BÉNARD] (1750-1822), French actor, was born at
+Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and began his stage apprenticeship
+at Nancy, where his father was at the head of a company of actors
+attached to the court of King Stanislaus. After four years in the
+provinces, he came to Paris in 1778, and almost immediately was made
+_sociétaire_ at the Comédie Française, although the public was slow to
+recognize him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like
+the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of the
+presentation of Laya's _L'Ami des lois_, and, when liberated, appeared
+at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the rehabilitated
+Comédie Française. After forty years of service he retired in 1818, and
+died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was notoriously illiterate, and it is
+probable that the interesting _Mémoire de Fleury_ owes more to its
+author, Lafitte, than to the subject whose "notes and papers" it is said
+to contain.
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE (1653-1743), French cardinal and statesman, was
+born at Lodève (Hérault) on the 22nd of June 1653, the son of a
+collector of taxes. Educated by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the
+priesthood, and became in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi,
+almoner to Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of
+Fréjus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined him to seek a
+position at court. He became tutor to the king's great-grandson and
+heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of ambition, he acquired over the
+child's mind an influence which proved to be indestructible. On the
+death of the regent Orleans in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy
+years of age, deferred his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment
+of Louis Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present
+at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and on
+Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired from court.
+Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the 11th of July 1726 took
+affairs into his own hands, and secured the exile from court of Bourbon
+and of his mistress Madame de Prie. He refused the title of first
+minister, but his elevation to the cardinalate in that year secured his
+precedence over the other ministers. He was naturally frugal and
+prudent, and carried these qualities into the administration, with the
+result that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 15,000,000 livres
+instead of the usual deficit. In 1726 he fixed the standard of the
+currency and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment
+thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced labour
+from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though at the cost of
+rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen years of his orderly
+government the country found time to recuperate its forces after the
+exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent,
+and the general prosperity rapidly increased. Internal peace was only
+seriously disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise
+against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to accept the
+bull _Unigenitus_, and he met the opposition of the parlement of Paris
+by exiling forty of its members.
+
+In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance of peace,
+which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore led to a
+continuance of the good understanding between France and England. It was
+only with reluctance that he supported the ambitious projects of
+Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain, in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the
+succession of Don Carlos to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had
+economized in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was
+forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled by public
+opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.'s father-in-law Stanislaus
+Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish crown on the death of
+Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-Austrian candidate; but the
+despatch of a French expedition of 1500 men to Danzig only served to
+humiliate France. Fleury was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic
+measures; he concluded a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and
+sent two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the Rhine
+and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty of Vienna
+(1735-1738). France had joined with the other powers in guaranteeing the
+succession of Maria Theresa under the Pragmatic sanction, but on the
+death of Charles VI. in 1740 Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an
+excuse for repudiating his engagements, when he found the party of war
+supreme in the king's counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian
+campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian general
+Königsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury disavowed his own
+letter, and died a few days after the French evacuation of Prague on the
+29th of January 1743. He had enriched the royal library by many valuable
+oriental MSS., and was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of
+Science, and the Academy of Inscriptions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F.J. Bataille, _Éloge historique de M. le Cardinal A.
+  H. de Fleury_ (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, _Oraison
+  funèbre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Fleury_ (Paris, 1743); P.
+  Vicaire, _Oraison funèbre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury_ (Caen, 1743);
+  M. van Hoey, _Lettres et négotiations pour servir à l'histoire de la
+  vie du Cardinal de Fleury_ (London, 1743); _Leben des Cardinals A. H.
+  Fleury_ (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morénas, _Parallèle du ministère du
+  Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury_ (Avignon, 1743);
+  _Nachrichten von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury_
+  (Hamburg, 1744).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35606-8.txt or 35606-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/6/0/35606/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35606-8.zip b/35606-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7bd373b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-8.zip
diff --git a/35606-h.zip b/35606-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e6ccc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h.zip
diff --git a/35606-h/35606-h.htm b/35606-h/35606-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25c722e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/35606-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,19980 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume X Slice IV - Finland to Fleury, Andre.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body    { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; }
+    p       { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.c     { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    h2,h3        { text-align: center; }
+    hr           { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; }
+    hr.art       { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899;
+                          margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em }
+    hr.foot      {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+    hr.full      {width: 100%}
+
+    table.ws      {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                   margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+    table.reg     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;}
+    table.reg td  { white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.flt     { border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.pic     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;}
+    table.math0 td  {text-align: center;}
+    table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;}
+
+    table.reg p     {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;}
+    table.reg td.tc5p  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; }
+    table.pic td    { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;}
+    table.nobctr p, table.flt p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+    table.pic td p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+
+    td.tcc        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tccm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tccb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcr        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tcrb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcrm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tcl        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tclb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tclm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.vb         { vertical-align: bottom; }
+
+      .caption    { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
+      .caption1   { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+
+    td.lb       {border-left: black 1px solid;}
+    td.ltb      {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb       {border-right: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb2      {border-right: black 2px solid;}
+    td.tb, span.tb  {border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb       {border-bottom: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb1      {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.rlb      {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;}
+    td.allb     {border: black 1px solid;}
+    td.cl       {background-color: #e8e8e8}
+
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link, a:visited, link  {text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
+    .center1  {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    .f80      {font-size: 80%}
+    .f90      {font-size: 90%}
+    .f150     {font-size: 150%}
+    .f200     {font-size: 200%}
+
+    .sp       {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp1      {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su       {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su1      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;}
+    .spp      {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .suu      {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scs      {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .ov       {text-decoration: overline}
+    .cl       {background-color: #f5f5f5;}
+    .bk       {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;}
+    .bk1      {margin-left: -1em;}
+
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt;
+                  background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0;
+                  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; }
+    span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em;
+	           font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold;
+                   font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;
+                   background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .fn       { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5;
+                text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+
+    div.poemr        { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    div.poemr p      { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; }
+    div.poemr p.s     { margin-top: 1.5em; }
+    div.poemr p.i05   { margin-left: 0.4em; }
+    div.poemr p.i1    { margin-left: 1em; }
+    div.poemr p.i2    { margin-left: 2em; }
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figleft1  { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figcenter   {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    .figcenter1  {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;}
+    .figure      {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;}
+    .bold        {font-weight: bold; }
+
+     div.minind   {text-align: justify;}
+     div.condensed, div.condensed1  { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list1, div.list2, div.list3 {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list1 p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list3 p {padding-left: 6em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list2 p {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;
+                  padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.prl      {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4
+       "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2011 [EBook #35606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME X SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Finland to Fleury, André</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">FINLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">FINLAY, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">FIUME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">FINN MAC COOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">FIVES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">FINNO-UGRIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">FIX, THÉODORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">FINSBURY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">FIXTURES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">FINSTERWALDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">FIORENZO DI LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">FJORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">FLACCUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">FIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">FLACIUS, MATTHIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">FIRDOUS&#298;</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">FIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">FLAG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">FLAGELLANTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">FIREBACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">FLAGELLATA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">FIRE BRAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">FLAGEOLET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">FIREBRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">FLAGSHIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">FIREFLY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">FIRE-IRONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">FLAIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">FLAMBARD, RANULF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">FIRESHIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">FLAMBOROUGH HEAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">FIRE-WALKING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">FLAMBOYANT STYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">FIREWORKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">FLAME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">FIRM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">FLAMEL, NICOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">FIRMAMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">FLAMEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">FIRMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">FLAMINGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">FLAMINIA, VIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">FIRMINY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">FIRST-FOOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FLAMINIUS, GAIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">FIRST OF JUNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FLAMSTEED, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FLANDERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">FIRTH, MARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">FIR&#362;ZABAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FLANNEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">FIR&#362;ZK&#362;H</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FLANNELETTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">FISCHART, JOHANN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FLASK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">FISCHER, EMIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FLAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FLATBUSH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">FISH, HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FLAT-FISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">FISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FLATHEADS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">FISHER, ALVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">FISHER, GEORGE PARK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FLAVEL, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">FISHER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FLAVIAN I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FLAVIAN II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">FISHERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FLAVIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">FISHERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FLAVIGNY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">FISHGUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FLAVIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">FISHKILL LANDING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FLAX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">FISK, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FLAXMAN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">FISK, WILBUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FLEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">FISKE, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FLÈCHE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">FISTULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">FIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FLECKNOE, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">FITCH, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FLEET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FLEET PRISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">FITCH, RALPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FLEETWOOD, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">FITCHBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">FITTIG, RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FLEETWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">FITTON, MARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">FITZBALL, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FLEMING, PAUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">FITZGERALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FLEMING, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">FITZGERALD, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FLEMING, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">FITZGERALD, RAYMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FLEMISH LITERATURE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FLENSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FLERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">FITZHERBERT, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FLETA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">FITZ NEAL, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FLETCHER, ANDREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FLETCHER, GILES</a> (English author)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FLETCHER, GILES</a> (English poet)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">FITZROY, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FLETCHER, PHINEAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">FITZROY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FLEUR-DE-LIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FLEURUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FLEURY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">FITZWALTER, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">FINLAND<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Finnish, <i>Suomi</i> or <i>Suomenmaa</i>), a grand-duchy
+governed subject to its own constitution by the emperor of
+Russia as grand-duke of Finland. It is situated between the
+gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large
+territory in Lapland. It touches at its south-eastern extremity
+the government of St Petersburg, includes the northern half
+of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian governments
+of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
+roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing
+into the Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf
+of Bothnia it is separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken
+line which takes the course of the valley of the Torneå river up
+to its sources, thus falling only 21 m. short of reaching the head
+of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs south-east and
+north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach
+the <span class="correction" title="amended from Artic">Arctic</span> Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
+southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Åland
+archipelago&mdash;its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the
+Swedish coast&mdash;as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland,
+Hogland, Tytärs, &amp;c. Its utmost limits are: 59° 48&prime;&mdash;70° 6&prime; N.,
+and 19° 2&prime;&mdash;32° 50&prime; E. The area of Finland, in square miles,
+is as follows (<i>Altas de Finlande, 1899</i>):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Government.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Continent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Islands<br />in Lakes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Islands<br />in Seas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lakes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nyland</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,062</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">286</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,582</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Åbo-Björneborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,594</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1331</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,333</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tavastehus</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,837</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,334</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Viborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">362</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,624</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Michel</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,652</td> <td class="tcr rb">1018</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,149</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,819</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kuopio</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">643</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,696</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,499</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vasa</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">203</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,313</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,105</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uleåborg</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,957</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">123,810</td> <td class="tcr allb">2385</td> <td class="tcr allb">1968</td> <td class="tcr allb">16,090</td> <td class="tcr allb">144,253</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Orography.</i>&mdash;A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia
+to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct
+parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging
+to the Kjölen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula,
+and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper
+from the White Sea. At the head-waters of the Torneå, Finland
+penetrates as a narrow strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjölen
+(the Keel), where the Haldefjäll (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115
+ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other <i>fjälls</i>, or flat-topped
+summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus
+(1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of
+its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the character of a
+mountain region in the Saariselkä (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy
+the remainder of Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary
+plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700
+to 1000 ft. Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space
+comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga,
+and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Uleå and
+Piellis. The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here
+along the main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the country
+appears on the hypsometrical map in the <i>Atlas de Finlande</i> as a
+plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, covered with countless lakes,
+lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft. The three main lake-basins
+of Näsi-järvi, Päjäne and Saima are separated by low and flat hills
+only; but one sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat
+elevations running south-west to north-east along the north-west
+border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching
+from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A regular gentle slope leads from
+these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie
+tracts in its lower parts.</p>
+
+<p>A notable feature of Finland are the <i>åsar</i> or narrow ridges of
+morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some
+of them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
+they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the
+rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in
+the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo ås, which runs
+from Hangöudd to Vesi-järvi, and is continued farther east under
+the name of Salpauselliä, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
+are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
+ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As
+a rule these forest-clothed <i>åsar</i> rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
+120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding
+to the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways
+are traced in preference along them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lakes and Rivers.</i>&mdash;A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the
+aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
+(<i>fjården</i>), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great facilities
+for internal navigation, while the connecting streams supply an
+enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake
+Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima
+(three and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the
+Vuoksen, flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids,
+while the lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the
+Gulf of Finland; the basins of Pyhä-selkä, Ori-vesi and Piellis-järvi;
+Päjäne, surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of
+which are discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river;
+Näsi-järvi and Pyhä-järvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing
+into the Gulf of Bothnia; Uleå-träsk, discharged by the Uleå into
+the same gulf; and Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic
+Ocean. Two large rivers, Kemi and Torneå, enter the head of the
+Gulf of Bothnia, while the Uleå is now navigable throughout, owing
+to improvements in its channel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
+deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake
+Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably
+Devonian), and in the Kjölen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age
+are met with in the Kola peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at
+Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder of Finland is built up of the
+oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaeozoic or
+Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem to be the granites
+of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of the granites
+gave rise to the <i>Ladoga schists</i> and various deposits of the same
+period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the country
+came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
+formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes
+then situated in West Finland, formed the
+so-called <i>Bothnian series</i>. New masses of granites
+protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian
+deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while
+denudation was again at work on a grand scale. A
+new series of <i>Jatulian deposits</i> was formed and a new
+system of foldings followed; but these were the last
+in this part of the globe. The <i>Jotnian series</i>, which
+were formed next, remain still undisturbed. It is to
+this series that the well-known Rapakivi granite of
+Åland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine
+deposits younger than those just mentioned&mdash;all
+belonging to a pre-Cambrian epoch&mdash;are found in
+the central portion of Finland; and the greater
+part of the country has probably been dry land since
+Palaeozoic times. The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and
+post-Glacial deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine
+of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial
+clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in
+the peripheral coast-region&mdash;or in separate areas in the interior
+depressions. Some Finnish geologists&mdash;Sederholm for one&mdash;consider
+it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (<i>Yoldia</i>
+sea) covered all southern Finland and also Scania (Skåne) in Sweden,
+thus connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White
+Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been
+found anywhere in Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later
+submergence under a post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells
+now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of
+Finland, and up to 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces
+of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North
+America, have been discovered. The country is still continuing
+to rise, but at an unequal rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the
+Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly
+zero in the Baltic provinces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west
+winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
+corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
+isotherms of 41° and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
+direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from
+9° Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30° along the south coast; while in July
+the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees,
+being 53° in the north and 61° in the south-east. Everywhere, and
+especially in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts
+(June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain
+and snow is from 25½ in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the
+interior of southern Finland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>, <i>Forests</i>, <i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The flora of Finland has been most
+minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
+were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
+provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province.
+These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland,
+from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper;
+while the total for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants
+are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32
+to 64 species in the Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland
+are the Scotch fir (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, L.), the fir (<i>Picea excelsa</i>, Link.);
+two species of birch (<i>B. verrucosa</i>, Ehrh., and <i>B. odorata</i>, Bechst.),
+as well as the birch-bush (<i>B. nana</i>); two species of <i>Alnus</i> (<i>glutinosa</i>
+and <i>incana</i>); the oak (<i>Q. pedunculata</i>, Ehrh.), which grows only on
+the south coast; the poplar (<i>Populus tremula</i>); and the Siberian
+larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over 6,000,000
+trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large saw-mills, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The total export
+of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is estimated,
+however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for fuel) represents
+nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in
+different shapes. The total area under forests is estimated at
+63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the state.
+The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
+vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
+necessary bibliographical indications in <i>Travaux géographiques en
+Finlande</i>, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in
+1751, 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895,
+was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082
+men. Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the
+country districts. The distribution of population in various provinces
+was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr> <td class="tccm allb">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density per<br />sq. kilometre.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Åbo-Björneborg.</td> <td class="tcc rb">447,098</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kuopio</td> <td class="tcc rb">313,951</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nyland</td> <td class="tcc rb">297,813</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Michel</td> <td class="tcc rb">189,360</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tavastehus</td> <td class="tcc rb">301,272</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Uleåborg</td> <td class="tcc rb">280,899</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;1.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Viborg</td> <td class="tcc rb">421,610</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vasa</td> <td class="tcc rb">460,460</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">2,712,562</td> <td class="tcc allb">&ensp;8.6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227,
+showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was
+estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898, but it
+largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish
+autonomy. In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in
+1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 in 1904.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and
+Swedes (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the
+provinces of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong
+to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek
+Orthodox Church and 755 Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the
+grand-duchy and of the province (<i>län</i>) of Nyland, principal seaport
+(111,654 inhabitants); Åbo, capital of the Åbo-Björneborg province
+and ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading
+manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief
+town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleåborg,
+capital of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of
+Vasa län (18,028); Björneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province
+(13,519); and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same
+name (5545).</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority
+of the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has
+been marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign
+exports of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905.
+Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture,
+and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors
+for that purpose. There are two high schools, one experimental
+station, twenty-two middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of
+agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies
+exist in each province.</p>
+
+<p>Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of
+fish, &amp;c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the
+value of £61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products,
+metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern
+development, but the aggregate production approaches one and a
+half millions sterling in value.</p>
+
+<p>Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output,
+which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to
+1951 grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and
+iron. The last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the
+lakes. In 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile
+industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding
+the high duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of
+paper out of wood is also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade,
+there are upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with
+an output valued at over £3,000,000 annually.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The roads, attaining an aggregate length of
+27,500 m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway
+was opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg,
+in 1870 (cost only £4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type
+began to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of
+railway, mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the
+state railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks.
+Finland has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which
+the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland
+is the chief one. It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate
+270 m. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels.
+Considerable works have also been made to connect the different
+lakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a sum of £1,000,000
+having been spent for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an
+enormous extension both in the towns and between the different
+towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription
+varies from 40 to 60 marks,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
+reached in 1904 the following values:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">From or to<br />Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">From or to<br />other Countries.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Totals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">£4,036,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,488,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">£10,524,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,292,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,624,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
+Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports
+are: cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding £3,000,000),
+metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products. The
+chief articles of export are: timber and wood articles (£5,250,000),
+paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &amp;c.
+The chief ports are Helsingfors, Åbo, Viborg, Hangö and Vasa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Great strides have been made since 1866, when a
+new education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
+occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
+given in the maternal house, or in &ldquo;maternal schools,&rdquo; or by ambulatory
+schools under the control of the clergy, who make the necessary
+examination in the houses of every parish. All education above
+that level is in the hands of the educational department and school
+boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound (since
+1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to
+have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these expenses
+800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each
+female teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes.
+Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines,
+classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence
+to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums
+or gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of
+Helsingfors (formerly the Åbo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921
+students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the
+Helsingfors polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower
+technical, commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several
+scientific societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish
+Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland,
+several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian
+Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one
+juridical, one technical and two geographical societies. All of these,
+as also the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration,
+&amp;c., issue publications well known to the scientific world. The
+numerous local branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the
+Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by
+aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter
+in publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well as
+free libraries (in nearly every commune), and organizing lectures for
+the people. The university students take a lively part in this work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government and Administration.</i>&mdash;From the time of its union
+with Russia at the Diet of Borgå in 1809 till the events of 1899
+(see <i>History</i>) Finland was practically a separate state, the
+emperor of Russia as grand-duke governing by means of a nominated
+senate and a diet elected on a very narrow franchise, and
+meeting at distant and irregular intervals. This diet was on the
+old Swedish model, consisting of representatives of the four
+estates&mdash;nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants&mdash;sitting and
+voting in separate &ldquo;Houses.&rdquo; The government of the country
+was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
+with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the
+Russian government. War and foreign affairs were entirely
+in the hands of Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence
+in Helsingfors. The senate also controlled the administration
+of the law. The constitutional conflict of 1899-1905 brought
+about something like a revolution in Finland. For some years
+the country was subject to a practically arbitrary form of government,
+but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese War and the
+growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
+peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution.
+As a Finnish writer puts it: &ldquo;just as the calamities which had
+befallen Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to
+come from Russia.&rdquo; The <i>status quo ante</i> was restored, the diet
+met in extraordinary session, and proceeded to the entire recasting
+of the Finnish government. Freedom of the press was
+voted, and the diet next proceeded to reform its own constitution.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+Far-reaching changes were voted. The new diet, instead of
+being composed of four estates sitting separately, consists of a
+single chamber of 200 members elected directly by universal
+suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
+grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not
+more than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion
+to population. A scheme of &ldquo;proportional representation,&rdquo;
+the votes being counted in accordance with the system invented
+by G.M. d&rsquo;Hondt, a Belgian, was also adopted. The executive
+was to consist of a minister-secretary of state and of the members
+of the senate, who were entitled to attend and address the diet
+and who might be the subject of interpellations. The members
+of the senate were made responsible to the diet as well as to
+the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has power to
+consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government.
+After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty
+of the senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate
+is not obliged to accept the decision of the majority of the diet,
+nor, apparently, is the sovereign bound to accept the advice of
+the senate. The first elections, April 1907, resulted in the
+election to the diet of about 40% representatives of the Social
+Democratic party, and nineteen women members. The budget
+of Finland in 1905 was £4,273,970 of &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; revenue.
+The &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; expenditure was £3,595,300. The public debt
+amounted at the end of 1905 to £5,611,170.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning
+of the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what
+is now Finland, though it was only when Christianity was introduced,
+about 1157, that they were brought into contact with
+civilized Europe. They probably found the Lapps in possession
+of the country. The early Finlanders do not seem to have had
+any governmental organization, but to have lived in separate
+communities and villages independent of each other. Their
+mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature,
+as &ldquo;Ukko,&rdquo; the god of the air, &ldquo;Tapio,&rdquo; god of the forests,
+&ldquo;Ahti,&rdquo; the god of water, &amp;c. These early Finlanders seem to
+have been both brave and troublesome to their neighbours, and
+their repeated attacks on the coast of Sweden drew the attention
+of the kings of that country. King Eric IX. (St Eric), accompanied
+by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it is
+said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the
+country in 1157, when the people were conquered and baptized.
+King Eric left Bishop Henry with his priests and some soldiers
+behind to confirm the conquest and complete the conversion.
+After a time he was killed, canonized, and as St Henry became
+the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend to her
+own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence
+and paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary,
+Thomas (also an Englishman), arrived and recommenced the
+work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas nearly succeeded in detaching
+Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a province subject
+only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a crusade
+in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the subdivisions
+of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and
+building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who
+conquered and connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and
+built the strong castle of Viborg. Almost continuous wars
+between Russia and Sweden were the result of the conquest
+of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled that the river
+Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
+Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by
+the Swedes, they spread among the Finlanders their civilization,
+gave them laws, accorded them the same civil rights as belonged
+to themselves, and introduced agriculture and other beneficial
+arts. The Reformed religion was introduced into Finland by
+Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John III. raised the
+country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to
+suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by
+Sweden, especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor
+having created an order of nobility,&mdash;counts, barons and
+nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the beginning of the 17th century
+established the diet of Finland, composed of the four orders of
+the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants. Gustavus and
+his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
+gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing
+printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696)
+the country suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the
+diocese of Åbo alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months.
+Finland has been visited at different periods since by these
+scourges; so late as 1848 whole villages were starved during
+a dreadful famine. Peter the Great cast an envious eye on
+Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in 1710 he managed
+to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and Villmanstrand;
+and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime the
+sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished
+in the wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721
+the province of Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was
+finally ceded to Russia. But the country had been laid very
+low by war, pestilence and famine, though it recovered itself
+with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes made an effort
+to recover the ceded province, but through wretched management
+suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
+1742, ceding by the peace of Åbo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand
+and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have
+occurred till 1788, under Gustavus III., who began to reign
+in 1771, and who confirmed to Finland those &ldquo;fundamental
+laws&rdquo; which they have succeeded in maintaining against kings
+and tsars for over two centuries. The country was divided into
+six governments, a second superior court of justice was founded
+at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
+science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the
+academic language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war
+again broke out between Sweden and Russia, and was carried
+on for two years without much glory or gain to either party,
+the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the lost Finnish
+province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
+broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the
+cession in 1809 of the whole of Finland and the Åland Islands to
+Russia. Finland, however, did not enter Russia as a conquered
+province, but, thanks to the bravery of her people after they had
+been abandoned by an incompetent monarch and treacherous
+generals, and not less to the wisdom and generosity of the
+emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her free constitution
+and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
+grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates
+were summoned to a free diet at Borgå and accepted Alexander
+as grand-duke of Finland, he on his part solemnly recognizing
+the Finnish constitution and undertaking to preserve the religion,
+laws and liberties of the country. A senate was created and a
+governor-general named. The province of Viborg was reunited
+to Finland in 1811, and Åbo remained the capital of the country
+till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were removed
+to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had
+not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors
+in 1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous
+and progressive, and his statue in the great square in
+front of the cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors
+testifies to the regard in which his memory is cherished by his
+Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his successor soon fell under
+the influence of the reactionary party which had begun to assert
+itself in Russia even before the assassination of Alexander II.
+One of Alexander III.&rsquo;s first acts was to confirm &ldquo;the constitution
+which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
+Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious
+memory, and developed with the consent of the estates of Finland
+by our dearly beloved father of blessed memory the emperor
+Alexander Nicolaievich.&rdquo; But the Slavophil movement, with
+its motto, &ldquo;one law, one church, one tongue,&rdquo; acquired great
+influence in official circles, and its aim was, in defiance of the
+pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to Orthodoxy
+and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
+years&rsquo; struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the
+defenders of the Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were
+complicated by the rivalry between the Swedish party, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+had hitherto been dominant in Finland, and the Finnish &ldquo;nationalist&rdquo;
+party which, during the latter half of the 19th century,
+had been determinedly asserting itself linguistically and politically.
+With some exceptions, however, the whole country united
+in defence of its constitution; &ldquo;Fennoman&rdquo; and &ldquo;Svecoman,&rdquo;
+recognizing that their common liberties were at stake, suspended
+their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russia</a></span>) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the
+&ldquo;February manifesto&rdquo; (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated
+the legislative power of the Finnish diet. A new military
+law, practically amalgamating the Finnish with the Russian
+forces, followed in July 1901; Russian officials and the Russian
+language were forced on Finland wherever possible, and in
+April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was invested
+with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
+with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the
+expenses being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian
+system was now in full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests
+and banishments, and the suppression of newspapers, were the
+order of the day. To all this the people of Finland opposed
+a dogged and determined resistance, which culminated in
+November 1905 in a &ldquo;national strike.&rdquo; The strike was universal,
+all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
+industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
+steamship, telephone and postal services were practically
+suspended. Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and
+electricity; no shops except provision shops were open; public
+departments, schools and restaurants were closed. After six
+days the unconstitutional government&mdash;already much shaken
+by events in Russia and Manchuria&mdash;capitulated. In an imperial
+manifesto dated the 7th of November 1905 the demands of
+Finland were granted, and the <i>status quo ante</i> 1899 was restored.</p>
+
+<p>But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution,
+although precious to those whose only protection it was, was an
+antiquated and not very efficient instrument of government.
+Popular feeling had been excited by the political conflict, advanced
+tendencies had declared themselves, and when the new
+diet met it proceeded as explained above to remodel the constitution,
+on the basis of universal suffrage, with freedom of
+the press, speech, meeting and association.</p>
+
+<p>In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The
+Imperial government insisted that the decision in all Finnish
+questions affecting the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed
+attempt was made to curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ethnology.</i>&mdash;The term Finn has a wider application than
+Finland, being, with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (<i>q.v.</i>)
+or Ugro-Finnic, the collective name of the westernmost branch
+of the Ural-Altaic family, dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland,
+the Baltic provinces (Esthonia, Livonia, Curland), parts of
+Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both banks of middle
+Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural Mountains
+and the Yenissei) and Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people
+except the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence
+of civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
+agriculturists, traders, &amp;c. Physically the Finns (here to be
+distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who
+retain their Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race,
+of low stature, with almost round head, low forehead, flat
+features, prominent cheek bones, eyes mostly grey and oblique
+(inclining inwards), short and flat nose, protruding mouth,
+thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the occiput seems
+flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard weak
+and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
+with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion
+also somewhat brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable,
+faithful and submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom
+and independence, but also somewhat stolid, revengeful and
+indolent. Many of these physical and moral characteristics
+they have in common with the so-called &ldquo;Mongolian&rdquo; race,
+to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also linguistically,
+related.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable researches have been accomplished since about
+1850 in the ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale
+which has no parallel in any other country. The study of the
+prehistoric population of Finland&mdash;Neolithic (no Palaeolithic
+finds have yet been made)&mdash;of the Age of Bronze and the Iron
+Age has been carried on with great zeal. At the same time the
+folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked out with
+wonderful completeness (see <i>L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre demi-séculaire de la Société
+de Littérature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois</i>, by Dr
+E.G. Palmén, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn&rsquo;s report to the
+London Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun
+by Porthan, Z. Topelius, and especially E. Lönnrot (1802-1884),
+for collecting the popular poetry of the Finns, was continued
+by Castrén (1813-1852), Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka
+(1854-1889), who extended their researches to the Finns settled
+in other parts of the Russian empire, and collected a considerable
+number of variants of the Kalewala and other popular poetry
+and songs. In order to study the different eastern kinsfolk
+of the Finns, Sjögren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
+North Russia, and Castrén to West and East Siberia (<i>Nordische
+Reisen und Forschungen</i>), and collected the materials which
+permitted himself and Schiefner to publish grammatical works
+relative to the Finnish, Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak,
+Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott
+languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx of linguists,
+continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and the
+Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (<i>Foundations
+of Finno-Ugrian Archaeology</i>, in Finnish, and <i>Atlas of Antiquities</i>)
+led the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their
+attention to the basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga.
+A series of expeditions (of Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were
+consequently directed to those regions, especially since the
+discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable Orkhon inscriptions
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turks</a></span>, p. 473), which finally enabled the Danish linguist,
+V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to discover
+that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See <i>Inscriptions
+de l&rsquo;Iénissei recueillies et publiées par la Société Finl. d&rsquo;Archéologie</i>,
+1889, and <i>Inscriptions de l&rsquo;Orkhon</i>, 1892.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The general history of Finland is fully treated by
+Yrjö Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889).
+Both works have been translated into German. The constitutional
+conflict gave rise to a host of books and pamphlets in various
+languages. Mechelin, Danielson and Hermanson were the leading
+writers on the Finnish side, and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the
+political documents have been published and translated. A finely
+illustrated book, <i>Finland in the Nineteenth Century</i>, by various Finnish
+writers, gives an excellent account of the country; also Reuter&rsquo;s
+<i>Finlandia</i>, a very complete work with an exhaustive bibliography.
+The constitutional question was fully discussed in English in <i>Finland
+and the Tsars</i>, by J.R. Fisher (2nd ed., 1900). <i>The Atlas de
+Finlande</i>, published in 1899 by the Geographical Society of Finland,
+is a remarkably well executed and complete work. <i>The
+Statistical Annual for Finland&mdash;Statistisk Arsbok för Finland</i>&mdash;published
+annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in Helsingfors,
+gives the necessary figures.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Finnish Literature.</i></p>
+
+<p>The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael
+Agricola (1506-1557), who published an <i>A B C Book</i> in 1544,
+and, as bishop of Åbo, a number of religious and educational
+works. A version of the New Testament in Finnish was printed
+by Agricola in 1548, and some books of the Old Testament in
+1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at Stockholm
+in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable
+to the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the
+poets of Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a
+wider audience. It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of
+Finland, the <i>Kalewala</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), was introduced to readers by the
+exertions of Elias Lönnrot (<i>q.v.</i>), that the Finnish language was
+used for literary composition. Lönnrot also collected and edited
+the works of the peasant-poets P. Korhonen (1775-1840) and
+Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing the improvisations
+of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last quarter of
+the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary activity
+in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the publication
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
+aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the
+political troubles, books in almost every branch of research are
+found in the language, mainly translations or adaptations. We
+meet with, during the present century, a considerable number
+of names of poets and dramatists, no doubt very minor, as also
+painters, sculptors and musical composers. At the Paris
+International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish painters
+and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
+country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied
+a position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution
+to a history of Finnish literature is Krohn&rsquo;s <i>Suomenkielinen
+runollisuns ruotsinvallan aikana</i> (1862). Finland is wonderfully
+rich in periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish
+Societies of Literature and of Sciences and other learned bodies
+being specially valuable. A great work in the revival of an
+interest in the Finnish language was done by the <i>Suomalaisen
+Kirjallisuuden Seura</i> (the Finnish Literary Society), which from
+the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, <i>Suomi</i>. The
+Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition of the
+works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
+(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published
+at Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjö Koskinen, and has
+been translated into both Swedish and German. The author
+was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the above form being a Finnish
+translation. Other works on Finnish history and some important
+works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In language
+we have Lönnrot&rsquo;s great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
+by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner&rsquo;s <i>Comparative
+Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages</i> (Helsingfors and
+Leipzig) is in German. In imaginative literature Finland has
+produced several important writers of the vernacular. Alexis
+Stenwall (&ldquo;Kiwi&rdquo;) (1834-1872), the son of a village tailor,
+was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular dramas and an
+historical romance, <i>The Seven Brothers</i> (1870). Among recent
+playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
+successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895),
+P. Cajander (b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish,
+and Karl Bergbom (b. 1843). Among lyric poets are J.H.
+Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jännes (b. 1848) and Yrjö Weijola
+(b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari Päivärinta
+(b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a grimly
+realistic story, <i>His Life</i>. Many of the popular Finnish authors
+of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio
+Filander a farmer; Heikki Maviläinen a smith; Juhana Kokko
+(Kyösti) a gamekeeper. The most gifted of the writers of
+Finland, however, is certainly Juhani Aho (b. 1861), the son of
+a country clergyman. His earliest writings were studies of
+modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went to
+reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods
+of the leading French novelists of the newer school. About the
+year 1893 he began to publish short stories, some of which, such
+as <i>Enris</i>, <i>The Fortress of Matthias</i>, <i>The Old Man of Korpela</i> and
+<i>Finland&rsquo;s Flag</i>, are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a
+very interesting degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary
+Finnish population. It has been well said that in the
+writings of Juhani Aho can be traced all the idiosyncrasies
+which have formed the curious and pathetic history of Finland
+in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b. 1857), in
+tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
+which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country
+life. Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Järnefelt (b. 1861).
+Santeri Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naïvely, but not without
+skill, has followed in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to
+exaggerate either the force or the originality of these early
+developments of a national Finnish literature, which, moreover,
+are mostly brief and unambitious in character. But they are
+eminently sincere, and they have the great merit of illustrating
+the local aspects of landscape and temperament and manners.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;E.G. Palmén, <i>L&rsquo;&OElig;uvre demi-séculaire de la
+Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura</i>, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882);
+J. Krohn, <i>Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet</i> (Helsingfors, 1897);
+F.W. Pipping, <i>Förteckning öfver böcker på finska språket</i> (Helsingfors,
+1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, <i>Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und
+seiner Dichter</i> (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, <i>Popular Poetry of the
+Finns</i> (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, <i>Öfversigt af Finlands Litteraturhistoria
+för skolor</i> (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using the Swedish
+language, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Finnish mark, <i>markka</i>, of 100 <i>penni</i>, equals about 9½ d.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINLAY, GEORGE<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1799-1875), British historian, was born
+of Scottish parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December
+1799. He studied for the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went
+to Göttingen. He had already begun to feel a deep interest in
+the Greek struggle for independence, and in 1823 he resolved to
+visit the country. In November he arrived in Cephalonia, where
+he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly afterwards he
+landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he
+improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities
+of the country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion
+of the Greek leaders, both civil and military, he by no means
+lost his enthusiasm for their cause. A severe attack of fever,
+however, combined with other circumstances, induced him to
+spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the spring of 1825 in Rome,
+Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland, and, after
+spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to
+Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the
+university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His
+enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he
+resided almost uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in
+the unsuccessful operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard
+Church for the relief of Athens in 1827. When independence
+had been secured in 1829 he bought a landed estate in Attica,
+but all his efforts for the introduction of a better system of
+agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to the
+literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first
+publications were <i>The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation</i>
+(1836); <i>Essai sur les principes de banque appliqués à l&rsquo;état actuel
+de la Grèce</i> (Athens, 1836); and <i>Remarks on the Topography
+of Oropia and Diacria, with a map</i> (Athens, 1838). The first
+instalment of his great historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed.,
+1857) under the title <i>Greece under the Romans; a Historical
+View of the Condition of the Greek Nation from the time of its
+Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the Roman Empire
+in the East</i>. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself still
+further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several
+tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of
+one of them he published a volume <i>On the Site of the Holy
+Sepulchre; with a plan of Jerusalem</i> (1847). <i>The History of the
+Byzantine and Greek Empires from 716-1453</i> was completed
+in 1854. It was speedily followed by the <i>History of Greece under
+the Ottoman and Venetian Domination</i> (1856), and by the <i>History
+of the Greek Revolution</i> (1861). In weak health, and conscious
+of failing energy, he spent his last years in revising his history.
+From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of <i>The Times</i>
+newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable attention,
+and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct
+influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned
+societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edinburgh
+the honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the
+26th of January 1875. A new edition of his <i>History</i>, edited by
+the Rev. H.F. Tozer, was issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in
+1877. It includes a brief but extremely interesting fragment of an
+autobiography of the author, almost the only authority for his life.</p>
+
+<p>As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field
+of research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon
+alone being a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious;
+as a scholar he was accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute
+and profound; and in all that he wrote he was unswerving in
+his loyalty to the principles of constitutional government and to
+the cause of liberty and justice.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINN MAC COOL<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (in Irish <span class="sc">Find Mac Cumaill</span>), the central
+figure of the later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called
+Ossianic or Fenian. In Scotland Find usually goes by the name
+of Fingal. This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the
+title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Rí Fionnghall, <i>i.e.</i> king of
+the Norse. Find&rsquo;s father, Cumall mac Trénmóir, was uncle to Conn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+Cétchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 157. Cumall
+carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named
+Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which
+Cumall was slain by Goll mac Morna (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 174). Find was born
+after his father&rsquo;s death and was at first called Demni. He is
+leader of the <i>fiann</i> or <i>féinne</i> (English &ldquo;Fenians&rdquo;), a kind of
+militia or standing army which was drawn from all quarters of
+Ireland. His father had held the same office before him, but
+after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac Morna, who
+retained it until Find came to man&rsquo;s estate. Find usually
+resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded
+by some of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered
+throughout Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those
+coming from over the sea. In times of invasion Find collected
+his forces, overcame the foe, and pursued him to Scotland or
+Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might be. When not
+engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or
+love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the
+conditions of admission to this privileged band, which were
+at once singular and exacting. The foremost heroes in Find&rsquo;s
+train were his son Ossian, his grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain,
+and Diarmait O&rsquo;Duibne, whose elopement with Find&rsquo;s destined
+bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King Cormac mac Airt
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story. These,
+like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was
+allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance.
+The latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being
+Goll and Conan. By the annalists Find is represented as having
+met with death by treachery either in 252 or 283. Under
+Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac Airt, the power
+of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly
+took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the
+battle of Gabra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 283). Very few survived the defeat, but
+the story makes Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival
+of St Patrick in 432.</p>
+
+<p>It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have
+existed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older
+in date than the Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal
+with events happening in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196),
+Lugaid mac Con (196-227), and Cormac mac Airt (227-266),
+but none of these in their oldest shape contain any allusion
+whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history of the
+Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a
+Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster
+against Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was
+originally a figure in Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the
+Viking age, but we have no documentary evidence concerning
+him at this time. He seems primarily to have been regarded as
+a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been transformed
+into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that
+his personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local
+tradition out of stories clustering round the figure of the Viking
+leader Ketill Hviti (Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the
+year 1000 Find was certainly connected in the minds of the people
+with the reign of Cormac mac Airt, but the process is obscure.
+Recently John MacNeill has pointed out that in the oldest
+genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui Tairrsigh of
+Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county of
+Kildare and parts of King&rsquo;s and Queen&rsquo;s counties). The Ui
+Tairrsigh were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill
+would account in this manner for the slow acceptance of the
+stories by the conquering Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was
+fashionable at court, the subject races clung to the Fenian cycle.
+For the last 800 years Find has been the national hero of the
+Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands
+and the Isle of Man. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span> (subsection <i>Irish Literature</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A. Nutt, <i>Ossian and the Ossianic Literature</i>
+(London, 1899); H. Zimmer, &ldquo;Keltische Beiträge iii.,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschrift für
+deutsches Altertum</i> (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L.C. Stern, &ldquo;Die
+Ossianischen Heldenlieder,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschrift für vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte</i>
+(1895; trans, by J.L. Robertson in <i>Transactions of the
+Gaelic Society of Inverness</i>, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp. 257-325); J.
+MacNeill, <i>Duanaire Finn</i> (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINNO-UGRIAN,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> or Finno-Ugric, the designation of a
+division of the Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers.
+The first part is the name given by their neighbours, though
+not used by themselves, to the inhabitants of the eastern shores
+of the Baltic. It is probably the same word as the Fenni of
+Tacitus and <span class="grk" title="Phinnoi">&#934;&#943;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span> of Ptolemy, though it is not certain that those
+races were Finns in the modern sense. It possibly means people
+of the fens or marshes, and corresponds to the native word <i>Suomi</i>,
+which appears to be derived from <i>suo</i>, a marsh. Finn and
+Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland but
+also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia
+and sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this
+sense the Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and
+Mordvins (Volga), and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The
+name is not, however, extended to the Ostiaks, Voguls and
+Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate subdivision called
+Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country on
+either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castrén in
+a scientific sense.</p>
+
+<p>The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not
+be pressed as indicating a community of physical features
+and customs. But making allowance for the change of language
+by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians form, with the striking exception
+of the Hungarians, a moderately homogeneous whole.
+They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and Manchus,
+have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power
+of political organization. Those of them who have not come
+under European influence live under the simplest form of
+patriarchal government, and states, kings or even great chiefs
+are almost unknown among them.</p>
+
+<p>Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south
+Siberia extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large
+parts of it are still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and
+marsh was no doubt much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric
+tribes seem to shun the open steppes but are widely spread in
+the wooded country, especially on the banks of lakes and rivers.
+Their want of political influence renders them obscure, but they
+form a considerable element in the population of the northern,
+middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found much
+to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except
+in the Baltic provinces). The difference of temperament between
+the Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little
+Russians is partly due to an infusion of Finnish blood.</p>
+
+<p>Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built
+and, though there is considerable variation in height and the
+cephalic index, are mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat
+squat, and brachy- or mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish
+or olive coloured, the eyes grey or blue, the hair light, the
+beard scanty. Most of them seem deficient in energy and
+liveliness, both mental and physical; they are slow, heavy,
+conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined to
+be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are
+patient, persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When
+their natural mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly
+and hospitable.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Tribes and Nations.</i>&mdash;The Ugrian subdivision, which seems
+to be in many respects the more primitive, consists of three
+peoples standing on very different levels of civilization, the
+Ostiaks and Voguls and the Hungarians.</p>
+
+
+<p>The <i>Ostiaks</i> (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic
+fishermen and hunters inhabiting at present the government
+<span class="sidenote">Ostiaks.</span>
+of Tobolsk and the banks of the Obi. They formerly
+extended into the government of Perm on the European
+side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the Yenisei
+appear to be a different race and not to belong to the Finno-Ugrian
+group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship
+the River Obi. Allied to them are the <i>Voguls</i>, a similar nomadic
+tribe found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly
+extending at least as far as the government of Vologda.
+<span class="sidenote">Voguls.</span>
+The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls are allied, though not
+mere dialects of one another, and form a small group separated
+from the languages of the Finns both Western and Eastern.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+For further details of these and other tribes see under the separate
+headings.</p>
+
+<p>According to the legend, Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and
+Magyor. They married daughters of the prince of the Alans
+and became the ancestors of the two kindred nations,
+Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story corresponds
+<span class="sidenote">Magyars or Hungarians.</span>
+with what can be ascertained scientifically about
+the origin of these peoples. It is probable that the
+Huns and Magyars were allied tribes of mixed descent comprising
+both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian elements. The language is
+indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name Hungarian seems to
+lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish connexions
+which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and
+Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu
+as far east as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are
+of opinion that the tribes from whom the present Hungarians
+are descended were formed originally in the Terek-Kuban
+country to the north of the Caucasus, where a mixture of Turkish
+and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian language but Turkish
+mode of life predominating. They were also influenced by
+Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns
+and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe
+in the 5th century and made no permanent settlement in spite
+of the devastation they caused, whereas the Magyars remained
+for some centuries near the banks of the Don. According to
+tradition they were compelled to leave a country called Lebedia
+under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved westward
+under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary
+in the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions
+was called Árpád. For the chequered and often tragic history
+of the country see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>. The Magyars were converted to
+Christianity in the 11th century and adhered to the Roman
+not the Eastern Church. They have in all probability entirely
+lost their ancient physique, but have retained their language,
+and traces of their older life may be seen in their fondness for
+horses and flocks.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The <i>Permians</i>
+and <i>Syryenians</i> may be treated as one tribe. The latter name
+is very variously spelt as Syrjenian, Sirianian, Zyrjenian,
+Zirian, &amp;c. They both call themselves Komi and
+<span class="sidenote">Permians and Syryenians.</span>
+speak a mutually intelligible language, allied to
+Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied
+to this sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found
+chiefly in the governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel,
+but there are a few Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals.
+The Syryenian headquarters are at the town of Ishma on the
+Pechora, whereas the name Permian is more correctly restricted
+to the inhabitants of the right bank of the upper Kama. Both
+probably extended much farther to the west in former times.
+The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than
+most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for
+trading purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Votiaks</i> are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons
+dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government
+of Viatka. Their language indicates that they have
+borrowed a good deal from the Tatars and Chuvashes,
+<span class="sidenote">Votiaks.</span>
+and they seem to have little individuality, being described as
+weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves
+Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them
+migrated, doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into
+the government of Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are
+said to have improved in physique.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cheremissians</i>, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call
+themselves Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the
+neighbourhood of Kazan. Those inhabiting the right
+bank of the Volga are physically stronger and are
+<span class="sidenote">Cheremissians.</span>
+known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place
+names makes it probable that their present position is the result
+of their being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then
+southwards by the Russians. There is some discrepancy between
+their language and their physical characteristics. The former
+shows affinities to both Mordvinian and the Permian group, but
+their crania are said to be mainly dolichocephalic, and it has
+been suggested that they are connected with the neolithic
+dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle
+and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mordvinians</i>, also called Mordvá, Mordvins and Mordvs,
+are scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially
+Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk,
+Ufa and even Orenburg. Though not continuous,
+<span class="sidenote">Mordvinians.</span>
+their settlements are considerable both in extent and
+population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns,
+and their traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought
+with the Tatars. They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the
+6th century, but do not now use the name, calling themselves
+after one of their two divisions, Moksha or Erza. Their country
+is still covered with forest to a large extent. Their language
+is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the other it shows
+a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other Eastern
+languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar
+to itself.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lapps</i> are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They
+call themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians.
+They are the shortest and most brachycephalic race
+in Europe. The majority are nomads who live by
+<span class="sidenote">Lapps.</span>
+pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but
+others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or
+fishing. From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation
+among the Finns and other neighbouring nations for skill
+in sorcery.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Esthonians</i> are the peasantry of the Russian province
+Esthonia and the neighbouring districts. They were serfs
+until 1817 when they were liberated, but their condition
+remained unsatisfactory and led to a serious rebellion in
+<span class="sidenote">Esthonians.</span>
+1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns, and
+are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting
+the Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they
+are known to foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii
+of Tacitus, and to have properly belonged to quite a different
+tribe. They call themselves M&#257; m&#275;s, or country people, and
+their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish, Virolaiset, Esthonians.)
+Though not superior to other tribes in general intelligence,
+they have become more civilized owing to their more intimate
+connexion with the Russian and German population around them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Livs</i>, <i>Livlanders</i> or <i>Livonians</i> is the name given to the old
+Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and
+north Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and
+predatory pagan tribe in the middle ages, and it is
+<span class="sidenote">Livonians.</span>
+possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish race
+from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost
+completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken
+in a few places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been
+disputed if it still exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and
+is allied to Esthonian.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Votes</i> (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also
+called southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent
+<span class="sidenote">Votes.</span>
+the original inhabitants of Ingria, the district round
+St Petersburg, but have decreased before the advance
+of the Russians and also of Karelians from the north. They are
+heard of in the 11th century, but now occupy only about thirty
+parishes in north-west Ingria.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vepsas</i> or <i>Vepses</i>, also called Northern Chudes, are another
+tribe allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the
+<span class="sidenote">Vepsas.</span>
+Votes. They are found in the district of Tikhvinsk
+and other parts of the government of Old Novgorod,
+and apparently extended farther east into the government of
+Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and
+Vepsas are closely related to the Esthonians.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Finns</i> proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the
+most important and civilized division of the group. They
+inhabit at present the grand duchy of Finland and the
+adjacent governments, especially Olonetz, Tver and
+<span class="sidenote">Finns.</span>
+St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called Kainulaiset
+was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns,
+the Tavastlanders or Hämäläiset, who occupy the southern and
+western parts of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaiset
+found in the east and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards
+the White Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the
+grand duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There
+is a considerable admixture of Swedish blood; the language is
+full of Swedish words; Christianity is universal; and the upper
+classes and townspeople are mainly Swedish in their habits and
+speech, though of late a persistent attempt has been made to
+Russify the country. The Finns have much the same mental
+and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but have
+reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several
+collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been
+made, the most celebrated of which is the <i>Kalewala</i>, compiled
+by Lönnrot about 1835, and there is a copious modern literature.
+The study of the national languages and antiquities is prosecuted
+in Helsingfors and other towns with much energy: several
+learned societies have been formed and considerable results
+published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that this scientific
+activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, owes
+much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary
+language there are several dialects, the most important of which
+is that of Savolaks.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Karelians</i> are not usually regarded as separate from the
+Finns, though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas
+and Votes. Living farther east they have come less
+under Swedish and more under Russian influence than
+<span class="sidenote">Karelians.</span>
+the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the districts
+which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this influence
+has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of European
+civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more
+than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better proportioned
+build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and
+friendly, but less persevering and tenacious. They number
+about 260,000, of whom about 63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000
+in Tver and Novgorod, but in the southern districts are less
+distinguished from the Russian population. They belong to
+the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy are
+Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a
+Karelian population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda
+and Tambov. It was among them that the <i>Kalewala</i> was
+collected, chiefly in East Finland and Olonetz.</p>
+
+<p>There is some difference of opinion as to whether the <i>Samoyedes</i>
+should be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given
+the rank of a separate division equivalent to Finno-Ugrian
+and Turkish. The linguistic question is
+<span class="sidenote">Samoyedes.</span>
+discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe
+who wander with their reindeer over the treeless plains which
+border on the White and Kara seas on either side of the Urals.
+In culture and habits they resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes,
+and there seems to be no adequate reason for separating them.</p>
+
+<p>Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian
+group, but some doubt must remain as to the propriety
+<span class="sidenote">Other inclusions.</span>
+of the classification, either because they are now
+extinct, or because they are suspected of having
+changed their language.</p>
+
+<p>The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga
+before they invaded the country which now bears their name,
+were probably a tribe similar to the Magyars, though all record
+of their language is lost. It has been disputed whether the
+Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied parts of south Russia
+and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians or Turks, and
+there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs, which
+without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the difference
+ethnographically important. The formation of hordes
+of warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different
+races, was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably
+often a matter of chance what language was adopted as the
+common speech.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who
+speak Tatar languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are
+also the Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified
+by Finnish influence. The little known Soyots of the head-waters
+of the Yenisei are also said to be Finno-Ugrians.</p>
+
+<p>The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas
+and Votes but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all
+Finno-Ugrian tribes, and to all extinct tribes of whatever race
+who have left tombs, monuments or relics of mining operations
+in European Russia or Siberia. Some Russian archaeologists use
+it specifically of the Permian group. But its extension is so
+vague that it is better to discard it as a scientific term.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Languages.</i>&mdash;The Finno-Ugric languages are generally
+considered as a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists
+of four families: Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric,
+including Samoyede unless it is reckoned separately as a fifth.
+The chief character of the group is that agglutination, or the
+addition of suffixes, is the only method of word-formation,
+prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, as is
+also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages,
+such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A
+connexion between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has
+also been suggested. On the other hand, the more highly
+developed agglutinative languages, such as Finnish, approach
+the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan languages may have
+been developed from an ancestor not unlike the Ural-Altaic
+group.</p>
+
+<p>The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other
+divisions of the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabulary.
+Compared with Mongol and Manchu they have a much
+greater wealth of forms, both in declension and conjugation;
+the suffixes form one word with the root and are not wholly or
+partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal element
+is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and
+nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages,
+but Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting
+position or motion, and the union of the case termination with
+the noun is more complete; in some languages the object can
+be incorporated in the verb, which does not occur in Turkish,
+but the negative is rarely (Cheremissian) thus incorporated
+after the Turkish fashion (<i>e.g.</i> <i>yazmak</i>, &ldquo;to write&rdquo;; <i>yazmamak</i>,
+&ldquo;not to write&rdquo;), and in some languages takes pronominal
+suffixes (Finnish <i>en tule</i>, <i>et tule</i>, <i>eivät tule</i>, &ldquo;I, you, they do not
+come&rdquo;). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in Finnish
+and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed,
+or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns
+and particles exist and are fully developed in some languages.
+The tendency to form compounds, which is not characteristic
+of Turkish, is very marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is
+said also to be found in Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian.
+The original order in the sentence seems to be that the governing
+word follows the word governed, but there are many exceptions
+to this, particularly in Hungarian where the arrangement is
+very free.</p>
+
+<p>In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of
+Turkish, Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance
+between the numbers. Many of the languages contain numerous
+Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but with this exception the
+resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and indicates an
+ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of word-building
+and of the elements used, even if they have not the
+same sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of
+sentences and in some details (<i>e.g.</i> the use of the infinitive or
+verbal substantive), seem to justify the hypothesis of an original
+relationship with the Turkish languages, which in their turn
+have connexions with the other groups.</p>
+
+<p>Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by
+some among the Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate
+displays a far closer resemblance to them in both grammar
+and vocabulary than do any of the Turkish languages. The
+numerals are different, but the personal and interrogative
+pronouns and many common words (<i>e.g.</i> <i>joha</i>, &ldquo;river,&rdquo; Finn.
+<i>joki</i>; <i>sava</i>, &ldquo;good,&rdquo; Finn, <i>hywä</i>; <i>kole</i>, &ldquo;fish,&rdquo; Finn, <i>kala</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is
+very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb
+differs, verb and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In
+detail, however, the verbal suffixes show analogies to those of
+Finno-Ugrian. Vowel-harmony and weakening of consonants
+occur as in Finnish.</p>
+
+<p>Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be
+divided into two sections: (1) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak,
+Vogul and Magyar; and (2) Finnish. The Permian languages
+(Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a distinct group within
+this latter section, and the remainder may be divided into the
+Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West
+Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).</p>
+
+<p>The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the
+Finnish branch before the systems of declension or conjugation
+were developed. Their case suffixes seem to be later formations,
+though we find, <i>t</i>, <i>tl</i> or <i>k</i> for the plural and traces of <i>l</i> as a local
+suffix. Ostiak and Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods
+and tenses are less numerous but the number of verbal forms is
+increased by those in which the pronominal object is incorporated.
+Hungarian has naturally advanced enormously beyond the
+stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks of strong
+European influence, but also retains primitive features. Vowel-harmony
+is observed (<i>várok</i>, &ldquo;I await,&rdquo; but <i>verek</i>, &ldquo;I strike&rdquo;).
+The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive
+or intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated.
+Alone among Finno-Ugrian languages it has
+developed an article, and the adjective is inflected when used
+as a predicate though not as an attribute (<i>Jó emberek</i>, &ldquo;good
+men,&rdquo; but <i>Az emberek jók</i>, &ldquo;the men are good&rdquo;). There is
+great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, a tendency
+to form long compounds.</p>
+
+<p>The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by
+any striking differences, but show greater resemblances to one
+another in details. None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian
+an objective conjugation. The case system is elaborate
+and generally comprises twelve or fifteen forms. The negative
+conjugation is peculiar; there are negative adjectives ending
+in <i>tem</i> or <i>tom</i> and abessive cases (<i>e.g.</i> Finnish <i>syyttä</i>, without a
+cause, <i>tiedotta</i>, without knowledge).</p>
+
+<p>Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development
+less fully than the more western languages. They are
+less completely inflected than the Finnish languages and more
+thoroughly agglutinative in the strict sense. In vocabulary,
+<i>e.g.</i> the numerals, they show resemblances to the Ugrian division.
+Syryenian has older literary remains than any Finno-Ugrian
+language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th
+century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals
+and translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of
+the Volga Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been
+influenced by Russian and Tatar rather than by Scandinavian,
+and hence show apparent differences. But Mordvinian has
+points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem to point
+to a comparatively late separation, <i>e.g.</i> the use of <i>kemen</i> for ten, <i>-nza</i>
+as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the
+regular formation of the imperfect with <i>i</i>, the infinitive with
+<i>ma</i>, and the participle with <i>f</i> (Finnish <i>va</i>). On the other hand
+it has many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation
+like the Ugrian languages, and has developed two forms of
+declension, the definite and indefinite.</p>
+
+<p>Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages
+and Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations
+and also in marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable
+(Syry. <i>yas</i>, Cher. <i>vlya</i>) between the singular and the case suffixes.
+Most of the numerals are like Syryenian but <i>kändekhsye</i>, <i>indekhsye</i>,
+for eight and nine, recall Finnish forms (<i>kahdeksan</i>, <i>yhdeksän</i>),
+as do also the pronouns.</p>
+
+<p>The connexion between the various West Finnish languages
+is more obvious than between those already discussed. Lappish
+(or Lapponic) forms a link between them and Mordvinian. Its
+pronouns are remarkably like the Mordvinian equivalents, but
+the general system of declension and conjugation, both positive
+and negative, is much as in Finnish. Superficially, however,
+the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the difference in
+phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for diphthongs
+and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.</p>
+
+<p>The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and
+Livish) to Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but
+to the casual learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than
+Finnish, but on the whole is less primitive and has assumed
+under foreign influence the features of a European language
+even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony is found only in the
+Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the pronominal affixes
+are not used, and the negative has become an unvarying particle,
+though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in Finnish.
+On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the
+general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and
+the positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish.
+Esthonian has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and
+a certain amount of literary culture, the best-known work being
+the national epic or <i>Kalewi-poeg</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian
+or Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken
+language of the Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian,
+but the <i>Kalewala</i> and their other old songs are written in a pure
+Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary
+language of poetry throughout modern Finland, just as the
+Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic poetry. It is
+more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves many
+old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is
+softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in
+ordinary speech, <i>e.g.</i> <i>saa&rsquo;a, kosen</i> for <i>saada, kosken</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the
+group is clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian
+and in its present form consists of non-Aryan material
+recast in an Aryan and European mould. Not only are some
+of the simplest words borrowed from Scandinavian, but the
+grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan peculiarities
+have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian.
+The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with
+a string of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms
+a whole with the root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the
+adjective is declined and compared and agrees with its substantive;
+compound tenses are formed with the aid of the
+auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of relative pronouns
+and particles.</p>
+
+<p>Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting
+examples of non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both
+translation and imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it
+may be doubted if the experiment is successful. The sense of
+effort is felt less in Hungarian than in the other languages;
+though they are admirable instruments for terse conversation or
+popular poetry, there appears to be some deep-seated difference
+in the force of the verb and the structure of phrases which
+renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to
+express sentences of the type common in European literature.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Civilization and Religion.</i>&mdash;The Finno-Ugric tribes have
+not been equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and
+Magyars, have adopted, at least in towns, the ordinary civilization
+of Europe; others are agriculturists; others still nomadic.
+The wilder tribes, such as the Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly
+consist of one section which is nomadic and another which is
+settling down. The following notes apply to traces of ancient
+conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere universal.
+Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike,
+though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages
+as they advanced among this older population. But most
+Finno-Ugrians are astute and persevering hunters, and the
+Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow. The tribes are divided
+into numerous small clans which are exogamous. Marriage by
+capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are still
+polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the
+more general form. Women are treated as servants and often
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span>
+excluded from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive
+form of house consists of poles inclined towards one another
+and covered with skins or sods, so as to form a circular screen
+round a fire; winter houses are partly underground. Long
+snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are largely employed in
+summer. The Finns in particular are very good seamen. The
+Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden
+moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different
+languages, which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that
+the original system did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude
+for calculating and trading is not great. Several thousands of
+the Ostiaks, Voguls and Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much
+paganism lingers among the nominal Christians, and in poetry
+such as the <i>Kalewala</i>. The deities are chiefly nature spirits and
+the importance of the several gods varies as the tribes are hunters,
+fishermen, &amp;c. Sun or sky worship is found among the Samoyedes
+and <i>Jumala</i>, the Finnish word for god, seems originally to mean
+sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river Obi and
+also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns,
+Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by
+each clan with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship
+are also found. The Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice
+to ghosts, and the Ostiaks to make images of the more important
+dead, which are tended and honoured, as if alive, for some years.
+Images are found in the tombs and barrows of most tribes, and
+the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use idols, generally
+of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of the
+idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations
+of Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are
+said to sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is
+due to possession by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and
+cured by spells, seems to prevail among all tribes, and in general
+extraordinary power is supposed to reside in incantations and
+magical formulae. This belief is conspicuous in the <i>Kalewala</i>,
+and almost every tribe has its own collection of prayers, healing
+charms and spells to be used on the most varied occasions.
+A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards (Finnish
+noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples.
+They are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the
+will of the gods; a magic drum plays a great part in their
+invocations, and their office is generally hereditary. The non-Buddhist
+elements of Chinese and Japanese religion present
+the same features as are found among the Finno-Ugrians&mdash;nature-worship,
+ancestor-worship and exorcism&mdash;but in a much more
+elaborate and developed form.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>History.</i>&mdash;Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history
+or written records, and little in the way of traditions of their
+past. In their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter
+to some extent the course of ordinary European history. For
+the earlier period we have no positive information, but the labours
+of investigators, especially in Finland, have collected a great
+number of archaeological and philological data from which an
+account of the ancient wanderings of these tribes may be constructed.
+Barrows containing skulls and ornaments may mark
+the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be
+of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan
+words of an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact
+with the other language from which it borrowed at the time when
+such forms were current. But clearly all such deductions
+contain a large element of theory, and the following sketch is
+given with all reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the
+Urals and spoke a common language. It is not certain if they
+were all of the same physical type, for the association of different
+races speaking one language is common in central Asia. They
+were hunters and fishermen, not agriculturists. At an unknown
+period the Finns, still undivided, moved into Europe and perhaps
+settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps arrived there
+before 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, learned some rudiments of agriculture, and
+developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still
+in the neolithic stage. About 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> they came in contact
+with an Iranian people, from whom they learned the use of
+metals, and borrowed numerals for a hundred (Finnish <i>sata</i>,
+Ostiak <i>s&#257;t</i>, Magyar <i>szaz</i>; cf. Zend <i>sata</i>) and a thousand (Magyar
+<i>ezer</i>; cf. <i>haza<span class="ov">n</span>ra</i> and <i>hazar</i>). Magyar and some other languages
+also borrowed a word for ten (<i>tíz</i>, cf. <i>das</i>). This Iranian race
+may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are believed by many
+authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented by the
+Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route
+up the Volga in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> About that time the
+Western Finns must have broken away from the Mordvinians
+and wandered north-westwards. At a period not much later
+than the Christian era, they must have come in contact with
+Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also with
+Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter
+first in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as
+there may have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces.
+But the distribution of tombs and barrows seems to indicate
+that they entered Finland not from the east through Karelia
+but from the Baltic provinces by sea to Satakunta and the
+south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From both
+Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous
+quantity of culture-words and probably the ideas and materials
+they indicate. Thus the Finnish words for gold, king and
+everything concerned with government are of Scandinavian
+origin. Their migration to Finland was probably complete about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later as Russians
+were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns northwards,
+overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country between
+St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to
+drive the Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east.
+The Finns know the Russians by the name of <i>Venäjä</i>, or Wends,
+and as this name is not used by Slavs themselves but by Scandinavians
+and Teutons, it seems clear that they arrived among
+the Finns as greater strangers than the Scandinavians and
+known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps first
+preached to the Finns as early as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, but there was a long
+political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of
+the 13th century Finland was definitely converted and annexed
+to Sweden, remaining a dependency of that country until 1809,
+when it was ceded to Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward
+movement and did not fall under western influences but came
+into contact with Tatar tribes and were more or less Tatarized.
+In some cases this took the form of the adoption of a Tatar
+language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and Votiak) a large
+number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that there
+were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting
+to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such
+was Great Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the
+Mongols in 1238. The pressure of tribes farther east acting on
+these settlements dislodged sections of them from time to time
+and created the series of invasions which devastated the East
+Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But we do not
+know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians,
+Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were
+Turks, Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking
+a Ugrian language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspection
+of the performances of the various tribes, as far as we can
+distinguish them, suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the
+warlike element. The names Hun and Hungarian may possibly
+be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot assume that this tribe
+passed across Asia unchanged in language and physique. The
+Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of the 9th
+century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and
+conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or
+so before this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu,
+probably a district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The
+isolated groups of Hungarians now found in Transylvania and
+called Szeklers are considered the purest descendants of the
+invading Magyars. Those who settled in the plains of Hungary
+probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars and
+earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as
+Pechenegs and Kumans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Among the older writers may be mentioned
+Strahlenberg (<i>Das nord- und östliche Theil von Europa und Asia</i>,
+1730), Johann Gottlieb Georgi (<i>Description de toutes les nations de
+l&rsquo;empire de la Russie</i>, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777); but especially
+the various works of Matthias A. Castrén (1852-1853) and W. Schott
+(1858). Modern scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their
+languages was founded by these two authors. Among newer works
+some of the most important separate publications are: J.R. Aspelin,
+<i>Antiquités du nord finno-ougrien</i> (1877-1884); J. Abercromby,
+<i>Pre- and Proto-historic Finns</i> (1898); and A. Hackmann, <i>Die ältere
+Eisenzeit in Finnland</i> (1905).</p>
+
+<p>The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and
+languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not
+in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there
+are several: <i>Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne</i> (Helsingfors)
+(<i>Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja</i>); <i>Finnisch-Ugrische
+Forschungen</i> (Helsingfors and Leipzig); <i>Mitteilungen der archäologischen,
+historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der Kais.
+Universität zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les
+études ouralo-altaïques</i> (Budapest). In all of these will be found
+numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halévy,
+Heikel, Krohn, Muncácsi, Paasonen, Setälä, Smurnow, Thomsen
+and Vambéry.</p>
+
+<p>The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the
+headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions
+may be consulted the works of Castrén, Schott and Otto Donner,
+also such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages:
+Byrne, <i>Principles of the Structure of Language</i>, vol. i. (1892); Friedrich
+Müller, <i>Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft II.</i>, Band ii., Abth. 1882;
+Steinthal and Misleli, <i>Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. El.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINSBURY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a central metropolitan borough of London,
+England, bounded N. by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the
+city of London and W. by Holborn and St Pancras. Pop.
+(1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares are Pentonville
+Road, from King&rsquo;s Cross east to the Angel, Islington, continuing
+E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate
+Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre
+from W. to E., King&rsquo;s Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon
+Road, and so to the City; St John Street and Road and Goswell
+Road (the residence of Dickens&rsquo; Pickwick) running S. from the
+Angel towards the City; and Rosebery Avenue running S.W.
+from St John Street into Holborn. The commercial character
+of the City extends into the southern part of the borough; the
+residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local industries
+include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing
+and paper-making.</p>
+
+<p>An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation
+is not known. The place was supposed by some to take name
+from an extensive fen, a part of which, commonly known as
+Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was drained in the 16th century
+and subsequently laid out as public grounds. It was a frequent
+resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of entertainment and
+the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that it furnished
+a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in the fire
+of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous
+at a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of
+Clerkenwell (<i>q.v.</i>), a locality of considerable historic interest,
+including the former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which
+the gateway and other traces remain. Among several other
+sites and buildings of historical interest the Charterhouse (<i>q.v.</i>)
+west of Aldersgate Street, stands first, originally a Carthusian
+monastery, subsequently a hospital and a school out of which
+grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill Fields,
+City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the
+middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons
+interred here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother
+of John and Charles Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the
+Society of Friends. A neighbouring chapel is intimately associated
+with the Wesleys, and the house of John Wesley is opened
+as a museum bearing his name. Many victims of the plague
+were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields, near the junction
+of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the fields
+lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable
+Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and
+armoury. Sadler&rsquo;s Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as
+a place of entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a
+fashionable medicinal spring, music room and theatre, the last
+most notable in its connexion with the names of Joseph Grimaldi
+the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other institutions are the technical
+college, Leonard Street, and St Mark&rsquo;s, St Luke&rsquo;s and
+the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the parcels
+department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green
+the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the
+Thames). Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the
+New River Head. The municipal borough coincides with the
+east and central divisions of the parliamentary borough of
+Finsbury, each returning one member. The borough council
+consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. Area,
+589.1 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FINSTERWALDE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Prussia, on the Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster,
+28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The
+town has a Gothic church (1581), a château, schools, cloth and
+cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and saw mills and factories
+for machine building. The town, which is first mentioned in
+1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635 and
+of Prussia in 1815.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIORENZO DI LORENZO<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1440-1522), Italian painter, of
+the Umbrian school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most
+of his authentic works are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There
+is probably no other Italian master of importance of whose
+life and work so little is known. In fact the whole edifice that
+modern scientific criticism has built around his name is based
+on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in the Pinacoteca
+of Perugia&mdash;a niche with lunette, two wings and predella&mdash;and
+on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that city
+in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint
+an altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova&mdash;the pentatych of the
+&ldquo;Madonna and Saints&rdquo; now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth
+and death and pupilage nothing is known, and Vasari does not
+even mention Fiorenzo&rsquo;s name, though he probably refers to him
+when he says that Cristofano, Perugino&rsquo;s father, sent his son
+to be the shop drudge of a painter in Perugia, &ldquo;who was not
+particularly distinguished in his calling, but held the art in great
+veneration and highly honoured the men who excelled therein.&rdquo;
+Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino and of Pinturicchio
+show certain mannerisms which point towards Fiorenzo&rsquo;s
+influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some fifty
+pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes
+works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be
+surprised to find great divergence of opinion as regards the
+masters under whom Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied.
+Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo,
+Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione, Filippo Lippi,
+Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with this
+distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter
+that stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the
+probability is that he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly
+influenced by Gozzoli. Fiorenzo&rsquo;s authentic works are remarkable
+for their sense of space and for the expression of that peculiar
+clear, soft atmosphere which is so marked a feature in the work
+of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity of feeling and a
+power of expressing character which are far removed from the
+somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures
+bearing Fiorenzo&rsquo;s name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight
+charming St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-authenticated
+works, so Florentine in conception and movement,
+that the Perugian&rsquo;s authorship is very questionable. On the
+other hand the beautiful &ldquo;Nativity,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Adoration of the
+Magi,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Adoration of the Shepherds&rdquo; in the same
+gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the
+fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco
+at Deruta. The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the
+Frankfort museums contain each a &ldquo;Madonna and Child&rdquo;
+ascribed to the master, but the attribution is in each case open
+to doubt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean Carlyle Graham, <i>The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo</i>
+(Perugia, 1903); Edward Hutton, <i>The Cities of Umbria</i> (London).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. G. K.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIORENZUOLA D&rsquo;ARDA,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a town of Emilia, Italy, in the
+province of Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft.
+above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via
+Aemilia, and has a picturesque piazza with an old tower in the
+centre. The Palazzo Grossi also is a fine building. Alseno
+lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is the Cistercian abbey of Chiaravalle
+della Colomba, with a fine Gothic church and a large and
+beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble), of the 12th-14th
+century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1748-1821), German
+painter and historian of art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th
+of October 1748. He received his first instructions in art at an
+academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in 1761, to continue
+his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to Bologna, where
+he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 admission
+to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained
+the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick.
+In 1781 he removed to Göttingen, occupied himself as a drawing-master,
+and was named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints
+at the university library. He was appointed professor extraordinary
+in the philosophical faculty in 1799, and ordinary
+professor in 1813. During this period he had made himself
+known as a writer by the publication of his <i>Geschichte der zeichnenden
+Künste</i>, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in
+1815 to 1820 by the <i>Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste in Deutschland
+und den vereinigten Niederlanden</i>, in 4 vols. These works,
+though not attaining to any high mark of literary excellence,
+are esteemed for the information collected in them, especially
+on the subject of art in the later middle ages. Fiorillo practised
+his art almost till his death, but has left no memorable masterpiece.
+The most noticeable of his painting is perhaps the
+&ldquo;Surrender of Briseis.&rdquo; He died at Göttingen on the 10th of
+September 1821.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIR,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch
+pine (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>), but at present not infrequently employed
+as a general term for the whole of the true conifers (<i>Abielineae</i>);
+in a more exact sense, it has been transferred to the &ldquo;spruce&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;silver firs,&rdquo; the genera <i>Picea</i> and <i>Abies</i> of most modern
+botanists.</p>
+
+<p>The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having
+their needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of
+growing in clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their
+cones are composed of thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales,
+each with a more or less conspicuous bract springing from the
+base. The trees have usually a straight trunk, and a tendency
+to a conical or pyramidal growth, throwing out each year a more
+or less regular whorl of branches from the foot of the leading
+shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend horizontally.</p>
+
+<p>In the spruce firs (<i>Picea</i>), the cones are pendent when mature
+and their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the
+shoots, though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally.
+In the genus <i>Abies</i>, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their
+scales drop off when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct
+rows on each side of the shoot.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the
+Norway spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>), so well known in British plantations,
+though rarely attaining there the gigantic height and
+grandeur of form it often displays in its native woods. Under
+favourable conditions of growth it is a lofty tree, with a nearly
+straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in somewhat irregular
+whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed with dark,
+clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as they
+increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even
+in large trees, often sweeping the ground&mdash;a habit that, with
+the jagged sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses,
+gives a peculiarly graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway
+spruce. The slender, sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered
+thickly around the shoots; the upper one pressed towards the
+stem, and the lower directed sideways, so as to give a somewhat
+flattened appearance to the individual sprays. The elongated
+cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper branches;
+they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and
+eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the
+extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge
+their seeds until the following spring.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:381px; height:483px" src="images/img394.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Norway Spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>). Male Flowers. A, branch
+bearing male cones, reduced; B, single male cone, enlarged; C, single
+stamen, enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on
+most of the mountain ranges of northern and central Europe;
+while in Asia it occurs at least as far east as the Lena, and in
+latitude extends from the Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle.
+On the Swiss Alps it is one of the most prevalent and striking
+of the forest trees, its dark evergreen foliage often standing out
+in strong contrast to the snowy ridges and glaciers beyond.
+In the lower districts of Sweden it is the predominant tree in
+most of the great forests that spread over so large a portion of
+that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part of
+the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according
+to Franz Christian Schübeler, on the mountain slopes up to an
+altitude of from 2800 to 3100 ft., and clothing the shores of some
+of the fjords to the water&rsquo;s edge; in the higher regions it is
+generally mingled with the pine. Less abundant on the western
+side of the fjelds, it again forms woods in Nordland, extending
+in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to the 67th parallel;
+but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at a greater
+elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish Lapland
+it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft., its
+upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In
+all the Scandinavian countries it is known as the <i>Gran</i> or <i>Grann</i>.
+Great tracts of low country along the southern shores of the
+Baltic and in northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce.
+It everywhere shows a preference for a moist but well-drained
+soil, and never attains its full stature or luxuriance of growth
+upon arid ground, whether on plain or mountain&mdash;a peculiarity
+that should be remembered by the planter. In a favourable
+soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of the
+stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of
+from 150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5
+to 6 ft. at the base. But when it grows in dense woods, where
+the lower branches decay and drop off early, only a small head
+of foliage remaining at the tapering summit, its stem, though
+frequently of great height, is rarely more than 1½ or 2 ft. in
+thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight leading shoot, in the
+vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2½ or even 3 ft. in
+a single season. In its native habitats it is said to endure for
+several centuries; but in those countries from which the commercial
+supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection
+in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:157px; height:415px" src="images/img394e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:103px; height:373px" src="images/img394f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:203px; height:438px" src="images/img394g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:356px; height:552px" src="images/img394a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:351px; height:546px" src="images/img394b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">SILVER FIR (<i>Abies pectinata</i>).<br />
+<i>A</i>, Cone and foliage.</td>
+<td class="caption">SPRUCE FIR (<i>Picea excelsa</i>).<br />
+<i>B</i>, Cone and foliage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:353px; height:559px" src="images/img394c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:352px; height:562px" src="images/img394d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">HEMLOCK SPRUCE (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>)<br />
+<i>C</i>, Cone, seed and foliage.</td>
+<td class="caption">DOUGLAS FIR (<i>Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii</i>).<br />
+<i>D</i>, Cone, seed and foliage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Photos by Henry Irving</i>.
+</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:389px; height:562px" src="images/img394h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:512px" src="images/img394m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:558px" src="images/img394i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">CYPRESS (<i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>).
+<i>A</i>, Cone and branchlets.</td>
+<td class="caption">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="caption">JUNIPER (<i>Juniperus communis</i>).
+<i>B</i>, Fruit and foliage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:413px; height:553px" src="images/img394j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:463px; height:305px" src="images/img394k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:398px; height:269px" src="images/img394l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">ARAUCARIA (<i>A. imbricata</i>, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle).
+<i>C</i>, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed.</td>
+<td class="caption" colspan="2">YEW (<i>Taxus baccata</i>).
+<i>D</i>, Seed and foliage.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="3"><i>Photos by Henry Irving</i>.
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:317px; height:498px" src="images/img395.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Norway Spruce (<i>Picea excelsa</i>).
+Cones; scale with seeds. A, Branch bearing
+(<i>a</i>) young female cones, (<i>b</i>) ripe cones,
+reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds,
+enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood
+is white, apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an
+open place, but, as produced in the close northern forests, often
+of fine and even grain. Immense quantities are imported into
+Britain from Norway, Sweden and Prussia, under the names
+of &ldquo;white Norway,&rdquo; &ldquo;Christiania&rdquo; and &ldquo;Danzig deal.&rdquo; The
+larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used for
+the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and
+rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably
+as lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears
+less adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from
+Sweden in a manufactured state, in the form of door and window-frames
+and ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap
+&ldquo;white deal&rdquo; furniture is made of this wood. The younger and
+smaller trees are remarkably durable, especially when the bark
+is allowed to remain on them; and most of the poles imported
+into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and similar
+uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often
+made of it, and are
+said to be lighter
+than those of pine.
+The best poles are
+obtained in Norway
+from small, slender,
+drawn-up trees,
+growing under the
+shade of the larger
+ones in the thick
+woods, these being
+freer from knots,
+and tougher from
+their slower growth.
+A variety of the
+spruce, abounding in
+some parts of Norway,
+produces a red
+heartwood, not easy
+to distinguish from
+that of the Norway
+pine (Scotch fir), and
+imported with it into
+England as &ldquo;red
+deal&rdquo; or &ldquo;pine.&rdquo;
+This kind is sometimes
+seen in plantations,
+where it may
+be recognized by its
+shorter, darker
+leaves and longer
+cones. The smaller branches and the waste portion of the
+trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported as fire-wood,
+or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce is
+also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.</p>
+
+<p>The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded
+by the tree in less abundance than those furnished by the pine,
+are of considerable economic value. In Scandinavia a thick
+turpentine oozes from cracks or fissures in the bark, forming
+by its congelation a fine yellow resin, known commercially as
+&ldquo;spruce rosin,&rdquo; or &ldquo;frankincense&rdquo;; it is also procured artificially
+by cutting off the ends of the lower branches, when it
+slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of
+Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce,
+a long strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin
+that slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in
+the latter part of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the
+following spring to ensure a continuance of the supply. The
+process is repeated every alternate year, until the tree no longer
+yields the resin in abundance, which under favourable circumstances
+it will do for twenty years or more. The quantity
+obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on the vigour
+of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected to the
+operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed,
+and the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value
+even for fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better
+sort of &ldquo;Burgundy pitch&rdquo; of the druggists is prepared. By
+the peasantry of its native countries the Norway spruce is
+applied to innumerable purposes of daily life. The bark and
+young cones afford a tanning material, inferior indeed to oak-bark,
+and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value in countries
+where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In
+Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over
+the floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses,
+as a fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting.
+The young shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of
+those northern latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to
+obtain. In times of scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the
+sweetish inner bark, beaten in a mortar and ground in his
+primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke out a scanty supply of
+meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable though somewhat
+resinous substitute for his ordinary <i>flad-brod</i>. A decoction
+of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy
+for scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential
+ingredient in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as
+an occasional beverage. The well-known &ldquo;Danzig-spruce&rdquo;
+is prepared by adding a decoction of the buds or cones to the
+wort or saccharine liquor before fermentation. Similar preparations
+are in use wherever the spruce fir abounds. The wood is
+burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being reckoned in Germany
+about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the widespreading
+roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland
+and Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are
+selected, split through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley
+of wood-ashes and salt, which, dissolving out the resin, loosens
+the fibres and renders them easily separable, and ready for twisting
+into cordage. Light portable boats are sometimes made of
+very thin boards of fir, sewn together with cord thus manufactured
+from the roots of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>The Norway spruce seems to have been the &ldquo;Picea&rdquo; of
+Pliny, but is evidently often confused by the Latin writers
+with their &ldquo;Abies,&rdquo; the <i>Abies pectinata</i> of modern botanists.
+From an equally loose application of the word &ldquo;fir&rdquo; by our
+older herbalists, it is difficult to decide upon the date of introduction
+of this tree into Britain; but it was commonly planted
+for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th century.
+In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as well
+as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for
+its successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be
+turned to agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for
+economic planting in Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which
+come to perfection in more bleak and elevated regions, and on
+comparatively barren ground, though it may perhaps be grown
+to advantage on some moist hill-sides and mountain hollows.
+Its great value to the English forester is as a &ldquo;nurse&rdquo; for other
+trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form render it
+admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the young
+saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out.
+For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a picturesque
+tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among
+the best of the conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet
+harmonizing with the olive green and rounded outline of oaks
+and beeches, or with the red trunk and glaucous foliage of the
+pine. When young its spreading boughs form good cover for
+game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are
+useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring.
+In a good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous
+size: one in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft.
+in height, and the trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the
+ground. The spruce bears the smoke of great cities better than
+most of the <i>Abietineae</i>; but in suburban localities after a
+certain age it soon loses its healthy appearance, and is apt to
+be affected with blight (<i>Eriosoma</i>), though not so much as
+the Scotch fir and most of the pines.</p>
+
+<p>The black spruce (<i>Picea nigra</i>) is a tree of more formal growth
+than the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+and in more regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce;
+and, though the lower ones become bent to a horizontal position,
+they do not droop, so that the tree has a much less elegant
+appearance. The leaves, which grow very thickly all round the
+stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a dark greyish-green.
+The cones, produced in great abundance, are short and
+oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are
+deep purple when young, but become brown as they ripen.
+The tree also occurs in the New England states and extends over
+nearly the whole of British North America, its northern limit
+occurring at about 67° N. lat., often forming a large part of the
+dense forests, mostly in the swampy districts. A variety with
+lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in Newfoundland and
+some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees usually
+grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great
+height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the
+Norway spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a
+diameter of 1½ or 2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty
+soil, and often grows luxuriantly in very moist situations. The
+wood is strong, light and very elastic, forming an excellent
+material for small masts and spars, for which purpose the trunks
+are used in America, and exported largely to England. The
+sawn timber is inferior to that of <i>P. excelsa</i>, besides being of a
+smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the log-houses
+of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks. The
+spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots
+of this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for
+some time in water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the
+resulting decoction is then poured into a cask with molasses or
+maple sugar and a little yeast, and left to ferment. It is often
+made by the settlers and fishermen of the St Lawrence region,
+being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The American
+&ldquo;essence of spruce,&rdquo; occasionally used in England for making
+spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and
+concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree
+are of no great value. It was introduced into Britain at the
+end of the 17th century.</p>
+
+<p>The white spruce (<i>Picea alba</i>), sometimes met with in English
+plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce,
+the branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light
+glaucous green; the small light-brown cones are more slender
+and tapering than in <i>P. nigra</i>, and the scales have even edges.
+It is of comparatively small size, but is of some importance in the
+wilds of the Canadian dominion, where it is found to the northern
+limit of tree-vegetation growing up to at least 69°; the slender
+trunks yield the only useful timber of some of the more desolate
+northern regions. In the woods of Canada it occurs frequently
+mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous
+tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used
+by the Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark
+covering of their canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark
+is employed to varnish over the seams. It was introduced to
+Great Britain at the end of the 17th century and was formerly
+more extensively planted than at present.</p>
+
+<p>The hemlock spruce (<i>Tsuga canadensis</i>) is a large tree, abounding
+in most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador;
+in lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often
+the prevailing tree. The short leaves are flat, those above
+pressed close to the stem, and the others forming two rows;
+they are of a rather light green tint above, whitish beneath.
+The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The large branches
+droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays are much
+lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most
+elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old,
+the branches, broken and bent down by the winter snows, give
+it a ragged but very picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently
+3 ft. thick near the base. The hemlock prefers rather dry
+and elevated situations, often forming woods on the declivities
+of mountains. The timber is very much twisted in grain, and
+liable to warp and split, but is used for making plasterers&rsquo; laths
+and for fencing; &ldquo;shingles&rdquo; for roofing are sometimes made of
+it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most
+valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are sometimes
+used for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It
+was introduced into Great Britain in about the year 1736.</p>
+
+<p>The Douglas spruce (<i>Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii</i>), one of the
+finest conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes
+considerably more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures
+8 or 10 ft. across. The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are
+of a deep green tint; the cones are furnished with tridentate
+bracts that project far beyond the scales. It forms extensive
+forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia and Oregon,
+whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its strength,
+durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep
+yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick
+bark. It was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery
+by David Douglas in 1827, and has been widely planted, but
+does not flourish well where exposed to high winds or in too
+shallow soil.</p>
+
+<p>Of the <i>Abies</i> group, the silver fir (<i>A. pectinata</i>), may be taken
+as the type,&mdash;a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size,
+with large spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward
+the extremities. The flat leaves are arranged in two regular,
+distinct rows; they are deep green above, but beneath have two
+broad white lines, which, as the foliage in large trees has a
+tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery appearance from below.
+The large cones stand erect on the branches, are cylindrical
+in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which
+project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is
+of a silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to
+have been the true &ldquo;Abies&rdquo; of the Latin writers&mdash;the &ldquo;pulcherrima
+abies&rdquo; of Virgil. From early historic times it has been
+held in high estimation in the south of Europe, being used by
+the Romans for masts and all purposes for which timber of great
+length was required. It is abundant in most of the mountain
+ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in the
+northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the
+Caucasus and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Extensive
+woods of this fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree
+grows up to nearly 4000 ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms
+great part of the extensive forest of the Hochwald, and occurs
+in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is plentiful likewise on
+the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior to that of
+<i>Picea excelsa</i>, but, being soft and easily worked, is largely
+employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all
+the purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently
+made of it, and it is in great esteem for carving and for the
+construction of stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the
+wood is more perishable than that of the spruce fir when exposed
+to the air, though it is said to stand well under water. The bark
+contains a large amount of a fine, highly-resinous turpentine,
+which collects in tumours on the trunk during the heat of summer.
+In the Alps and Vosges this resinous semi-fluid is collected by
+climbing the trees and pressing out the contents of the natural
+receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels held beneath
+them. After purification by straining, it is sold as &ldquo;Strasburg
+turpentine,&rdquo; much used in the preparation of some of the finer
+varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar
+process as that from <i>Picea excelsa</i>. A fine oil of turpentine is
+distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse
+resin. Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th
+century, the silver fir has become common there as a planted tree,
+though, like the Norway spruce, it rarely comes up from seed
+scattered naturally. There are many fine trees in Scotland;
+one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his <i>Sylva Britannica</i>,
+then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In the more
+southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90 ft.,
+and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young
+shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on
+light soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents
+a ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top
+and horizontal boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque
+relief above the rounded summits of the neighbouring trees.
+The silver fir flourishes in a deep loamy soil, and will grow even
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+upon stiff clay, when well drained&mdash;a situation in which few
+conifers will succeed. On such lands, where otherwise desirable,
+it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones do not ripen
+till the second year.</p>
+
+<p>The silver fir of Canada (<i>A. balsamea</i>), a small tree resembling
+the last species in foliage, furnishes the &ldquo;Canada balsam&rdquo;;
+it abounds in Quebec and the adjacent provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies,
+and some furnish valuable products in their native countries;
+but they are not yet of sufficient economic or general interest to
+demand mention here.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information see Veitch&rsquo;s <i>Manual of Coniferae</i> (2nd ed.,
+1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRDOUS&#298;,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> <span class="sc">Firdaus&#299;</span> or <span class="sc">Firdus&#299;</span>, Persian poet. Abu &rsquo;l
+K&#257;sim Mansur (or Hasan), who took the <i>nom de plume</i> of Firdous&#299;,
+author of the epic poem the <i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i>, or &ldquo;Book of Kings,&rdquo;
+a complete history of Persia in nearly 60,000 verses, was born
+at Shadab, a suburb of T&#363;s, about the year 329 of the Hegira
+(941 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), or earlier. His father belonged to the class of <i>Dihkans</i>
+(the old native country families and landed proprietors of Persia,
+who had preserved their influence and status under the Arab
+rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of T&#363;s
+(in Khorasan). Firdous&#299;&rsquo;s own education eminently qualified
+him for the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook,
+for he was profoundly versed in the Arabic language and literature
+and had also studied deeply the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was
+conversant with the ancient historical records which existed
+in that tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i> of Firdous&#299; (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>) is
+perhaps the only example of a poem produced by a single
+author which at once took its place as the national epic of the
+people. The nature of the work, the materials from which
+it was composed, and the circumstances under which it was
+written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and necessarily
+tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the empire
+and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series
+of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient
+sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory
+of so imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th
+century of the Christian era we find mention made of these
+historical traditions in the work of an Armenian author, Moses
+of Chorene (according to others, he lived in the 7th or 8th
+century). During the reign of Chosroes I. (Anushirvan) the
+contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch, an
+attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the
+kingdom, all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient
+kings, and the results were deposited in the royal library. During
+the last years of the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed,
+the former collection being revised and greatly added to by the
+Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by several learned mobeds. His
+work was entitled the <i>Khoda&rsquo;in&#257;ma</i>, which in the old dialect
+also meant the &ldquo;Book of Kings.&rdquo; On the Arab invasion this
+work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the iconoclastic
+caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately
+preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira
+being paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a
+learned Persian who had embraced Islam. Other Guebres
+occupied themselves privately with the collection of these traditions;
+and, when a prince of Persian origin, Yak&#363;b ibn Laith,
+founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing off his
+allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the
+work of his illustrious predecessors. His &ldquo;Book of Kings&rdquo;
+was completed in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely
+circulated in Khorasan and Irak. Yak&#363;b&rsquo;s family did not
+continue long in power; but the Samanid princes who succeeded
+applied themselves zealously to the same work, and Prince
+N&#363;h II., who came to the throne in 365 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 976), entrusted
+it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki&rsquo;s
+labours were brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination,
+and the fall of the Samanian house happened not long after, and
+their kingdom passed into the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahm&#363;d
+ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the dynasty (998-1030), continued
+to make himself still more independent of the caliphate than his
+predecessors, and, though a warrior and a fanatical Moslem,
+extended a generous patronage to Persian literature and learning,
+and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic institutions.
+The task of continuing and completing the collection of the
+ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted
+him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many
+of the influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount
+of materials for the work, and after having searched in vain
+for a man of sufficient learning and ability to edit them faithfully,
+and having entrusted various episodes for versification to the
+numerous poets whom he had gathered round him, he at length
+made choice of Firdous&#299;. Firdous&#299; had been always strongly
+attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun at an
+early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of
+the death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design
+of himself carrying out the work which the latter had only just
+commenced; and, although he had not then any introduction
+to the court, he contrived, thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed
+Lashkari, to procure a copy of the Dihkan Danishwer&rsquo;s collection,
+and at the age of thirty-six commenced his great undertaking.
+Abu Mansur, the governor of T&#363;s, patronized him and encouraged
+him by substantial pecuniary support. When Mahmud
+succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the
+work, Firdous&#299; was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni.
+At first court jealousies and intrigues prevented Firdous&#299; from
+being noticed by the sultan; but at length one of his friends,
+Mahek, undertook to present to Mahmud his poetic version of
+one of the well-known episodes of the legendary history. Hearing
+that the poet was born at T&#363;s, the sultan made him explain the
+origin of his native town, and was much struck with the intimate
+knowledge of ancient history which he displayed. Being presented
+to the seven poets who were then engaged on the projected
+epic, Abu &rsquo;l K&#257;sim was admitted to their meetings, and on one
+occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud&rsquo;s request, in praise of
+his favourite Ay&#257;z, with such success that the sultan bestowed
+upon him the name of Firdous&#299;, saying that he had converted
+his assemblies into paradise (<i>Firdous</i>). During the early days
+of his sojourn at court an incident happened which contributed
+in no small measure to the realization of his ambition. Three of
+the seven poets were drinking in a garden when Firdous&#299; approached,
+and wishing to get rid of him without rudeness, they
+informed him who they were, and told him that it was their
+custom to admit none to their society but such as could give
+proof of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed
+that each should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own
+to be the last, and all four ending in the same rhyme. Firdous&#299;
+accepted the challenge, and the three poets having previously
+agreed upon three rhyming words to which a fourth could not
+be found in the Persian language, &rsquo;Ansari began&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&emsp; &ldquo;Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun&rdquo;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Farrakhi added&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&emsp; &ldquo;The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun&rdquo;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">&rsquo;Asjadi continued&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&emsp; &ldquo;Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior&rsquo;s johsun&rdquo;;<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="noind">and Firdous&#299;, without a moment&rsquo;s hesitation, completed the
+quatrain&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&emsp; &ldquo;Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdous&#299;
+recited to them the battle as described in the <i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i>, and
+delighted and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.</p>
+
+<p>Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling
+and versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such
+marks of his favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet
+an enthusiastic panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of
+the <i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i>, and forms a curious contrast to the bitter satire
+which he subsequently prefixed to the book. The sultan ordered
+his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to pay to Firdous&#299; a
+thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but the poet
+preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct
+a dike for his native town of T&#363;s, which suffered greatly from
+defective irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream
+of his childhood. Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy
+of Hasan Maimandi, who often refused to advance him sufficient
+for the necessaries of life, Firdous&#299; passed the later portion of
+his life in great privation, though enjoying the royal favour
+and widely extended fame. Amongst other princes whose
+liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary difficulties,
+was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who
+sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy
+of the episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which Firdous&#299; had sent
+him, and promised him a gracious reception if he should ever
+come to his court. As this prince belonged, like Firdous&#299;, to the
+Shiah sect, while Mahmud and Maimandi were Sunnites, and
+as he was also politically opposed to the sultan, Hasan Maimandi
+did not fail to make the most of this incident, and accused the
+poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and patron, as well as of
+heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in the attack, and
+for some time Firdous&#299;&rsquo;s position was very precarious, though
+his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work prevented
+him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the
+misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.</p>
+
+<p>At length, after thirty-five years&rsquo; work, the book was completed
+(1011), and Firdous&#299; entrusted it to Ay&#257;z, the sultan&rsquo;s favourite,
+for presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi
+to take the poet as much gold as an elephant could carry, but the
+jealous treasurer persuaded the monarch that it was too generous
+a reward, and that an elephant&rsquo;s load of silver would be sufficient.
+60,000 silver dirhems were accordingly placed in sacks, and
+taken to Firdous&#299; by Ay&#257;z at the sultan&rsquo;s command, instead of
+the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse, which had been
+promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and seeing
+the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold,
+received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he
+complained to Ay&#257;z that he had not executed the sultan&rsquo;s order.
+Ay&#257;z related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan
+Maimandi, and Firdous&#299; in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to
+Ay&#257;z himself, the same amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the
+rest to a beer seller for a glass of beer (<i>fouka</i>), sending word
+back to the sultan that it was not to gain money that he had
+taken so much trouble. On hearing this message, Mahmud at
+first reproached Hasan with having caused him to break his word,
+but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master&rsquo;s anger
+upon Firdous&#299; to such an extent that he threatened that on the
+morrow he would &ldquo;cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the
+feet of his elephants.&rdquo; Being apprised by one of the nobles of
+the court of what had taken place, Firdous&#299; passed the night
+in great anxiety; but passing in the morning by the gate that
+led from his own apartments into the palace, he met the sultan
+in his private garden, and succeeded by humble apologies in
+appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being appeased
+himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Returning
+home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses
+which he had composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing
+to the grand mosque of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the
+place where the sultan was in the habit of praying, the following
+lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea.
+What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein
+without finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the
+sea.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He then gave a sealed paper to Ay&#257;z, begging him to hand it
+to the sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed,
+and set off on his travels with no better equipment than his
+staff and a dervish&rsquo;s cloak. At the expiration of the 20 days
+Ay&#257;z gave the paper to the sultan, who on opening it found the
+celebrated satire which is now always prefixed to copies of the
+<i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i>, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest and severest
+pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage,
+sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture,
+but he was already in comparative safety. Firdous&#299; directed his
+steps to Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of
+Jorjan, who at first received him with great favour, and promised
+him his continued protection and patronage; learning, however,
+the circumstances under which he had left Ghazni, he feared the
+resentment of so powerful a sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew
+already coveted his kingdom, and dismissed the poet with a
+magnificent present. Firdous&#299; next repaired to Bagdad, where
+he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him
+to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic
+poem which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier
+gave Firdous&#299; an apartment near himself, and related to the
+caliph the manner in which he had been treated at Ghazni.
+The caliph summoned him into his presence, and was so much
+pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which Firdous&#299;
+composed in his honour, that he at once received him into
+favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to
+chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however,
+somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph&rsquo;s eyes; in order
+therefore to recover his prestige, Firdous&#299; composed another
+poem of 9000 couplets on the theme borrowed from the Koran
+of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar&rsquo;s wife&mdash;<i>Y&#363;suf and Zuleikha</i>
+(edited by H. Ethé, Oxford, 1902; complete metrical translation
+by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, though
+rare and little known, is still in existence&mdash;the Royal Asiatic
+Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time
+heard of his asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter
+menacing his liege lord, and demanding the surrender of the
+poet. Firdous&#299;, to avoid further troubles, departed for Ahwaz,
+a province of the Persian Irak, and dedicated his <i>Y&#363;suf and
+Zuleikha</i> to the governor of that district. Thence he went to
+Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his intimate and
+devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon the
+frontier. Firdous&#299; confided to him that he contemplated writing
+a bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the
+sultan of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of
+the latter, dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and
+remonstrated with Mahmud. Nasir Lek&rsquo;s message and the
+urgent representations of Firdous&#299;&rsquo;s friends had the desired
+effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his intention of offering
+full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy Maimandi to death.
+The change, however, came too late; Firdous&#299;, now a broken
+and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to T&#363;s,
+and, while wandering through the streets of his native town,
+heard a child lisping a verse from his own satire in which he
+taunts Mahmud with his slavish birth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Had Mahmud&rsquo;s father been what he is now</p>
+<p class="i05">A crown of gold had decked this aged brow;</p>
+<p class="i05">Had Mahmud&rsquo;s mother been of gentle blood,</p>
+<p class="i05">In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his
+misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was
+buried in a garden, but Abu&rsquo;l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of
+T&#363;s, refused to read the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging
+that he was an infidel, and had devoted his life to the glorification
+of fire-worshippers and misbelievers. The next night, however,
+having dreamt that he beheld Firdous&#299; in paradise dressed in the
+sacred colour, green, and wearing an emerald crown, he reconsidered
+his determination; and the poet was henceforth held to
+be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the Hegira
+(1020 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion
+of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the
+meanwhile despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of
+gold to Firdous&#299;, with a robe of honour and ample apologies
+for the past. But as the camels bearing the treasure reached
+one of the gates of the city, Firdous&#299;&rsquo;s funeral was leaving it by
+another. His daughter, to whom they brought the sultan&rsquo;s
+present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister remembering
+his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for
+the river of T&#363;s, this work was completed in honour of the poet&rsquo;s
+memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon
+that prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+order of Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is
+rejected by modern scholars (see T. Nöldeke, &ldquo;Das iranische
+Nationalepos,&rdquo; in W. Geiger&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii.
+pp. 150-158).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma</i> is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends
+current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans,
+a class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There
+is every reason therefore to believe that Firdous&#299; adhered faithfully
+to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect storehouse
+of the genuine traditions of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of
+the 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation
+in a magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French
+government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl.
+The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great
+expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published
+the French translation (1876-1878) with her illustrious husband&rsquo;s
+critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper
+form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), J.A.
+Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There
+is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1832; reprinted
+1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly
+unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with an introduction
+containing an account of Firdous&#299; and the Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma; the version
+by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The
+episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers
+from Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s poem. The only complete translation is Il
+Libro dei Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author
+of a history of Persian poetry.</p>
+
+<p>See also E.G. Browne&rsquo;s <i>Literary History of Persia</i>, i., ii. (1902-1906);
+T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Sh&#257;hn&#257;ma,
+editions, &amp;c.; and H. Ethé, &ldquo;Neupersische Litteratur,&rdquo; in the same
+work.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. H. P.; X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A sort of cuirass.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>fýr</i>; the word is common to West German
+languages, cf. Dutch <i>vuur</i>, Ger. <i>Feuer</i>; the pre-Teutonic form
+is seen in Sanskrit <i>p&#363;</i>, <i>p&#257;vaka</i>, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="pur">&#960;&#8166;&#961;</span>; the ultimate origin
+is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. <i>purus</i>),
+the term commonly used for the visible effect of combustion
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flame</a></span>), operating as a heating or lighting agency.</p>
+
+<p>So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a
+question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a
+tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to
+be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would
+decide the question in the affirmative; but when they are
+carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from
+conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe
+in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the
+bamboo jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no
+better authority has been found for the statement, and the
+story, which seems to be current in eastern Africa, may be
+nothing else than the propagation of fables about the Pygmies
+whom the ancients located around the sources of the Nile.
+Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring
+expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island
+&ldquo;there was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of
+fire,&rdquo; and that the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced
+by flint and steel and the smoke emitted by those with
+cigars in their mouths. The presence of the word <i>afi</i>, fire, in the
+Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the ethnographer of the
+expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as equivalent
+only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the supposition
+of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a
+missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word <i>afi</i> in his
+list for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin
+of fire, and describes some peculiar customs connected with its
+use. Alvaro de Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us
+that the inhabitants of Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific,
+showed great fear when they saw fire&mdash;which they did not know
+before. But that island has not been identified with certainty
+by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to the Ladrones or
+Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre
+Gobien, &ldquo;till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants,
+burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts
+ablaze, their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats
+up wood. Some of them having approached the fire too near
+were burnt, and the others kept aloof, fearing to be torn or
+poisoned by the powerful breath of that terrible animal.&rdquo; To
+this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone islanders made pottery
+before the arrival of Europeans, that they had words expressing
+the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and cooking. Let
+us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have been
+found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus
+the question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing
+impossible in the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe,
+it cannot be said that such a tribe has been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that
+fire was subject to his control, and could even be called into
+being by appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon
+and its various aspects he must soon have become familiar.
+The volcano lit up the darkness of night and sent its ashes or its
+lava down into the plains; the lightning or the meteor struck
+the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less obvious cause
+produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is possible
+that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings save
+awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity
+as with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have
+bred confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary
+to suppose that the practical discovery of fire was made only
+at one given spot and in one given way; it is much more probable
+indeed that different tribes and races obtained the knowledge
+in a variety of ways.</p>
+
+<p>It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable
+to rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers
+in Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman
+bearing always about with her a burning brand, which it is one
+of her principal duties to protect and foster; and it has been
+supposed that it was only ignorance which imposed on her the
+endless task. This is absurd. The Australian methods of
+producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood are perfectly
+well known, and are illustrated in Howitt&rsquo;s <i>Native Tribes of
+South-East Australia</i>, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a
+little trouble to the men.</p>
+
+<p>The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably
+in detail, but are for the most part merely modified applications
+of concussion or friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the
+working up of stone into implements must have been followed
+sooner or later by the discovery of fire; for in the process of
+chipping sparks were elicited, and in the process of polishing
+heat was generated. The first or concussion method is still
+familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of
+use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are
+comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians
+take two pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur,
+strike them together till the sulphur catches fire, and then
+transfer the flame to a heap of dry grass over which a few feathers
+have been scattered. Instead of two pieces of quartz the
+Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of iron pyrites. Mr
+Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken china
+violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same
+process in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China
+two pieces of bamboo are considered sufficient, the silicious
+character of the outside layer rendering it as good as native
+flint. The friction methods are more various. One of the
+simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and groove&mdash;&ldquo;a
+blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own making
+in a piece of wood lying on the ground.&rdquo; Much, of course,
+depends on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the
+manipulator. In Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce
+fire in a few seconds, but only succeeded himself after much
+labour. The same device was employed in New Zealand, the
+Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak Islands.
+Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards
+other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary
+piece of wood&mdash;thus making what Tylor has happily designated
+a fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia,
+Kamchatka, Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs
+of Ceylon, throughout a great part of southern Africa, among
+the Eskimo and Indian tribes of North America, in the West
+Indies, in Central America, and as far south as the Straits of
+Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient Mexicans, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a Mexican
+MS.&mdash;a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick
+to rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method
+of rotation seems to be very generally in use; but various
+devices have been resorted to for the purpose of diminishing
+the labour and hastening the result. The Gaucho of the Pampas
+takes &ldquo;an elastic stick about 18 in. long, presses one end to his
+breast and the other in a hole in a piece of wood, and then
+rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter&rsquo;s centre-bit.&rdquo;
+In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord or
+thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end
+and that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others
+put the upper end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold
+firmly in their mouth. A further advance was made by the
+Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who applied the principle of
+the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious pump-drill was
+used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of these
+instruments and a rich variety of details connected with
+fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor&rsquo;s valuable
+chapter in his <i>Researches</i>. These methods of producing fire are
+but rarely used in Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious
+observances. We read in Wuttke that some time ago the
+authorities of a Mecklenburg village ordered a &ldquo;wild fire&rdquo; to be
+lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. For two hours the
+men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was not to be
+ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the
+atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting
+to the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such
+a fire, to be efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded
+female was compelled to give in; fire was obtained&mdash;-but of
+bad quality, for it did not stop the murrain.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be
+concentrated by a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions
+the burning-lens in <i>The Clouds</i>, and the story of Archimedes
+using a mirror to fire the ships at Syracuse is familiar to every
+schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be trusted as an authority
+the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the sacred fire with a
+concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the burning-glass
+is in common use.</p>
+
+<p>To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the
+cosmogonies, those records of pristine speculative thought,
+do not give any reply which would not be found in the relations
+of travellers and historians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes
+is likewise the god of fire. At Mangaïa it is told that the great
+Maui went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making
+fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the
+tale differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind
+grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands.
+Wishing to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out,
+and so he obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every
+thing melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother
+herself were already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven,
+saved the hero and the perishing world; but before the waters
+extinguished all the blaze, Mahuika shut a few sparks into some
+trees, and thence men draw it now. The Maoris have also the
+legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki&rsquo;s footsteps, and that
+lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western Point, Victoria, the
+Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened the door of the
+sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that Karakorok, the
+good man&rsquo;s good daughter, seeing the earth to be full of serpents,
+went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had killed
+them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame burst
+out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the Persian
+<i>Shahnama</i> also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. Hushenk,
+the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, which,
+evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. &ldquo;Light
+shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out in
+glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world.&rdquo; The snake
+escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.</p>
+
+<p>North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering
+through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the
+prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same
+idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have
+been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on
+the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that
+their ancestor obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther
+struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.</p>
+
+<p>Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was,
+like the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri,
+the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the
+lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are
+his children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed
+&ldquo;the secret of the stone&rsquo;s edge and the iron&rsquo;s hardness.&rdquo; The
+Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or
+even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his
+hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet
+in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head
+a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe
+how &ldquo;fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it
+was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold.&rdquo; Ukko,
+the Esthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with
+his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck
+his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the &ldquo;fiery babe.&rdquo;
+He gave it to the Wind&rsquo;s daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden
+let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and
+fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not
+come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water,
+drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive.
+Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun&rsquo;s
+chariot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which
+the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save
+the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light,
+or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the
+expedient of a fire which should burn night and day in a public
+building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks,
+Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez,
+the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their &ldquo;national
+fires&rdquo; burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the &ldquo;eternal
+lamps&rdquo; in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic
+churches, may be a survival. The &ldquo;Regia,&rdquo; Rome&rsquo;s sacred
+centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a
+fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the
+two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political
+interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was
+at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort:
+all public business and most private affairs were transacted by
+the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder
+that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities
+consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and
+promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water
+not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious
+institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of
+water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult
+to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and
+the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the
+Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all
+authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately.
+The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken,
+and it had to be restored in some way or other&mdash;either by Jove
+sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests
+making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two
+pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a
+concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier
+without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum
+burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the
+emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia,
+and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that
+burning in the mother country.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Not before the three curiae
+united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+Athens became a shining light to the world only, we are told,
+when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each
+its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated,
+making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated
+around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.</p>
+
+<p><i>Periodic Fires.</i>&mdash;Because the sun loses its force after noon,
+and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the
+ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that,
+as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline.
+Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and
+on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning
+of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with
+much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses
+were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent
+lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels
+were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by
+the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities
+in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant
+on the same day a general remission of sins. All things were
+made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of
+his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old
+World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried
+these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated
+with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of the <i>saecula</i>, or
+astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a
+century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have
+been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years)
+every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn
+procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling,
+the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if
+they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and
+stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of
+time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would
+have believed that it was because the great fire was being extinguished
+at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many
+other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed
+to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the
+end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose,
+how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying
+everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is
+also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha
+(2 Esdras xvi. 15).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dupuis, <i>Origine de tous les cultes</i> (1794); Burnout, <i>Science
+des religions</i>; Grimm, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert
+Kuhn. <i>Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks</i> (1859);
+Steinthal, <i>Über die ursprüngliche Form der Sage von Prometheus</i>
+(1861); Albert Reville, &ldquo;Le Mythe de Prométhée,&rdquo; in <i>Revue des deux
+mondes</i> (August 1862); Michel Bréal, <i>Hercule et Cacus</i> (1863); Tylor,
+<i>Researches into the Early History of Mankind</i>, ch. ix. (1865); Bachofen,
+<i>Die Sage von Tanaquil</i> (1870); Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (6th
+ed., 1900); Haug, <i>Religion of the Parsis</i> (1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Re.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among
+the Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people
+with a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care
+of a so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating
+from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
+The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
+temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
+Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez,
+had each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die
+out, they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis,
+Pueblos and Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins
+discussed important affairs of state at the &ldquo;council fires,&rdquo;
+around which each <i>sachem</i> marched three times, turning to it all the
+sides of his person. &ldquo;It was a saying among our ancestors,&rdquo; said an
+Iroquois chief in 1753, &ldquo;that when the fire goes out at Onondaga&rdquo;&mdash;the
+Delphi of the league&mdash;&ldquo;we shall no longer be a people.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION.<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> Fire is considered in this
+article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against
+fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the
+organization of fire extinguishing establishments.</p>
+
+<p>History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in
+towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world.
+The following is a list of notable fires of early days:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Great Britain and Ireland</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>&ensp;798. <i>London</i>, nearly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>&ensp;982. <i>London</i>, greater part of the city burned.</p>
+
+<p>1086. <i>London</i>, all houses and churches from the east to the west
+               gate burned.</p>
+
+<p>1212. <i>London</i>, greater part of the city burned.</p>
+
+<p>1666. <i>London</i>, &ldquo;The Great Fire,&rdquo; September 2-6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
+for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400
+streets, lanes, &amp;c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul&rsquo;s church, 86
+parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal exchange,
+the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52
+companies&rsquo; halls, and a vast number of other stately
+edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone
+bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the
+Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from
+the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to
+Holborn bridge. Six persons were killed. The total loss of
+property was estimated at the time to be £10,731,500.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1794. <i>London</i>, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
+                £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1834. <i>London</i>, Houses of Parliament burned.</p>
+<p>1861. <i>London</i>, Tooley Street wharves, &amp;c., burned. Loss estimated
+                at £2,000,000.</p>
+<p>1873. <i>London</i>, Alexandra palace destroyed.</p>
+<p>1137. <i>York</i>, totally destroyed.</p>
+<p>1184. <i>Glastonbury</i>, town and abbey burned.</p>
+<p>1292. <i>Carlisle</i>, destroyed.</p>
+<p>1507. <i>Norwich</i>, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1544. <i>Leith</i>, burned.</p>
+<p>1598. <i>Tiverton</i>, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned;
+                  33 persons killed. Loss, £150,000.</p>
+<p>1612. <i>Tiverton</i>, 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.</p>
+<p>1731. <i>Tiverton</i>, 300 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1700. <i>Edinburgh</i>, &ldquo;the Great Fire.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>1612. <i>Cork</i>, greater part burned, and again in 1622.</p>
+<p>1613. <i>Dorchester</i>, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.</p>
+<p>1614. <i>Stratford-on-Avon</i>, burned.</p>
+<p>1644. <i>Beaminster</i>, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.</p>
+<p>1675. <i>Northampton</i>, almost totally destroyed.</p>
+<p>1683. <i>Newmarket</i>, large part of the town burned.</p>
+<p>1694. <i>Warwick</i>, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.</p>
+<p>1707. <i>Lisburn</i>, burned.</p>
+<p>1727. <i>Gravesend</i>, destroyed.</p>
+<p>1738. <i>Wellingborough</i>, 800 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1743. <i>Crediton</i>, 450 houses destroyed.</p>
+<p>1760. <i>Portsmouth</i>, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.</p>
+<p>1770. <i>Portsmouth</i>, dockyard burned. Loss, £100,000.</p>
+<p>1802. <i>Liverpool</i>, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1827. <i>Sheerness</i>, 50 houses and much property destroyed.</p>
+<p>1854. <i>Gateshead</i>, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1875. <i>Glasgow</i>. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">France</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>&emsp;59. <i>Lyons</i>, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.</p>
+<p>1118. <i>Nantes</i>, greater part of the city destroyed.</p>
+<p>1137. <i>Dijon</i>, burned.</p>
+<p>1524. <i>Troyes</i>, nearly destroyed.</p>
+<p>1720. <i>Rennes</i>, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1784. <i>Brest</i>. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1862. <i>Marseilles</i>, destructive fire.</p>
+<p>1871. <i>Paris</i>. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
+        £32,000,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Central and Southern Europe</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>&emsp;64. <i>Rome</i> burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city
+      were destroyed.</p>
+<p>1106. <i>Venice</i>, greater part of the city was burned.</p>
+<p>1577.    &ldquo;    fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
+                an explosion.</p>
+<p>1299. <i>Weimar</i>, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.</p>
+<p>1379. <i>Memel</i> was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540,
+        1678, 1854.</p>
+<p>1405. <i>Bern</i> was destroyed.</p>
+<p>1420. <i>Leipzig</i> lost 400 houses.</p>
+<p>1457. <i>Dort</i>, cathedral and large part of the town burned.</p>
+<p>1491. <i>Dresden</i> was destroyed.</p>
+<p>1521. <i>Oviedo</i>, large part of the city destroyed.</p>
+<p>1543. <i>Komorn</i> was burned.</p>
+<p>1634. <i>Fürth</i> was burned by Austrian Croats.</p>
+<p>1680. <i>Fürth</i> was again destroyed.</p>
+<p>1686. <i>Landau</i> was almost destroyed.</p>
+<p>1758. <i>Pirna</i> was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.</p>
+<p>1762. <i>Munich</i> lost 200 houses.</p>
+<p>1764. <i>Königsberg</i>, public buildings, &amp;c., burned. Loss, £600,000.</p>
+<p>1769. <i>Königsberg</i>, almost destroyed.</p>
+<p>1784. <i>Rokitzan</i> (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000.</p>
+<p>1801. <i>Brody</i>, 1500 houses destroyed.</p>
+<p>1859. <i>Brody</i>, 1000 houses destroyed.</p>
+<p>1803. <i>Posen</i>, large part of older portion of city burned.</p>
+<p>1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.</p>
+<p>1818. <i>Salzburg</i> was partly destroyed.</p>
+<p>1842. <i>Hamburg</i>. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219
+buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed. One-fifth
+of the population was made homeless, and 100 persons
+lost their lives. The total loss amounted to £7,000,000.
+After the fire, contributions from all Germany came in to
+help to rebuild the city.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1861. <i>Glarus</i> (Switzerland), 500 houses burned.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Northern Europe</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1530. <i>Aalborg</i>, almost entirely destroyed.</p>
+<p>1541. <i>Aarhuus</i>, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.</p>
+<p>1624. <i>Opslo</i>, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.</p>
+<p>1702. <i>Bergen</i>, greater part of the town destroyed.</p>
+<p>1728. <i>Copenhagen</i>, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.</p>
+<p>1794. <i>Copenhagen</i>, royal palace with contents burned.</p>
+<p>1795. <i>Copenhagen</i>, 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.
+  <span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span></p>
+
+<p>1751. <i>Stockholm</i>, 1000 houses destroyed.</p>
+<p>1759. <i>Stockholm</i>, 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.</p>
+<p>1775. <i>Åbo</i>, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.</p>
+<p>1827. <i>Åbo</i>, 780 houses burned, with the university.</p>
+<p>1790. <i>Carlscrona</i>, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &amp;c., destroyed.</p>
+<p>1802. <i>Gothenburg</i>, 178 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1858. <i>Christiania</i>. Loss estimated at £250,000.</p>
+<p>1865. <i>Carlstadt</i> (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop&rsquo;s
+        residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Russia</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1736. <i>St Petersburg</i>, 2000 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1862. <i>St Petersburg</i>, great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1752. <i>Moscow</i>, 18,000 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1812. <i>Moscow</i>, The Russians fired the city on September 14 to
+                drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued
+                five days. Nine-tenths of the city was
+                destroyed. Number of houses burned, 30,800.
+                Loss, £30,000,000.</p>
+<p>1753. <i>Archangel</i>, 900 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1793. <i>Archangel</i>, 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.</p>
+<p>1786. <i>Tobolsk</i>, nearly destroyed.</p>
+<p>1788. <i>Milau</i>, nearly destroyed.</p>
+<p>1812. <i>Riga</i>, partly destroyed.</p>
+<p>1834. <i>Tula</i>, destructive fire.</p>
+<p>1848. <i>Orel</i>, large part of the town destroyed.</p>
+<p>1850. <i>Cracow</i>, large part of the town burned.</p>
+<p>1864. <i>Novgorod</i>, large amount of property destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Turkey</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p class="center">The following fires have occurred at <i>Constantinople</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.</p>
+<p>1745. A fire lasted five days.</p>
+<p>1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
+        estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the
+        year 10,000 houses were destroyed.</p>
+<p>1751. 4000 houses were burned.</p>
+<p>1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years
+        1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.</p>
+<p>1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m.
+        in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and
+        nearly 650 houses were destroyed.</p>
+<p>1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.</p>
+<p>1778. 2000 houses were burned.</p>
+<p>1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
+        mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost.
+        In February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.</p>
+<p>1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
+        houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of
+        1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of
+        Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated
+        at 2,000,000 florins.</p>
+<p>1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been
+        burned, and as many in 1795.</p>
+<p>1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
+        magnificent buildings.</p>
+<p>1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
+        were destroyed.</p>
+<p>1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.</p>
+<p>1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.</p>
+<p>1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
+        £3,000,000.</p>
+<p>1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &amp;c.
+        Over 22,000 people were left homeless.</p>
+<p>1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population
+        and native Christians, was swept by a fire which
+        destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the
+        best in the city, including the residence of the foreign
+        legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.</p>
+<p>1797. <i>Scutari</i>, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.</p>
+<p>1763. <i>Smyrna</i>, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000.</p>
+<p>1772. <i>Smyrna</i>, 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &amp;c.
+             consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.</p>
+<p>1796. <i>Smyrna</i>, 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &amp;c., burned.</p>
+<p>1841. <i>Smyrna</i>, 12,000 houses were burned.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">India</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1631. <i>Rajmahal</i>. Palace and great part of the town burned.</p>
+<p>1799. <i>Manilla</i>, vast storehouses were burned.</p>
+<p>1833. <i>Manilla</i>, 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
+                  rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.</p>
+<p>1803. <i>Madras</i>, more than 1000 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1803. <i>Bombay</i>. Loss by fire of £600,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">China and Japan</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1822. <i>Canton</i> was nearly destroyed by fire.</p>
+<p>1866. <i>Yokohama</i>, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the
+         foreign settlement destroyed.</p>
+<p>1872. <i>Yeddo</i>. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroying
+         buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. 20,000
+         persons were made homeless.</p>
+<p>1873. <i>Yeddo</i>. A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">United States</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1679. <i>Boston</i>.   All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels
+                   in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000.</p>
+<p>1760. <i>Boston</i>. A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.</p>
+<p>1787. <i>Boston</i>. A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.</p>
+<p>1794. <i>Boston</i>. 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000.</p>
+<p>1872. <i>Boston</i>. Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
+                quarter of Boston was destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and
+        Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres.
+        776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick
+        warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned.
+        The loss was about £15,000,000. Before the end of the year
+        1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially
+        than ever.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1778. <i>Charleston</i> (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000.</p>
+<p>1796. <i>Charleston</i>, 300 houses were burned.</p>
+<p>1838. <i>Charleston</i>.  One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
+                   buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.</p>
+<p>1802. <i>Portsmouth</i> (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.</p>
+<p>1813. <i>Portsmouth</i>, 397 buildings destroyed.</p>
+<p>1820. <i>Savannah</i>, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000.</p>
+<p>1835. <i>New York</i>. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
+                    Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings
+                    in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
+                    firms lost their places of business. The area
+                    burned over was 52 acres. The loss was
+                    £3,000,000.</p>
+<p>1845. <i>New York</i>. A fire in the business part of the city, July 20,
+                  destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was
+                  £1,500,000. 35 persons were killed.</p>
+<p>1845. <i>Pittsburg</i>. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20
+                     squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.</p>
+<p>1846. <i>Nantucket</i> was almost destroyed.</p>
+<p>1848. <i>Albany</i>. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over
+                  37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.</p>
+<p>1849. <i>St Louis</i>. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or
+                    part of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17.
+                    Loss, £600,000.</p>
+<p>1851. <i>St Louis</i>. More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
+                    May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.</p>
+<p>1851. <i>St Louis</i>, 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.</p>
+<p>1850. <i>Philadelphia</i>. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost.
+                        Loss, £200,000.</p>
+<p>1865. <i>Philadelphia</i>. 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
+                    killed. Loss, £100,000.</p>
+<p>1851. <i>Washington</i>. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Congressional
+                      Library were burned.</p>
+<p>1851. <i>San Francisco</i>. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
+         A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
+         destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another
+         fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000.</p>
+<p>1857. <i>Chicago</i>. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.</p>
+<p>1859. <i>Chicago</i>. Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.</p>
+<p>1866. <i>Chicago</i>. Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss,
+                     £100,000 each.</p>
+<p>1871. <i>Chicago</i>. The greatest fire of modern times.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 6em;">It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
+          raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres,
+          or 3<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
+          lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430
+          buildings were consumed. The buildings were one-third in
+          number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city.
+          Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been
+          rebuilt. The loss was estimated at £39,000,000.</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1862. <i>Troy</i> (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.</p>
+<p>1866. <i>Portland</i> (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city
+          was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were
+          blown up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000
+          to £2,250,000.</p>
+<p>1871.   October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
+          15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
+          estimated at £600,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">British North America</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1815. <i>Quebec</i> was injured to the extent of £260,000.</p>
+<p>1845. <i>Quebec</i>, 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the
+                  population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to
+                  £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
+                  dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
+                  streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.</p>
+<p>1866. <i>Quebec</i>, 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.</p>
+<p>1825. <i>New Brunswick</i>. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than
+         100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many
+         towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590
+         buildings burned. Loss, about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle,
+         Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.</p>
+<p>1837. <i>St John</i> (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13,
+         and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss,
+         £1,000,000. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span></p>
+<p>1877. <i>St. John.</i> Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was
+         200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed;
+         10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives
+         lost. Total loss, £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city
+         burned.</p>
+<p>1846. <i>St John&rsquo;s</i> (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9.
+         Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss
+         estimated at £1,000,000.</p>
+<p>1850. <i>Montreal</i>. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
+                    June 7. 200 houses were burned.</p>
+<p>1852. <i>Montreal</i>. A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
+                    The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in
+                    width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">South America</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1536. <i>Cuzco</i> was nearly consumed.</p>
+<p>1861. <i>Mendoza</i>. A great fire followed an earthquake which had
+          destroyed 10,000 people.</p>
+<p>1862. <i>Valparaiso</i> was devastated by fire.</p>
+<p>1863. <i>Santiago</i>. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly
+          women and children, perished.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">West Indies</p>
+
+<div class="list2">
+<p>1752. <i>Pierre</i> (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.</p>
+<p>1782. <i>Kingston</i> (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.</p>
+<p>1795. <i>Montego Bay</i> (Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.</p>
+<p>1805. <i>St Thomas.</i> 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000.</p>
+<p>1808. <i>Spanish Town</i> (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated
+         at £1,500,000.</p>
+<p>1828. <i>Havana</i> lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.</p>
+<p>1843. <i>Port Republicain</i> (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
+         burned.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable
+fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations
+at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible
+examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, extensive
+as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the
+necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by
+attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-preventive
+measures even than to the better organization of the
+fire-fighting establishments.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British
+empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to
+1899:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Port of Spain (Trinidad)</td> <td class="tcr cl">March 4, 1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New Westminster (British Columbia)</td> <td class="tcr">Sept. 10, 1898</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Toronto (Ontario)</td> <td class="tcr cl">Jan. 6, 10, and</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">March 3, 1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Windsor (Nova Scotia)</td> <td class="tcr cl">Oct. 17, 1897</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">St John&rsquo;s (Newfoundland)</td> <td class="tcr">July 8, 1892</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">London&mdash;Charterhouse Square</td> <td class="tcr cl">Dec. 25, 1889</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; St Mary Axe</td> <td class="tcr">July 18, 1893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Old Bailey and Fleet Street</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 15, 1893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Tabernacle Street, Finsbury</td> <td class="tcr">June 21, 1894</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Bermondsey Leather Market</td> <td class="tcr cl">Sept. 13, 1894</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Bermondsey Leather Market</td> <td class="tcr">May 17, 1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Minories</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 10, 1894</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; South-West India Docks</td> <td class="tcr">Feb. 8, 1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Charlotte and Leonard Streets, Finsbury</td> <td class="tcr cl">June 10, 1896</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; Cripplegate</td> <td class="tcr">Nov. 19, 1897</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Nottingham</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 17, 1894</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sheffield</td> <td class="tcr">Dec. 21, 1893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Bradford</td> <td class="tcr cl">Nov. 30, 1896</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sunderland</td> <td class="tcr">July 18, 1898</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Dublin</td> <td class="tcr cl">May 4, 1894</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Glasgow&mdash;Anderston Quay</td> <td class="tcr">Jan. 16, 1897</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Glasgow&mdash;Dunlop Street</td> <td class="tcr cl">April 25, 1898</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary
+number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar
+places of public entertainment up to the close of the 19th century
+calls for mention. Since that time, however, there has been a
+considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption
+of successful measures of fire prevention. A list of some 1100
+fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in 1897 (<i>Fires at Public
+Entertainments</i>), and the results of these fires analysed. They
+involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 souls. About
+half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in
+other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list
+extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce
+the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable
+disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre
+at Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires
+is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss
+of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year,
+mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making
+themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages
+quite £50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain
+precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it
+may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss
+by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say 1897), was about
+£17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced
+by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling.
+This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,&mdash;in
+spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the
+increasing amount of property in buildings&mdash;is in the main owing
+to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class
+of new building and a great improvement in existing structures,
+and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in
+general fire precautionary measures by the public.</p>
+
+<p>Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected,
+more particularly in London and in the country towns of the
+south of England since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition
+held in 1903 at Earl&rsquo;s Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress
+of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought
+on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the
+British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire
+service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-preventive
+side of fire protection.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire Protection.</i>&mdash;The term &ldquo;Fire Protection&rdquo; is often misunderstood.
+Fire-extinguishing&mdash;in other words, fire brigade
+work&mdash;is what the majority understand by it, and many towns
+consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an
+efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade
+as such, however, has but a minor rôle in a rational system of
+protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition
+in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based
+on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers,
+fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protection
+is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire
+research.</p>
+
+<p>Under the heading of &ldquo;Fire Prevention&rdquo; should be classed
+all preventive measures, including the education of the public;
+and under the heading &ldquo;Fire Combating&rdquo; should be classed
+both self-help and outside help.</p>
+
+<p>Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative,
+but as a rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained
+partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of
+fire-survey regulations&mdash;supplemented, if necessary, by special
+rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the
+storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatrical
+performances. The education of the public may be simply
+such as can be begun informally at school and continued by
+official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement
+with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
+There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance,
+had some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school
+<i>Standard Reader</i> replaced by more instructive ones, which warn
+children not to play with matches, and teach them to run for help
+in case of an emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been
+arranged in place of the meaningless sentences so often used in
+elementary schools. There are a number of municipalities where
+regular warnings are issued every December as to the dangerous
+Christmas-tree. In such places every inhabitant has at least an
+opportunity of learning how to throw a bucket of water properly,
+and how to trip up a burning woman and roll her up without fanning
+the flames. The householder is officially informed where the nearest
+fire-call point is, and how long he must expect to wait till the first
+engine can reach his house. If he is a newspaper reader, he will
+also have ample opportunity of knowing the resources of his town,
+and the local reporter&rsquo;s fire report will give him much useful information
+based on facts or hints supplied by the authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the
+heading of &ldquo;Fire Combating.&rdquo; Self-help mainly deals with
+the protection of large risks, such as factories, stores and public
+places of amusement, which lend themselves to regulation.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span>
+The requirements of the fire survey code may allow for hydrants
+or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for their regular inspection,
+and the means for self-help may thus be given. These means
+will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some
+of the employés engaged on the risk are instructed as to their
+purpose, and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal.
+The possibility of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be
+encouraged by enforcing regular drills for the employés, and
+regular inspections to test their efficiency. There are towns
+where great reliance is placed on the efforts of such amateur
+firemen. In some cities they even receive extra pay and are
+formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and
+retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.</p>
+
+<p>Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder
+can scarcely be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned
+for the education of the public, if properly utilized, would assure
+intelligent behaviour on the part of a large percentage of the
+community. There are places where, without any regulation
+being attempted, and thanks entirely to the influence referred
+to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a bucket, and a
+crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the household.
+Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly
+encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference
+with personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes,
+with the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple
+of scaling ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given
+to householders to learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box
+of this kind be put in a fire-station, and certain afternoons
+in the year be reserved on which this elementary instruction will
+be given, and the students afterwards shown over the fire-station
+or treated to a &ldquo;turn-out,&rdquo; a considerable number will be found
+to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter whether
+curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will
+be attained.</p>
+
+<p>Under &ldquo;outside&rdquo; help should be understood what is organized,
+and not simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or
+by a neighbour. The link between self-help and outside help is
+the fire-call.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fire-Call.</i>&mdash;The efficiency of the fire-call depends not
+only on the instrument employed and its position, but also
+on its conspicuous appearance, and the indications by which
+its situation may be discovered. These indications are quite
+as important as the instruments themselves. The conspicuousness
+of the instrument alone does not suffice. Of the official
+notifications given in the press, those in regard to the position
+of the call-points are among the most useful. An indication at
+every street corner as to the direction to take to reach the point&mdash;or
+perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the nearest
+call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front door&mdash;may
+enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize
+the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It
+is immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by
+bell outside a fire-station, by a messenger from some special
+messenger service, by a call through a telephone, or by an
+electric or automatic appliance. Any instrument will do that
+ensures the call being transmitted with maximum speed and
+certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the locality.</p>
+
+<p><i>Outside Help.</i>&mdash;Organized outside help may not be limited
+simply to the attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements
+can be made for the attendance of the local police force,
+a public or private salvage corps, an ambulance, or, in some
+cases, a military guard. Then in some instances arrangements
+are made for the attendance of the water and gas companies&rsquo;
+servants, and even officials from the public works office, insurance
+surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage
+corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire
+brigade, and others where the police are generally on the spot
+in good force five minutes after the arrival of the first engines.
+There are several cities where the ambulance wagon and the
+steamers arrive together, and another city where the military
+authorities always send a fire piquet which can be turned out
+in a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank
+of the individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire
+brigade, even if he holds only non-commissioned officer&rsquo;s rank,
+should have control, and his authority be fully recognized.
+Unfortunately, there are not many countries where this is the
+case. The efficiency of outside help depends in the first instance
+on the clear definition of the duties and powers of all concerned&mdash;on
+the legal foundation, in fact; then on the organization, the
+theoretically as well as practically correct executive; and, last
+but by no means least, on the prestige, the social standing, the
+education of commanders and their ability to handle men.
+Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,
+smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry;
+showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for
+public applause, will be dangerous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Research.</i>&mdash;Under the heading &ldquo;Fire Research&rdquo; should be
+included theoretical and experimental investigation as to
+materials and construction, combined with the chronicling of
+practical experience in fires, then the careful investigation and
+chronicling of the causes of fires, assisted where necessary by a
+power for holding fire inquests in interesting, suspicious or fatal
+cases. Experimental investigation as to natural and accidental
+causes as distinct from criminal causes can be included. Research
+in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire
+inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot,
+by the senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by
+immediate government investigations held on the same lines as
+inquiries into explosions and railway accidents.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> As to general
+research work, there are several cities which contribute substantially
+towards the costs of fire tests at independent testing
+stations. Some towns also have special commissions of experts
+who visit all big fires occurring within easy travelling distance,
+take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as to how the
+materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics
+as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places
+such tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with
+oil lamps, their burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The British Fire Prevention Committee.</i>&mdash;The British Fire Prevention
+Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
+Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February
+1899. It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The
+members include civil engineers, public officials holding government
+appointments, fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst
+the subscribers in the main include the great public departments,
+such as the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the
+important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
+government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
+together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand
+has formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary.
+The ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council
+and an executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription
+of members and subscribers. The services of the members
+of council and executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket
+expenses of any kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals
+mainly with questions of regulations, rules and publications of
+general technical interest, the tests are probably what have brought
+the committee into prominence and given it an international reputation.
+They are not only the recognized fire tests of Great
+Britain, but they rank as universal standard tests for the whole of
+the civilized world, and Americans, just as much as Danes, Germans
+or Austrians, pride themselves when some product of their country
+has passed the official procedure of a test by the committee. The
+reports of the tests, which state facts only without giving criticisms
+or recommendations, are much appreciated by all who have the
+control of public works or the specification of appliances. The
+committee does not limit itself solely to testing proprietary forms
+of construction or appliances, but has a number of tests&mdash;quite equal
+to the proprietary tests&mdash;of articles in general use. The ordinary
+concrete floor or the ordinary wooden joist floor protected by asbestos
+boards or slag wool receives as much attention as a patent floor;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+and similarly the ordinary everyday hydrant receives equal attention
+with the patent hydrant, or ordinary bucket of water with the special
+fire extinguisher. The door tests of the committee, which cover
+some thirty different types of doors, deal with no less than twenty
+ordinary wooden doors that can be made by any ordinary builder
+or cabinet-maker. These so-called non-proprietary tests are made
+at the expense of the general funds of the committee, whilst for the
+proprietary tests the owners have to pay about two-thirds of the
+expenses incurred in the form of a testing fee. The expenses incurred
+in a test, of course, not only comprise the actual testing operation of
+testing, but also the expense of producing the report, which is always
+a very highly finished publication with excellent blocks. The expense
+incurred also includes the establishment expenses of the testing
+station at Regent&rsquo;s Park.</p>
+
+<p>The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
+Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in
+both of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National
+Fire Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs.
+It from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent
+of Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official reports,
+well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and methods of the
+countries visited, and serving as most useful reference publications.</p>
+
+<p>Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both
+in respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been
+most beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless
+of the fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount
+of property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage
+annually is about £5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
+obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
+Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about £23,000, of which
+more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
+contributions or subscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
+several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
+notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several
+insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
+Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside
+Great Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare
+with the systematic series of inquiries conducted without any
+substantial state aid in London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distribution of Losses.</i>&mdash;Property destroyed by fire is practically
+an absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the
+owner, or it may be distributed among a number of people, who
+are taxed for it in the form of a contribution to their national
+or local fire fund, a share in some mutual insurance &ldquo;ring,&rdquo;
+or the more usual insurance companies&rsquo; premium. In the first
+two cases some expenses have also to be met in connexion with
+the management of the fund, &ldquo;tariff&rdquo; organization, or &ldquo;ring.&rdquo;
+In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to
+be covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance
+enterprise as such, and then a further amount for division amongst
+those who share the risk of the venture&mdash;namely, the insurance
+company&rsquo;s shareholders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure.
+The sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss
+with a minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly
+managed company paying large dividends will cover a loss, but
+with an unnecessarily large extra outlay. In every case the loss
+remains; and as property may always be considered part of the
+community, the province or nation, as the case may be, suffers.
+It is always in the interest of a nation to minimize its national losses,
+no matter whether they fall on one individual&rsquo;s shoulders or on many,
+and whether such losses are good for certain trades or not. With a
+suitable system of fire protection it is possible to bring these losses
+to a minimum, but this minimum would probably only be reached by
+an extra expense, which would fall heavier on the insurers&rsquo; pockets
+in the form of municipal rates than the higher premium for the
+greater risk. A practical minimum is all that can be attempted,
+and that practical minimum varies according to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues,
+and the actual extra cost of this protection should be something less
+than the saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a
+smaller dead loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure
+for his combined contributions toward the losses, the
+management of his insurance, and the protective measures. Where
+there is mutual insurance or municipal insurance in its best
+sense, the losses by fire and the costs of the protection are often
+booked in one account, and the better protection up to a certain
+point should mean a smaller individual annual share. Where there
+is company insurance the municipal rates are increased to cover the
+cost of extra protection, while a proportionate decrease is expected
+in the insurance premiums. Competition and public opinion
+generally impose this decrease of the insurance rates as soon as there
+is a greater immunity from fire. Where the insurance companies
+are well managed and the shareholders are satisfied with reasonable
+dividends, practical protection can be said to find favour with all
+concerned, but if the protection is arranged for and the companies
+do not moderate their charges accordingly, the reverse is the case.</p>
+
+<p>The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
+maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
+considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
+municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the effect
+that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good fire
+service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
+managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
+means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has
+to pay for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal
+rate, or in the form of an increased premium raised to meet the
+contribution levied, this is simply juggling with figures.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cost.</i>&mdash;As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection,
+better and safer building from the fire point of view means
+better and more valuable structures of longer life from the
+economic aspect. Such better and safer constructional work
+pays for itself and cannot be considered in the light of an extra
+tax on the building owner. The compilation and administration
+of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be attended
+to by the same executive authorities as would in any case
+superintend general structural matters, and the additional
+work would at the most require some increased clerical aid.
+If the execution of the fire survey regulations were delegated
+to the same authority there would again simply be some extra
+clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of perhaps a few extra
+surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly efficient, it has
+been found advisable in several instances to form parties of three
+for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be a fire
+brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep,
+who would have to receive a special retaining fee.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of the public training referred to would be small,
+as the elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster&rsquo;s
+work, and the Press matters could be easily managed
+in the fire brigade office. Payments would have only to be made
+for advertisements, such as the official warnings, lists for fire-call
+points, &amp;c., and perhaps for the publication of semi-official
+hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and drills for amateurs
+are concerned would be under the control of the fire brigade.
+There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase
+and maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The most expensive items in the system of fire protection
+undoubtedly come under the headings &ldquo;Fire-Call&rdquo; and &ldquo;Fire
+Brigade.&rdquo; As to the former, there are a number of cities where
+the cost is modified by having the whole of the electrical service
+for the police force, the ambulance and fire brigade, managed by
+a separate department. The same wires call up each of these
+services, and, as the same staff attend to their maintenance,
+the fire protection of a city need only be debited with perhaps
+a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed independently.
+The combined system has also the great advantage of facilitating
+the mutual working of the different services in case of an emergency.
+The indicators which have been referred to involve an
+outlay; but here again, if the three services work together,
+the expenses on the count of fire protection can be lessened.
+The money rewards given in some cities to the individuals who
+first call the fire-engines may become a heavy item. Their
+utility is doubtful, and they have formed an inducement for
+arson.</p>
+
+<p>As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong
+active force should be provided, supported by efficient reserves.
+The latter should be as inexpensive as possible, but should at
+least constitute a part-paid and disciplined body which could
+be easily called in for emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot
+allow for an active force being ready for such coincidences as an
+unusual number of large fires starting simultaneously, but they
+must allow for an ample strength always being forthcoming
+for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due consideration
+for men&rsquo;s rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire
+brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the
+property owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of
+the force. The budget must also allow for an attractive rate of
+pay, as the profession is one which requires men who have a
+maximum of the sterling qualities which we look for in the pick
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+of a nation. It must also not be forgotten that the fire service
+is one of the few where a system of pensions is the only fair way
+of recognizing the risks of limb and health, and at the same time
+securing that stability in which practical experience from long
+service is so essential a factor. The budget must allow for an
+ample reserve of appliances.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit
+of its having a separate section for salvage corps purposes
+depends on circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is
+required, and should be part and parcel of the municipal brigade
+and organized on the same lines with a reserve, no matter
+whether the insurance of the locality be managed by the authorities
+or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it matters little
+whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.</p>
+
+<p>Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are
+items for fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically,
+due confidence being placed in the opinions of the fire officers
+and surveyors, there is no reason why the outlay should be great.
+The statistical work would only require some clerical aid. Where
+special coroners are retained for criminal cases some extra money
+will of course be required; but even here the costs need not be
+excessive, as there are many retired fire brigade officers and fire
+surveyors who are well suited for the work, and would be satisfied
+with a small emolument.</p>
+
+<p>As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places
+where special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests
+of fire protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the
+heading &ldquo;Fire Protection&rdquo; have simply to cover the maintenance
+of hydrants and tablets, or at the most the cost of the water
+actually used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the
+cost of hydrants is shared with the scavenging department or
+the commission of sewers, which also have the use of them.
+Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to a private
+water company, the property owners will be paying their share
+for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.</p>
+
+<p>The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving
+and for the protection of property. It should be remembered
+that a good staircase and a ladder are often as useful
+for the man&oelig;uvring of the firemen as for life-saving purposes,
+and that they are practically as essential for the saving of property
+as for saving life. No distinction need be made between
+the two risks when speaking of fire protection in general; but as
+the safety of the most valueless life is generally classed higher
+than that of the most valuable property, it may be well to give
+life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.</p>
+
+<p>Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective
+system is defective. With good construction and a fire survey,
+the quick arrival of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks
+of detection are as a rule far too great to encourage its growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saving of Life.</i>&mdash;Under &ldquo;Fire Prevention&rdquo; special requirements
+in the Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life
+by requiring practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation.
+The risks in theatres and assembly halls require separate
+legislation. In ordinary structures no inmate of a building
+should be more than sixty feet away from a staircase, and
+preferably there should be two staircases at his disposal in the
+event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only given
+to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that
+their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater
+danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The
+possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Safety of Property.</i>&mdash;As far as the protection of property
+is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by
+the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain
+classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings,
+the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors.
+Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the
+division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in construction.</p>
+
+<p>The legislator&rsquo;s first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one
+house from spreading to another, and a stranger&rsquo;s property,
+so to say, from being endangered. This is quite possible, given
+good party walls carried well over the roof to a height regulated
+by the nature of the risk, the provision of the shutters to windows
+where necessary, and the use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a
+thoroughly good roof&mdash;or still better, a fire-resisting attic floor&mdash;can
+do much. If the locality has a fire brigade and the force
+is efficiently handled, &ldquo;spreads&rdquo; from one house to another
+should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts are,
+however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to
+localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible
+for street improvements.</p>
+
+<p>The division of a building or large &ldquo;risk&rdquo; into a number
+of minor ones is only possible to a certain extent. There is no
+need to spend enormous sums to make each of the minor &ldquo;risks&rdquo;
+impregnable. The desire should be simply to try to retard the
+spread for a certain limited time after the flames have really
+taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most fires will
+have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient fire-extinguishing
+establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can
+be on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration
+from becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an
+ordinary well-built house, for example, if the joists are strong
+and the boards grooved, if some light pugging be used and the
+plastering properly done, if the doors are made well-fitting and
+fairly strong, a very considerable amount of furniture and fittings
+can remain well alight for half an hour before there is a spread.
+In a warehouse or factory &ldquo;risk&rdquo; the same holds good. With
+well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps
+run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary
+double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with
+sheet iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned
+for a considerable time. Many of the recent forms of &ldquo;patent&rdquo;
+flooring are exceedingly useful for the division of &ldquo;risks,&rdquo; and
+with their aid a fire can be limited to an individual storey of a
+building, but it should not be forgotten that even the best of
+flooring is useless if carried by unprotected iron girders supported,
+say, by some light framing or weak partition. The general
+mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete construction
+is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,
+shafting, &amp;c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that
+the protection of the supports and girder-work requires most
+careful attention.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various systems of &ldquo;patent&rdquo; flooring, as a rule the
+simpler forms are the more satisfactory. It should, however,
+always be remembered that any specific form of flooring alone
+does not prevent a fire breaking from one &ldquo;risk&rdquo; to another.
+They should go hand in hand with general good construction,
+and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the modern
+fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their introduction
+for fire protection alone. In considering their introduction, the
+general advantages which they afford as to spans, thickness,
+general stability, &amp;c., should be taken into account. A practical
+installation of floors, partitions, doors, &amp;c., should, first, not
+increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly
+should add to the general value of the structure by giving it a
+more substantial character.</p>
+
+<p>The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should
+not be forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well
+armed with shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting
+glass, and the lifts not only vertical doors, but also horizontal
+flaps, cutting up the well into sections. The question of light
+partitions must also not be neglected.</p>
+
+<p>Division of &ldquo;risks,&rdquo; common-sense construction, and proper
+staircase accommodation are really all that fire protection
+requires, and where the special Building Act clauses have been
+kept within the lines indicated, there has been little friction and
+discontent. It is only as a rule when the authorities are eccentric
+in their demands that the building owner considers himself
+harassed by protective measures.</p>
+
+<p>Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the
+actual outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey
+can also increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen
+the possibility of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+or ladders, and a regular inspection of their efficiency, will do
+much. The examination of a rusty door-catch may save a
+building. The actual preventive work of the surveyor will,
+however, mostly consist in warning property owners against
+temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty
+chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas
+brackets fixed in risky positions. Self-help will be greatly
+facilitated by the judicious arrangement of fire-extinguishing
+gear, and a like inspection of its efficiency. Hydrants and
+cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so stiff that the water
+cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand pumps and
+pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest errors
+generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of
+the fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his
+efforts are unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not,
+perhaps, use the gear at all.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to regulations governing &ldquo;special risks,&rdquo; so far
+as the safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls
+is concerned, attention should be chiefly given to the exits.
+Spread of fire, and even its outbreak, are secondary considerations.
+A panic caused by the suspicion of a fire can be quite
+as fatal as that caused by the actual start of a conflagration.
+In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct communication
+should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the main
+staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and
+burners should be prohibited.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire-resisting Materials.</i>&mdash;One of the greatest misnomers
+in connexion with fire prevention was originally the description
+of certain materials and systems of construction as being &ldquo;fire-proof.&rdquo;
+This has seriously affected the development of the
+movement towards fire prevention, for, having regard to the fact
+that nothing described as &ldquo;fire-proof&rdquo; could be fire-proof in
+the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so described,
+and in fact everything described as &ldquo;fire-proof&rdquo; came to be
+looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion
+and obtain a better understanding on the subject, the International
+Fire Prevention Congress of London in 1903, at which
+some 800 representatives of government departments and
+municipalities were present, discussed this matter at considerable
+length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in consideration
+of their importance in affecting the whole development of fire-resisting
+construction, are published below. It is the classification
+of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that has
+been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire,
+and in numerous other countries, since that date.</p>
+
+<p>The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations
+contained in the following statement issued by
+the British Fire Prevention Committee:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having
+given their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term
+&ldquo;fire-proof,&rdquo; now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably
+applied to many building materials and systems of building construction
+in use in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that
+the avoidance of this term in general business, technical, and legislative
+vocabulary is essential.</p>
+
+<p>The executive consider the term &ldquo;fire-resisting&rdquo; more applicable
+for general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying
+qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended
+to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or low
+temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general
+adoption of this term in place of &ldquo;fire-proof.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the
+fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,
+consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise
+the authorities controlling building operations, should clearly discriminate
+between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,
+requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city
+warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight
+requires very different protection from the tenement house of the
+suburbs.</p>
+
+<p>The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting
+materials and systems of construction affording <i>temporary</i> protection,
+<i>partial</i> protection, and <i>full</i> protection against fire, and to classify all
+building materials and systems of construction under these three
+headings. The exact and definite limit of these three classes is based
+on the experience obtained from numerous investigations and tests,
+combined with the experience obtained from actual fires, and after
+due consideration of the limitations of building practice and the
+question of cost.</p>
+
+<p>The executive&rsquo;s minimum requirements of fire-resistance for
+building materials or systems of construction will be seen from the
+standard tables appended for&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 2em;">I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,<br />
+II. Fire-resisting partitions,<br />
+III. Fire-resisting doors,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">but they could be popularly summarized as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire
+for at least three-quarters of an hour.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+for at least one hour and a half.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+for at least two hours and a half.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the
+actual minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and
+the application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables
+by all technically interested, but for the popular discrimination&mdash;-which
+the executive are desirous of encouraging&mdash;the time standard
+alone should suffice.</p>
+
+<p>It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards
+in this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that
+the same standardization may in future be common to all countries,
+and the preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization
+are already in hand.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fire Combating.</i>&mdash;As to self-help, complication must always
+be avoided. The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest
+lines. One thing which must be instilled into him is not to
+waste water&mdash;a sure sign of lack of training. Of course the drills
+must be on the same lines as those of the local brigade, and on
+no account should other gear be used for self-help than is generally
+customary in that force. When volunteers and regulars work
+together, the former should always remember that the paid
+force are experts, though the regulars must never have that
+contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers
+are often men who are probably experts in some other vocation
+outside fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which
+a professional fire-fighter has had.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Load per<br />Superficial<br />Foot<br />Distributed<br />(per Sq. Metre).</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.580 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">112 &#8468;<br />(546.852 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">168 &#8468;<br />(820.278 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.580 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">224 &#8468;<br />(1093.706 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">100 sq. ft.<br />(9.290 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">280 &#8468;<br />(1367.130 kg.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">200 sq. ft.<br />(18.258 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="7">kg. = kilogramme.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Thickness of<br />material.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 in. and under<br />(.051 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">80 sq. ft.<br />(7.432 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without Frames.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sub-Class.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Duration<br />of Test.<br />At Least</td> <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Temperature.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Thickness of<br />material.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Superficial<br />Area<br />under Test.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Minimum<br />Time for<br />Application<br />of Water<br />under Press.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Temporary Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">45 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 in. and under<br />(.051 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">60 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1500° F.<br />(815.5° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Partial Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">90 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2½ in. and under<br />(.063 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">120 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">20 sq. ft.<br />(1.858 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" rowspan="2">Full Protection</td> <td class="tccm allb">Class A</td> <td class="tccm allb">150 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">½ in. and under<br />(.018 m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">25 sq. ft.<br />(2.322 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">2 mins.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">Class B</td> <td class="tccm allb">240 mins.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1800° F.<br />(982.2° C.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">Optional</td> <td class="tccm allb">25 sq. ft.<br />(2.322 sq. m.)</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 mins.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Transmission of Fire-Calls.</i>&mdash;There are several methods of
+transmitting the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of
+course, to run direct to the nearest fire-station; but this is only
+possible where the distance is short. In one or two cities, however,
+the number of fire-stations is so great that they are very
+close to one another, and hence &ldquo;direct&rdquo; calls are generally
+recorded.</p>
+
+<p>Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is
+reported at some public office, police-station or guard-room,
+where there are always runners ready to start off to the nearest
+fire-station. The special runner is here practically a makeshift
+for the more modern telegraph or telephone line, and it is believed
+that the only city in which this system is employed is one where
+the unsettled political atmosphere has compelled the authorities
+to prohibit the construction of any telegraph lines other than
+those for the use of the general postal service. Similar messenger
+services have, however, also been introduced in connexion with
+the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises known
+as &ldquo;general messenger&rdquo; or &ldquo;call-boy&rdquo; services, which are
+organized for business purposes, have the advantage of including
+the fire-call and the police-call. In the same way that a cab can
+be signalled, a call may come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready
+runner makes off to the fire-station instead of to the cab rank.
+As a rule, these messenger offices are near the fire-station. The
+combination is rather a curious one, as it embraces the most
+advanced notions of giving every &ldquo;risk&rdquo; its own fire-call, and
+the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.</p>
+
+<p>Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely
+on the public telephone system, the terms of subscription to
+which may compel holders to forward fire messages if required
+to do so. This system allows for such development as the
+payment of retaining fees to porters in public and other buildings
+which have a night service, on condition that the fire-call shall
+be promptly despatched. The telephones are, perhaps, even
+provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should be
+remembered that the service always goes through a general
+telephone exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.</p>
+
+<p>In the special telephone line system special wires are laid
+from buildings which are practically open all the year round
+direct to their nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again
+made for prompt attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes
+the place of the telephone, but this requires the porter or attendant
+to be specially trained to the work. To simplify matters,
+the buildings are sometimes provided with automatic fire-calls
+instead of telephones; but the principle of the system remains
+the same. In districts where there are few public offices, the
+list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has been
+frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries&rsquo; shops,
+where night service is not unusual.</p>
+
+<p>What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next.
+Automatic fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+are under lock and key, and the keys are distributed only among
+policemen, watchmen or householders, and the messages can,
+therefore, only be given by persons known to the authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next
+to the direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones
+can be laid on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an
+instance where an attempt was made to give every householder
+a private fire-call. This system is, however, unfortunately
+too extreme for the municipal purse. If in connexion with
+some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the messenger
+services referred to, it would be a different matter, though it
+should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call
+points means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire,
+and a risk of too many sections of the fire brigade being on the
+road to it.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these forms of &ldquo;call,&rdquo; there is also the private alarm.
+Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones,
+alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which
+a call can be given direct from the &ldquo;risk&rdquo; involved.</p>
+
+<p>Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most
+frequented positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front
+of a church would be the best; in others, the front of a public-house.
+It should always be remembered that every facility
+should be given to enable as many people as possible to know
+the whereabouts of the call points without any distinct effort
+on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar conspicuous
+by day, and a coloured lamp by night.</p>
+
+<p>As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box
+stating the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the
+best methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most
+in use in a modern city, and hence the plate is read by many.
+In an oriental town the public fountain would, however, take
+the place of the letter-box. Plates put up inside every front
+door are somewhat extreme measures. In one city red darts
+are painted on the glass of every street lamp, indicating the
+direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign, however,
+has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its
+meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.</p>
+
+<p>Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a
+sovereign. In some places every call is rewarded&mdash;even those
+to chimney fires&mdash;and this often results in an abuse of the
+privilege. Rogues light fires on the top of a chimney and then
+run to call the engines. If a reward be given, a limitation
+should be made. In one town no relation or employé of the
+owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given
+for calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.</p>
+
+<p>No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by
+mistake. The possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is
+a bona fide reason for a call which should not be discouraged.
+Malicious alarms should, however, be treated with the utmost
+rigour, as the absence of firemen from their stations always means
+an extra risk to life and property. Combined &ldquo;lynch law&rdquo;
+and imprisonment has generally been adopted with good effect.
+The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of the
+engine and thrashed with a broad fireman&rsquo;s belt, and after that
+handed to the police.</p>
+
+<p>The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to
+facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the
+headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed
+or the telephone is used no special arrangements are required,
+but where the telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced,
+the apparatus must be adapted for this contingency.
+At some automatic fire-call points a few signals can be given, at
+others, a telegraphic or telephonic transmitter can be applied.
+Much valuable time may be saved in this way when more assistance
+is required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire Brigades.</i>&mdash;The organization of fire brigades varies
+greatly. There are brigades where officers and men are practically
+constantly ready to attend a fire, and others where they
+are ready on alternate days, two days out of every three, or three
+days out of every four, and the off day is entirely their own,
+or at the most, only partially used by the authorities for some
+light work. The men off duty are only expected to attend a fire
+if there is a great emergency, the brigade being strong enough
+without them for ordinary eventualities. Both systems can be
+worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service, which
+would be only called out for great calamities. They could be
+organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the
+reserve men might be attached to sections of the regulars and
+mixed with them when the occasion arises. The reserves can
+consist either of retired firemen who have a few regular drills,
+or of amateurs who go through a special course of training, and
+have some series of drills at intervals, with preferably a short
+spell of service every year with the regulars. For the regulars,
+forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has given the
+most satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the active force may be on a system of a number
+of small parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong
+bodies. Another system allows for subdivision into sections of
+equal strength, ranging from parties of, say, five men with a
+non-commissioned officer to thirty non-commissioned officers
+and men with an officer. The force can, of course, also simply
+be divided up into parties or sections of different strengths not
+governed by a system of military units. The sections either can
+work independently, as units, simply governed by one central
+authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor
+or major bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole
+individually responsible to headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may
+be &ldquo;officers and gentlemen&rdquo; in the military sense, or have only
+temporarily done work with the rank and file when in training.
+There could also be a combination of these two systems. Only
+the captain and deputy-captain might be officers in the military
+sense, the sections or divisions being officered by &ldquo;non-coms.&rdquo;
+Some cities have an officer to every thirty &ldquo;non-coms&rdquo; and men,
+whilst others put a division of as many as two hundred under
+a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection is
+treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have
+really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military
+sense have been found essential. They have also been found
+advantageous where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing.
+The prestige of the fire service has been raised everywhere where
+the officers, besides being fire experts, are educated men of
+social standing. There are cities where the officers of the fire
+brigade are in every way recognized as equal to army or navy
+men, their social position is the same, and their mess fulfils the
+same functions as a regimental mess. The fire brigade officer
+is recognized at court, and there is no ceremonial without him.
+On the other hand, there are also cities with brigades several
+hundred strong where the captain&rsquo;s social standing is beneath
+that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary
+training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally
+had some experience in another profession, such as the army, the
+navy, or the architectural and engineering professions, previous
+to their entering the fire service. Some brigades recruit from
+army officers only, and preferably from the engineers or artillery
+regiments; others recruit from among architects and engineers,
+subject to their having at least had some military experience
+in the reserve forces or the volunteers. Some cities only take
+engineers or architects, and make a point of it that they should
+have no previous military experience. Some previous experience
+in the handling of men is essential.</p>
+
+<p>As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are
+taken as firemen; others where the engines are manned by
+sailors. In some towns the building trades supply the recruits;
+in others, all trades are either discriminately or indiscriminately
+represented. A combination from the army or navy on the one
+side and the building trades on the other is most satisfactory.
+The knowledge of building construction in the ranks stands the
+force in good stead, and has often saved both lives and property.
+Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important trade,
+much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing
+their own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from
+sedentary trades should not be excessive. Where there are only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+men of one trade or calling, there is often too great a tendency
+to one-sidedness, and a great amount of prejudice.</p>
+
+<p>Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for
+both officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry
+men are very useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary,
+also a good memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in
+a brigade, and should be transferred to some other service if
+the fatness be developed during their engagement with a brigade.
+Many brigades take only single men, &ldquo;non-coms&rdquo; and officers
+only being allowed to marry. There are many brigades where
+twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the privates, fifty
+for the &ldquo;non-coms,&rdquo; and sixty for the officers.</p>
+
+<p>As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their
+sections or units provided with practically the same gear;
+others where each unit has a double or treble set, one of which
+is used according to circumstances. The section may have a
+manual engine, a steamer and a ladder truck at its disposal,
+and may turn out with either. There are towns where the units
+are differently equipped, and steamer or manual sections called
+out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where the
+sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of
+engines and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete
+with (say) a chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape.
+The contrast to this will be found in the small parties of twos
+or threes, whose turn-out would only consist of a small hose
+trolley or an escape. Of course, there are all kinds of combinations,
+the most important of which allows a section to have
+one or more independent subsections. Though practically
+belonging to the &ldquo;unit,&rdquo; the subsections work independently
+in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long
+ladder, or a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The
+subsections may act as outposts or simply as specialist parties,
+which are only called out for particular work.</p>
+
+<p>As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street
+stations are provided for the small parties referred to. In a few
+cases two small parties are housed under the same roof. The
+large bodies that back them are generally quartered together
+in extensive barracks, from which any number of engines and
+men can be turned out according to the nature of the call. Then
+there are cities where every section has its own well-built station;
+others where one or two sections are housed together, according
+to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a dozen located
+at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of the
+group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the
+other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be
+the central station of a district at the same time. The actual
+working of the district headquarters would, however, then be
+kept separate from the working of the headquarters staff. The
+latter would, perhaps, have some sections ready to send anywhere
+besides the trucks, &amp;c., necessary for the officers, the
+general extra gear, &amp;c., that might be required. It is usual to
+combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &amp;c., with the
+headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district
+centres.</p>
+
+<p>In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts,
+&amp;c., various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory
+results have been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not
+simply a hose-car or escape-party) can reach any building in the
+city within six minutes from the time of the call reaching the
+station, the six minutes including both turn-out and run. Where
+there are exceptionally large or dangerous risks, this time has had
+to be shortened to four minutes, and the possibility of an attendance
+from a second station assured within six minutes. In
+dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have been
+obtained where every house can be reached from the district
+centre within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters
+would naturally have a central position in the city. In one or
+two instances the headquarters offices are located in a separate
+building, which in no way serves as a fire-station, but simply as
+a centre through which all orders and business pass.</p>
+
+<p>The different stations must be in connexion with each other.
+The special runner or rider is practically disappearing. The
+telegraph and telephone have taken his place. Some cities
+favour Morse telegraphy, which certainly had great advantages
+over the telephone at one time, as messages could be easily
+transmitted to several stations with the same effort, but telephone
+distributors have now been successfully introduced. Errors
+are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and there is
+always a record of every message. The most modern forms of
+telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the
+fire service than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in
+direct communication with every station, but every station
+should be able to communicate with its neighbour directly, as
+well as through the headquarters office, and there should be a
+direct wire to its district station if it has one. There should be
+three routes of communication, so that two should be always
+ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters
+or the district centres would be in touch with the various
+auxiliaries referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and
+the telephone exchange.</p>
+
+<p>As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one
+unit to answer the first call if they have no particulars, others
+always turn out two or three sections, and there are several
+cities where the district centre would at least send an officer
+and a few men as well. In one brigade, headquarters is always
+represented by either the chief or the second officer in the case
+of a call of this kind. The idea is that it is always better to have
+too strong a force quickly in attendance than too small a number
+of men, and that it is most important that the first arrival should
+be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a call and one
+breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being too
+great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,
+not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other
+fires are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines,
+on account of a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a
+call reaches the firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn
+out, and if more help is required other sections will be called
+up individually. In others the reinforcements are not called
+up separately, but the fires are divided into three classes&mdash;small,
+medium and large; and on the message arriving of a more
+extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section already
+know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls
+to certain classes of risks, <i>e.g.</i> to theatres or public offices, may
+always be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the
+same message will then simultaneously turn out the stronger
+body without any further detailed instructions being necessary.
+In some towns the fire-call automata are so arranged that the
+messenger can at once call for the different classes of fire. This,
+however, is not to be recommended, as a messenger will probably
+consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic blaze, and will bring out
+too many engines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equipment.</i>&mdash;The following are characteristic features in the
+equipment of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure
+water supply, some brigades simply attend with hose-cars,
+life-saving gear and ladders; or, instead of the hose-cars, take
+their manuals, which they practically never use and which serve
+only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others take, and make
+a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with them
+ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time
+is thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug;
+and in case of a hydrant being out of order, there is always
+sufficient water at hand until the second hydrant has been found.
+Many cities have introduced chemical engines to take the place
+of this combination of water barrel and manual engine. A
+supply of water is carried on the chemical engine. Some cities
+always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,
+only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at
+once used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently
+of the pressure there is in the water service. Where
+there is no good water service, manuals or steamers have, of
+course, to be sent out, and are supplied either from the low-pressure
+service or from the natural waterways or wells. There
+are still a large number of cities where the suburbs have no
+proper water service, and the water barrel is then very handy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the
+chemical treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire,
+with the view of increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals
+instead of water. In certain localities fire appliances are still
+run out to fires by hand, especially where there is a high pressure
+water system and hose carts only are required. Generally the
+appliances are horsed. Motor traction is, however, now rapidly
+superseding horse traction for reasons of economy and the
+wider and more rapid range of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>As to life saving and man&oelig;uvring gear, some brigades rely
+almost entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend
+on scaling ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence
+is placed in the jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are
+much used; and there are a few where wonderful work is done
+with life-lines. To indicate the diversity with which any one
+appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the fire service,
+it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different ways in
+which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material
+of the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape&mdash;whether
+round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means
+of holding it, the way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at
+what distance from the endangered building the sheet is to be
+held. Last, but not least, come the words of command.</p>
+
+<p><i>Working of Brigades.</i>&mdash;In some forces all possible attention
+is given to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others
+the speed at which engines run to the fire is considered to be
+of primary importance. Other brigades, again, give equal
+attention to both. There are brigades which work entirely on
+military lines, each man having certain duties marked out for
+him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are others
+where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there
+are combinations in the same way as regards command. Some
+chief officers arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies,
+and control the working of the brigade from a position of vantage
+at a distance. Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire,
+perhaps at the branch itself, or on some gallant life-saving
+exploit where they no doubt do good work as a fireman, but in
+no way fulfil the office of commanders. Officers must remember
+that they are officers, and not rank and file; and this is generally
+very difficult to those who have advanced from the ranks.
+Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to
+their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must
+always be in a good position where they can superintend everything
+pertaining to the outbreak in question. Some brigades
+seem to make a point of working quietly, and shouting is
+absolutely forbidden, all commands being given by shrill whistles.
+In some brigades all commands are given by word of mouth, and
+there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being
+bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes
+trying. As a rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others
+are satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a
+distance. Some attack the fire direct, others only try to protect
+what surrounds the seat of the flames. Several brigades are
+ordered always to try to attack by the natural routes of the
+front door and the staircases. In others, the men always have
+to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the aid of
+ladders&mdash;through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully
+extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades
+boast of never having damaged property unnecessarily. They
+have, for instance, had the patience to suffocate a cellar fire,
+instead of putting the whole cellar under water. In certain
+classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the hand-pump
+have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction
+than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which
+to judge the training and handling of a fire brigade&mdash;to see what
+damage they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and
+windows, when there is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided,
+where every man in the force feels that his first duty is to prevent
+damage and loss and his second to extinguish the fire.</p>
+
+<p>Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally
+stationed at headquarters; where this division is split up into
+sections, there would also be a distribution among the district
+centres; the salvage men are simply part of the force, told off
+on special duty. Where there are private salvage corps, their
+stations are generally near the headquarters or district centres
+of the brigade, from which they receive notice of the fire. In
+some cities the salvage corps work quite independently; in
+others, they work under the chief of the brigade directly they
+arrive at the fire.</p>
+
+<p>As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with
+the fire service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room
+to work in is now fully recognized, and the police are at once
+called out and often brought on to the scene in an incredibly
+short time. The value of these measures should not be under-rated,
+especially in cities where rowdyism exists. In many
+cities the ambulance service is also turned out to fires. Where
+no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen
+should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and
+gasmen are also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many
+garrison towns the military turn out to assist the fire brigade.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>National Fire Brigades&rsquo; Union.</i>&mdash;The National Fire Brigades&rsquo;
+Union, which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great
+Britain, originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire
+brigades held at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria&rsquo;s jubilee
+on the 30th of May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were
+present. Next day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall,
+Oxford, and it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades
+Union. Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade,
+was appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed
+first president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through
+ill-health he was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the
+union offered to provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers
+for his regiment the duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped
+corps were sent out to the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein,
+South Africa, under Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned
+the services rendered by the firemen in his despatches.</p>
+
+<p>The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own
+council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the
+central council. The districts are:&mdash;Eastern, Midlands, South Coast,
+South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South
+Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North
+Wales, Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in
+1902). There are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents
+in America, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
+France, Germany, Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South
+Africa, India and the Federated Malay Straits. The total strength
+of the union is 667 fire brigades and members with nearly 12,000
+firemen. Every member of the union gives his time and services
+for the benefit of the country; all appointments are honorary, with
+the exception that a small allowance is made for clerical assistance.
+A drill book is issued by the union, and the fourth edition was
+published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these books have been issued to
+brigades all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers.
+All members have to come up for re-examination every three years,
+else they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination
+is more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association.
+This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial
+fire brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance
+work. A very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the
+union entitled <i>First Aid in the Fire Service</i>, by Chief Officer William
+Ettles, M.D.</p>
+
+<p>The union organized and took part in the International Fire
+Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and
+1896, and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses
+at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It
+has also held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal
+Palace, and before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Fire Brigade Organization.</i></p>
+
+<p>Below are given examples of the organization of different fire
+brigades. The brigades so described have been selected not so
+much on account of their intrinsic importance, as because they
+represent classes or types of brigades and fire brigade organization
+which it may be useful to refer to. In respect of the London
+fire brigade, however, historical data are also presented, as it
+is only with the aid of these that the extraordinary development
+of that force can be properly realized.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire
+brigade, the resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903
+are reprinted below. As they indicate, the general feeling
+amongst all interested in fire protection from an economic point
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span>
+of view is that fire brigades should not be merely fire extinguishing
+organizations but should utilize their influence in a much
+wider sense.</p>
+
+<p>The Congress considered:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers
+to take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire projection,
+inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers&rsquo; experience in actual
+fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work of
+architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful for
+the organization and development of precautionary measures.</p>
+
+<p>2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should
+encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study
+of questions of fire prevention.</p>
+
+<p>3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and
+that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a government
+department.</p>
+
+<p>4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That
+on the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immediately
+made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain
+the cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the
+result of such investigation to a public department for tabulation
+and publication.</p>
+
+<p>5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be
+charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred,
+as may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.</p>
+
+<p>6. That the press should from time to time publish technical
+reports on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge
+and experience gained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>London.</i>&mdash;In the early part of the 19th century the methods
+in vogue for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis
+were of the most crude and disjointed character, in striking
+contrast with the highly elaborated system now put into practice
+by the London County Council through its fire brigade; and it
+was not until the second half of the 19th century was well
+advanced that anything approaching an adequate and satisfactory
+organization was brought into existence. Until the
+passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only
+acts relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London
+were the Lighting and Watching Act (3 &amp; 4 William IV., c. 90),
+and &ldquo;an act (14 Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better
+Regulation of Buildings and Party Walls, and for the more
+effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire within the Cities of
+London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof, and other
+the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of
+Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras,
+and St Luke&rsquo;s at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex.&rdquo; The
+clauses in the latter act relating to protection against fire remained
+in force till the passing of the act of 1865. They provided
+that every parish should keep &ldquo;one large engine and one small,
+called a hand engine, a leathern pipe, and a certain number of
+ladders.&rdquo; The Lighting and Watching Act contained a clause
+which extended to England and Wales and so covered the area
+&ldquo;without the bills of mortality,&rdquo; enabling the inspectors appointed
+under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines;
+and certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without
+the bills of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.</p>
+
+<p>The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in
+1862, reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act
+of George III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered
+practically of importance, but that, at the time of the report,
+the arrangements generally made by the parishes under the act
+were not only entirely useless, but in many cases produced
+injurious results, as the system under the act frequently conferred
+a reward for the first useless parochial engine, whereas
+the efficient engine which might be on the spot a few minutes
+later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were, however,
+exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a
+&ldquo;very efficient&rdquo; fire brigade was maintained at an expense of
+about £500 a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the
+rating of the parish. The select committee were unable to
+ascertain with any accuracy the total amount paid by the
+metropolitan parishes for the maintenance, &ldquo;however inefficient,&rdquo;
+of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be
+about £10,000.</p>
+
+<p>For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance
+offices in London kept fire brigades at their individual expense;
+to these brigades were attached a considerable number of men
+usually occupied as Thames watermen, retained in the service
+of the different Fire Offices, who received payment only on the
+occurrence of fires, and who wore the livery and badge of the
+respective companies. These fire brigades were, to quote the
+report of the select committee of 1862, considered as giving
+notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a considerable
+rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of good
+as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.</p>
+
+<p>The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced
+an attempt to be made, which was effectually carried out in
+the year 1832, by R. Bell Forde, a leading director of the Sun
+Fire Office, to form one brigade for the purpose of promoting
+economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus the first organized
+fire brigade for London began its operations under the united
+sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the leading
+insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known
+as the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense
+was at first £8000, the number of stations 19, the number of
+men employed 80. By 1862 the annual cost had grown to
+£25,000, the number of stations had become 20, and the number
+of men 127.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire
+Engine Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in substitution
+for which the new Cannon-Street station has been
+built. The following is a list of the other stations of the establishment:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">School House-lane, Shadwell</td> <td class="tcl">Crown Street, Soho</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wellclose Square</td> <td class="tcl">Wells Street</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Jeffrey&rsquo;s Square</td> <td class="tcl">Baker Street</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Whitecross Street</td> <td class="tcl">King Street, Golden Square</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Farringdon Street</td> <td class="tcl">Horseferry Road</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Holborn</td> <td class="tcl">Waterloo Road</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chandos Street</td> <td class="tcl">Southwark Bridge Road</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tooley Street</td> <td class="tcl">Southwark Bridge (floating)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lucas Street, Rotherhithe</td> <td class="tcl">Rotherhithe (floating)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner
+as far as its limited equipment and strength would permit, but
+it was universally admitted that the staff, engines and stations
+were totally inadequate for the general protection of London
+from fire. The directors of the insurance offices themselves
+admitted this, but they considered their brigade sufficient for
+the protection of that part of London in which the largest amount
+of insured property was located, and contended that it was not
+their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying
+districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve
+their offices in serious loss.</p>
+
+<p>From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire
+offices was supplemented by the &ldquo;Society for the Protection of
+Life from Fire.&rdquo; This society was managed by a committee of
+which the lord mayor was president. It was supported entirely
+by voluntary contributions, and, at a cost of about £7000 a
+year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90 stations in different
+parts of the most central districts in London. Its most outlying
+station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it maintained
+no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham,
+Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its
+equipment was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the
+metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire
+Engine Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed
+by fire, and the attention of the government was consequently
+directed to the inadequacy of the existing conditions for fire
+extinction. It was suggested, at the time, that the parochial
+engines should be placed under the inspection of the commissioners
+of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and the
+existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another
+thirty years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a
+fire brigade should be created under the superintendence of the
+commissioners of police, and should form part of the general
+establishment of the metropolitan police. In 1865, however,
+the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act was passed, under which the
+responsibility for the provision and maintenance of an efficient
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan Board of Works.
+Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the staff,
+stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment;
+the engines maintained by the various parochial authorities,
+and the men in charge of them were also absorbed by the new
+organization, as were the fire-escapes and staff of the Society
+for the Protection of Life from Fire.</p>
+
+<p>The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the maintenance
+of the brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny
+rate on all the rateable property in London; (2) contributions
+by the fire insurance companies at the rate of £35 per million
+of the gross amount insured by them in respect of property in
+London; and (3) a contribution of £10,000 a year by the government.
+Although the revenue allotted increased year by year,
+its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls
+from all parts of London for protection from fire. Some temporary
+financial relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board
+of Works (Loans) Act 1869, which (1) authorized the interest
+on borrowed money to be paid, and the principal to be redeemed
+out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan Consolidated rate, apart
+from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade purposes; and (2)
+provided that the amount to be raised for the annual working
+expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be
+produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value
+of property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One
+result of the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by
+which the London County Council was constituted), under which
+a county rate for all purposes is levied, was virtually to repeal
+the limitation of the amount which might be raised from the
+ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time the
+expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other
+departments of the council&rsquo;s service, been determined solely
+by what the council has judged to be the requirements of the
+case.</p>
+
+<p>When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire
+brigade was admittedly not large enough properly to protect
+the whole of London, the provision in various suburban districts
+being notoriously inadequate to the requirements. A plan for
+enlarging and improving old stations, and for carrying out a
+scheme of additional protection laid down after careful consideration
+of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on the 8th
+of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided
+for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for
+the establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with
+horsed escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-escape
+and hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Since it came into existence the London County Council has established
+additional fire stations at Dulwich, New Cross, Kingsland,
+Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd&rsquo;s Bush, West Hampstead, East
+Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant&rsquo;s
+Wharf (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham,
+Burdett Road (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea),
+Herne Hill, Lee Green and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vauxhall,
+Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and
+North End stations are sub-stations. New stations have been
+erected, in substitution for small and inconvenient buildings, at
+Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham, Brompton, Islington, Paddington,
+Redcross Street (City), Euston Road, Clapham, Mile End,
+Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington, Westminster,
+Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing stations at
+Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead, Battersea,
+Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been considerably
+enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been established
+in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively.
+A building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation
+of the staff of the Cherry-garden river station; and another building
+has been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff
+of a river station which has been established there.</p>
+
+<p>In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in
+course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional
+sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise.
+The Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and enlarged.
+The council had also determined to erect new stations in
+substitution for existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway,
+Waterloo Road, Shooter&rsquo;s Hill and North End, Fulham; and to
+build additional sub-stations at Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton
+Hill, Camberwell New Road, Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and
+Earlsfield.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Budapest.</i>&mdash;There is a combination of a professional force
+and a volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary
+service of factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade
+possesses a central station and eight sub-stations, two minor
+stations, and permanent theatre-watchrooms at the royal
+theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the professional brigade consisted
+of a chief officer, an inspector, a senior adjutant and two
+junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23 warrant officers, 3
+engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen with 62
+horses. There have been some slight increases since. The
+apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22
+manual engines, 27 small manual engines, 11 water carts, 13
+traps, 4 tenders, 26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders,
+9 ordinary extension ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets
+and 22,000 metres of hose. The various stations are connected
+with the central station by private telephone lines. There are
+149 telephonic fire alarms distributed throughout the city.
+They are on radial lines connected up with their respective
+nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from three
+to seventeen call-points.</p>
+
+<p>The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and
+comprises some eighty members. Its equipment is housed with
+that of the professional brigade, and is bought and maintained
+by the municipality. This volunteer brigade is a comparatively
+wealthy institution, having a capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst
+receiving a special subsidy annually from the municipality.
+Though legally an entirely independent institution, the brigade
+voluntarily puts itself under the command of the chief officer
+of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at the disposal
+of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every night
+and &ldquo;turn out&rdquo; when called upon to render service. This
+volunteer brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer
+brigades, and it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that
+the educational classes referred to above are held and facilities
+accorded to the officers undergoing instruction to gain experience
+at the Budapest fires.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the
+volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with
+the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest
+factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory fire
+brigades. These brigades&mdash;forty-four in number&mdash;are essentially
+private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to
+which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual
+understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory
+immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory
+brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with
+1 steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have
+a very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke
+helmets.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cologne.</i>&mdash;The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong
+(1906), with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional
+officers, a warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16
+foremen. The brigade has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are
+used for ambulance purposes. The brigade has three large
+stations and a minor station, and has a permanent fire-watch
+at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for duty as
+coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of
+duty to twenty-four hours of rest.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary
+retained fire brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent,
+2 deputy superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses,
+who are retained men housed in municipal buildings (tenements),
+and available as an immediate reserve force. The first section
+of the reserve force are housed centrally.</p>
+
+<p>There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades
+manned by volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and
+horsed from the municipal stables or municipal tramways.
+Three of these volunteer brigades, which have large suburban
+districts, comprise each a superintendent, 2 senior foremen and
+3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen and 3 coachmen. The minor
+outlying suburbs have several such brigades, each having one
+senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2 coachmen.
+The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295,
+all ranks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of professional
+brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of
+suburban volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is
+still an old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the
+extra sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building.
+The brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed
+matter, in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally
+well prepared. The brigade does permanent &ldquo;fire-watch&rdquo; duty at
+the municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It
+provides additional watches during performances at all other
+theatres and public entertainments. Such duties are provided in
+part by an auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade.
+A number of the professional brigade are always utilized for doing
+general work in the workshops of the brigade. The first or central
+section of the auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and
+is additionally turned out eleven times per annum (without drill).
+Men newly attached to the auxiliary force have to go through a
+four weeks&rsquo; recruit drill.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Nuremberg.</i>&mdash;The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most
+economically organized efficient fire service in Central Europe,
+and its form of organization is peculiar and exceptional. In
+1902 the entire fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (£6300).
+The total of inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small
+amount of money the city gets a highly-trained retained fire
+brigade of 156 men (1907), and two volunteer fire brigades of
+130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has an auxiliary of
+eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and two
+private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands
+under a professional chief officer and professional second officer.
+There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen
+attached to the retained brigade. The service has been in
+existence for fifty years. It has gradually developed and has
+worked remarkably well, and may, in fact, be taken as a model
+institution for municipal economy, with due regard to up-to-dateness
+and efficiency. The retained fire brigade comprises
+entirely municipal employés, regularly engaged in the municipal
+workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal
+workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There
+is a headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer
+brigade in the centre of the town, a modern district station in the
+western district, and a third district station is in course of erection
+for the eastern district, which is at present only served by a
+small branch station.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14
+firemen (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade.
+Nine men of the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at
+night, together with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west
+district station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day,
+and the same number at night.</p>
+
+<p>The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units
+of the following strength, namely:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder.</p>
+
+<p>Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long
+ladder.</p>
+
+<p>Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose- and coal-tender trap.</p>
+
+<p>From the west district station three units can be turned out in
+rotation, namely:&mdash;-</p>
+
+<p>First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.</p>
+
+<p>Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.</p>
+
+<p>Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender
+trap.</p>
+
+<p>The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises
+a turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.</p>
+
+<p>The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession,
+these horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further
+has a reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.</p>
+
+<p>The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal
+25 manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of
+the hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet
+pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening &ldquo;fire
+watch&rdquo; at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get
+modest extra pay for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather
+to cover disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages.
+The brigade uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in
+proximity to the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on
+duty for fire brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical
+purposes the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which
+the men do municipal work in the municipal workshops, and elsewhere,
+<i>i.e.</i> in training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up
+to the best professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well
+drilled and includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do
+duty at night by rotation. The brigade&rsquo;s responsibilities are clearly
+defined, and the position of the professional chief and second officer
+clearly laid down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During
+the fifty years&rsquo; existence of the service, 85 firemen received the
+twenty-five years&rsquo; long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the
+suburban volunteer brigades.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Venice.</i>&mdash;The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force
+of &ldquo;Vigili&rdquo; or municipal watchmen, which body does general
+duty in preserving order and rendering assistance to the community.
+In other words, this force performs the duties of the
+civil police (rather than governmental or criminal police), fire,
+patrol watch service, and public control in a general sense.
+The force, which in all its sections made a most excellent impression,
+has a commandant, under whom the two primary sections
+work, namely (<i>a</i>) the civil police section and the (<i>b</i>) fire brigade
+section; each section in turn having its own principal officers.
+The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire
+brigade section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant
+of the whole force is a retired military officer, and the chief of the
+fire service section is a civil engineer, and these two officers,
+together with the chief of the civil police section, are the three
+superior officers of the force. The police section serve as auxiliaries
+to the fire brigade section in case of any great fire, and,
+of course, generally work very much hand in hand on all occasions.
+The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6 foremen,
+6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well
+equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large
+modern petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old
+type steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small
+petrol motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-engines,
+ladders, &amp;c., which are in considerable number, are
+carried in a large fleet of swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is
+done with Roman ladders, which are usually planted on two
+gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the depth of the canal
+permits, the lower length is buried in the canal bottom. Hook
+ladders are also used.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the
+headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a
+strength of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite
+the station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire
+station of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the
+Doge&rsquo;s palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground
+floor facing St Mark&rsquo;s Square have been adapted for fire station
+purposes in a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of
+the brigade has been used to form emblems, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Vienna.</i>&mdash;In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted
+on modern lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality
+having been greatly extended. The professional brigade was
+somewhat strengthened and entirely re-equipped, and the
+various existing volunteer brigades of the outlying districts
+were transformed into suburban volunteer fire brigades, equipped
+and controlled by the municipality and standing under the
+general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle
+involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force
+around Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal
+brigade, a principle of great economic advantage, as the professional
+brigade would otherwise have had to be materially
+strengthened, probably trebled. These suburban volunteer fire
+brigades number no fewer than 34, and have 1200 firemen of
+all ranks. They are practically independent institutions as far
+as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but
+their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided
+by the municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional
+firemen detached from headquarters are attached to their
+stations as telegraph clerks and drill-instructors.</p>
+
+<p>The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their
+own districts, and further, assist in other districts when so
+ordered by headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great
+fires in the city proper. Headquarters, of course, renders
+assistance at large suburban fires. These suburban volunteer
+fire brigades are very perfectly equipped with appliances, generally
+of the same type as those used in the central professional
+brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped with combined
+chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached. They
+have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+The men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, <i>i.e.</i> do
+not take pay of any description or make any charges for attendance
+at fires or refreshments at fires.</p>
+
+<p>The Vienna &ldquo;professional brigade,&rdquo; as it is generally called,
+has a personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475
+men. Of stations there is the headquarters, a district station,
+4 branch stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations,
+and 2 &ldquo;watches&rdquo; in public buildings. The officers of the brigade
+consist of the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors.
+The officers, of whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered
+at headquarters. There are three telegraph superintendents.
+The rank and file is composed of 8 drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph
+clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two classes), 22 engineers
+and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four telegraph
+clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban
+volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus
+and service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to &ldquo;turn out&rdquo;:&mdash;2
+open and 2 officers&rsquo; service carriages (at headquarters), 6 &ldquo;traps&rdquo;
+for the first &ldquo;turn-out&rdquo; (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district
+fire station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men,
+and equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder
+and jumping sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-boxes,
+a jack, tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump
+and a hose-reel attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters
+and 1 at the district station), each manned by seven firemen and
+equipped like the &ldquo;traps&rdquo; with the exception that, instead of the
+life-saving chute, the carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two
+petroleum torches each, an extension ladder (15 metres long) and
+some spare coal for the steam fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension
+ladders each 25 metres long, and 3 extension turn-table ladders
+each 25 metres long (at headquarters and at two of the sub-stations);
+each of the pneumatic ladders has three men, and each turn-table
+ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at headquarters and 1 each
+in the other stations), each having five men with 3 hook-ladders, a
+jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel, a hand-engine, a smoke
+helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a tool box, torches,
+&amp;c.; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and one each in the
+district fire station and the 4 steam-engine stations), each with an
+engineer and stoker.</p>
+
+<p>The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large
+chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs).
+The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68,
+and there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The
+total number of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two
+electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire telegraphic
+and telephonic installation, including the lines in the volunteer
+brigades&rsquo; districts kept up by the professional brigade, comprises
+47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with altogether 161
+Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Zürich.</i>&mdash;Zürich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of
+which are built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the
+buildings being subject to the local building regulations and the
+State Insurance Association&rsquo;s rules, in which they are compulsorily
+insured. The brigade is a compulsory militia brigade,
+placed under the control of the head of the department of police
+under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer is head of a
+special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the safety
+of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is
+known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade.
+His office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a
+small permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence.
+Every male inhabitant of Zürich is compelled to do some service
+for the prevention of, or protection against, fire, from the age of
+twenty to fifty years. The duty may be fulfilled (1) by active
+service, or (2) in the case of an able-bodied citizen, who for some
+reason is not found suited to be a member of the brigade, or has
+been dismissed from the brigade, by the payment of a tax,
+which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain citizens,
+however, are <i>ipso facto</i> exempt from active service, namely
+members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic
+school, of the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice,
+and of the Town Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters,
+the officials of railways, tramway and steamboat companies, of
+the post-office and telephone department, students of the Polytechnic
+school and other educational institutions and municipal
+officials, with whose duties fire brigade service is incompatible.
+Exemption from active service can also be accorded on a testimonial
+of a medical board. Exemption from active service,
+however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which
+amounts to between £4000 and £5000. In making the selection
+of men for active service only, men particularly fitted for the
+work are taken, namely, men who are personally keen, who
+have a good physique, and who are preferably of the building or
+allied trades. The officers of the brigade are appointed by the
+municipal committee. The men&rsquo;s drills are by the chief officer,
+and the men are liable to fines and to imprisonment (up to four
+days) for not attending their drills. The whole of the brigade
+is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss Fire
+Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition
+provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty.
+There is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the municipality,
+which also accords a scale of compensation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen
+companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections,
+namely, a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police
+section, the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending
+to salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal
+with the fire in its own district without calling upon the company
+of an adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious
+fire that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a
+system of decentralization and independence of companies in this
+brigade not often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc
+for each drill of two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours,
+and fifty centimes per hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided.
+Any telephone can be used free by law for an alarm. The brigade has
+at its disposal an extension telephone service, but the men are not
+all connected up with the telephone of their respective districts,
+and thus the alarm is given mainly with horns sounded by men who
+are on the telephone. No section of the brigade has less than ten
+men on the telephone.</p>
+
+<p>The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances
+in the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks,
+and each section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly
+housed in small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter
+doors, to which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty
+of these hydrant houses distributed round the city, the larger appliances
+being at headquarters and at some depots.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for
+the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company
+might be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief
+officer and staff, and independent organization, the organization of
+the companies, however, being identical. A company comprises 1
+chief officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6
+orderlies, a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively
+1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service
+section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the life-saving
+section, and 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 20 men
+for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there
+some slight variation in the organization, namely, 1 and 2 sections
+have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior
+officer. At Zürich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an extraordinary
+uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and instructions in
+all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268 in all ranks.
+There were about 70 fires in that year.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. O. S.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1 center"><i>United States.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a
+scale that in 1902 it was estimated by P.G. Hubert (&ldquo;Fire
+Fighting To-Day and To-Morrow,&rdquo; <i>Scribner&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, 1902,
+32, pp 448 sqq.) that in proportion to population the fire force
+of America was nearly four times that of Germany or France and
+about three times that of England. The many fires consequent
+on wooden construction even in the large cities; the bad effect
+of sudden climatic changes&mdash;drying, parching heat being followed
+by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less safe
+character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements,
+the more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the
+reasons assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-fighting
+service in the United States is in no way connected with
+the military as it is on the continent of Europe; the association
+of volunteer with paid firemen is uncommon except in the
+suburban parts of the large cities, and in the smaller cities and
+towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term are, during
+that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.</p>
+
+<p><i>New York.</i>&mdash;The fire department of New York City is the
+result of gradual development. The first record of municipal
+action in regard to fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span>
+leather buckets and a supply of fire-ladders and hooks were
+purchased, and a tax of one guilder for fire apparatus was imposed
+on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were ordered to be dug; in
+1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was required to
+provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and
+bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets respectively;
+in 1689 &ldquo;brent-masters&rdquo; or fire-marshals were
+appointed; in 1695 every dwelling-house had to provide one
+fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two Richard Newsham hand-engines
+were ordered from England, and soon afterwards a
+superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small salary;
+in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad
+Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the
+appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable
+or militia duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire companies
+increased rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially
+political; and success in a fire company was a sure path to
+success in politics, the best-known case being that of Richard
+Croker, a member of &ldquo;Americus 6,&rdquo; commonly called &ldquo;Big
+Six,&rdquo; of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman.
+Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (predecessors
+of the present &ldquo;ward leader&rsquo;s outing&rdquo;) under the
+auspices of the volunteer organizations, annual balls after 1829,
+water-throwing contests, often over liberty poles, and bitter
+fights between different companies (sometimes settled by fist
+duels between selected champions), improved the organization
+of these companies as political factors if not as fire-fighters.
+So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in 1836,
+when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from
+office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when
+the volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their
+work, and they began again only when Gulick assured them that
+the news was false; almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick
+was reinstated. The type of the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer
+fire hero was made famous in 1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau&rsquo;s
+playing of the part Mose in Benjamin Baker&rsquo;s play, <i>A Glance at
+New York</i>. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York were raised
+entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted
+of 163 companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder)
+manned by 3521 men (engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts
+about 25, and hook and ladder companies about 40); the chief
+engineer, elected with assistants for terms of five or three years
+by ballots of the firemen, received a salary of $3000 a year; and
+three bell-ringers in each of eight district watch-towers, who
+watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a year.
+The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire
+District and established therein a Fire Department, headed by
+four commissioners, who with the mayor and comptroller constituted
+a board of estimate.</p>
+
+<p>This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when
+the Greater New York was chartered and the present system
+was introduced. At its head is a commissioner who receives
+$7500 a year. The more immediate head of the firemen is a
+chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member of the force not
+appointed on the basis of a civil service examination; the chief
+has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond
+boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each
+receiving an annual salary of $5000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Manhattan,
+Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens);
+59 chiefs of battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond,
+and 28 in Brooklyn and Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in
+Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 111 in Brooklyn and Queens),
+365 assistant foremen (221 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond;
+and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 431 engineers of steamers (247
+in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184 in Brooklyn and
+Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond,
+and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens); and the total uniformed
+force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine companies&mdash;at
+East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River), West
+35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan
+and the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in
+Brooklyn and Queens there were 70 engine companies, including
+two fire-boat companies&mdash;at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The
+appropriations for the year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan,
+Bronx and Richmond, and $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens;
+and the department expenses were $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx
+and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for Brooklyn and Queens.</p>
+
+<p>The first high-pressure main system in the city was installed at
+Coney Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically
+driven centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area,
+1360 acres) and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in
+1908, and where the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the
+City Hall to 25th St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue
+and East Broadway, being the &ldquo;Dry Goods District&rdquo;; water is
+pumped either from city mains or from the river, and the change may
+be made instantaneously. The fire watch-tower system was abolished
+in 1869; the present system is that of red box electric telegraph
+alarms, which register at headquarters (East 67th St.), where an
+operator sends out the alarm to that engine-house nearest to the
+fire which is ready to respond, and a chart informing him of the
+absence from the engine-house of apparatus. There are volunteer
+forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond boroughs and in
+other outlying districts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boston.</i>&mdash;The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great
+fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000),
+a chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior
+deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent
+and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent
+and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the
+force numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam
+fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination
+chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3 fire-boats
+(built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29 ladder-trucks
+and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main service was
+established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the application of
+the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made in Boston in
+1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer, then
+a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric
+telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent
+of the Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Chicago.</i>&mdash;The Chicago organization practically dates from the
+fire of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858.
+Its principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary
+$8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen
+battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and
+assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants,
+engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908
+was 1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale,
+Norwood Park, Hansen Park and Ashburn Park. In the business
+part of the city there is a patrol of seven companies employed by
+the Board of Fire Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed
+force (except the chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In
+1908 the equipment included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and
+ladder companies, including one water-tower, 15 chemical engines and
+one hose company; and there were 5 fire-boats (4 active and 1
+reserve). The first fire-boat was built in 1883. The initial installation
+of high-pressure mains was completed in 1902, and was greatly
+enlarged in 1908.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Fire Appliances.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Fire-Alarms.</i>&mdash;Most large cities possess a system of electrical
+fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals
+along the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either
+opens the door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window
+with which it is fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus
+causing the particular number allocated to the box, which of
+course indicates its position, to be electrically telegraphed to
+the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as thought advisable.
+Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box. Automatic
+fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric circuit
+is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain temperature.
+The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or to give
+warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for
+closing it are of the most varied kinds&mdash;the expansion of mercury
+in a thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended
+between horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass
+in a curved strip of brass and steel welded together, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire-Engines.</i>&mdash;The earliest method of applying water to the
+extinction of fires was by means of buckets, and these long
+remained the chief instruments employed for the purpose,
+though Hero of Alexandria about 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> described a fire-engine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+with two cylinders and pistons worked by a reciprocating
+lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in Rome. In
+the 16th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire squirts
+or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same
+century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by
+a screw handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time
+of the Great Fire were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2½ or 3 in. in diameter,
+and three men were required to manipulate them. The next
+stage of development was to mount a cistern or reservoir on
+wheels so that it was portable, and to provide it with pumps
+which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed
+delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important
+advance was made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der
+Heyde, senior and junior, made flexible hose by sewing together
+the edges of a strip of leather, and applied it for both suction and
+delivery, so that the engines could be continuously supplied with
+water and the stream could be more readily directed on the seat
+of the fire. For many years manual engines were the only ones
+employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as
+many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are superseded
+by power-driven engines, at least for all important services.
+The first practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braithwaite
+about 1829, but though it proved useful in various fires
+in London for several years after that date, it was objected to
+by the men of the fire brigade and its use was abandoned. A
+generation later, however, steam fire-engines began to come into
+vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to the scene
+of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be geared
+to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not
+till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines
+were employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity
+have all been used. Such engines have the advantage that they
+can reach a fire much more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle,
+especially in hilly districts, and they can if necessary be made
+of greater power, since their size need not be limited by considerations
+of the weight that can be drawn by horses. Petrol-propelled
+engines can be started off from a station within a few seconds
+of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are ready to work
+immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines possess
+the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under
+steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol
+engines, which cost nothing for maintenance except while they
+are actually working. Motor engines are made with a capacity
+to deliver 1000 gallons of water a minute or even more, but the
+sizes than can deal with 400 or 500 gallons a minute are probably
+those most commonly used.</p>
+
+<p>In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are
+often provided for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks
+and along the waterside. The capacity of these may rise to 6000
+gallons a minute. Steam is the power most commonly used in
+them, both for propulsion and for pumping, but in one built
+for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather &amp; Sons of London in 1909,
+an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam
+engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with
+oil-fuel, and steam could be raised in a few minutes while the
+boat was on its way to a fire. The pumps could throw a 1½-in.
+jet to a height of nearly 200 ft. In some places, as at Boston,
+Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for service at some distance from
+the water. Fire-mains laid through the streets terminate in deep
+water at points accessible to the boats, the pumps of which can
+be connected to them and made to fill them with water at high
+pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply
+system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure
+water can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar
+devices, to draw a much larger quantity from the ordinary
+mains and force it in jets to considerable heights and distances,
+without the intervention of any engine.</p>
+
+<p>The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-pipes,
+which are made either of leather fastened with brass or
+copper rivets, or of canvas (woven from flax) which has the
+merit of lightness but is liable to rot, or of rubber jacketed with
+canvas (or in America with cotton). For directing the water on
+the fire, nozzles of various forms are employed, some throwing
+a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and others again combining
+jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive away smoke
+and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to
+enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached.
+A line of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the extensions
+of which are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests
+on the wall of the building at the required height. Water-towers
+enable the jet to be delivered at a considerable height independently
+of any support from the building. A light, stiff, lattice
+steel frame is mounted on a truck, on which it lies horizontally
+while being drawn to a fire, but when it has to be used it is
+turned to an upright position, often by the aid of compressed
+gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still greater
+height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be
+controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the
+nozzle to be moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe
+up the tower may be of large diameter, so that it can carry a
+huge volume of water, and at the bottom it may terminate in a
+reservoir into which several fire-engines may pump simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable
+sizes as fire-extinguishers or &ldquo;extincteurs,&rdquo; and in the larger
+ones as &ldquo;chemical engines,&rdquo; throw a jet of water charged with
+gas, commonly carbon dioxide, which does not support combustion.
+Essentially they consist of a closed metal tank, filled
+with a solution of some carbonate and also containing a small
+vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the acid is
+kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to
+be used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger
+projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the
+bottle of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus
+breaks the bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker
+which pierces the metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the
+acid comes into contact with the carbonate solution carbon
+dioxide is formed, and a stream of gas and liquid mixed issues
+under considerable pressure from the attached nozzle or hosepipe.
+Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few gallons,
+are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings, &amp;c.,
+and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act
+when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire,
+because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear;
+but it is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid
+they emit is much more efficacious than plain water, and too
+much importance can easily be attached to spectacular displays
+of their power to extinguish artificial blazes of wood soused with
+petrol, which have been burning only a few seconds. Chemical
+engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by fire brigades
+as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or motor
+vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose,
+and other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with
+pumps for throwing powerful jets of ordinary water. Large
+buildings, such as hotels and warehouses, where a competent
+watchman is assumed to be always on duty, may be protected
+by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and connected
+by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the various
+floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when
+pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and
+carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a
+stream is available at the hydrants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Automatic Sprinklers.</i>&mdash;Factories, warehouses and other
+buildings in which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted
+with automatic sprinklers which discharge water from the
+ceiling of a room as soon as the temperature rises to a certain
+point. Lines of pipes containing water under pressure are carried
+through the building near the ceilings at distances of 8 or 10 ft.
+apart, and to these pipes are attached sprinkler heads at intervals
+such that the water from them is distributed all over the room.
+The valves of the sprinklers are normally kept closed by a device
+the essential feature of which is a piece of fusible metal; this
+as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about 160° F.) by
+the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the water,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower.
+In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes
+are filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 &#8468; per sq. in. When
+the sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a
+fire, the compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of
+pressure in the pipes is arranged to operate a system of levers
+that opens the water-valve of the main-feed pipe. The idea of
+automatic sprinklers is an old one, and a system was patented
+by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their present development
+they are specially associated with the name of Frederick
+Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire-Escapes.</i>&mdash;The best kind of fire-escape, because it is
+always in place, and always ready for use, is an external iron
+staircase, reaching from the top of a building to the ground,
+and connected with balconies accessible from the windows on
+each floor. In many towns the building by-laws require such
+staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a certain height
+and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of
+non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper
+room to reach the ground through the window, numberless
+forms have been invented, from simple knotted ropes and
+folding ladders to slings and baskets suspended by a rope over
+sheaves fixed permanently outside the windows, and provided
+with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the speed of
+his descent, and to &ldquo;chutes&rdquo; or canvas tubes down which
+he slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders,
+mounted on a wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb;
+sometimes the persons rescued are sent down a chute attached
+to the apparatus, but many fire brigades think it preferable to
+rely on carrying down those who are unable to descend the
+ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a number of
+men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape
+is by jumping from an upper window.</p>
+<div class="author">(X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the United States a special officer called a &ldquo;fire-marshal&rdquo;
+has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in
+1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in
+Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut
+(1901), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been
+passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question
+has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred,
+should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in recent
+years in the City of London no regular system exists.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Thomas C. Martin, <i>Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police
+Patrol Systems</i> (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the
+Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was
+installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in
+1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIREBACK,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the name given to the ornamented slab of cast
+iron protecting the back of a fireplace. The date at which
+firebacks became common probably synchronizes with the
+removal of the fire from the centre to the side or end of a room.
+They never became universal, since the proximity of deposits
+of iron ore was essential to their use. In England they were
+confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey, and
+appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties
+was exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other
+parts of the country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there
+was a certain commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed
+an interesting and even artistic form. The earlier examples
+were commonly rectangular, but a shaped or gabled top eventually
+became common. English firebacks may roughly be separated
+into four chronological divisions&mdash;those moulded from more
+than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical, mythological
+and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies
+of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Netherlandish.
+The fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of
+detached ornament were much used before attempts were made
+to elaborate a homogeneous design, but by the middle of the 17th
+century firebacks of a very elaborate type were being produced.
+Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion, the death of
+Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of serpents.
+Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being
+used extensively&mdash;many existing firebacks bear the arms of
+the Stuarts. About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private
+families began to be used, the earliest instances remaining
+bearing those of the Sackvilles, who were lords of a large portion
+of the forest of Anderida, which furnished the charcoal for the
+smelting operations in our ancient iron-fields. To the armorial
+shields the date was often added, together with the initials
+of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to cut the
+design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face downwards
+upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into
+the impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands
+and in parts of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and
+Metz there are several private collections, and there are also
+many examples in public museums. The museum of the Porte de
+Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest examples in existence
+with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles V., accompanied
+by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first
+destroyed in France the possession of a <i>plaque de cheminée</i>
+bearing heraldic insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection
+to the republic, and on the 13th of October 1793 the National
+Convention issued a decree giving the owners and tenants of
+houses a month in which to turn such firebacks with their face
+to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron foundries of a
+sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct of equality.
+Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to this
+day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs
+outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not
+infrequently made, and the old examples are much prized and
+collected.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRE BRAT,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a small insect (<i>Thermobia</i> or <i>Thermophila
+furnorum</i>) related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses,
+where it feeds upon bread and flour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIREBRICK.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>&mdash;Under this term are included all bricks, blocks
+and slabs used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &amp;c., where
+the brickwork has to withstand high temperature (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brick</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary
+very greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain,
+corrosive action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace
+charge, chemical action of furnace charge and products of combustion,
+&amp;c., and in order to meet these different conditions
+many varieties of firebricks are manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, <i>i.e.</i> from clays
+which withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive
+shrinkage or warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although
+the term &ldquo;fireclay&rdquo; is generally restricted in use to certain
+shales from the Coal Measures, which contain only a small
+percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are consequently
+highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of refractoriness
+for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a fireclay which
+has a fusion point below 1600° C.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but generally
+the percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high,
+and the percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash
+(taken together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &amp;c.,
+are also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical
+or other properties are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various
+fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon
+its refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a
+certain proportion of ground firebrick, ganister, sand or some similar
+refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking
+generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing
+is continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or
+other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas
+firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected
+to rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained
+and consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken
+to obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and
+mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose
+to which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often
+contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron
+disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules
+are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is used.</p>
+
+<p>A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather
+open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping,
+strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be subjected
+when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the
+full contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these requirements,
+and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground
+firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up.
+The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between
+rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to
+ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay
+and other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry
+state, water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks
+made up from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of ground firebrick, &amp;c., used depends on the nature
+of the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but
+generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage
+of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to
+produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking,
+warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing
+a sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings
+and coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+special mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain
+fireclay goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay
+for the manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &amp;c., where the
+temperature is very variable but never very high, a certain percentage
+of sawdust is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out
+on firing and ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material
+is much less liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a
+closer texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work,
+where strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For
+the construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &amp;c., the firebrick used
+must be sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing
+strain of the superimposed brickwork, &amp;c., at the highest temperature
+to which they are subjected.</p>
+
+<p>The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces,
+&amp;c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the
+brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The
+firebrick may waste by crumbling&mdash;due to excessive porosity or
+openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence
+of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &amp;c.; it may gradually wear
+away by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the
+solid particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases themselves;
+it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface
+through contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is subjected
+to very high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract
+and so split and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized
+fact that successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion
+point, or long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually
+produce vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close
+texture, and entirely alters the properties of the brick.</p>
+
+<p>Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is
+necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the chemical
+composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the formation of
+fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the furnace
+charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be basic or
+aluminous and not siliceous, <i>i.e.</i> it should be made from a fireclay
+containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to which a high
+percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has been added.
+For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials containing
+little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and
+uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their
+carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite,
+clay and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the
+manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or
+ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the
+material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of
+the south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these
+siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork
+does not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &amp;c.,
+of many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick
+can be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should endeavour
+to make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &amp;.,
+to meet certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials
+at his disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making
+firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a
+thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of
+which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary
+mortar, and the joints should be as close as possible, only just
+sufficient of the paste being used to enable the bricks to bed on
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of
+firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory material&mdash;such
+as kaolin&mdash;in order to protect the firebricks from the direct
+action of the flue gases, &amp;c., and quite recently a thin paste of
+carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has
+been more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carborundum
+bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of
+carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to
+have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that
+the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin
+coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious
+and highly-refractory facing.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. B.*; W. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIREFLY,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a term popularly used for certain tropical American
+click-beetles (<i>Pyrophorus</i>), on account of their power of emitting
+light. The insects belong to the family <i>Elateridae</i>, whose characters
+are described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coleoptera</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). The genus <i>Pyrophorus</i>
+contains about ninety species, and is entirely confined to
+America and the West Indies, ranging from the southern United
+States to Argentina and Chile. Its species are locally known as
+<i>cucujos</i>. Except for a few species in the New Hebrides, New
+Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous <i>Elateridae</i> are unknown in the
+eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of conspicuous
+smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area
+beneath the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these
+regions are situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of
+cells which may be regarded as a specialized portion of the
+fat-body. Both the male and female fireflies emit light, as well
+as their larvae and eggs, the egg being luminous even while
+still in the ovary. The inhabitants of tropical America sometimes
+keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of illumination,
+or make use of the insects for personal adornment.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;firefly&rdquo; is often applied also to luminous beetles
+of the family <i>Lampyridae</i>, to which the well-known glow-worm
+belongs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRE-IRONS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the implements for tending a fire. Usually
+they consist of poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most
+frequently of iron, steel, or brass, or partly of one and partly
+of another. The more elegant brass examples of the early part
+of the 19th century are much sought after for use with the brass
+fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from an
+ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are
+smaller in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1493-<i>c.</i> 1545), Italian poet and
+littérateur, was born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493.
+The family name was taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated
+at the foot of the Apennines, its original home. The grandfather
+of Agnolo had obtained the citizenship of Florence and transmitted
+it to his family. Agnolo was destined for the profession
+of the law, and pursued his studies first at Siena and afterwards
+at Perugia. There he became the associate of the notorious
+Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the
+model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola
+practised for a time the profession of an advocate, but with
+little success. It is asserted by all his biographers that while
+still a young man he assumed the monastic dress at Vallombrosa,
+and that he afterwards held successively two abbacies. Tiraboschi
+alone ventures to doubt this account, partly on the
+ground of Firenzuola&rsquo;s licentiousness, and partly on the ground
+of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to be
+conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope
+Clement VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled
+at Prato as abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a
+collected edition was published in 1548, are partly in prose and
+partly in verse, and belong to the lighter classes of literature.
+Among the prose works are&mdash;<i>Discorsi degli animali</i>, imitations
+of Oriental and Aesopian fables, of which there are two French
+translations; <i>Dialogo delle bellezze delle donne</i>, also translated
+into French; <i>Ragionamenti amorosi</i>, a series of short tales in
+the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling him in elegance and in licentiousness;
+<i>Discacciamento delle nuove lettere</i>, a controversial piece
+against Trissino&rsquo;s proposal to introduce new letters into the
+Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of <i>The Golden
+Ass</i> of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed
+through many editions; and two comedies, <i>I Lucidi</i>, an imitation
+of the <i>Menaechmi</i> of Plautus, and <i>La Trinuzia</i>, which in some
+points resembles the <i>Calandria</i> of Cardinal Bibbiena. His
+poems are chiefly satirical and burlesque. All his works are
+esteemed as models of literary excellence, and are cited as authorities
+in the vocabulary of the Accademia della Crusca. The date
+of Firenzuola&rsquo;s death is only approximately ascertained. He
+had been dead several years when the first edition of his writings
+appeared (1548).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works have been very frequently republished, separately and
+in collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued
+at Florence in 2 vols. in 1848.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRESHIP,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down
+on an enemy to set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity,
+and in the middle ages. The highly successful employment
+of one by the defenders of Antwerp when besieged by the prince
+of Parma in 1585 brought them into prominent notice, and they
+were used to drive the Armada from its anchorage at Gravelines
+in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes with great
+effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century. Thus
+in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald)
+were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque
+Roads; and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of
+the Greek fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the consequent
+demoralization of the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+contributed to secure for the insurgents the command of the sea.
+In general, however, it was found that fireships hampered the
+movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an enemy&rsquo;s fire, or
+towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion was
+frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position.
+They were made by building &ldquo;a fire chamber&rdquo; between the decks
+from the forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the mainmast.
+This space was filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar,
+together with gunpowder in iron vessels. The gunpowder and
+combustibles were connected by trains of powder, and by
+bundles of brushwood called &ldquo;bavins.&rdquo; When a fireship was
+to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy,
+and when close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat
+which was towed astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous
+a reward of £100, or in lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be
+worn as a mark of honour, was granted in the British navy to the
+successful captain of a fireship. A rank of <i>capitaine de brûlot</i>
+existed in the French navy of Louis XIV., and was next to the
+full captain&mdash;or <i>capitaine de vaisseau</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRE-WALKING,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a religious ceremony common to many
+races. The origin and meaning of the custom is very obscure,
+but it is shown to have been widespread in all ages. It still
+survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji Islands, Tahiti, India, the
+Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is said Japan. The details
+of its ritual and its objects vary in different lands, but the
+essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests, fakirs, and
+devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is
+always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with
+the spring festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful
+harvest. Such was the Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the
+time of Kublai Khan the Taoist Buddhists held great festivals
+to the &ldquo;High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens&rdquo; and walked
+through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their priests bearing
+images of their gods in their arms. Though they were severely
+burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed
+if they had faith. J.G. Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. iii. p. 307)
+describes the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien.
+The chief performers are labourers who must fast for three days
+and observe chastity for a week. During this time they are
+taught in the temple how they are to perform their task. On
+the eve of the festival a huge brazier of charcoal, often twenty
+feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of the great god. At
+sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A Taoist priest
+throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two
+exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse
+the fire again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The
+trained performers then pass through with the image of the god.
+Frazer suggests that, as the essential feature of the rite is the
+carrying of the deity through the flames, the whole thing is
+sympathetic magic designed to give to the coming spring sunshine
+(the supposed divine emanation), that degree of heat
+which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks,
+notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and
+Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three
+months in the year, the priest walks over a narrow trench
+filled with smouldering wood ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian
+tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal hero Bir by a like performance,
+and they declare that the walker who is really &ldquo;possessed&rdquo;
+by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as observed
+in the Madras presidency see <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, vii. (1878)
+p. 126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the
+ceremony is called <i>vilavilarevo</i>, and according to an eyewitness
+a number of natives walk unharmed across and among white-hot
+stones which form the pavement of a huge native oven.
+In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In April 1899 an Englishman
+saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see <i>The Field</i>, May 20th, 1899). The
+fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in honour of a
+mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called <i>Nistinares</i>
+and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in the
+fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine.
+Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the
+<i>Nistinares</i> (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot
+embers and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the
+muddy ground where libations of water have been poured.</p>
+
+<p>The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity
+of the performers from burns. On this point authorities and
+eyewitnesses differ greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief
+was thrown on to the stones when the first man leapt into the
+oven, and what remained of it snatched up as the last left the
+stones. Every fold that touched the stone was charred! In
+some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but this
+is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an impression
+that there is something still to be explained in the
+escape of the performers from shocking injuries. S.P. Langley,
+who witnessed a fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the
+whole rite as there practised is a mere symbolic farce (<i>Nature</i>
+for August 22nd, 1901).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses&rsquo; reports
+<i>in extenso</i>, see A. Lang, <i>Magic and Religion</i> (1901). See also Dr
+Gustav Oppert, <i>Original Inhabitants of India</i>, p. 480; W. Crooke,
+<i>Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India</i>, p. 10
+(1896); <i>Folklore Journal</i> for September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv.
+P. 87.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIREWORKS.<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> In modern times this term is principally
+associated with the art of &ldquo;pyrotechny&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="pur">&#960;&#8166;&#961;</span>, fire, and
+<span class="grk" title="technê">&#964;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span>, art), and confined to the production of pleasing scenic
+effects by means of fire and inflammable and explosive substances.
+But the history of the evolution of such displays is bound up
+with that of the use of such substances not only for scenic
+display but for exciting fear and for military purposes; and it is
+consequently complicated by our lack of exact knowledge as
+to the materials at the disposal of the ancients prior to the
+invention of gunpowder (see also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Fire</a></span>). For
+the following historical account the term &ldquo;fireworks&rdquo; is therefore
+used in a rather general sense.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;It is usually stated that from very ancient times
+fireworks were known in China; it is, however, difficult to
+assign dates or quote trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic
+displays were certainly given in the Roman circus. While a
+passage in Manilius,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who lived in the days of Augustus, seems
+to bear this interpretation, there is the definite evidence of
+Vopiscus<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> that fireworks were performed for the emperor
+Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+writing in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set
+piece, where whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire
+were displayed upon the <i>pegma</i>, a species of movable framework
+employed in the various spectacles presented in the circus.
+After the fall of the Western empire no mention of fireworks
+can be traced until the Crusaders carried back with them to
+Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East,
+and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> writing
+in 1540, says that at an anterior period it had been customary
+at Florence and Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast
+of St John or at the Assumption, and that on these occasions
+stage properties, including effigies with wooden bodies and
+plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty pedestals, and that these
+figures gave forth flames, whilst round about tubes or pipes were
+erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but he adds that
+these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome
+when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy,
+fire festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England
+and France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen
+Elizabeth,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> while De Frezier,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> writing in 1707, says it was commonly
+adhered to in his time, and that on one occasion the king
+of France himself set a light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals
+of these curious rites have been noted quite recently in Scotland
+and Ireland.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Early use also of fireworks was made in plays
+and pageants. Hell or hell&rsquo;s mouth was represented by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+gigantic head out of which flames were made to issue:<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> in the
+river procession on the occasion of the marriage of Henry VII.
+and Elizabeth (1487) the &ldquo;Bachelors&rsquo; Barge&rdquo; carried a dragon
+spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne
+Boleyn (1538) &ldquo;there went before the lord mayor&rsquo;s barge a
+foyst or wafter full of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great
+red dragon that spouted out wild fyre and round about were
+terrible monstrous and wild men casting fire and making a hideous
+noise.&rdquo;<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> These individuals were known as &ldquo;green men.&rdquo;
+Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic masks, and carried
+&ldquo;fire clubs.&rdquo; They were sometimes employed to clear the way
+at processions.<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and
+fireworker came into existence; at first they were not soldiers,
+but civilians who sometimes exercised military functions, and
+part of their duties was intimately connected with the preparation
+of fireworks both for peace and war. The emperor Charles V.
+brought his fireworks under definite regulations in 1535,<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and
+eventually other countries did the same. The <i>ignes triumphales</i>
+were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold poles were
+erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around them
+were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they presented
+the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched
+dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp
+welcomed the archduke of Austria in 1550.<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Then the &ldquo;fire
+combat&rdquo; came into fashion. Helmets from which flames would
+issue were provided for the performers; there were also swords
+and clubs that would give out sparks at every stroke, lances
+with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck gave forth a
+detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons
+such as these will be found in Hanzelet&rsquo;s <i>Recueil de machines
+militaires</i> (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be somewhat
+of a scenic artist who could devise a romantic background
+and fill it with shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to
+make his castle, his cave or his rocky ravine, and people his
+stage with distressed damsel, errant knight or devouring dragon.
+Furthermore he had to give motion to the inanimate persons of
+the drama; thus his dragon would run down an incline on
+hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a rocket.<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the daughter
+of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the
+king&rsquo;s gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a
+giant, a dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted
+castle, jumbled up together after the approved fashion of the
+Spenserian legends.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> As time went on a more refined taste
+rejected the bizarre features of the old displays, artistic merit
+began to creep into the designs, and an effort was made to
+introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus Clarmer
+of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture
+of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend,
+where Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion,
+the monster Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquering
+Louis XIII.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> In the first half of the 17th century many books<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a>
+on fireworks appeared, which avoided the old grotesque ideas
+and advocated skill and finesse. &ldquo;It is a rare thing,&rdquo; says Nye
+(1648), &ldquo;to represent a tree or fountain in the air.&rdquo; The most
+celebrated work of them all was the <i>Great Art of Artillery</i> by
+Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be
+translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly
+eighty years after it had appeared.<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The classic façade now
+came into fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic
+figures, and disposed around were groups of rockets, Roman
+candles, &amp;c., musket barrels for projecting stars, and mortars
+from which were fired shells called balloons, which were full of
+combustibles. The figures were carved out of wood which was
+soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mâché so that
+a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts,
+removed from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled
+with fireworks.</p>
+
+<p>National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appearance,
+and for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over
+Europe in the public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph.
+Representations and sometimes accounts will be found in the
+British Museum<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a> of the more important English displays,
+from the coronation of James II. down to the peace rejoicings
+of 1856, during which period national fireworks were provided
+by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of Ranelagh
+and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private enterprise,
+and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs
+Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without
+an official rival.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. R. J. J.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Modern Fireworks.</i>&mdash;In modern times the art of pyrotechny
+has been gradually improved by the work of specialists, who
+have had the advantage of being guided by the progress of
+scientific chemistry and mechanics. As in all such cases, however,
+science is useless without the aid of practical experience and
+acquired manual dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with
+oxygen, and will do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically
+as to render the products of the combination (which may be
+solid matter or gas) intensely hot and luminous. This is the
+general cause of the phenomenon known as fire. Its special
+character depends chiefly on the nature of the substances burned
+and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to them.
+As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted
+with about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this
+oxygen which supports the combustion of our coal and candles.
+But it is not often that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon
+atmospheric oxygen for his purposes; for the phenomena of
+combustion in it are too familiar, and too little capable of variation,
+to strike with wonder. Two cases, however, where he does
+so may be instanced, viz. the burning of magnesium powder
+and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the imitation of
+lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort much
+to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may
+be produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled
+with the gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in anything
+like its present form had not certain solid substances
+become known which, containing oxygen in combination with
+other elements, are capable of being made to evolve large volumes
+of it at the moment it is required. The best examples of these
+solid <i>oxidizing agents</i> are potassium nitrate (nitre or saltpetre)
+and chlorate; and these are of the first importance in the
+manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these salts
+be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity
+of some suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder,
+the resulting mixture is capable of burning with more or less
+energy without any aid from atmospheric oxygen, since each
+small piece of fuel is in close juxtaposition to an available and
+sufficient store of the gas. All that is required is that the liberation
+of the oxygen from the solid particles which contain it shall
+be started by the application of heat from without, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the fundamental
+fact of pyrotechny&mdash;that, with proper attention to the chemical
+nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures (<i>compositions</i>
+or <i>fuses</i>) may be prepared which contain within themselves
+all that is essential for the production of fire.</p>
+
+<p>If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric
+and chloric acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped
+together as oxidizing agents, most of the other materials used
+in making firework compositions may be classed as <i>oxidizable
+substances</i>. Every composition must contain at least one
+sample of each class: usually there are present more than one
+oxidizable substance, and very often more than one oxidizing
+agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the ingredients
+of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much
+importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of combustion.
+The most important oxidizable substances employed
+are charcoal and sulphur. These two, it is well known, when
+properly mixed in certain proportions with the oxidizing agent
+nitre, constitute gunpowder; and gunpowder plays an important
+part in the construction of most fireworks. It is sometimes
+employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but more
+commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients
+and with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur,
+the following oxidizable substances are more or less employed:&mdash;many
+compounds of carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &amp;c.;
+certain metallic compounds of sulphur, such as the sulphides of
+arsenic and antimony; a few of the metals themselves, such as
+iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of these metals
+iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the others.
+They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings.
+They do not contribute much to the burning power of the
+composition; but when it is ignited they become intensely
+heated and are discharged into the air, where they oxidize
+more or less completely and cause brilliant sparks and
+scintillations.</p>
+
+<p>Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances,
+which neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes
+employed as ingredients of the compositions in order to influence
+the character of the fire. This may be modified in many ways.
+Thus the rate of combustion may be altered so as to give anything
+from an instantaneous explosion to a slow fire lasting many
+minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or charged with glowing
+sparks. But the most important characteristic of a fire&mdash;one
+to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists&mdash;is its
+<i>colour</i>, which may be varied through the different shades and
+combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours
+are imparted to the flame by the presence in it of the heated
+vapours of certain metals, of which the following are the most
+important:&mdash;sodium, which gives a yellow colour; calcium,
+red; strontium, crimson; barium, green; copper, green or
+blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of these metals
+are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are
+decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion.
+Very often the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they
+serve the double purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting
+colour to the flame.</p>
+
+<p>The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great,
+for the requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost
+each size of each variety, are different. Moreover, every pyrotechnist
+has his own taste in the matter of compositions. They
+are capable, however, of being classified according to the nature
+of the work to which they are suited. Thus there are rocket-fuses,
+gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions, &amp;c.; and, in
+addition, there are a few which are essential in the construction
+of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be.
+Such are the <i>starting-powder</i>, which first catches the fire, the
+<i>bursting-powder</i>, which causes the final explosion, and the <i>quick-match</i>
+(cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of
+gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more
+complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another.
+Of the general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the
+following two examples, which are selected at hazard from
+among the numerous recipes for making, respectively, tourbillion
+fire and green stars:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Tourbillion</i>.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="3"><i>Green Stars</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meal gunpowder</td> <td class="tcr">24</td> <td class="tcc rb2">parts.</td> <td class="tcl">Potassium chlorate</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcc">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitre</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Barium nitrate</td> <td class="tcr">48</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Steel filings</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Shellac</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Calomel</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">Copper sulphide</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although the making of compositions is of the first importance,
+it is not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do;
+for the construction of the <i>cases</i> in which they are to be packed,
+and the actual processes of packing and finishing, require much
+care and dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard,
+and are generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary
+greatly, according to the effect which it is desired to produce.
+The relations of length to thickness, of internal to external
+diameter, and of these to the size of the openings for discharge,
+are matters of extreme importance, and must always be attended
+to with almost mathematical exactness and considered in
+connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>There is one very important property of fireworks that is
+due more to the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner
+in which they are filled than to the precise chemical character
+of the composition, <i>i.e.</i> their power of <i>motion</i>. Some are so
+constructed that the piece is kept at rest and the only motion
+possible is that of the flame and sparks which escape during
+combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also fixed,
+contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary compositions,
+balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some
+kind of varnish; and these <i>stars</i>, as they are called, shot into the
+air, one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there
+with striking effect. But in many instances motion is imparted
+to the firework as a whole&mdash;to the case as well as to its contents.
+This motion, various as it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two
+kinds&mdash;<i>rotatory</i> motion round a fixed point, which may be in the
+centre of gravity of a single piece or that of a whole system of
+pieces, and <i>free ascending</i> motion through the air. In all cases the
+cause of motion is the same, viz. that large quantities of gaseous
+matter are formed by the combustion, that these can escape
+only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure is necessarily
+exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large
+gun is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may
+be regarded as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and
+in them the recoil is therefore so much greater as to be the
+most noticeable feature of the discharge; and it only requires
+proper contrivances to make the piece fly through the air like
+a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis like a Catherine
+wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in pyrotechny
+than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a brief description of some of the forms of firework
+most employed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Fixed Fires.</i>&mdash;<i>Theatre fires</i> consist of a slow composition which
+may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at
+the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured&mdash;green,
+red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating
+buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case,
+the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous
+fumes. <i>Bengal lights</i> are very similar, but are piled in saucers,
+covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match.
+<i>Marroons</i> are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind
+cord and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud
+report. They are generally used in <i>batteries</i>, or in combination with
+some other form of firework. <i>Squibs</i> are straight cylindrical cases
+about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a
+strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little
+bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that
+the fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of
+course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &amp;c. <i>Crackers</i> are
+characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards
+several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine.
+One end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a
+hissing noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a
+bend. If the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at
+each report; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the
+fixed fireworks. <i>Roman candles</i> are straight cylindrical cases filled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+with layers of composition and <i>stars</i> alternately. These stars are
+simply balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic
+filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required
+size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are discharged
+like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a
+beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of differently
+coloured fire in one case. <i>Gerbes</i> are choked cases, not unlike
+Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire spreads
+like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously coloured
+stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. <i>Lances</i> are small straight cases
+charged with compositions like those used for making stars. They
+are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they are fixed
+with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by
+<i>leaders</i>, <i>i.e.</i> by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they
+can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in detachments,
+as may be desired. The devices and &ldquo;set pieces&rdquo; constructed
+in this way are often of an extremely elaborate character; and they
+include all the varieties of <i>lettered designs</i>, of <i>fixed suns</i>, <i>fountains</i>,
+<i>palm-trees</i>, <i>waterfalls</i>, <i>mosaic work</i>, <i>Highland tartan</i>, <i>portraits</i>, <i>ships</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rotating Fireworks.</i>&mdash;<i>Pin</i> or <i>Catherine wheels</i> are long paper
+cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-wire
+and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by
+a pin, sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the
+outer primed end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil
+causes the wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with
+considerable velocity. <i>Pastiles</i> are very similar in principle and
+construction. Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and
+made to revolve round its own centre point, it may be used as the
+engine to drive a wheel or other form of framework round in a
+circle. Many varied effects are thus produced, of which the <i>fire-wheel</i>
+is the simplest. Straight cases, filled with some fire-composition,
+are attached to the end of the spokes of a wheel or other
+mechanism capable of being rotated. They are all pointed in the
+same direction at an angle to the spokes, and they are connected
+together by leaders, so that each, as it burns out, fires the one next
+it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant effects of changing
+colour are produced; or various fire-wheels of different colours may
+be combined, revolving in different planes and different directions&mdash;some
+fast and some slowly. <i>Bisecting wheels</i>, <i>plural wheels</i>, <i>caprice
+wheels</i>, <i>spiral wheels</i>, are all more or less complicated forms; and
+it is possible to produce, by mechanism of this nature, a model in
+fire of the solar system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascending Fireworks.</i>&mdash;<i>Tourbillions</i> are fireworks so constructed
+as to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful
+spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the
+centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the composition
+occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by
+six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the
+end, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right
+and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory
+motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is
+the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the
+ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward
+motion to the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion;
+and the quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that combustion
+begins at the two ends simultaneously and does not reach
+the holes of ascension till after the rotation is fairly begun. The
+<i>sky-rocket</i> is generally considered the most beautiful of all fireworks;
+and it certainly is the one that requires most skill and science in its
+construction. It consists essentially of two parts,&mdash;the body and the
+head. The body is a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and
+is choked at the lower end, so as to present only a narrow opening
+for the escape of the fire. The composition does not fill up the case
+entirely, for a central hollow conical bore extends from the choked
+mouth up the body for three-quarters of its length. This is an
+essential feature of the rocket. It allows of nearly the whole composition
+being fired at once; the result of which is that an enormous
+quantity of heated gases collects in the hollow bore, and the gases,
+forcing their way downwards through the narrow opening, urge the
+rocket up through the air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-of-Paris
+plug. A hole passes through this and is filled with a fuse,
+which serves to communicate the fire to the head after the body is
+burned out. This head, which is made separately and fastened on
+after the body is packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber
+with a conical top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way
+through the air and of holding the <i>garniture</i> of stars, sparks, crackers,
+serpents, gold and silver rain, &amp;c., which are scattered by bursting
+fire as soon as the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A
+great variety of beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of
+ingenuity in the choice and construction of this garniture. Many of
+the best results have been obtained by unpublished methods which
+must be regarded as the secrets of the trade. The <i>stick</i> of the sky-rocket
+serves the purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight;
+and its size must be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case.
+In <i>winged</i> rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act
+like the feathers of an arrow. A <i>girandole</i> is the simultaneous discharge
+of a large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two
+hundred), which either spread like a peacock&rsquo;s tail or pierce the
+sky in all directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the
+final feat of a great pyrotechnic display.</p>
+
+<p>See Chertier, <i>Sur les feux d&rsquo;artifice</i> (Paris, 1841; 2nd ed., 1854);
+Mortimer, <i>Manual of Pyrotechny</i> (London, 1856); Tessier, <i>Chimie
+pyrotechnique, ou traité pratique des feux colorés</i> (Paris, 1858);
+Richardson and Watts, <i>Chemical Technology, s.v.</i> &ldquo;Pyrotechny&rdquo;
+(London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, <i>The Pyrotechnist&rsquo;s Treasury</i>
+(London, 1878); Websky, <i>Luftfeuerwerkkunst</i> (Leipzig, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Manilius, <i>Astronomica</i>, lib. v., 438-443.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Vopiscus, <i>Carus, Numerianus et Carinus</i>, ch. xix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Claudianus, <i>De consulatu Manlii Theodori</i>, 325-330.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Vanuzzio Biringuccio, <i>Pyrotechnia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Strutts, <i>Sports and Pastimes of the English People</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> De Frezier, <i>Traité des feux d&rsquo;artifice</i> (1707 and 1747).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Notes and Queries</i>, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8, vol. ii.
+pp. 145 and 254.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> J.B. Nichols &amp; Sons, <i>London Pageants</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Hall&rsquo;s <i>Chronicles</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> J. Bate, <i>Mysteries of Nature and Art</i> (1635). This contains a
+picture of a green man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen</i> (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
+pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See &ldquo;Fairholts&rsquo; Collection&rdquo; bequeathed to the Royal Society of
+Antiquaries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Journal</i> of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Somers&rsquo; <i>Tracts</i>, vol. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> De Frezier.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Diego Ufano, <i>Artillery</i>, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner
+Norton, <i>The Gunner</i> and <i>The Gunner&rsquo;s Dialogue</i> (1628); F. de
+Malthe (Malthus), <i>Artificial Fireworks</i>, in French and English
+(1628); &ldquo;Hanzelet,&rdquo; <i>Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux
+artificiels pour la guerre et récréation</i> (1620 and 1630); Furttenback,
+master gunner of Bavaria, <i>Halinitro Pyrobolio</i>, in German (1627); (John
+Babington Matross, <i>Pyrotechnia</i>, 1635); Nye, master gunner of
+Worcester, <i>Art of Gunnery</i> (Worcester, 1648); Casimir Siemienowitz,
+lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of Poland, <i>The Great Art of
+Artillery</i>, in French (1650).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the surveyor-general
+of the Ordnance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> &ldquo;Crace Collection&rdquo; in the print-room; the King&rsquo;s Prints and
+Drawings in the library. See also &ldquo;The Connection of the Ordnance
+Department with National and Royal Fireworks,&rdquo; <i>R. A. Journal</i>,
+vol. xxii. No. 11.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRM,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> an adjective originally indicating a dense or close
+consistency, hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This
+word, in M. Eng. <i>ferme</i>, is derived through the French, from Lat.
+<i>firmus</i>. The medieval Latin substantive <i>firma</i> meant a fixed
+payment, either in the way of rent, composition for periodic
+payments, &amp;c.; and this word, often represented by &ldquo;firm&rdquo;
+in translations of medieval documents, has produced the English
+&ldquo;farm&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). From a late Latin use of <i>firmare</i>, to confirm
+by signature, <i>firma</i> occurs in many Romanic languages for a
+signature, and the English &ldquo;firm&rdquo; was thus used till the 18th
+century. From a transferred use came the meaning of a business
+house. In the Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered
+into partnership with one another are called collectively a firm,
+and the name under which their business is carried on is called
+the firm-name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRMAMENT,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the
+word <i>firmamentum</i>, which means in classical Latin a strengthening
+or support (<i>firmare</i>, to make firm or strong) was used as the
+equivalent of <span class="grk" title="stereôma">&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#941;&#969;&#956;&#945;</span> (<span class="grk" title="stereoein">&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#972;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to make firm or solid) in
+the LXX., which translates the Heb. r&#257;q&#299;ya&lsquo;. The Hebrew
+probably signifies literally &ldquo;expanse,&rdquo; and is thus used of the
+expanse or vault of the sky, the verb from which it is derived
+meaning &ldquo;to beat out.&rdquo; In Syriac the verb means &ldquo;to make
+firm,&rdquo; and is the direct source of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="stereôma">&#963;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#941;&#969;&#956;&#945;</span> and the Lat.
+<i>firmamentum</i>. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
+eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven
+spheres of the planets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRMAN<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (an adaptation of the Per. <i>ferm&#257;n</i>, a mandate or
+patent, cognate with the Sanskrit <i>pram&#257;na</i>, a measure, authority),
+an edict of an oriental sovereign, used specially to designate
+decrees, grants, passports, &amp;c., issued by the sultan of Turkey
+and signed by one of his ministers. A decree bearing the sultan&rsquo;s
+sign-manual and drawn up with special formalities is termed a
+<i>hatti-sherif</i>, Arabic words meaning a line, writing or command,
+and lofty, noble. A written decree of an Ottoman sultan is also
+termed an <i>irade</i>, the word being taken from the Arab. <i>ir&#257;d&#257;</i>,
+will, volition, order.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a Latin writer, who lived in
+the reign of Constantine and his successors. About the year
+346 he composed a work entitled <i>De erroribus profanarum
+religionum</i>, which he inscribed to Constantius and Constans,
+the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. In the first
+part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the
+Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he discusses a number
+of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries. The whole
+tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
+argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the
+eight books on astronomy (Libri VIII. <i>Matheseos</i>) bearing the
+same author&rsquo;s name, that the two works have usually been
+attributed to different writers. Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i> vol. 29,
+pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the astronomy&mdash;a work
+interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit&mdash;was composed
+about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add
+to this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a
+connexion with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming
+the same author for the two books, though it shows that in the
+4th century acceptance of Christianity did not always mean an
+advance in ethical standpoint.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
+library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
+reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
+of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions
+are those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his
+<i>Minucius Felix</i> (<i>Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat.</i> ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The Neoplatonist
+work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has
+often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, <i>Gesch. der
+chr. lat. Litt.</i>, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, <i>Patrologie</i>,
+ed. 1901, p. 354.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRMINY,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of central France in the department of
+Loire, 8 m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778.
+It has important coal mines known since the 14th century and
+extensive manufactures of iron and steel goods, including
+railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy woollen
+hosiery is also manufactured.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRST-FOOT,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> in British folklore, especially that of the north
+and Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on
+Christmas or New Year&rsquo;s Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be
+brought the house by First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is
+regarded with dread. In Lancashire a light-haired man is as
+unlucky as a woman, and it became a custom for dark-haired
+males to hire themselves out to &ldquo;take the New Year in.&rdquo; In
+Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first carol-singer
+who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
+it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his
+fairness is no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always
+more elaborate than in England, involving a subsequent entertainment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRST OF JUNE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Battle of the</span>. By this name we call the
+great naval victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of
+Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place
+name can be given to it, because the battle was fought 429 m.
+to the west of Ushant.</p>
+
+<p>The French people were suffering much distress from the bad
+harvest of the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant
+ships laden with corn was expected from America. Admiral
+Vanstabel of the French navy had been sent to escort it with
+two ships of the line in December of 1793. He sailed with his
+charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On the
+previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
+Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept
+the convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel
+fleet. He sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail
+of the line and 15 smaller vessels, having under his charge
+nearly a hundred merchant ships which were to be seen clear of
+the Channel. On the 4th, when off the Lizard, the convoy was
+sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle ships and 6 or 7
+frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to accompany
+them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
+Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to
+cruise on the look-out for the French convoy between Cape
+Ortegal and Belle Isle. These detachments reduced the force
+under Lord Howe&rsquo;s immediate command to 26 of the line and
+7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant, and sent
+frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
+him that the main French fleet, which was under the command
+of Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at
+anchor in the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which
+the convoy was likely to be met with, knowing that if the French
+admiral came out it would be to meet the ships with the food and
+cover them from attack. To seek the convoy was therefore the
+most sure way of forcing Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the
+18th the British fleet continued cruising in the Bay of Biscay.
+On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant and again reconnoitred
+Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had gone
+to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had
+passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog.
+On the 19th the French admiral was informed by the &ldquo;Patriote&rdquo;
+(74) that Nielly had fallen in with, and had captured, the British
+frigate &ldquo;Castor&rdquo; (32), under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together
+with a convoy from Newfoundland. On the same day
+Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch convoy of 53 sail
+from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral Montagu
+joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured
+part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that
+Nielly was to join Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined
+force would be 9 sail of the line. Montagu himself had steered to
+cruise on the route of the convoy between the 45th and 47th
+degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to meet his subordinate
+who, he considered, would be in danger from the main
+French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch
+ships taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that
+on the 19th the French fleet had been in latitude 47° 46&prime; N. and in
+longitude 11° 22&prime; N. and was steering westward. Judging that
+Montagu was too far to the south to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse,
+and considering him strong enough to perform the
+duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to pursue
+the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the
+weather hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> that
+the British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47° 34&prime; N. and
+13° 39&prime; W.</p>
+
+<p>The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to
+windward. Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m.
+from the British, and then hauled to the wind on the port tack.
+It was difficult for the British fleet to force an action from leeward
+if the French were unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached
+a light squadron of four ships, the &ldquo;Bellerophon&rdquo; (74), &ldquo;Russel&rdquo;
+(74), &ldquo;Marlborough&rdquo; (74), and &ldquo;Thunderer&rdquo; (74) under
+Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of the French
+line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
+windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley&rsquo;s
+ships began to come up with the last of the French line, the
+&ldquo;Révolutionnaire&rdquo; (110). A partial action took place which
+went on till after dark; other British vessels joined. The
+&ldquo;Révolutionnaire&rdquo; was so damaged that she was compelled
+to leave her fleet, and the British &ldquo;Audacious&rdquo; (74) was also
+crippled and compelled to return to port. The &ldquo;Révolutionnaire&rdquo;
+was accompanied by another liner. During the night
+the two fleets continued on the same course, and next day Howe
+renewed his attempts to force an action from leeward. He
+tacked his fleet in succession&mdash;his first ship tacking first and the
+rest in order&mdash;in the hope that he would be able to cut through
+the French rear and gain the weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse
+then turned all his ships together and again headed in the same
+direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer
+the British fleet, and another partial action took place between
+the van of each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not
+disposed to charge home, Howe at noon once more ordered his
+fleet to tack in succession. His signal was poorly obeyed by the
+van, and his object, which was to cut through the French line,
+was not at once achieved. But the admiral himself finally set
+an example by tacking his flagship, the &ldquo;Queen Charlotte&rdquo;
+(100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
+of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
+seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together
+to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable
+confusion by these movements, but the British had gained the
+weather-gage. Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships
+cut off, but he had fallen to leeward and the power to force on a
+battle had passed to Lord Howe. During the 30th the fleets
+lost sight of one another for a time. The French, who had four
+ships crippled, had been joined by four others, and were again
+26 in number, including the &ldquo;Patriote.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick
+weather, but by the evening the British were close to windward
+of the French. As Howe, who had not full confidence in all his
+captains, did not wish for a night battle, he waited till the following
+morning, keeping the French under observation by frigates.
+On the 1st of June they were in the same relative positions, and
+at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on the French,
+throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end, with
+orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to
+place the British ships on the enemy&rsquo;s line of retreat. It was a
+very bold departure from the then established methods of
+fighting, and most honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had
+been trained in the old school. Its essential merit was that it
+produced a close <i>mêlée</i>, in which the better average gunnery
+and seamanship of the British fleet would tell. Lord Howe&rsquo;s
+orders were not fully obeyed by all his captains, but a signal
+victory was won,&mdash;six of the French line of battle ships were
+taken, and one, the &ldquo;Vengeur,&rdquo; sunk. The convoy escaped
+capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
+20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span>
+Brest on the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console
+the French for their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten
+in England in the pleasure given by the victory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James&rsquo;s <i>Naval History</i>, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, <i>Batailles
+navales de la France</i> (1867).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1857-&emsp;&emsp;), British historian,
+was born at Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated
+at Clifton College and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university
+he took the Stanhope prize for an essay on the marquess
+Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at Pembroke College in 1887,
+and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He was Ford&rsquo;s lecturer
+in English history in 1900, and became regius professor of
+modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
+1904. Firth&rsquo;s historical work was almost entirely confined to
+English history during the time of the Great Civil War and the
+Commonwealth; and although he is somewhat overshadowed
+by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the same field, his books are of
+great value to students of this period. The chief of them are:
+<i>Life of the Duke of Newcastle</i> (1886); <i>Scotland and the Commonwealth</i>
+(1895); <i>Scotland and the Protectorate</i> (1899); <i>Narrative
+of General Venables</i> (1900); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (1900); <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s
+Army</i> (1902); and the standard edition of <i>Ludlow&rsquo;s Memoirs</i>
+(1894). He also edited the <i>Clarke Papers</i> (1891-1901), and Mrs
+Hutchinson&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson</i> (1885), and wrote
+an introduction to the <i>Stuart Tracts</i> (1903), besides contributions
+to the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. In 1909 he published
+<i>The Last Years of the Protectorate</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIRTH, MARK<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and
+philanthropist, was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819,
+the son of a steel smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his
+brother, left school to join their father in the foundry where he
+was employed, and ten years later the three together started a
+six-hole furnace of their own. The venture proved successful,
+and besides an extensive home business, they soon established
+a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works were
+erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
+acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels
+near Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance
+was the principal feature of their business, and they produced
+also shot and heavy forgings. They also installed a plant
+for the production of steel cores for heavy guns, and for some
+time they supplied nearly all the metal used for gun making
+by the British government and a large proportion of that used
+by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
+became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed
+&ldquo;Mark Firth&rsquo;s Almshouses&rdquo; at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in
+1875, when mayor, he presented to his native place a freehold
+park of thirty-six acres. He founded and endowed Firth College,
+for lectures and classes in connexion with the extension of
+university education, which was opened in 1879. He died on the
+28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIR&#362;ZABAD,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m.
+S. of Shiraz, in 28° 51&prime; N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated
+in a fertile plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by
+the river Khoja which flows through it from north to south.
+The town is surrounded by a mud wall and ditch. Three or four
+miles north-west of the town are the ruins of the ancient city
+and of a large building popularly known as the fire-temple of
+Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the gorge
+through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
+bas-reliefs.</p>
+
+<p>The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern
+end, and according to Persian history it was there that Alexander
+the Great, when unable to capture the ancient city, built
+a dike across the gorge, thus damming up the water of the river
+and turning the plain into a lake and submerging the city and
+villages. The lake remained until the beginning of the 3rd
+century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
+it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it G&#363;r,
+and made it the capital of one of the five great provinces or
+divisions of Fars. Firuz (or Peroz, <i>q.v.</i>), one of Ardashir&rsquo;s
+successors, called the district after his name Fir&#363;zabad (&ldquo;the
+abode of Firuz&rdquo;), but the name of the city remained G&#363;r until
+Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982) changed it to its
+present name. He did this because he frequently resided at G&#363;r,
+and the name meaning also &ldquo;a grave&rdquo; gave rise to unpleasant
+allusions, for instance, &ldquo;People who go to G&#363;r (grave) never
+return alive; our king goes to G&#363;r (the town) several times a
+year and is not dead yet.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat
+and rice. It is said that the rice of Fir&#363;zabad bears sixty-fold.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. H.-S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIR&#362;ZK&#362;H,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a small province of Persia, with a population
+of about 5000, paying a yearly revenue of about £500. Its chief
+place is a village of the same name picturesquely situated in a
+valley of the Elburz, about 90 m. east of Teheran, at an elevation
+of 6700 ft. and in 35° 46&prime; N. and 52° 48&prime; E. It has post and
+telegraph offices and a population of 2500. A precipitous cliff
+on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the ruins of an
+ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISCHART, JOHANN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1545-1591), German satirist and
+publicist, was born, probably at Strassburg (but according to
+some accounts at Mainz), in or about the year 1545, and was
+educated at Worms in the house of Kaspar Scheid, whom in the
+preface to his <i>Eulenspiegel</i> he mentions as his &ldquo;cousin and
+preceptor.&rdquo; He appears to have travelled in Italy, the Netherlands,
+France and England, and on his return to have taken the
+degree of <i>doctor juris</i> at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which
+period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was
+probably associated in the business of, his sister&rsquo;s husband,
+Bernhard Jobin, a printer at Strassburg, who published many
+of his books. In 1581 Fischart was attached, as advocate to
+the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of appeal) at Spires,
+and in 1583, when he married, was appointed <i>Amtmann</i> (magistrate)
+at Forbach near Saarbrücken. Here he died in the winter
+of 1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names,
+such as Mentzer, Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros,
+Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold Alkofribas Wüstblutus, Ulrich
+Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen Gilt&rsquo;s Mischen; and it
+is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt whether some of
+the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50 satirical
+works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
+among which are&mdash;<i>Nachtrab oder Nebelkräh</i> (1570), a satire
+against one Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the
+Roman Catholic Church; <i>Von St Dominici des Predigermönchs
+und St Francisci Barfüssers artlichem Leben</i> (1571), a poem with
+the expressive motto &ldquo;Sie haben Nasen <span class="correction" title="amended from vnd">und</span> riechen&rsquo;s nit&rdquo;
+(Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the Protestants
+against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that Luther
+held communion with the devil; <i>Eulenspiegel Reimensweis</i>
+(written 1571, published 1572); <i>Aller Praktik Grossmutter</i>
+(1572), after Rabelais&rsquo;s <i>Prognostication Pantagrueline</i>; <i>Flöh
+Haz, Weiber Traz</i> (1573), in which he describes a battle between
+fleas and women; <i>Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift
+vom Leben, Rhaten und Thaten der ... Helden
+und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und Pantagruel</i>, also after
+Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified title, <i>Naupengeheurliche
+Geschichtklitterung</i>, 1577); <i>Neue künstliche Figuren
+biblischer Historien</i> (1576); <i>Anmahnung zur christlichen Kinderzucht</i>
+(1576); <i>Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich</i> (1576, republished
+1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland),
+a poem commemorating the adventure of a company of
+Zürich arquebusiers, who sailed from their native town to
+Strassburg in one day, and brought, as a proof of this feat, a
+kettleful of <i>Hirsebrei</i> (millet), which had been cooked in Zürich,
+still warm into Strassburg, and intended to illustrate the proverb
+&ldquo;perseverance overcomes all difficulties&rdquo;; <i>Podagrammisch
+Trostbüchlein</i> (1577); <i>Philosophisch Ehzuchtbüchlein</i> (1578); the
+celebrated <i>Bienenkorb des heiligen römischen Immenschwarms</i>,
+&amp;c., a modification of the Dutch <i>De roomsche Byen-Korf</i>, by
+Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and reprinted
+in 1847; <i>Der heilig Brotkorb</i> (1580), after Calvin&rsquo;s <i>Traité des
+reliques</i>; <i>Das vierhörnige Jesuiterhütlein</i>, a rhymed satire
+against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+To Fischart also have been attributed some &ldquo;Psalmen und
+geistliche Lieder&rdquo; which appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book
+of 1576.</p>
+
+<p>Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also
+those of Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He
+was a lawyer, a theologian, a satirist and the most powerful
+Protestant publicist of the counter-reformation period; in
+politics he was a republican. Above all, he is a master of
+language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His satire was
+levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and private
+life of his time&mdash;at astrological superstition, scholastic pedantry,
+ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
+lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the
+wildest witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all
+this he did with a serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized
+by the eloquence and picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical
+language he employed. Thirty years after Fischart&rsquo;s death
+his writings, once so popular, were almost entirely forgotten.
+Recalled to the public attention by Johann Jakob Bodmer and
+Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his works
+have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position
+in German literature to be fully understood.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart&rsquo;s
+works has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin,
+deals in his <i>Fischartstudien</i> (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist.
+Fischart&rsquo;s poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three
+volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke
+(Leipzig, 1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kürschner&rsquo;s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1893); <i>Die Geschichtklitterung</i> and some minor
+writings appeared in Scheible&rsquo;s <i>Kloster</i>, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart,
+1847-1848). <i>Das glückhafft Schiff</i> has been frequently reprinted,
+critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical
+details, Erich Schmidt in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, vol. 7;
+A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopaedie</i>; W. Wackernagel,
+<i>Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm</i> (2nd
+ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, <i>Étude sur Jean Fischart</i> (Paris, 1889);
+and A. Hauffen, &ldquo;Fischart-Studien&rdquo; (in <i>Euphorion</i>, 1896-1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISCHER, EMIL<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), German chemist, was born at
+Euskirchen, in Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852,
+his father being a merchant and manufacturer. After studying
+chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to Strassburg, where he graduated
+as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as assistant to Adolf von
+Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he was appointed
+to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882) and
+Würzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann
+as professor of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted
+himself entirely to organic chemistry, and his investigations
+are characterized by an originality of idea and readiness of
+resource which make him the master of this branch of experimental
+chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too
+complex to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more
+intricate and involved the subjects of his investigations the more
+strongly shown is the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were,
+atom from atom, until the molecule stood revealed, and, this
+accomplished, the same skill combined atom with atom until
+the molecule was regenerated. His <i>forte</i> was to enter fields
+where others had done little except break the ground; and his
+researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in
+hand, and where the solution was not entire, his methods and
+results almost always contained the key to the situation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer,
+he published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound
+of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (<i>q.v.</i>).
+He investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing
+their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the
+readiness with which they entered into combination with other
+substances, giving origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds.
+Of such condensation products undoubtedly the most important are
+the hydrazones, which result from the interaction with aldehydes
+and ketones. His observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones,
+by treatment with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded
+derivatives of indol, the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent
+substance of indigo, were a valuable confirmation of the views
+advanced by his master, von Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and
+the many substances related to it. Of greater moment was his
+discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted with the sugars to form
+substances which he named osazones, and which, being highly
+crystalline and readily formed, served to identify such carbohydrates
+more definitely than had been previously possible. He next turned
+to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H. Perkin), and in
+collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852), then at Munich
+and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since identified
+himself mainly with the compounds of this and related groups, he
+published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably established
+that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl methane. Fischer&rsquo;s
+next research was concerned with compounds related to uric acid.
+Here the ground had been broken more especially by von Baeyer,
+but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group (the
+word <i>purin</i> appears to have been suggested by the phrase <i>purum
+uricum</i>) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
+established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
+and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work
+in this field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great
+series of papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all
+referred to a nitrogenous base, purin (<i>q.v.</i>). The base itself was
+obtained, but only after much difficulty; and an immense series of
+derivatives were prepared, some of which were patented in view of
+possible therapeutical applications.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> These researches were published
+in a collected form in 1907 with the title <i>Untersuchungen in
+der Puringruppe</i> (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
+successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here
+the pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be
+regarded as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may
+be taken as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled
+in importance in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical
+complexity of these carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which
+they could be got into a manageable form&mdash;they generally appeared
+as syrups&mdash;occasioned much experimental difficulty; but these
+troubles were little in comparison with the complications due to
+stereochemical relations. However, Fischer synthesized fructose,
+glucose and a great number of other sugars, and having showed
+how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of the 16 stereoisomeric
+glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides, thereby completing
+a most brilliant experimental research, and simultaneously confirming
+the van&rsquo;t Hoff theory of the asymmetric carbon atom (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereo-Isomerism</a></span>). The study of the sugars brought in its train
+the necessity for examining the nature, properties and reactions of
+substances which bring about the decomposition known as fermentation
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Fischer attacked the problem presented by ferments
+and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this complex
+subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important discovery,
+viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical constitution
+of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it down. The
+magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by his
+collected papers, <i>Untersuchungen über Kohlenhydrate und Fermente</i>
+(1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909).</p>
+
+<p>From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject
+of the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with
+life processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a
+subject which bids fair to be Fischer&rsquo;s great lifework, presents
+difficulties which are probably without equal in the whole field of
+chemistry, partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity
+of the substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar
+manner in which chemical reactions are brought about in the living
+organism. But by the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded
+in breaking down the complex albuminoid substances into
+amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions
+of most of which have been solved; and by bringing about the recombination
+of these units, appropriately chosen, he prepared
+synthetic peptides which approximate to the natural products.
+His methods led to the preparation of an octadeca-peptide of the
+molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any other synthetic
+compound; but even this compound falls far short of the simplest
+natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from 2000 to 3000.
+He considers, however, that the synthesis of more complex products
+is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches made from 1899
+to 1906 have been published with the title <i>Untersuchungen über
+Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine</i> (Berlin, 1907). The extraordinary
+merit of his many researches has been recognized by all the
+important scientific societies in the world, and he was awarded the
+Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his control the laboratory
+at Berlin became one of the most important in existence, and has
+attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant pupils, many of whom
+are to be associated with much of the experimental work indissolubly
+connected with Fischer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see
+F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, <i>The Chemical Basis of
+Pharmacology</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1824-1907), German
+philosopher, was born at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of
+July 1824. After studying philosophy at Leipzig and Halle,
+he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg in 1850. The Baden
+government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching owing to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse considerable
+sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a professorship
+at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the dignity
+of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller&rsquo;s removal to Berlin,
+Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history
+of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on
+the 4th of July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian
+and commentator, for which he was especially qualified by his
+remarkable clearness of exposition; his point of view is in the
+main Hegelian. His <i>Geschichte der neuern Philosophie</i> (1852-1893,
+new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most accredited modern book
+of its kind, and he made valuable contributions to the study of
+Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing, Schiller
+and Schopenhauer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Some of his numerous works have been translated into English:
+<i>Francis Bacon of Verulam</i>, by J. Oxenford (1857); <i>The Life and
+Character of Benedict Spinoza</i>, by Frida Schmidt (1882); <i>A Commentary
+on Kant&rsquo;s Kritik of Pure Reason</i>, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866);
+<i>Descartes and his School</i>, by J.P. Gordy (1887); <i>A Critique of Kant</i>,
+by W.S. Hough (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, <i>Kuno Fischer und
+die litterar-historische Methode</i> (1892); and bibliography in J.M.
+Baldwin&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISH, HAMILTON<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1808-1893), American statesman, was
+born in New York City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father,
+Nicholas Fish (1758-1833), served in the American army during
+the War of American Independence, rising to the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia College in
+1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only
+a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in
+Congress. He was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor
+of New York in 1846, and was defeated by Addison Gardner
+(Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was appointed a judge
+of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected (November 1847)
+to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor of
+New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States
+senator in 1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the
+last part of his term. In 1861-1862 he was associated with John
+A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart,
+John Jacob Astor, and other New York men, on the Union
+Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to April 30,
+1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising
+and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million
+dollars for the relief of New York volunteers and their families.
+Fish was secretary of state during President Grant&rsquo;s two administrations
+(1869-1877). He conducted the negotiations with
+Great Britain which resulted in the treaty of the 8th of May
+1871, under which (Article 1) the &ldquo;Alabama claims&rdquo; were
+referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article 34)
+was made of the &ldquo;San Juan Boundary Dispute,&rdquo; concerning
+the Oregon boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace
+Conference at Washington between Spain and the allied republics
+of Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the
+formulation (April 12) of a general truce between those countries,
+to last indefinitely and not to be broken by any one of them
+without three years&rsquo; notice given through the United States;
+and it was chiefly due to his restraint and moderation that a
+satisfactory settlement of the &ldquo;Virginius Affair&rdquo; was reached
+by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was vice-president-general
+of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to 1854,
+and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in
+Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Nicholas Fish</span> (1846-1902), was appointed second
+secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in
+1874, and was <i>chargé d&rsquo;affaires</i> at Berne in 1877-1881, and
+minister to Belgium in 1882-1886, after which he engaged in
+banking in New York City.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISH<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>fisc</i>, a word common to Teutonic languages,
+cf. Dutch <i>visch</i>, Ger. <i>Fisch</i>, Goth. <i>fisks</i>, cognate with the Lat.
+<i>piscis</i>), the common name of that class of vertebrate animals
+which lives exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and
+whose limbs take the form of fins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ichthyology</a></span>). The
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fisheries</a></span> deals with the subject from the economic and
+commercial point of view, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angling</a></span> with the catching of
+fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the zodiac known
+as &ldquo;the fishes&rdquo; is treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisces</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval
+Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters
+of the names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. <span class="grk" title="Iêsous Christos,
+Theou Huios, Sôtêr">&#7992;&#951;&#963;&#959;&#8166;&#962; &#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;, &#920;&#949;&#959;&#8166; &#8025;&#953;&#972;&#962;, &#931;&#974;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which
+together spell the Greek word for &ldquo;fish,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="ichthys">&#7984;&#967;&#952;&#973;&#962;</span>. The fish is
+also said to be represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at
+both ends, and formed by the intersection of two circles. This
+figure, also known as the <i>vesica piscis</i>, is common in ecclesiastical
+seals and as a glory or aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding
+figures of the Trinity, saints, &amp;c. The figure is, however,
+sometimes referred to the almond, as typifying virginity; the
+French name for the symbol is <i>Amande mystique</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;fish&rdquo; is used in many technical senses. Thus
+it is used of the purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor
+to the bill-board; of a piece of wood or metal used to strengthen
+a sprung mast or yard; and of a plate of metal used, as in railway
+construction, for the strengthening of the meeting-place of two
+rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but it is probably an
+adaptation of the Fr. <i>fiche</i>, that which &ldquo;fixes,&rdquo; a peg. This
+word also appears in the English form &ldquo;fish,&rdquo; in the metal,
+pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used
+for scoring points, &amp;c., in many games.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHER, ALVAN<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1792-1863), American portrait-painter,
+was born at Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792.
+At the age of eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and
+subsequently was employed by the village house painter, but at
+the age of twenty-two he began to paint portrait heads, alternating
+with rural scenes and animals, for which he found patrons
+at modest prices. In ten years he had saved enough to go to
+Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the galleries
+of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized
+group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty,
+Harding and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his
+work in Boston&mdash;perhaps the first joint display by painters
+ever held in that city. Though he had considerable talent for
+landscape, a lack of patronage for such work caused him to
+confine himself to portraiture, in which he was moderately
+successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the 16th of February
+1863.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHER, GEORGE PARK<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1827-1909), American theologian,
+was born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August
+1827. He graduated at Brown University in 1847, and at the
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1851, spent three years in
+study in Germany, was college preacher and professor of divinity
+at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street professor of
+ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in 1861-1901,
+when he was made professor <i>emeritus</i>. He was president of the
+American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have
+given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history.
+They include <i>Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity</i>
+(1865); <i>History of the Reformation</i> (1873), republished in several
+revisions; <i>The Beginnings of Christianity</i> (1877); <i>Discussions
+in History and Theology</i> (1880); <i>Outlines of Universal History</i>
+(1886); <i>History of the Christian Church</i> (1887); <i>The Nature
+and Method of Revelation</i> (1890); <i>Manual of Natural Theology</i>
+(1893); <i>A History of Christian Doctrine</i>, in the &ldquo;International
+Theological Library&rdquo; (1896); and <i>A Brief History of
+Nations</i> (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHER, JOHN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of
+Rochester, born at Beverly, received his first education at the
+collegiate church there. In 1484 he went to Michael House,
+Cambridge, where he took his degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491,
+and, after filling several offices in the university, became master
+of his college in 1499. He took orders; and his reputation for
+learning and piety attracted the notice of Margaret Beaufort,
+mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and chaplain.
+In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when chancellor,
+he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the beneficent
+schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John&rsquo;s and
+Christ&rsquo;s colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+and Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his
+own benefactions took the form of scholarships, fellowships and
+lectures. In 1503 he was the first Margaret professor at Cambridge;
+and the following year was raised to the see of Rochester,
+to which he remained faithful, although the richer sees of Ely
+and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated as one of
+the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did not
+attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at
+the legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence
+of the brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of
+display; and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the
+cardinal&rsquo;s demand for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A
+great friend of Erasmus, whom he invited to Cambridge, whilst
+earnestly working for a reformation of abuses, he had no sympathy
+with those who attacked doctrine; and he preached at
+Paul&rsquo;s Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther&rsquo;s books.
+Although he was not the author of Henry&rsquo;s book against Luther,
+he joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply
+to the scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained
+the esteem of the king until the divorce proceedings began in
+1527; and then he set himself sternly in favour of the validity
+of the marriage. He was Queen Catherine&rsquo;s confessor and her
+only champion and advocate. He appeared on her behalf before
+the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise against the
+divorce that was widely read.</p>
+
+<p>Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform
+brought forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only
+moral force that could withstand the royal will, he energetically
+opposed the reformation of abuses, which doubtless under
+other circumstances he would have been the first to accept.
+In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed (11th of
+February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the
+clergy &ldquo;to be hissed out of the society of God&rsquo;s holy Catholic
+Church&rdquo;; and it was his influence that brought in the saving
+clause, <i>quantum per legem Dei licet</i>. By listening to the revelations
+of the &ldquo;Holy Maid of Kent,&rdquo; the nun Elizabeth Barton
+(<i>q.v.</i>), he was charged with misprision of treason, and was condemned
+to the loss of his goods and to imprisonment at the king&rsquo;s
+will, penalties he was allowed to compound by a fine of £300
+(25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April)
+to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he
+was ready to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the
+offspring of Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith,
+trust and obedience to any foreign authority or potentate.
+Refusing to take the oath, he was committed (15th of April) to
+the Tower, where he suffered greatly from the rigours of a long
+confinement. On the passing of the Act of Supremacy (November
+1534), in which the saving clause of convocation was omitted,
+he was attainted and deprived of his see. The council, with
+Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of May
+1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of
+the church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher,
+while driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the
+admiration of the whole <span class="correction" title="amended from Christain">Christian</span> world, where he had been
+long known as one of the most learned and pious bishops of the
+time. Paul III., who had begun his pontificate with the intention
+of purifying the curia, was unaware of the grave danger in which
+Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the king with the
+bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of St
+Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate.
+Henry, in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there
+should be no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at
+Westminster (17th of June 1535) on the charge that he did
+&ldquo;openly declare in English that the king, our sovereign lord,
+is not supreme head on earth of the Church of England,&rdquo; and
+was condemned to a traitor&rsquo;s death at Tyburn, a sentence
+afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd
+of June 1535, after saying the <i>Te Deum</i> and the psalm <i>In
+te Domine speravi</i>. His body was buried first at All Hallows,
+Barking, and then removed to St. Peter&rsquo;s <i>ad vincula</i> in the Tower,
+where it lies beside that of Sir Thomas More. His head was
+exposed on London Bridge and then thrown into the river. As
+a champion of the rights of conscience, and as the only one of
+the English bishops that dared to resist the king&rsquo;s will, Fisher
+commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was
+beatified by Pope Leo XIII.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fisher&rsquo;s Latin works are to be found in the <i>Opera J. Fisheri quae
+hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia</i> (Würzburg, 1595), and some of his
+published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra
+series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the
+P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the
+main sources for his biography are <i>The Life and Death of that renowned
+John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester</i> (London, 1655), by an anonymous
+writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893);
+Bridgett&rsquo;s <i>Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester</i> (London,
+1880 and 1890); and Thureau, <i>Le bienheureux Jean Fisher</i> (Paris,
+1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;),
+British admiral, was born on the 25th of January 1841,
+and entered the navy in June 1854. He served in the Baltic
+during the Crimean War, and was engaged as midshipman on
+the &ldquo;Highflyer,&rdquo; &ldquo;Chesapeake&rdquo; and &ldquo;Furious,&rdquo; in the Chinese
+War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,
+and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on
+the 25th of January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November
+of the same year. The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars
+at sea in which the British navy had to take a part, after 1860,
+allowed few officers to gain distinction by actual services against
+the enemy. But they were provided with other ways of proving
+their ability by the sweeping revolution which transformed the
+construction, the armament, and the methods of propulsion of
+all the navies of the world, and with them the once accepted
+methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a
+commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French
+&ldquo;Gloire&rdquo; had set going the long duel in construction between
+guns and armour. He early made his mark as a student of
+gunnery, and was promoted commander on the 2nd of August
+1869, and post-captain on the 30th of October 1874. In this
+rank he was chosen to serve as president of the committee
+appointed to revise &ldquo;The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet.&rdquo; It
+was his already established reputation which pointed Captain
+Fisher out for the command of H.M.S. &ldquo;Inflexible,&rdquo; a vessel
+which, as the representative of a type, had supplied matter for
+much discussion. As captain of the &ldquo;Inflexible&rdquo; he took part
+in the bombardment of Alexandria (11th July 1882). The
+engagement was not arduous in itself, having been carried out
+against forts of inferior construction, indifferently armed, and
+worse garrisoned, but it supplied an opportunity for a display
+of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the midst of a long naval
+peace. The &ldquo;Inflexible&rdquo; took a prominent part in the action,
+and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed in
+Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded
+it in various skirmishes with the enemy. After the
+Egyptian campaign, he was, in succession, director of Naval
+Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October 1886 to May 1891);
+A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd August 1890,
+at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral superintendent
+of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord commissioner
+of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and
+vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the
+North American and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he
+acted as naval expert at the Hague Peace Conference, and on
+the 1st of July 1899 was appointed commander-in-chief in the
+Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command, Admiral
+Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902,
+and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st
+of August 1903, from which post he passed to that of first sea
+lord. Besides holding the foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh
+orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and G.C.B. in 1902. As
+first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John Fisher had
+a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures of
+naval development and internal reform; and he was also one
+of the committee, known as Lord Esher&rsquo;s committee, appointed
+in 1904 to report on the measures necessary to be taken to
+put the administration and organization of the British army on
+a sound footing. The changes in naval administration made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+under him were hotly canvassed among critics, who charged him
+with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue subservience
+to the government&rsquo;s desire for economy; and whatever
+the efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact
+was undeniable that for the first time for very many years the
+navy suffered, as a service, from the party-spirit which was
+aroused. It was notorious that Admiral Lord Charles Beresford
+in particular was acutely hostile to Sir John Fisher&rsquo;s administration;
+and on his retirement in the spring of 1909 from the
+position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he put his
+charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry
+was held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its
+report, published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty,
+though it encouraged the belief that some important suggestions
+as to the organization of a naval &ldquo;general staff&rdquo; would take
+effect. On the 9th of November Sir John Fisher was created
+a peer as Baron Fisher of Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired
+from the Admiralty in January 1910.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHERIES,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a general term for the various operations engaged
+in for the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man.
+From time immemorial fish have been captured by various forms
+of spears, nets, hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a
+historical description of the methods and appliances that have
+been used would comprise a considerable portion of a treatise
+on the history of man. For the most part the operations of
+fishing have been comparable with those of primitive hunting
+rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible
+account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality
+has been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing
+pressure on every source of food, and the enormous improvements
+in the catching power of the engines involved, has made some
+kind of regulation and control inevitable, with the result that
+in practically every civilized country there exists some authority
+for the investigation and regulation of fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>The annexed table shows the department of state and the
+approximate expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries
+of the world. The figures are only approximate and are based
+on the expenditure for 1907. In the case of England and Wales
+the expenditure is not complete, as under the Sea Fisheries
+Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast of England and
+Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees with
+power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number
+of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with
+this addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that
+undertaken by most of the countries of northern Europe, although
+British fisheries are much more valuable than those of all the rest
+of Europe together.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Administration of Fisheries.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Norway.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Denmark.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Holland.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Belgium.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of State</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade and Industry<br />&emsp; and Agriculture</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcl rb">Imperial Department<br />&emsp; of Interior</td> <td class="tcc rb">Agriculture</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />&emsp; Woods and Forests.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Approximate Annual Expenditure&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; 1. Administration</td> <td class="tcc rb">£15,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£5,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10,200</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conducted by<br />&emsp; Maritime States.</td> <td class="tcc rb">£12,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; 2. Scientific Fishery Research</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4,500</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6,300</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£27,750</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,500</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£1,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb">U.S. America.</td> <td class="tccm allb">England and<br />Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Scotland</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ireland</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Department of State</td> <td class="tcl rb">Marine and <br />&emsp; Fisheries.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bureau of Fisheries<br />&emsp; under Commerce<br />&emsp; and Labour.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />&emsp; Fisheries.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Fishery Board</td> <td class="tcl rb">Agriculture and<br />&emsp; Technical Instruction.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Approximate Annual Expenditure&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; 1. Administration</td> <td class="tcc rb">£159,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conducted by<br />&emsp; Costal States</td> <td class="tcc rb">£8,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£13,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; 2. Scientific Fishery Research</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£141,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14,000<br />(expended<br />through agents)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">800</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great
+expansion of the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The
+herring fishery has been revolutionized partly by the successful
+introduction of steam drifters, which have markedly increased
+the aggregate catching power, and partly by the prosecution
+of the fishery on one part or other of the British coasts during
+the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish
+vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries
+in alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost
+entirely to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad
+fleets around all the coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian
+drifters carry on their operations at different seasons of the
+year from Shetland in the north (for herrings) to Newlyn in the
+west (for mackerel). In Scotland the value of the nets employed
+on steam drifters has increased from £3000 in 1899 to £61,000
+in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has increased
+from about four to about five million cwts. during the past
+ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings,
+which reached a total of two million cwts. for the first time
+in 1899, has exceeded three millions in each year from 1902 to
+1905.</p>
+
+<p>In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In
+1906 Messrs Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling
+fleet of 50 vessels for working the North Sea grounds, and the
+delivery of new steam trawlers at Grimsby was greater than
+at any previous period, these vessels being designed more especially
+to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the range of which
+has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About 100
+vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve
+months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length
+and over 20 ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage,
+the accommodation both for fish and crews being considerably
+in excess of that provided in vessels of this class hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief
+European countries show the expanse of this industry, and the
+enormous preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">224</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">239</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr">81</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Norway</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Spain</td> <td class="tcr">12-18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Scotland</td> <td class="tcr">292</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr">1317</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been
+manifested in other maritime countries of Europe, particularly
+in Germany and Holland, but the total number of steam trawlers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+belonging to those countries in 1905 scarcely exceeded the mere
+additions to the British fishing fleet in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be
+gauged by a comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries
+of other European countries. The following table is based upon
+official returns and mainly derived from the <i>Bulletin Statistique</i>
+of the International Council for the Study of the Sea. It represents
+in pounds sterling the value of the produce of the various
+national fisheries during the year 1904, except in the case of
+France, for which country the latest available figures are those
+for 1902.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Values in Thousands of £.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Other<br />Fish.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British Isles</td> <td class="tcr rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1015</td> <td class="tcr rb">1100</td> <td class="tcr rb">5496</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,481,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">352</td> <td class="tcr rb">834</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">443</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,629,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">571,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">220</td> <td class="tcr rb">64<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">40<a href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">512<a href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">836,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr rb">575</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb">311</td> <td class="tcr rb">997,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">France (1902)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">635</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">851<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3562</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,048,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions
+of the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the
+official returns, was as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Fish landed in</td> <td class="tccm allb">Excluding<br />Shellfish.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Including<br />Shellfish.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,200,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">£7,502,768</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scotland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,649,148</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,719,810</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr rb">360,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">414,364</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">£10,210,369</td> <td class="tcr allb">£10,636,942</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures show an increase of £1,000,000 as compared
+with the total value in 1900, and of more than £3,000,000 as
+compared with 1895 (cf. Table I. at end).</p>
+
+<p>In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock,
+and flat fish yielded about
+three-quarters of the total,
+and the drift fisheries for
+herring and mackerel nearly
+the whole of the remaining
+quarter. The line fisheries in
+England and Wales are now
+relatively insignificant and
+yield only about one-fortieth
+of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference
+in the relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905
+herrings and other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half
+of the total, the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and
+the line fisheries one-eighth (cf. Table X.).</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Fishery.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Trawl and Line.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Drift and Stake-nets.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Shellfish.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of £.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England and Wales, 1905&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">6017</td> <td class="tcr rb">4713</td> <td class="tcr rb">3042</td> <td class="tcr rb">1145</td> <td class="tcr rb">202</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; South Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">303</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td> <td class="tcr rb">268</td> <td class="tcr rb">64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">1002</td> <td class="tcr rb">720</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scotland, 1906&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">2296</td> <td class="tcr rb">1202</td> <td class="tcr rb">2709</td> <td class="tcr rb">819</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Orkney and Shetland</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">1735</td> <td class="tcr rb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">591</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ireland, 1905&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; North Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; East Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; South and West Coast</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">577</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">28</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly
+three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief
+item in the south and west, and the herring on the north and
+east coasts. The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the
+trawl fisheries, the headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth
+and Balbriggan on the east, and at Galway and Dingle on the
+west coast.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the
+Scottish fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly £4,120,000.
+Upon a moderate estimate, the total value of the boats and gear
+employed in the fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot
+be less than £12,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the
+separate coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of
+landings from the latest data available.</p>
+
+<p>From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of
+the east coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate
+enormously over those of the western coasts, whether attention
+be paid to the drift-net fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries
+for bottom fish with trawls and lines.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary
+tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British
+fishing industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity.
+The community at large has benefited by the more plentiful
+supply, and the merchant by the general lowering of prices at
+the ports of landing (see Tables I.-IV. at end). But it is to be
+noted that this wave of prosperity, as on previous occasions,
+has been attained by the application of increased and more
+powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new
+fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase,
+natural or artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,&mdash;unless
+perhaps the abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to
+the destruction of their enemies by trawling. British fisheries
+are still pursued as a form of hunting rather than of husbandry.
+In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay trawling banks were
+discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich plaice grounds
+in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a quarter
+of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England
+were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by Steam Trawlers on the East Coast
+of England from Fishing Grounds within and beyond the North Sea respectively.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Within the North Sea.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Beyond the North Sea.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All Kinds.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All Kinds.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">729</td> <td class="tcc rb">2301</td> <td class="tcc rb">812</td> <td class="tcc rb">4776</td> <td class="tcc rb">470</td> <td class="tcc rb">389</td> <td class="tcc rb">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1189</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">637</td> <td class="tcc rb">2032</td> <td class="tcc rb">658</td> <td class="tcc rb">4228</td> <td class="tcc rb">447</td> <td class="tcc rb">429</td> <td class="tcc rb">284</td> <td class="tcc rb">1389</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">640</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1560</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">621</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3739</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">603</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">518</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1682</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
+have distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within
+and beyond the North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers
+and liners. Neglecting the catch of the liners as relatively
+insignificant, and of the sailing trawlers
+as relatively small and practically constant
+during the three years in question,
+we see from the board&rsquo;s figures (see table
+above) that the total catch of English
+steam trawlers within the North Sea
+during 1904 and 1905 was in each year
+500,000 cwt. less than in the year
+before, amounting to a gross decrease
+of more than 25% in 1905 as compared
+with 1903, and, in relation to the
+catching power employed, to an average
+decrease of 2½ cwt. per boat per diem.
+This decrease may be largely explained
+by the occurrence in 1903 of one of
+those periodic &ldquo;floods&rdquo; of small cod
+and haddock which take place in the North Sea from time
+to time; but the steady decline in the number of North
+Sea voyages by English steam trawlers&mdash;from 29,300 in 1903
+to 26,700 in 1905&mdash;affords a clear indication of the fact that
+many of our trawling skippers are deserting the North Sea
+for more profitable fishing grounds. The number of Scottish
+steam trawlers &ldquo;employed&rdquo; at Scottish North Sea ports has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+also declined during the same period from 240 in 1903 to
+228 in 1905.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the number of British and foreign
+steam trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English
+vessels the number of fishing voyages made within and beyond
+the North Sea respectively:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Boats<br />Registered.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">English Steam Trawlers.<br />Voyages.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td>
+ <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Scottish.<br />Employed.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">German,<br />Dutch and<br />Belgian.<br />Registered.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Within<br />North Sea.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Beyond<br />North Sea.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1060</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,328</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">1049</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,589</td> <td class="tcc rb">2120</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">199</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1064</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">26,670</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2671</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">228</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">228</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal
+of British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled
+year after year by increasing numbers of continental fishing
+boats. The number of fishing steamers (practically all trawlers)
+registered at North Sea ports in Germany and Holland was 159
+in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905, and 330 in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased
+attention which has been paid in recent years to the
+acquisition of more exact knowledge upon the actual state of
+the fisheries and upon the biological and other factors which
+influence the supply.</p>
+
+<p>A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations,
+both scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the
+course of 1902 under the International Council for the Study
+of the Sea (see below). The Fishery Board for Scotland and the
+Marine Biological Association for England were commissioned
+to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great Britain, and the
+English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards with
+the means for collecting more adequate statistics.</p>
+
+<p>Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of
+fish eggs have located important spawning grounds of cod,
+haddock, plaice, sole, eel, &amp;c.; marking experiments with cod,
+plaice and eel have thrown much light upon the migrations of
+these fishes; and the rate of growth of plaice, cod and herring
+has been elucidated in different localities. The percentage of
+marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has been
+found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a
+significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions.
+It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock
+of plaice on the central grounds of the North Sea is mainly
+attributable to the excessive rate of capture of plaice during
+their annual off-shore migrations from the coast. On the other
+hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of plaice on the
+Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or six-fold
+in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are
+reared,&mdash;facts which open up the possibility of increasing the
+permanent supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption
+of some plan of commercial transplantation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisciculture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;A brief review may now be given of the history
+of the administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of
+the steps which have been taken for the attainment of scientific
+and statistical information in relation thereto.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley,
+Mr (afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards
+Lord Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition
+of the British sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise
+of existing methods of fishing, and the necessity or otherwise
+of the existing legislation. The important report of this commission,
+issued in 1866, embodied the following main conclusions
+and recommendations:&mdash;(1) the total supply of fish obtained
+upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of further
+augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a wastefully
+destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament
+which profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued
+in the open sea should be repealed and &ldquo;unrestricted freedom
+of fishing be permitted hereafter&rdquo;; (4) all fishing boats should
+be lettered and numbered as a condition of registration and
+licence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by
+the passing of the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the
+registration of fishing boats were issued by order in council in
+the following year. (New regulations were introduced
+in 1902.)</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland
+and Walpole to inquire into the alleged
+destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,
+especially by the use of the beam-trawl and
+ground seine. Their report is an excellent summary
+of the condition of the sea fisheries at the
+time, and shows how little was then known with
+regard to the eggs and spawning habits of our marine food
+fishes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved
+and the Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter
+being empowered to take such measures for the improvement
+of the fisheries as the funds under their administration might
+admit of. Arrangements were made in the following year with
+Professor M&rsquo;Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the latter
+to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of studies
+on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed
+greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning
+the reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland)
+Amendment Act of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth
+and St Andrews Bay against trawlers as an experiment for the
+purpose of ascertaining the result of such prohibition on the
+supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The treasury also,
+by a further grant of £3000, enabled the board to purchase the
+steam-yacht &ldquo;Garland&rdquo; as a means of carrying out regular experimental
+trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the
+results of these experiments have been annually published, and
+were summarized at the end of ten years&rsquo; closure in the board&rsquo;s
+report for 1895. Dr Fulton&rsquo;s summary showed that &ldquo;no very
+marked change took place in the abundance of food-fishes
+generally, either in the closed or open waters of the Firth of Forth
+or St Andrews Bay,&rdquo; as a consequence of the prohibition of trawling.
+Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and lemon soles,
+which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in
+numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open,
+while dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if
+not quite universal, increase.</p>
+
+<p>The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the
+presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have
+now exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of
+eggs and fry for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable;
+and (2) that protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to
+check the impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore.
+(For critical examinations of Dr Fulton&rsquo;s account see M&lsquo;Intosh,
+<i>Resources of the Sea</i>, London, 1889; Garstang, &ldquo;The Impoverishment
+of the Sea,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass.</i> vol. vi., 1900; and
+Archer, <i>Report of Ichthyological Committee</i>, Cd. 1312, 1902.)</p>
+
+<p>A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established
+by the board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen
+in 1900.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the
+late earl of Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints
+against the practice of beam-trawling on the part of line and
+drift-net fishermen. A small sum of money (£200) was granted
+to the commission for the purpose of scientific trawling experiments,
+which were carried out by Professor M&rsquo;Intosh.</p>
+
+<p>The report of this commission was an important one, and its
+recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics
+for England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United
+Kingdom was founded for the scientific study of marine zoology
+and botany, especially as bearing upon the food, habits and
+life-conditions of British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs.
+Professor Huxley was its first president, and Professor Ray
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+Lankester, who initiated the movement, succeeded him. A large
+and well-equipped laboratory was erected at Plymouth, and
+formally opened for work in 1888. The work of the association
+has been maintained by annual grants of £400 from the Fishmongers&rsquo;
+Company and £1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the
+subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a
+half-yearly journal recording the results of its investigations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was
+organized under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of
+that year. The department publishes annually a return of
+statistics of sea-fish landed, a report on salmon fisheries (transferred
+from the home office), and a report on sea fisheries. It
+consists of several inspectors under an assistant secretary of
+the board; it has no power to make scientific investigations
+or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries. In 1894
+the administration of the acts relating to the registration of
+fishing vessels, &amp;c., was transferred to the fisheries department.</p>
+
+<p>In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the
+constitution (by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local
+fisheries committees having, within defined limits, powers for
+the regulation of coast fisheries in England and Wales. The
+powers of district committees were extended under Part II. of
+the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under the Fisheries (Shell
+Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts have now been
+created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.
+Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been
+prohibited in nearly all the territorial waters of England and
+Wales, and trawling by smaller boats has been placed under a
+variety of restrictions. Local scientific investigations have been
+initiated under several of the committees, especially in Lancashire
+by Professor Herdman of Liverpool and his assistants.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the
+west coast of Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin
+Society, with assistance from the government, and in the hands
+of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the acquisition of much valuable
+information concerning the spawning habits of fishes and the
+distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland)
+Act of 1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole
+of the Moray Firth&mdash;including a large tract of extra-territorial
+waters&mdash;against trawling, in order to test experimentally the
+effect of protecting certain spawning grounds in the outer parts
+of the firth. The closure has given rise to a succession of protests
+from the leaders of the trawling industry in Aberdeen and
+England. It seems that the difficulty of policing so large an
+area, as well as the absence of any power to enforce the restriction
+on foreign vessels, have defeated the original intention; and
+the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in deference
+to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of whose
+industry&mdash;from economic causes which have been alluded to
+above&mdash;is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The
+controversy has had the effect of causing the transference of a
+number of English trawlers to foreign flags, especially the
+Norwegian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;The following tables summarize the official statistics
+of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and
+Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of
+fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.&mdash;<i>Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and
+exported for the United Kingdom.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Fish landed<br />(excluding Shell-fish).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Imports.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exports of<br />British Fish.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,774,010</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,361,487</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,315,572</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,795,267</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,068,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,168,025</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,453,676</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,282,406</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,671,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,242,491</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,937,486</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000,852</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20,164,276</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10,210,369</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,250,259</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,164,869</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Note.</i>&mdash;Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly
+of salted or cured fish to the value of over £900,000 in 1905) are not
+included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports
+consist mainly of herrings.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.&mdash;<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes
+landed on the Coasts of England and Wales</i> (<i>all caught with
+Trawl-nets, except Halibut in part</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="10">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Sole.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Turbot.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Brill.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Halibut.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sole.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Turbot.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Brill.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Plaice.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Halibut.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">51.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">623</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">77.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">789</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">75.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">752</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">80.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">89.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1074</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">120</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">18</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">19</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.&mdash;<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes,
+caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England
+and Wales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="10">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hake.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sundries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Cod.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Haddock.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Hake.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Ling.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sundries.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">363</td> <td class="tcc rb">1585</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1151</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">. .</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">496</td> <td class="tcc rb">2433</td> <td class="tcc rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1013</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">589</td> <td class="tcc rb">2487</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb">1190</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1423</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2148</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">484</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">165</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1425</td> <td class="tcr bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr bb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr bb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.&mdash;<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes
+landed on the Coasts of England and Wales</i> (<i>caught with Drift-,
+Seine-, and Stow-nets</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Quantity<br />(in Thousands of Cwt.).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="8">Average Price (per Cwt.).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pilchard.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sprat.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Herring.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Pilchard.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sprat.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">509</td> <td class="tcc rb">1332</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">99</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">375</td> <td class="tcc rb">1437</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">91</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">321</td> <td class="tcc rb">2425</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">682</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3062</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">169</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcr bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> V.&mdash;<i>Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed
+on the Coasts of England and Wales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="8">Average Price.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Thousands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mills.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands<br />of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="6">Per Hundred.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Per Cwt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oysters.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sundries.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Crabs.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Oysters.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Sundries.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£.</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">£.</td> <td class="tcr rb">s.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td> <td class="tcr">s.</td> <td class="tcr rb">d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">4808</td> <td class="tcc rb">922</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">505</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">4501</td> <td class="tcc rb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">590</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">5177</td> <td class="tcc rb">654</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">539</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5106</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">503</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">423</td> <td class="tcr bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr bb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9</td> <td class="tcr bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VI.&mdash;<i>Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish
+landed in Scotland.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="9">In Thousands of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Number<br />(Thousands).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lemon<br />Sole.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Flounder,<br />Plaice,<br />and Brill.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Halibut.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Whiting.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Skate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mussels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lobsters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oysters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">3980</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">449</td> <td class="tcc rb">170</td> <td class="tcr rb">754</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td> <td class="tcc rb">2882</td> <td class="tcc rb">643</td> <td class="tcc rb">350</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">4077</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">459</td> <td class="tcc rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">1001</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">194</td> <td class="tcc rb">2548</td> <td class="tcc rb">610</td> <td class="tcc rb">239</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">3520</td> <td class="tcc rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">434</td> <td class="tcc rb">157</td> <td class="tcr rb">761</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcc rb">143</td> <td class="tcc rb">3128</td> <td class="tcc rb">680</td> <td class="tcc rb">796</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5343</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">561</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">151</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">932</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">184</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1990</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">760</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">218</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VII.&mdash;<i>Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish
+returned as landed on the Irish Coasts.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="9">In Thousands of Cwt.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Number<br />(Thousands).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mackerel.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Herring.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sole.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Turbot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cod.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ling.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Haddock.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Whiting.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hake.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Oysters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crabs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lobsters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">502</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">576</td> <td class="tcc rb">228</td> <td class="tcc rb">238</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">339</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">563</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td> <td class="tcc rb">276</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">278</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc rb">202</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">505</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">354</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">348</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">175</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">236</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Note.</i>&mdash;The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing
+to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for collecting
+statistics over large sections of the coast.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VIII.&mdash;<i>Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers
+and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Mode of<br />Fishing.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">England and Wales.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Scotland.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Ireland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Steamers.</td> <td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Sailing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb rb">2nd Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1st cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2nd Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc bb">1st Cl.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2nd Cl.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trawling</td> <td class="tcr rb">1173</td> <td class="tcr rb">904</td> <td class="tcr rb">586</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">283</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drift-nets</td> <td class="tcr rb">263</td> <td class="tcr rb">562</td> <td class="tcr rb">539</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lines</td> <td class="tcr rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">685</td> <td class="tcc rb">209</td> <td class="tcc rb">3403</td> <td class="tcr rb">2910</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">229</td> <td class="tcr rb">2776</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Various</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">2277</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">1513</td> <td class="tcr allb">1710</td> <td class="tcr allb">4087</td> <td class="tcc allb">453</td> <td class="tcc allb">3403</td> <td class="tcr allb">2978</td> <td class="tcc allb">10</td> <td class="tcc allb">371</td> <td class="tcr allb">3059</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p><i>Note.</i>&mdash;1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and other boats of at least 15 tons registered
+tonnage (in Scotland exceeding 30 ft. keel).</p>
+
+<p> &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; 2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from 18 to 30 ft. keel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IX.&mdash;<i>Number</i> (<i>A</i>) <i>of Men and Boys constantly employed
+and</i> (<i>B</i>) <i>of other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">England and<br />Wales.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Scotland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Ireland.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td> <td class="tcc allb">A.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,503</td> <td class="tcc rb">9312</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,319</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,829</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,121</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,981</td> <td class="tcc rb">78,450</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,337</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">32,229</td> <td class="tcc rb">8995</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,044</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,329</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,692</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,218</td> <td class="tcc rb">73,090</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,230</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,589</td> <td class="tcc rb">7994</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,288</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,288</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,677</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,982</td> <td class="tcc rb">68,708</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,814</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">34,318</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8132</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29,064</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10,487</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,744</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17,079</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">73,293</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36,131</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> X.&mdash;<i>Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed
+in Scotland.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Line-caught Fish.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Trawled Fish.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Cwt.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,577,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">£591,059</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,812</td> <td class="tcr rb">£203,620</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,479,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">548,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">531,695</td> <td class="tcr rb">291,165</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">757,416</td> <td class="tcr rb">371,173</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,077,082</td> <td class="tcr rb">703,427</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">735,654</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">348,610</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,745,431</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">948,117</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took
+evidence as to the expediency of adopting measures for the
+preservation of the sea-fisheries in the seas around the British
+Islands, with especial reference to the alleged wasteful destruction
+of under-sized fish. They recommended the adoption of a size-limit
+of 8 in. for soles and plaice, and 10 in. for turbot and brill,
+below which the sale of these fishes should be prohibited, on the
+ground that these limits would approximate to those already
+adopted by foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland)
+Act transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish
+fisheries to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
+for Ireland. The department is provided with a steam
+cruiser, the &ldquo;Helga,&rdquo; 375 tons, fully equipped for fishery research,
+as well as with a floating marine laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly
+of the Marine Biological Association, was appointed to take
+charge of the scientific work.</p>
+
+<p>In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons
+was appointed to consider and take evidence on the proposals of
+the Sea Fisheries Bill, which had been framed in accordance with
+the recommendations of the select committee of 1893, but had
+failed to pass in several sessions of parliament. Owing to marked
+divergencies of opinion on the question whether the low size-limits
+proposed would be effectual in keeping the trawlers from
+working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the
+committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate
+equipment of the government departments with means for
+undertaking the necessary scientific investigations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all
+the countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at
+Christiania to revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm
+in 1899 for a scientific exploration of these waters in the
+interest of the fisheries, to be undertaken concurrently by all
+the participating countries. The British government was
+represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M G., with Professor
+D&rsquo;Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.
+Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were
+subsequently accepted, with some restrictions, and an international
+council of management
+was appointed by
+the participating governments.
+The Fishery
+Board for Scotland and
+the Marine Biological
+Association from England
+were commissioned in
+1902 to carry out the
+work at sea allotted to
+Great Britain, and a
+special grant of £5500
+per annum was made to
+each body by the Treasury
+for this purpose.
+Two steamers, the
+&ldquo;Huxley&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Goldseeker,&rdquo; were chartered for the investigations
+and began work in 1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft
+and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the work of the first
+five years were published in 1909.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the
+Committee on Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report
+as to the best means by which scientific fishery research could
+be organized and assisted in relation to the state or local authorities.
+The committee consisted of Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P.
+(chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald Crawford, Rev. W.S.
+Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham,
+Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert
+Maxwell resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn
+up (September 1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff.
+The committee recommended the provision of more
+complete statistics; the provision and maintenance of five special
+steamers (where not already existing) to work in connexion with
+as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of the three coasts
+of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and Ireland;
+the provision of three biological assistants at each laboratory;
+the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries committees to
+expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a fishery
+council for England and Wales, and of a conference of representatives
+of the central authorities in England, Scotland and
+Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade
+was transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer,
+chief inspector of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of
+the new Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed
+to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations carried
+on in relation to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom.
+The committee consisted of Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman),
+Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms,
+M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S.,
+Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H. Rew
+and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that
+had already been done and urged its continuation and extension
+under the direction of a central council composed of representatives
+of the government departments concerned with fishery
+matters in England, Scotland and Ireland, with a scientific
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+chairman and director, and further insisted on the need of
+international co-operation in the investigations.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States Fisheries.</i>&mdash;The administration of the fisheries
+of the United States of America is under the control of the
+several coastal states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington,
+which reports to the secretary of commerce and labour,
+conducts a vast amount of scientific fishery investigation, issues
+admirable statistical and biological reports, and conducts on a
+very large scale work on the replenishment of the fishing stations
+by artificial means (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pisciculture</a></span>). Although in recent
+years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support
+to the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an
+amount actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great
+Britain, the fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds
+that of Canada. A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American
+ships from the Newfoundland coasts and from those of other
+British provinces, is landed at American ports, but as the following
+recent table shows, it is much less than that taken from
+American waters.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston
+and Gloucester, Mass., in 1905.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Quantities.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(<i>a</i>) From fishing grounds off U.S. coasts</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,241,139</td> <td class="tcr rb">£669,640</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(<i>b</i>) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,165,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,145</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">(<i>c</i>) From fishing grounds off other British provinces</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">32,608,343</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">192,517</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase
+from year to year. There has been a decline in some important
+branches owing to indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects
+of civilization on certain kinds of animal life and in certain
+restricted areas. Such diminution has been more than compensated
+for by growth resulting from the invasion of new fishing
+grounds made possible by increase in the sea-going capacity
+of the vessels employed, by improvement in the preservation
+and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization of
+products which until comparatively recently were disregarded
+or considered without economic value. The annual value of the
+water products taken and sold by the United States fishermen
+now amounts to over £11,000,000, and this sum does not include
+the very large quantities taken by the fishermen for home
+consumption or captured by sportsmen and amateurs. Between
+two and three hundred thousand persons make a livelihood by
+the industry, and the capital involved exceeds £16,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output
+of the United States industry exceeds the combined output of
+all other countries in the world. The most notable feature of
+this fishery is that nearly half the total yield now comes from
+cultivated grounds, so that the business is being placed on a
+secure basis. Virginia has now taken the first rank as an oyster-producing
+state, oyster farming being now highly developed
+with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.</p>
+
+<p>The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,
+herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity,
+the annual value being between one and two million pounds.
+The lobster fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the
+diminution having been progressive since about 1890, and
+being attributed to over-fishing and violation of the restrictive
+regulations. At present a large part of the lobsters consumed
+in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there is
+evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural
+operations now being carried out.</p>
+
+<p>The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry
+of the country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific
+and Arctic oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain
+and often unremunerative. The annual value of the
+take is now under £200,000.</p>
+
+<p>The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon,
+shad, alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the
+rivers from the ocean) has continued to provide an increasing
+source of income to fishermen, the combined value of the catch
+on the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards now amounting to over
+£3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of the Great Lakes yield
+about £600,000 annually.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. Ga.; P. C. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For fisheries in the cases of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coral</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oyster</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pearl</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salmon</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sponges</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Whale</a></span>, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angling</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Including the Newfoundland fishery.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply
+London by means of carriers.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHERY<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Law of</span>). This subject has (1) its international
+aspect; (2) its municipal aspect. On the high seas outside
+territorial waters the right of fishery is now recognized as common
+to all nations. Claims were made in former times by single
+nations to the exclusive right of fishing in tracts of open sea;
+such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the North Sea, as
+lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland, against
+England in the 17th century, and against England and Holland
+in the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing
+within 15 German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland.
+This claim, however, was always effectively resisted on the
+ground stated in Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s remonstrance to Denmark
+on the subject in 1602, that &ldquo;the law of nations alloweth of
+fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas where a nation hath
+propertie of command.&rdquo; The enunciation of this principle is
+to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court which
+decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in 1894.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bering Sea Arbitration</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration, International</a></span>.)
+The right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be
+restrained or regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain
+has entered into conventions with other nations with regard to
+fishing in certain parts of the sea. The provisions of such
+conventions are made binding on British subjects by statutes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between
+Great Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern
+coasts of British North America and the United States within certain
+limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the
+treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France
+in 1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these
+countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of
+the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the Newfoundland
+fisheries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Newfoundland</a></span>); the convention of 1882
+between Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and
+Holland, regarding the North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between
+the same parties concerning the liquor traffic in the North Sea;
+and the declaration regarding the same waters made between
+Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement of differences between
+their fishermen subjects in such extra-territorial waters. At the
+instance of the Swedish government the British parliament also
+passed an act in 1875 to establish a close time for the seal fishery in
+the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts of Greenland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cases have come before British courts with regard to the
+whale fishery in northern and southern seas; and the customs
+proved to exist among the whaling ships of the nations engaged
+in a particular trade have been upheld if known to the parties
+to the action. In territorial waters, on the other hand, fishery
+is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects of the country
+owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there except by
+convention.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Tidal Waters.</i>&mdash;-In British territorial waters, it may be
+stated, as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental
+to the soil covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows,
+and of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown; and
+therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;the right of the
+fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally
+lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged
+in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of fishing
+belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland river.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;But,&rdquo; he continues, &ldquo;though the king is the owner of this great
+waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary right
+of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the common
+people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein as a
+public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their right
+be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable rivers
+where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a
+propriety exclusive of that common liberty.&rdquo; (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. iv.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the
+seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when
+taken in territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee,
+though caught by another person. These are whales, sturgeons
+and porpoises; and grampuses are also sometimes added (whales,
+porpoises and grampuses being &ldquo;fishes&rdquo; only in a legal sense).
+In Scotland only whales which are of large size can be so claimed;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in public and
+private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing, except
+in private rivers, are <i>inter regalia</i>, and are only enjoyable by the
+crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was
+formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the
+mussel and oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the
+shore, the opinion was held at one time that angling for salmon
+was a public right, but the later decisions have established that
+the right of salmon fishing by whatever means is a <i>jus regale</i> in
+Scotland. In England the crown in early times made frequent
+grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal waters, and instances of
+such fisheries belonging to persons and corporations are very
+common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the crown
+declared that &ldquo;no rivers shall be defended from henceforth,
+but such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our
+grandfather, by the same places and the same bounds as they
+were wont to be in his time&rdquo;; and thus bound itself not to
+create a private fishery in any navigable tidal river. Judicial
+decision and commentators having interpreted this statute
+according to the spirit and not the letter, at the present day the
+right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs to the public,
+and they can only be excluded by a particular person or corporation
+on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in its
+origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to
+prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant&rsquo;s
+predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or
+prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant
+may be presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either
+a franchise derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of
+ownership of the soil covered by the waters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In Lord Hale&rsquo;s words: &ldquo;Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily,
+viz. fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the
+soil, or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the
+soil or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing
+that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil,&mdash;such are <i>gurgites</i>,
+wears, fishing-places, <i>borachiae</i>, <i>stachiae</i>, which are the very soil
+itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such as these a
+subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many religious
+houses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors, as both
+corporations and others have had; and this not only in navigable
+rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and havens, yea,
+and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to the shore.
+And these kinds of fishings are not only for small sea-fish, such as
+herrings, &amp;c., but for great fish, as salmons, and not only for them
+but for royal fish.... Most of the precedents touching such rights
+of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks thereof belonging by
+usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the propriety of the
+very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some of them even
+within parts of the seas&rdquo; (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. v.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the
+old case of <i>Royal Fishery of the River Bann</i> (temp. James I.,
+Davis 655), and the modern one of <i>Wilson</i> v. <i>Crossfield</i>, 1885,
+1 T.L.R. 601, where a right of fishery in gross was established;
+but the latter kind, as Hale says, is much more common, and the
+presumption is always in its favour; <i>à fortiori</i> where the fishing
+is proved to have been carried on by means of engines or structures
+fixed in the soil. In England the public have not at common
+law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal waters,
+the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes incidental
+to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them,
+landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so
+by proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed);
+but statutes relating to particular parts of the realm, such as
+Cornwall for the pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In
+Scotland a right of salmon fishing separate from land implies
+the right of access to and use of the banks, foreshores or beach
+for the purposes of the fishing; and so does white fishing by
+statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, <i>e.g.</i> in a public
+river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to Irish
+fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There
+is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first
+taker; and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken
+or not, <i>e.g.</i> in the whale fishery the question whether a fish is
+&ldquo;loose&rdquo; or not has come before English courts.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Fresh Waters.</i>&mdash;In non-tidal waters in England and
+Ireland, for the reason given above, the presumption is in favour
+of the fishery in such waters belonging to the owners of the adjacent
+lands; &ldquo;fresh waters of what kind soever do of common
+right belong to the owners of the soil adjacent, so that the owners
+of the one side have of common right the property of the soil, and
+consequently the right of fishing <i>usque ad filum aquae</i>, and the
+owners of the other side the right of soil or ownership and fishing
+unto the <i>filum aquae</i> on their side; and if a man be owner of
+the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of
+the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the
+extent of his land in length&rdquo; (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar
+presumption that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive
+right of fishery there, and this is so even though he does not own
+the banks; but these presumptions may be displaced by proof
+of a different state of things, <i>e.g.</i> where the banks of a stream
+are separately owned the owner of one bank may show by acts
+of ownership exercised over the whole stream that he has the
+fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never it
+seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a
+subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a
+subject, nor has it any right <i>de jure</i> to the soil or fisheries of an
+inland lake such as Lough Neagh (<i>Bristow</i> v. <i>Cormican</i>, 1878,
+3 App. Cas. 641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish
+in fresh waters by prescription or otherwise although they are
+navigable; such a right is unknown to law, because a profit
+<i>à prendre in alieno solo</i> is neither to be acquired by custom nor
+by prescription under the Prescription Act. It has been decided
+that the &ldquo;dwellers&rdquo; in a parish cannot acquire such a right,
+being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may
+have it by custom; and the &ldquo;free inhabitants of ancient tenements&rdquo;
+in a borough have been held capable of acquiring a
+right to dredge for oysters in a fishery belonging to the corporation
+of the borough on certain days in each year by giving proof
+of uninterrupted enjoyment of it from time immemorial, on the
+presumption that this was a condition to which the grant made
+to the corporation was subject.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout
+in private streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and
+owners of opposite banks may fish <i>usque ad medium filum aquae</i>;
+and where two owners own land round a private loch, both have
+a common of fishing over it. The public cannot prescribe for it,
+for a written title either to adjacent lands or to the fishery is
+necessary. A right of way along the bank of a river or loch
+does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be on or
+at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing
+carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in
+the same way.</p>
+
+<p>In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided
+into (<i>a</i>) several (<i>separalis</i>), (<i>b</i>) free (<i>libera</i>), (<i>c</i>) common of piscary
+(<i>communis</i>), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction
+between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain.
+Blackstone&rsquo;s opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in
+right of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined
+to a public river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil.
+He is supported by later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson.
+On the other hand, the opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed
+to this view. &ldquo;A man may prescribe to have a several fishery
+in such a water, and the owner shall not fish there; but if he
+claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the owner of the
+soil shall fish there&rdquo; (Co Littl. 122 A); &ldquo;one man may have
+the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the
+river and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in
+that river&rdquo; (<i>De Jure Maris</i>, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one
+instance he distinguished them, in a later case thought that
+they were &ldquo;all one.&rdquo; Later decisions have established the latter
+view, and it is now settled that although the owner of the several
+fishery is prima facie owner of the soil of the waters, this presumption
+may be displaced by showing that the terms of the grant
+only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and that the words
+&ldquo;sole and exclusive fishery&rdquo; give a several fishery <i>in alieno solo</i>.
+In the words of Mr Justice Willes, &ldquo;the only substantial distinction
+is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+&rsquo;several,&rsquo; and sometimes &lsquo;free,&rsquo; as in &lsquo;free warren,&rsquo; and a right
+in common with others, usually called &lsquo;common of fishery,&rsquo;
+and sometimes &lsquo;free,&rsquo; as in &lsquo;free port.&rsquo; A several fishery means
+an exclusive right to fish in a given place, either with or without
+the property in the soil&rdquo; (<i>Malcolmson</i> v. <i>O&rsquo;Dea</i>, 1863, 10 H.L.).
+A common of piscary, or &ldquo;a right to fish in common with certain
+other persons in a particular stream,&rdquo; is usually found in manors,
+the commoners of which may have the right to enjoy it to an
+extent sufficient for the sustenance of their tenements; but
+they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription, exclude
+the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the
+soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of &ldquo;fishery&rdquo;
+will prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered
+by water or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery
+therein; a several fishery will not merge on being resumed by
+the crown; and a fishery situate within a manor is presumed
+to belong to the owners of adjacent land, and not to the lord.
+A several fishery, as already seen, being an incorporeal hereditament,
+can only be transferred by deed, and therefore cannot
+be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on proof that
+the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the right
+of fishing in the <i>locus in quo</i> to the knowledge of and without
+interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish
+a title to a several fishery, a &ldquo;paper title,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> one founded on
+documentary evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be supported
+by evidence of acts of ownership in recent times, for
+otherwise it will be presumed that a person other than the alleged
+owner is the real owner. If the waters of a tidal river leave their
+old channel and flow into another, the owner of a several fishery
+in the old channel cannot claim to have it in the new one; but,
+on the other hand, the owner of a several fishery can take
+advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon and
+into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are
+ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal
+or fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and
+may do so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that
+in navigable waters he does not interfere with the right of
+navigation, and that in navigable and other waters he does not
+interfere with the fishing rights of his neighbours or infringe the
+provisions made by old or modern statutes as to the methods
+of taking the fish, <i>e.g.</i> by weirs. These were forbidden in rivers
+by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the seashore by a
+statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh waters
+traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful,
+for the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable
+waters. It seems, however, that at common law any fixed
+structures put up by the owner of a fishery in his part of a river,
+which at all prevent the free passage of fish to the waters above
+or below, give the owners of fisheries therein a right of action
+against him. So the grantee of an exclusive fishery with rod
+and line in an unnavigable river can prevent any person from
+polluting the river higher up and so damaging the fishery. At
+common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their
+natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they
+are caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of
+salmon by statute.</p>
+
+<p>Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in
+territorial or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England,
+the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it
+took it over from the Board of Trade) power by order to create
+sea fisheries districts, comprising any part of the sea within
+which British subjects have, by international law, the exclusive
+right of fishing, and to provide for the constitution of a local
+fisheries committee to regulate the sea fisheries in such district,
+which can make by-laws for that purpose. It appoints fishery
+officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for sea fish
+(which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act),
+has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea
+coast or at sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of
+summary jurisdiction, can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or
+regulate, protect and develop fisheries for all or any kind of shell
+fish. Special provision is also made by statute for the oyster
+fishery and herring fishery (applicable also to Scotland), and that
+of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs (applicable to all the
+United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board can constitute
+sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to those in
+England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea
+fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring,
+mussel and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of
+money intended to relieve local distress and taxation towards
+the encouragement of sea fisheries, and marine superintendence
+and enforcement of Scottish sea fisheries laws. In Ireland the
+sea fisheries are under the direction of the inspectors of Irish
+fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery commissioners
+and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special statutes,
+besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom,
+deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is
+also appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical
+instruction. In all three component parts of the United Kingdom
+there are also special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater
+fish: for England, the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts
+1861-1907, and the Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for
+Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those of 1862-1868, and for
+trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for Ireland, the
+Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is adopted
+in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are
+set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish
+by fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection
+and the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of
+summary jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case
+are&mdash;for England the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for
+Scotland the Fishery Board, and for Ireland the inspectors of
+fisheries, and in England a certain official number of conservators
+on such boards are appointed by the county councils. The
+Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the Board
+of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders
+for the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries
+within any area on the application of any board of conservators,
+or of a county council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value
+of private fisheries. There are also special acts dealing with the
+fishing in certain rivers, such as the Thames, Medway, Severn,
+Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907 applies, however, to the Esk,
+but not otherwise to Scotland nor to Ireland.) Throughout the
+United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other explosive substance
+to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is prohibited, as it
+is also in England in any private waters subject to the Salmon
+and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also forbidden
+to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish.
+Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to
+kill fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant
+it. There are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the
+protection of fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the
+acts already mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.</p>
+
+<p>Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts
+1894-1906 for sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the
+colonies), relating to their registration, carrying official papers,
+carrying boats in proportion to their tonnage, the punishment
+of offences on board, the wages of their crews, and keeping record
+of all casualties, punishments and the like on board. As regards
+trawlers, especially in the case of those of 25 tons and upwards,
+a statutory form of agreement with the crew is prescribed, as
+well as accounts of wages and discharges; and skippers and
+second hands must have certificates of competency, which are
+granted under similar conditions to those required in the case
+of sea-going ships and are registered with the Board of Trade.
+Scottish fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886
+(except as regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits,
+dealt with by the above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868,
+which applies to all British fishing boats. Particular lights must
+be carried by fishing boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The
+Cran Measures Act) legalized the use of cran measures in connexion
+with trading in fresh herrings in England and Wales, the Board
+of Agriculture and Fisheries being empowered to make regulations
+under the act.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Green, <i>Encyclopaedia of Scots Law</i> (Edinburgh,
+1896); Stewart, <i>Law of Fishing in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1869);
+Woolrych, <i>Waters</i> (London, 1851); Paterson, <i>Fishery Laws of the
+United Kingdom</i> (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore,
+<i>Foreshore</i> (London, 1888); Phillimore, <i>International Law</i> (3rd ed.,
+London, 1879); Martens, <i>Causes célèbres du droit des gens</i> (Leipzig,
+1827); Selwyn, <i>Nisi Prius</i>, <i>Fishery</i> (London, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. G. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHGUARD<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (<i>Abergwaun</i>), a market town, urban district,
+contributory parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembrokeshire,
+Wales, near the mouth of the river Gwaun, which here
+flows into Fishguard Bay of St George&rsquo;s Channel. Pop. (1901)
+2002. Its railway station, which is the chief terminus of the
+South Wales system of the Great Western railway, is at the hamlet
+of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the south-west.
+Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save
+those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has
+long been recognized. After many years of labour and at a great
+expenditure of money the Great Western railway has constructed
+a fine breakwater and railway pier at Goodwick across the lower
+end of the bay, and an important passenger and goods traffic with
+Rosslare on the opposite Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and
+the excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure.
+The chief historical interest of the town centres round the so-called
+&ldquo;Fishguard Invasion&rdquo; of 1797, in which year on the
+22nd of February three French men-of-war with troops on board,
+under the command of General Tate, an Irish-American adventurer,
+appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the adjoining
+parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a
+body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated,
+practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the
+local militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and
+John Campbell, Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile
+sailing away towards Ireland. For many years the castles and
+prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke were filled to overflowing
+with French prisoners of war. Close to the banks of the
+Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years the
+residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated antiquary
+and historian of Pembrokeshire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISHKILL LANDING,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fishkill-on-the-Hudson</span>, a village
+of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A.,
+about 58 m. N. of New York City, on the E. bank of the Hudson
+river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890) 3617; (1900) 3673,
+of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910) 3902,
+of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905)
+13,183; (1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages
+of Matteawan (<i>q.v.</i>), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing
+is served by the New York Central &amp; Hudson River and the
+New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railways; by railway ferry
+and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the West
+Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway
+to Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is
+the village of Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579.
+In this village are two notable old churches, Trinity (1769),
+and the First Dutch Reformed (1731), in which the New York
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Provinical">Provincial</span> Congress met in August and September 1776.
+At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the Society
+of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manufactures
+of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss)
+and other machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile.
+The village of Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The
+first settlement in the township was made about 1690. The
+township of Fishkill was, like Newburgh, an important military
+post during the War of Independence, and was a supply depot
+for the northern Continental Army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISK, JAMES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1834-1872), American financier, was born at
+Bennington, Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief
+period in school he ran away and joined a circus. Later he became
+a hotel waiter, and finally adopted the business of his father,
+a pedlar. He then became a salesman for a Boston dry goods
+firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning for him a share
+in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts during
+the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling,
+he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in
+speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York
+and was employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew
+in his war against Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway,
+and as a result of the compromise that was reached he and Jay
+Gould became members of the Erie directorate. The association
+with Gould thus began continued until his death. Subsequently
+by a well-planned &ldquo;raid,&rdquo; Fisk and Gould obtained control
+of the road. They carried financial &ldquo;buccaneering&rdquo; to extremes,
+their programme including open alliance with the Tweed &ldquo;ring,&rdquo;
+the wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges.
+Their attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the
+fateful Black Friday of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was
+shot and killed in New York City by E.S. Stokes, a former
+business associate, on the 6th of January 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISK, WILBUR<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1792-1839), American educationist, was
+born in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 1792.
+He studied at the university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then
+entered Brown University, where he graduated in 1815. He
+studied law, and in 1817 came under the influence of a religious
+revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the following year he
+was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to the New
+England conference. His influence with the conference turned
+that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral
+in tendency to the establishment of secondary schools and
+colleges. Upon the removal in 1824 of the conference&rsquo;s academy
+at New Market, New Hampshire, to Wilbraham, Massachusetts,
+Fisk became one of its agents and trustees, and in 1826 its
+principal. He drafted the report of the committee on education
+to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined
+the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president
+of Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in
+1831 until his death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middletown,
+Connecticut. His successful administration of the Wesleyan
+Academy at Wilbraham and of Wesleyan University were remarkable.
+He was an able controversialist, and in the interests
+of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism and
+Unitarianism; he published in 1837 <i>The Calvinistic Controversy</i>.
+He also wrote <i>Travels on the Continent of Europe</i> (1838).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk</i> (New York, 1842), edited by
+Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston,
+1890), in the <i>American Religious Leaders Series</i>; also a sketch in
+<i>Memoirs of Teachers and Educators</i> (New, York, 1861), edited by
+Henry Barnard.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISKE, JOHN<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical
+and scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the
+30th of March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on
+the 4th of July 1901. His name was originally Edmund Fiske
+Green, but in 1855 he took the name of a great-grandfather,
+John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a grandmother in
+Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college he
+had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed
+most boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had
+studied several modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in
+1863, continuing to study languages and philosophy with zeal;
+spent two years in the Harvard law school, and opened an office
+in Boston; but soon devoted the greater portion of his time
+to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one year,
+he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his
+graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures
+at Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was
+history tutor; in 1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the
+Doctrine of Evolution, afterwards revised and expanded as
+<i>Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy</i> (1874); and between 1872 and
+1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that time he devoted
+himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly all
+of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures
+or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general
+title, such as <i>Myths and Myth-Makers</i> (1872), <i>Darwinism and
+Other Essays</i> (1879), <i>Excursions of an Evolutionist</i> (1883), and
+<i>A Century of Science</i> (1899). He did much, by the thoroughness
+of his learning and the lucidity of his style, to spread a knowledge
+of Darwin and Spencer in America. His <i>Outlines of Cosmic</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+<i>Philosophy</i>, while Setting forth the Spencerian system, made
+psychological and sociological additions of original matter, in
+some respects anticipating Spencer&rsquo;s later conclusions. Of one
+part of the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of
+one of his later books (<i>Through Nature to God</i>, 1899): &ldquo;The
+detection of the part played by the lengthening of infancy in the
+genesis of the human race is my own especial contribution to the
+Doctrine of Evolution.&rdquo; In <i>The Idea of God as affected by
+Modern Knowledge</i> (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic problem,
+and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an
+illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great
+immanent cause includes and controls both physical and moral
+forces. More original, perhaps, is the argument in the immediately
+preceding work, <i>The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of
+his Origin</i> (1884), which is, in substance, that physical evolution
+is a demonstrated fact; that intellectual force is a later, higher
+and more potent thing than bodily strength; and that, finally,
+in most men and some &ldquo;lower animals&rdquo; there is developed a
+new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line of
+thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical
+that it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards,
+and may or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.</p>
+
+<p>It is principally, however, through his work as a historian
+that Fiske&rsquo;s reputation will live. His historical writings, with
+the exception of a small volume on <i>American Political Ideas</i>
+(1885), an account of the system of <i>Civil Government in the
+United States</i> (1890), <i>The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War</i>
+(1900), a school history of the United States, and an elementary
+story of the American Revolution, are devoted to studies, in a
+unified general manner, of separate yet related episodes in
+American history. The volumes have not appeared in chronological
+order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial
+history, as follows: <i>The Discovery of America, with some Account
+of Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest</i> (1892, 2 vols.);
+<i>Old Virginia and her Neighbours</i> (1897, 2 vols.); <i>The Beginnings
+of New England</i>; or, <i>The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to
+Civil and Religious Liberty</i> (1889); <i>Dutch and Quaker Colonies
+in America</i> (1899); <i>The American Revolution</i> (1891, 2 vols.);
+and <i>The Critical Period of American History</i>, 1783-1789 (1888).
+Of these the most original and valuable is the <i>Critical Period</i>
+volume, a history of the consolidation of the states into a government,
+and of the formation of the constitution.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. F. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1865-&emsp;&emsp;), American actress,
+was born in New Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As
+a child she played, under her mother&rsquo;s name of Maddern, with
+several well-known actors. In 1882 she first appeared as a
+&ldquo;star,&rdquo; but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske and was
+absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared
+in <i>Hester Crewe</i>, a play written by her husband, and afterwards
+acted a number of Ibsen&rsquo;s heroines, and in <i>Becky Sharp</i>, a
+dramatization of Thackeray&rsquo;s <i>Vanity Fair</i>. In 1901 she opened,
+in opposition to the American theatrical &ldquo;trust,&rdquo; an independent
+theatre in New York, the Manhattan. She won a considerable
+reputation in the United States as an emotional actress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FISTULA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to
+designate an abnormal communication leading either from
+the surface of the body to a normal cavity or canal, or from one
+normal cavity or canal to another. These communications are
+the result of disease or injury. They receive different names
+according to their situation: <i>lachrymal fistula</i> is the small
+opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of
+the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; <i>salivary fistula</i> is an
+opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; <i>anal fistula</i>, or
+<i>fistula in ano</i>, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the
+bowel; <i>urethral fistula</i> is the result of a giving way of the tissues
+behind a stricture. These are examples of the variety of the
+first kind of fistula; while <i>recto-vesical fistula</i>, a communication
+between the rectum and bladder, and <i>vesico-vaginal fistula</i>, a
+communication between the bladder and vagina, are examples
+of the second. The abnormal passage may be straight or tortuous,
+of considerable diameter or of narrow calibre. Fistulae may
+be caused by an obstruction of the normal channel, the result
+of disease or injury, which prevents, for example, the tears,
+saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their retention
+gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an
+exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which
+bursts, for example, into the gut or through the skin; the
+cavity does not close, and a fistula is the result. The fistulous
+channel remains open as long as the contents of the cavity or
+canal with which it is connected can pass through it. To obliterate
+the fistula one must remove the obstruction and encourage
+the flow along the natural channel; for example, one must
+open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to reach the nasal
+cavity, and the <i>lachrymal fistula</i> will close; and so also in the
+<i>salivary</i> and <i>urethral</i> fistulae. Sometimes it may be necessary
+to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy
+material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from
+its deepest part, as in <i>anal fistula</i>; in other cases it may be
+necessary to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch
+them together.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIT,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division
+of a poem, a canto, in this sense often spelled &ldquo;fytte.&rdquo; (2) A
+sudden but temporary seizure or attack of illness, particularly
+one with convulsive paroxysms accompanied by unconsciousness,
+especially an attack of apoplexy or epilepsy, but also applied to
+a transitory attack of gout, of coughing, fainting, &amp;c., also of an
+outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper. In a transferred
+sense, the word is also used of any temporary or irregular periods
+of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions as &ldquo;by
+fits and starts.&rdquo; (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper,
+becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications
+for a specific purpose, &ldquo;a fit and proper person&rdquo;; and also
+as prepared for, or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The
+verb &ldquo;to fit&rdquo; is thus used intransitively and transitively, to be
+adapted for, to suit, particularly to be of the right measurement
+or shape, of a dress, of parts of a mechanism, &amp;c., and to make
+or render a thing in such a condition. Hence the word is used
+as a substantive.</p>
+
+<p>The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one
+in origin, or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and
+spelling but with different origin in each different meaning.
+In Skeat&rsquo;s <i>Etymological Dictionary</i> (ed. 1898) (1) and (2) are
+connected and derived from the root of &ldquo;foot,&rdquo; which appears
+in Lat. <i>pes</i>, <i>pedis</i>. The evolution of the word is: step, a part
+of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word of Scandinavian
+origin, with the idea of &ldquo;knitted together&rdquo; (cf. Ice. <i>fitja</i>, to
+knit together, Goth, <i>fetjan</i>, to adorn); the ultimate origin is a
+Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. &ldquo;fetch&rdquo;). The <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> suggests that this last root may be the origin of all
+the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting;
+the early use of &ldquo;fit&rdquo; (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed
+out that the meanings of &ldquo;fit,&rdquo; suitable, proper, have been
+modified by &ldquo;feat,&rdquo; which comes through Fr. <i>fait</i>, from Lat.
+<i>factum</i>, <i>facere</i>, to do, make.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITCH, JOHN<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam navigation,
+was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January
+1743. He was the son of a farmer, and received the usual
+common school education. At the age of seventeen he went to
+sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a few voyages and
+became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a silversmith.
+During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the
+American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum
+of money, with which he bought land in Virginia. He was
+appointed deputy-surveyor for Kentucky in 1780, and when
+returning to Philadelphia in the following year he was captured
+by the Indians, but shortly afterwards regained his liberty.
+About this time he began an exploration of the north-western
+regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district; and
+while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to
+him that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured
+by the sale of his map to find money for the carrying out of his
+projects, but was unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance
+to the legislatures of different states, but though each reported
+in favourable terms of his invention, none of them would agree
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+to grant him any pecuniary assistance. He was successful,
+however, in 1786, in forming a company for the prosecution of
+his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a steam-packet of his
+invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to be the
+inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey
+of Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-navigation
+in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar
+privilege was granted to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and
+New York. A steam-boat built by Fitch conveyed passengers
+for hire on the Delaware in the summer of 1790, but the undertaking
+was a losing one, and led to the dissolution of the company.
+In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into France,
+but met with no success. On his return to America he found his
+property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention
+nothing but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide
+at Bardstown, Kentucky, on the 2nd of July 1798.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes,
+&ldquo;inscribed to his children and future posterity&rdquo;; and from this a
+biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia,
+1857.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1824-1903), English educationist,
+second son of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was
+born in Southwark, London, in 1824. His parents were poor but
+intellectually inclined, and at an early age Fitch started work
+as an assistant master in the British and Foreign School Society&rsquo;s
+elementary school in the Borough Road, founded by Thomas
+Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous
+reading and attending classes at University College; he was
+made headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850
+he took his B.A. degree at London University, proceeding MA.
+two years later. In 1852 he was appointed by the British and
+Foreign School Society to a tutorship at their Training College
+in the Borough Road, soon becoming vice-principal and in 1856
+principal. He had previously done some occasional teaching
+there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the Lancasterian
+system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of
+schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which
+he was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-1867)
+on the Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commissioner
+(1869), and as an assistant commissioner under the
+Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was transferred in 1877
+to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief inspector,
+to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief inspector
+of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894. In the
+course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique
+acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a
+recognized authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures
+and books having a great influence on the development of
+education in England. He was a strong advocate and supporter
+of the movement for the higher education of women, and he was
+constantly looked to for counsel and direction on every sort of
+educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe judgment and
+amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional value,
+and after he retired from official life his services were in active
+request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896
+he was knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinctions
+as the LL.D. degree from St Andrews University, he was
+made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour in 1889. He
+was a constant contributor to the leading reviews; he published
+an important series of <i>Lectures on Teaching</i> (1881), <i>Educational
+Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and Colleges</i>
+(1887), and an authoritative criticism of <i>Thomas and Matthew
+Arnold, and their Influence on English Education</i> (see also the
+article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arnold, Matthew</a></span>) in 1901; and he wrote the article
+on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span> in the supplementary volumes (10th edition)
+of this encyclopaedia (1902). He died on the 14th of July 1903
+in London. A civil list pension was given to his widow, whom,
+as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Sir Joshua Fitch</i>, by the Rev. A.L. Lilley (1906),</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITCH, RALPH<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of
+the earliest English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the
+Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China.
+In January 1583 he embarked in the &ldquo;Tiger&rdquo; for Tripoli and
+Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare, <i>Macbeth</i>, Act I. sc. 3), together
+with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two other merchants or employees
+of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he reached the
+Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed
+southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris
+to Basra (May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to
+trade, while Fitch and the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf
+to Ormuz, where they were arrested as spies (at Venetian instigation,
+as they believed) and sent prisoners to the Portuguese
+viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the sureties
+procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly
+of New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have
+reached India by the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends
+regained their liberty, and escaping from Goa (April 1584)
+travelled through the heart of India to the court of the Great
+Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In September 1585
+Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore (he
+disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while
+Fitch descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares,
+Patna, Kuch Behar, Hugli, Chittagong, &amp;c. (1585-1586), and
+pushed on by sea to Pegu and Burma. Here he visited the
+Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some distance, acquired
+a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even penetrated
+to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588
+he visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his
+homeward travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast,
+touching at Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian
+Gulf to Basra and up the Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally
+via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates, Aleppo and Tripoli, to the
+Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the 29th of April
+1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of
+the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian
+affairs (<i>e.g.</i> 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 31st
+of December 1606).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hakluyt, <i>Principal Navigations</i> (1599), vol. ii. part i. pp.
+245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, <i>Voyages</i> (<i>Itineraris</i>), part i.
+ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &amp;c., Hakluyt Soc. edition); Stevens and
+Birdwood, <i>Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603</i> (1886),
+esp. pp. 26, 123; <i>State Papers, East Indies</i>, &amp;c., <i>1513-1616</i> (1862),
+No. 36; Pinkerton, <i>Voyages and Travels</i> (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITCHBURG,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester
+county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying
+from about 433 ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester
+and about 45 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429;
+(1890) 22,037; (1900) 31,531, of whom 10,917 were foreign-born,
+including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English Canadians,
+2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg
+is traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served
+by the Boston &amp; Maine, and the New York, New Haven &amp;
+Hartford railways, and by three interurban electric lines. The
+city area (27.7 sq.m.) is well watered, and is very uneven, with
+hill spurs running in all directions, affording picturesque scenery.
+The court house and the post office (in a park presented by the
+citizens) are the principal public buildings. Fitchburg is the
+seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and training
+schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace library
+and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home
+for old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which
+is a fine fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg
+has large mercantile and financial interests, but manufacturing
+is the principal industry. The principal manufactures are
+paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen goods, yarn and silk,
+machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and firearms (the
+Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In
+1905 the city&rsquo;s total factory product was valued at $15,390,507,
+of which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp
+product, $2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and
+$1,202,421 was the value of the foundry and machine shop
+products. The municipality owns and operates its (gravity)
+water works system. Fitchburg was included in Lunenburg
+until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure
+incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.A. Emerson, <i>Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present</i>
+(Fitchburg, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITTIG, RUDOLF<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;), German chemist, was born
+at Hamburg on the 6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry
+at Göttingen, graduating as Ph.D. with a dissertation on
+acetone in 1858. He subsequently held several appointments at
+Göttingen, being privat docent (1860), and extraordinary
+professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at Tübingen,
+and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were
+erected from his designs. Fittig&rsquo;s researches are entirely in
+organic chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The
+aldehydes and ketones provided material for his earlier work.
+He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in
+neutral, alkaline, and sometimes acid solution to secondary
+and tertiary glycols, substances which he named pinacones;
+and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute
+sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines.
+The unsaturated acids, also received much attention, and he
+discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones.
+In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In
+1855 Adolph Wurtz had shown that when sodium acted upon
+alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex
+hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method by showing that a
+mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment,
+yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin&rsquo;s
+reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which
+appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question,
+however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the
+reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally
+solved the constitution of coumarin, the odoriferous principle
+of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann&rsquo;s observation that phenyl
+isocrotonic acid readily yielded &alpha;-naphthol by loss of water was
+of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to
+the constitution of naphthalene. They also investigated certain
+hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the
+coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of phenanthrene.
+We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to
+Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its
+constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used
+text-books; he edited several editions of Wohler&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss
+der organischen Chemie</i> (11th ed., 1887) and wrote an <i>Unorganische
+Chemie</i> (1st ed., 1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been
+recognized by many scientific societies and institutions, the Royal
+Society awarding him the Davy medal in 1906.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITTON, MARY<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1578-1647), identified by some writers
+with the &ldquo;dark lady&rdquo; of Shakespeare&rsquo;s sonnets, was the daughter
+of Sir Edward Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized
+on the 24th of June 1578. Her elder sister, Anne, married John
+Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth year. About 1595 Mary
+Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. Her father
+recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys, comptroller
+of the queen&rsquo;s household, who promised to defend the &ldquo;innocent
+lamb&rdquo; from the &ldquo;wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the
+tame beasts of this place.&rdquo; Sir William was fifty and already
+married, but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the
+speedy death of the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have
+received considerable encouragement. There is no hint in her
+authenticated biography that she was acquainted with Shakespeare.
+William Kemp, who was a clown in Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+company, dedicated his <i>Nine Daies Wonder</i> to Mistress Anne
+(perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, &ldquo;Maid of Honour to Elizabeth&rdquo;;
+and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous
+volume, <i>A Woman&rsquo;s Woorth defended against all the Men in the
+World</i> (1599). In 1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivities
+at which William Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known
+to have been present; and shortly afterwards she became his
+mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke was sent to the Fleet
+in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton, whose child
+died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been dismissed
+from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister, Lady
+Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on
+Mary Fitton by George Ormerod, author of <i>History of Cheshire</i>,
+in a MS. quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (<i>Academy</i>, 27th Sept. 1884).
+Ormerod asserted, on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter
+Leycester, that she had two illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard
+Leveson, the friend and correspondent of her sister Anne. He
+also gives the name of her first husband as Captain Logher, and
+her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom she had a son and
+daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three years
+after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order
+of Mary Fitton&rsquo;s husbands, for her second husband, Logher,
+died in 1636. Her own will, which was proved in 1647, gives
+her name as &ldquo;Mary Lougher.&rdquo; In Gawsworth church there is
+a painted monument of the Fittons, in which Anne and Mary
+are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated that
+from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman,
+which is of course essential to her identification with the lady
+of the sonnets, but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady
+Newdigate-Newdegate in her <i>Gossip from a Muniment Room</i>
+(1897) she has brown hair and grey eyes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was challenged
+by Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their
+remarks see an appendix by C.G.O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition
+of Lady Newdigate-Newdegate&rsquo;s book.</p>
+
+<p>The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false
+mistress of Shakespeare&rsquo;s sonnets rests on a very thin chain of
+reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory
+that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of
+course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William
+Archer (<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, December 1897) found some support
+for Mary Fitton&rsquo;s identification with the &ldquo;dark lady&rdquo; in the fact
+that Sir William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three
+&ldquo;Wills&rdquo; among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpretation,
+whether right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy &lsquo;Will,&rsquo;</p>
+<p class="i05">And &lsquo;Will&rsquo; to boot, and &lsquo;Will&rsquo; in overplus.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle
+will be found in Mr Thomas Tyler&rsquo;s <i>Shakespeare&rsquo;s Sonnets</i> (1890, pp.
+73-92), and in the same writer&rsquo;s <i>Herbert-Fitton Theory of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+Sonnets</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1780-1861), British geologist
+was born in Dublin in January 1780. Educated at Trinity
+College, in that city, he gained the senior scholarship in 1798,
+and graduated in the following year. At this time he began to
+take interest in geology and to form a collection of fossils. Having
+adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 to Edinburgh,
+where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and
+thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in
+geology steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809,
+where he further studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he
+brought before the Geological Society of London a description
+of the geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin, with an
+account of some rare minerals found in Ireland. He took a
+medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some years
+the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted
+M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of
+means, he settled in London, and devoted himself to the science
+of geology with such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon
+became a leading authority, and in the end, as Murchison said,
+&ldquo;one of the British worthies who have raised modern geology to
+its present advanced position.&rdquo; His &ldquo;Observations on some of the
+Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite, in the South-east
+of England&rdquo; (<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. iv.) embodied a series
+of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and form the classic
+memoir familiarly known as Fitton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Strata below the Chalk.&rdquo;
+In this great work he established the true succession and relations
+of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and
+Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure.
+He had been elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the
+Geological Society of London 1827-1829. His house then
+became a meeting place for scientific workers, and during his
+presidency he held a conversazione open on Sunday evenings
+to all fellows of the Geological Society. From 1817 to 1841 he
+contributed to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> many admirable essays on
+the progress of geological science; he also wrote &ldquo;Notes on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+Progress of Geology in England&rdquo; for the <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>
+(1832-1833). His only independent publication was <i>A Geological
+Sketch of the Vicinity of Hastings</i> (1833). He was awarded the
+Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1852. He died
+in London on the 13th of May 1861.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Obituary by R.I. Murchison in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol.
+xviii., 1862, p. xxx.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZBALL, EDWARD<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1792-1873), English dramatist,
+whose real patronymic was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridgeshire,
+in 1792. His father was a well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball,
+after receiving his schooling at Newmarket, was apprenticed
+to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced some dramatic
+pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked success
+of his <i>Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber</i> (1820),
+together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at the
+Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in
+London. During the next twenty-five years he produced a
+great number of plays, most of which were highly successful.
+He had a special talent for nautical drama. His <i>Floating Beacon</i>
+(Surrey theatre, 19th of April 1824) ran for 140 nights, and his
+<i>Pilot</i> (Adelphi, 1825) for 200 nights. His greatest triumph in
+melodrama was perhaps <i>Jonathan Bradford, or the Murder at the
+Roadside Inn</i> (Surrey theatre, 12th of June 1833). He was at
+one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at Covent Garden,
+and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable reputation
+as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years of
+his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on
+the 27th of October 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His autobiography, <i>Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author&rsquo;s Life</i>
+(2 vol., 1859), is a naïve record of his career. Numbers of his plays
+are printed in <i>Cumberland&rsquo;s Minor British Theatre, Dick&rsquo;s Standard
+Plays</i> and <i>Lacy&rsquo;s Acting Edition of Plays</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> the name of an historic Irish house, which
+descends from Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the
+Domesday Survey (1086) was castellan of Windsor and a tenant-in-chief
+in five counties. From his eldest son William, known
+as &ldquo;de Windsor,&rdquo; descended the Windsors of Stanwell, of whom
+Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a
+Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which
+barony is now vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant
+in the female line. Of Walter&rsquo;s younger sons, Robert was given
+by Henry I. the barony of Little Easton, Essex; Maurice
+obtained the stewardship (<i>dapiferatus</i>) of the great Suffolk abbey
+of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry I.&rsquo;s
+queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a <i>dapifer</i>) became the ancestor
+of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that
+Arnulf de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened
+his position in Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince
+of South Wales, who bore to him famous children, &ldquo;by whom
+the southern coast of Wales was saved for the English and the
+bulwarks of Ireland stormed.&rdquo; Of these sons William, the eldest,
+was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as &ldquo;de Carew,&rdquo;
+from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke
+peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh.
+The descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford,
+Berks, and some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the
+wild claims of Sir Peter Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast
+Irish estates, including half of &ldquo;the kingdom of Cork,&rdquo; were
+based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de Carew&rsquo;s brothers,
+Reimund &ldquo;Fitz William&rdquo; (known as &ldquo;Le Gros&rdquo;) and Griffin
+&ldquo;Fitz William,&rdquo; took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David &ldquo;Fitz Gerald&rdquo;
+became bishop of St David&rsquo;s (1147-1176), and their daughter
+Angharat mother of Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, <i>q.v.</i>),
+the well-known historian and the eulogist of his mother&rsquo;s family.
+A third son, Maurice, obtained from his brother the stewardship
+(<i>dapiferatus</i>) of St David&rsquo;s, c. 1174, and having landed in Ireland
+in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod, founded the fortunes
+of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford, where he died
+and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however, was
+the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which
+Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were
+forced to give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded
+him as baron of the Naas and steward of St David&rsquo;s, but William&rsquo;s
+granddaughter carried the Naas to the Butlers and so to the
+Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of Maurice, who obtained
+lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice &ldquo;Fitz Gerald,&rdquo; who
+held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to 1245.
+In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal,
+Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king
+against the Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257.
+He held Maynooth Castle, the seat of his descendants.</p>
+
+<p>Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the
+justiciar leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son
+Gerald) and a younger son Maurice, of whom the latter was
+justiciar for a year in 1272, while the former, as heir male and
+head of the race, inherited the Ophaley lands, which he is said
+to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John &ldquo;Fitz Thomas,&rdquo;
+whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle and
+town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the
+heirs male of his body (May 14th, 1316), Dying shortly after,
+he was succeeded by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard
+(de Burgh) the &ldquo;red earl&rdquo; of Ulster, who received the hereditary
+shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar
+of Ireland for a year. His younger son Maurice &ldquo;Fitz Thomas,&rdquo;
+4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed justiciar, and
+was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl (1427-1477), who
+between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the government
+of Ireland as &ldquo;deputy,&rdquo; and who founded the &ldquo;brotherhood
+of St George&rdquo; for the defence of the English Pale. He was also
+made lord chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the
+8th earl (1477-1513), called &ldquo;More&rdquo; (the Great), was deputy
+governor of Ireland from 1481 for most of the rest of his life,
+though imprisoned in the Tower two years (1494-1496) on
+suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while fighting
+the Irish as &ldquo;deputy.&rdquo; Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1534),
+followed in his father&rsquo;s steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till
+the enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his
+house, brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of temporary
+restorations he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.</p>
+
+<p>In his anger at his rival&rsquo;s successes the 9th earl had been led,
+it was suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in
+England his son Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, &ldquo;Silken Thomas,&rdquo;
+broke out into open revolt (1534), and declared war on the
+government; his followers slew the archbishop of Dublin and
+laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made overtures to
+the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the
+Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege
+to his castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by
+a long struggle in the field, the earl, deserted by O&rsquo;Conor, had
+eventually to surrender himself to the king&rsquo;s deputy. He was
+sent to the Tower, where he was subsequently joined by his
+five uncles, arrested as his accomplices. They were all six
+executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of attainder
+completed the ruin of the family.</p>
+
+<p>But the earl&rsquo;s half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth
+was the earl of Surrey&rsquo;s &ldquo;fair Geraldine&rdquo;), a mere boy, had
+been carried off, and, after many adventures at home and abroad,
+returned to England after Henry VIII.&rsquo;s death, and to propitiate
+the Irish was restored to his estates by Edward VI. (1552).
+Having served Mary in Wyat&rsquo;s rebellion, he was created by her
+earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May 1554, but
+the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained under
+attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion
+under Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their
+Spanish allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of
+treason in 1583. But the acts attainting his family had been
+repealed in 1569, and the old earldom was thus regained. In
+1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry (&ldquo;of the Battleaxes&rdquo;),
+who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone rebels
+in 1597. On the death of his brother in 1599 the earldom passed
+to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by
+Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the
+ancestral castle of Geashill with its territory and was recognized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span>
+in 1620 as Lady Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-1660),
+had his castle of Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics
+in 1642, and after its subsequent occupation by them in 1646
+it was finally abandoned by the family.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful,
+save for the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth
+became the seat of the family, until James the 20th earl (1722-1773),
+who obtained a viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built
+Leinster House in Dublin, and formed a powerful party in the
+Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made lord deputy; in 1760
+he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery; and in 1766 he
+received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only
+Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His
+wealth and connexions secured him a commanding position.
+Of his younger children one son was created Lord Lecale;
+another was the well-known rebel, Lord Edward Fitzgerald;
+another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a daughter
+was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke
+(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received
+nearly £30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1883 the
+family was still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but,
+after a tenure of nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to
+sell them to the tenants under the recent Land Purchase Acts.
+In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b. 1887) succeeded his father Gerald,
+the 5th duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke of Leinster.</p>
+
+<p>The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond,
+who were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent
+from Maurice, the founder of the family in Ireland, through a
+younger son Thomas. It would seem that Maurice, grandson
+of Thomas, was father of Thomas &ldquo;Fitz Maurice&rdquo; <i>Nappagh</i>
+(&ldquo;of the ape&rdquo;), justice of Ireland in 1295, who obtained a grant
+of the territory of &ldquo;Decies and Desmond&rdquo; in 1292, and died
+in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting
+vast estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marrying
+a daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created
+earl of Desmond (<i>i.e.</i> south Munster) on the 22nd of August
+1329, and Kerry was made a palatine liberty for him. The
+greatest Irish noble of his day, he led the Anglo-Irish party
+against the English representatives of the king, and was attacked
+as the king&rsquo;s enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He surrendered in
+England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually regained
+favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died,
+however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in
+turn, Gerald, the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar
+(<i>i.e.</i> viceroy) in 1367, despite his adopting his father&rsquo;s policy
+which the crown still wished to thwart. But he was superseded
+two years later, and defeated and captured by the native king
+of Thomond shortly after. Yet his sympathies were distinctly
+Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the south-west of
+Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native lines,
+and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422.
+His son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland
+as deputy from 1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English
+rule by stubborn conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who superseded
+him, procured his attainder with that of the earl of Kildare,
+on the charge of alliance with the Irish, and he was beheaded on
+the 14th of February 1468, his followers in Munster avenging his
+death by invading the Pale. His younger son Maurice, earl
+from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck&rsquo;s Irish supporters,
+and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James (1520-1529)
+was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the
+French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession
+reverted to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man, at
+whose death there was a contest between his younger brother
+Sir John &ldquo;of Desmond&rdquo; and his grandson James, a court page
+of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured possession till his death
+(1536), when his son James succeeded <i>de facto</i>, and <i>de jure</i> on the
+rightful earl being murdered by the usurper&rsquo;s younger brother
+in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains had by this time
+classed the earls among them, but although this James looked
+to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent
+a part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary
+foes of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and
+kept Munster quiet and in order for the English till his death
+in 1558. His four marriages produced a disputed succession
+and a break-up of the family. His eldest son Thomas &ldquo;Roe&rdquo;
+(the Red) was disinherited, and failed to obtain the earldom,
+which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother Gerald
+&ldquo;the rebel earl&rdquo; (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in
+his uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially,
+the famous James &ldquo;Fitz Maurice&rdquo; Fitz Gerald. Gerald&rsquo;s
+turbulence and his strife with the Butlers led to his detention
+in England (1562-1564) and again in 1565-1566. In 1567
+Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence, with his brother,
+Sir John &ldquo;of Desmond,&rdquo; he was sent to England and the Tower,
+and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the
+above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas &ldquo;Roe,&rdquo; had
+usurped his position in his absence and induced the natives to
+choose him as &ldquo;captain&rdquo; or chieftain of Desmond. He formed
+a strong Irish Catholic party and broke into revolt in 1569.
+Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled again, till crushed by Perrot
+in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return would not join James in
+revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But Gerald himself,
+after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574), though he
+soon submitted to the queen&rsquo;s forces. On the continent James
+Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France
+and to Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII.
+With the papal nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in
+Kerry (June 1579) and called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond
+to join him, but the latter assured the English government of
+his loyalty, and James was killed in a skirmish. Yet Desmond
+was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by being proclaimed
+as a traitor (Nov. 1st, 1579), into a miserable rebellion. His
+castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a fugitive,
+till surprised and beheaded on the 11th of November 1583, after
+long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His
+ruin is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled
+policy. The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres,
+were forfeited by act of parliament.</p>
+
+<p>But the influence of his mighty house was still great among
+the Irish. The disinherited Thomas &ldquo;Roe&rdquo; left a son James
+&ldquo;Fitz Thomas,&rdquo; who, succeeding him in 1595 and finding that
+the territory of the earls would never be restored, assumed the
+earldom and joined O&rsquo;Neill&rsquo;s rebellion in 1598, at the head of
+8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the fidelity
+of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his kinsman
+the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he
+had married, and sent to the Tower. The &ldquo;sugan&rdquo; (sham)
+earl lingered there obscurely as &ldquo;James M&rsquo;Thomas&rdquo; till his
+death. In consequence of his rebellion and the devotion of the
+Irish to his race, James, son of Gerald &ldquo;the rebel earl,&rdquo; who
+had remained in the Tower since his father&rsquo;s death (1583), was
+restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to Munster in 1600, but
+he, known as &ldquo;the queen&rsquo;s earl,&rdquo; could, as a Protestant, do
+nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The &ldquo;sugan&rdquo; earl&rsquo;s
+brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into Spain,
+and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title
+and was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the
+service of the emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin
+of the earls of Desmond and of Kildare had never been forgotten,
+and intermarriage had cemented the bond. Just before his
+death the exile wrote as &ldquo;Desmond <i>alias</i> Gerratt Fitz Gerald&rdquo;
+to his &ldquo;Most Noble Cosen&rdquo; the earl of Kildare, that &ldquo;wee must
+not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably
+observed betweene our antenates and elders.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also
+of this stock, although their actual origin, in the 12th century,
+is doubtful. From a very early date they were feudal lords of
+Kerry, and their dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry
+VII. in 1489. The isolated position of their territory (&ldquo;Clanmaurice&rdquo;)
+threw them even more among the Irish than the earls
+of Desmond, and they often adopted the native form of their
+name, &ldquo;MacMorrish.&rdquo; Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry
+narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+of Thomas in the rebellion of James &ldquo;Fitz Maurice&rdquo; was
+suspicious, and his sons joined in that of the earl of Desmond,
+while he himself was a rebel in 1582. Patrick, his successor
+(1590-1600), was captured in rebellion (1587), and when free,
+joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and heir Thomas, who
+continued in the field till he obtained pardon and restoration in
+1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson withdrew
+to France with James II., but the next peer became a
+supporter of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir
+William Petty, and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From
+him descend the family of Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the
+marquessate of Lansdowne (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1818, and still hold among
+their titles the feudal barony of Kerry together with vast estates
+in that county.</p>
+
+<p>From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of
+Desmond&rsquo;s ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights,
+Knights of Glin and Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities
+having, it is said, been bestowed upon them by their father,
+as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin Castle, county Limerick,
+is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of Glin. Valencia
+Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who received a
+baronetcy in 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Calendars of Irish documents and state papers and
+Carew papers; Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Viceroys of Ireland</i>; Lord Kildare&rsquo;s <i>Earls
+of Kildare</i>; G.E. C[okayne]&rsquo;s <i>Complete Peerage</i>; Haymond Graves,
+<i>Unpublished Geraldine Documents</i>; <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>;
+Calendar of the duke of Leinster&rsquo;s MSS. in 9th <i>Report on Historical
+MSS.</i>, part ii.; Ware&rsquo;s <i>Annals</i>; J.H. Round&rsquo;s &ldquo;Origin of the
+Fitzgeralds&rdquo; and &ldquo;Origin of the Carews&rdquo; in the <i>Ancestor</i>; his
+&ldquo;Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley&rdquo; in <i>Genealogist</i>, ix.,
+and &ldquo;Barons of the Naas&rdquo; in <i>Genealogist</i>, xv.; and his &ldquo;Decies
+and Desmond&rdquo; in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> xviii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, EDWARD<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1809-1883), English writer, the
+poet of Omar Khayyám, was born as <span class="sc">Edward Purcell</span>, at
+Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on the 31st of March 1809. His
+father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss FitzGerald, assumed
+in 1818 the name and arms of his wife&rsquo;s family. From 1816 to
+1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in
+the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds.
+In 1826 he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where,
+some two years later, he became acquainted with Thackeray
+and W.H. Thompson. With Tennyson, &ldquo;a sort of Hyperion,&rdquo;
+his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to live in
+Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of
+Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly
+stationary and rustic life, presently moving into his native
+county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a
+week or two. Until 1835 the FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead;
+from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near
+Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until 1873 in the
+town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house
+hard by, <span class="correction" title="amended from ealled">called</span> Little Grange.</p>
+
+<p>During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost
+without interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature.
+He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to
+push on far before him, and long showed no disposition to
+emulate their activity. In 1851 he published his first book,
+<i>Euphranor</i>, a Platonic dialogue, born of memories of the old
+happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared <i>Polonius</i>, a collection
+of &ldquo;saws and modern instances,&rdquo; some of them his own, the rest
+borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald
+began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with
+Professor E.B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford
+in 1853. In the latter year he issued <i>Six Dramas of Calderon</i>,
+freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in
+1856 he anonymously published a version of the <i>Salámán and
+Absál</i> of Jámi in Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with
+which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald&rsquo;s
+correspondence&mdash;&ldquo;Hafiz and <i>Omar Khayyám</i> ring like true
+metal.&rdquo; On the 15th of January 1859 a little anonymous
+pamphlet was published as <i>The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám</i>.
+In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald&rsquo;s particular
+friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention.
+The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even
+(as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls.
+But in 1860 Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord
+Houghton quickly followed. The <i>Rubáiyát</i> became slowly
+famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged
+to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he
+had produced in 1865 a version of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, and two more
+plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately translations
+of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was
+<i>Readings in Crabbe</i>, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of
+Attar&rsquo;s <i>Mantic-Uttair</i> under the title of <i>The Bird Parliament</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From 1861 onwards FitzGerald&rsquo;s greatest interest had centred
+in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a yacht, &ldquo;The Scandal,&rdquo;
+and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the
+&ldquo;Meum and Tuum.&rdquo; For some years, till 1871, he spent the
+months from June to October mainly in &ldquo;knocking about
+somewhere outside of Lowestoft.&rdquo; In this way, and among his
+books and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man.
+On the 14th of June 1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep.
+He was &ldquo;an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more
+like loves.&rdquo; In 1885 a stimulus was given to the steady advance
+of his fame by the fact that Tennyson dedicated his <i>Tiresias</i>
+to FitzGerald&rsquo;s memory, in some touching reminiscent verses
+to &ldquo;Old Fitz.&rdquo; This was but the signal for that universal
+appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English dress, which has
+been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years.
+The melody of FitzGerald&rsquo;s verse is so exquisite, the thoughts
+he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the
+general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is
+so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal
+favour which the poem has met with among critical readers.
+But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it is now
+probably better known to the general public than any single
+poem of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers
+have almost transcended common sense in the extravagance
+of their laudation. FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the
+daughter of Bernard Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald
+as a man practically nothing was known until, in 1889, Mr W.
+Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published
+his <i>Letters and Literary Remains</i> in three volumes. This was
+followed in 1895 by the <i>Letters to Fanny Kemble</i>. These letters
+constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that
+FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic letter-writer.
+One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived,
+FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary
+individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English
+<i>belles-lettres</i>, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and
+1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Works of Edward FitzGerald</i> appeared in 1887. See also
+a chronological list of FitzGerald&rsquo;s works (Caxton Club, Chicago,
+1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. W.F. Prideaux, in <i>Notes
+and Queries</i> (9th series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901;
+<i>Letters and Literary Remains</i> (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903);
+and the <i>Life of Edward FitzGerald</i>, by Thomas Wright (1904),
+which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of
+sources (vol. i. pp. xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the
+&ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series is by A.C. Benson. The FitzGerald
+centenary was celebrated in March 1909. See the <i>Centenary
+Celebrations Souvenir</i> (Ipswich, 1909) and <i>The Times</i> for March 25,
+1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1763-1798), Irish conspirator,
+fifth son of James, 1st duke of Leinster, by his wife
+Emilia Mary, daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond,
+was born at Carton House, near Dublin, on the 15th of October
+1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died, and his widow soon
+afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended Lord
+Edward&rsquo;s early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord
+Edward served with credit in America on the staff of Lord
+Rawdon (afterwards marquess of Hastings), and at the battle
+of Eutaw Springs (8th of September 1781) he was severely
+wounded, his life being saved by a negro named Tony, whom
+Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his life. In
+1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the duke
+of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament
+as member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+Opposition group led by Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>), but took no prominent
+part in debate. After spending a short time at Woolwich to
+complete his military education, he made a tour through Spain
+in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love for his cousin
+Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for New
+Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major.
+The love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young
+Irishman found congenial soil in the wild surroundings of unexplored
+Canadian forests, and the enthusiasm thus engendered
+for the &ldquo;natural&rdquo; life of savagery may have been already
+fortified by study of Rousseau&rsquo;s writings, for which at a later
+period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In February
+1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically
+unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling
+in with Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in
+a subsequent expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit
+by the Bear tribe of Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his
+way down the Mississippi to New Orleans, whence he returned to
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Finding that his brother had procured his election for the
+county of Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independence,
+Lord Edward refused the command of an expedition against
+Cadiz offered him by Pitt, and devoted himself for the next few
+years to the pleasures of society and his parliamentary duties.
+He was on terms of intimacy with his relative C.J. Fox, with
+R.B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According to Thomas
+Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous
+suitors of Sheridan&rsquo;s first wife whose attentions were received
+with favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been
+its limits, a warm mutual affection subsisted between the two.
+His Whig connexions combined with his transatlantic experiences
+to predispose Lord Edward to sympathize with the doctrines of
+the French Revolution, which he embraced with ardour when
+he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged with Thomas Paine,
+and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a convivial
+gathering on the 18th of November he supported a toast to &ldquo;the
+speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions,&rdquo;
+and gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own
+title&mdash;a performance for which he was dismissed from the army.
+While in Paris Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl
+whom he chanced to see at the theatre, and who is said to have
+had a striking likeness to Mrs Sheridan. Procuring an introduction
+he discovered her to be a <i>protégée</i> of Madame de Sillery,
+comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl, whose name was
+Pamela (?1776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is some
+evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela
+was born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims,
+the common belief that she was the daughter of Madame de
+Genlis herself by Philippe (Égalité), duke of Orleans, was probably
+well founded. On the 27th of December 1792 Fitzgerald
+and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the witnesses
+being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in
+January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous,
+and was finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen,
+and in the Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few
+years previously, chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare,
+to watch the interests of the Catholics. French revolutionary
+doctrines had become ominously popular, and no one sympathized
+with them more warmly than Lord Edward Fitzgerald,
+who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris, returned
+to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively
+into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he
+denounced in the House of Commons a government proclamation,
+which Grattan had approved, in language so violent that he
+was ordered into custody and required to apologize at the bar
+of the House. As early as 1794 the government had information
+that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but it was not till
+1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after the
+recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establishment
+of an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald
+Wolfe Tone was in Paris endeavouring to obtain French assistance
+for an insurrection in Ireland. In the same month Fitzgerald
+and his friend Arthur O&rsquo;Connor proceeded to Hamburg,
+where they opened negotiations with the Directory through
+Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke
+of York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way
+through London with her husband, had told her that &ldquo;all was
+known&rdquo; about his plans, and advised her to persuade him not
+to go abroad. The proceedings of the conspirators at Hamburg
+were made known to the government in London by an informer,
+Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband&rsquo;s
+secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and
+she appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her,
+though there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled
+prudence. The result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche&rsquo;s
+abortive expedition to Bantry Bay in December 1796. In
+September 1797 the government learnt from the informer
+MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing the
+conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly
+maturing. He was specially concerned with the military organization,
+in which he held the post of colonel of the Kildare
+regiment and head of the military committee. He had papers
+showing that 280,000 men were ready to rise. They possessed
+some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the leaders were
+hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency and to
+give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving
+dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided
+in opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without
+waiting for foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates
+of the bolder course. His opinions and his proposals for action
+were alike violent. He was on intimate terms with apologists
+for assassination; there is some evidence that he favoured a
+project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in procession
+to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May
+1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that
+converted Thomas Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer;
+at all events, by him and several others the authorities were kept
+posted in what was going on, though lack of evidence producible
+in court delayed the arrest of the ringleaders. But on the 12th
+of March 1798 Reynolds&rsquo; information led to the seizure of a
+number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond. Lord
+Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them.
+The government were anxious to save him from the consequences
+of his own folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family,
+&ldquo;for God&rsquo;s sake get this young man out of the country; the ports
+shall be thrown open, and no hindrance whatever offered.&rdquo;
+Fitzgerald with chivalrous recklessness refused to desert others
+who could not escape, and whom he had himself led into danger.
+On the 30th of March a proclamation establishing martial law
+and authorizing the military to act without orders from the civil
+magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting cruelty in
+several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.</p>
+
+<p>The government had now no choice but to secure if possible
+the person of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position
+more than his abilities made him the most important factor
+in the conspiracy. On the 11th of May a reward of £1000 was
+offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was the date
+fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond&rsquo;s, Fitzgerald
+had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a feather
+dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in
+disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and
+generally observed less caution than his situation required.
+The conspiracy was honeycombed with treachery, and it was
+long a matter of dispute to whose information the government
+were indebted for Fitzgerald&rsquo;s arrest; but it is no longer open
+to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was disclosed by a
+Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated reward
+was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer.
+On the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to
+Murphy&rsquo;s house with Major H.C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord
+Edward was discovered in bed. A desperate scuffle took place,
+Ryan being mortally wounded by Fitzgerald with a dagger,
+while Lord Edward himself was only secured after Sirr had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He was
+conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare
+he was visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his
+wound on the 4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed
+in 1819) was passed, confiscating his property; and his wife&mdash;against
+whom the government probably possessed sufficient
+evidence to secure a conviction for treason&mdash;was compelled
+to leave the country before her husband had actually
+expired.</p>
+
+<p>Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward
+himself, and whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression
+on Robert Southey, repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she
+married J. Pitcairn, the American consul. Since her marriage
+with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved and esteemed
+by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her second
+marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient
+evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct
+as open to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately
+devoted to the memory of her first husband; and she died in
+Paris in November 1831. A portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre.
+She had three children by Lord Edward Fitzgerald: Edward
+Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of General Sir Guy
+Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon, R.N.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome
+features. His character and career have been made the subject
+of eulogies much beyond their merits. He had, indeed, a winning
+personality, and a warm, affectionate and generous nature,
+which made him greatly beloved by his family and friends;
+he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic, adventurous.
+But he was entirely without the weightier qualities requisite
+for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs. Hotheaded
+and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as conspicuously
+deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratorical
+genius of such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of
+his associates in conspiracy described him as &ldquo;weak and not fit
+to command a sergeant&rsquo;s guard, but very zealous.&rdquo; Reinhard,
+who considered Arthur O&rsquo;Connor &ldquo;a far abler man,&rdquo; accurately
+read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald as that of a young
+man &ldquo;incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank, energetic, and
+likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no
+experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be
+chief of a great party or leader in a difficult enterprise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Thomas Moore, <i>Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled <i>The Memoirs
+of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i>, edited with supplementary particulars
+by Martin MacDermott (London, 1897); R.R. Madden, <i>The
+United Irishmen</i> (7 vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C.H. Teeling,
+<i>Personal Narrative of the Irish Rebellion of 1798</i> (Belfast, 1832);
+W.J. Fitzpatrick, <i>The Sham Squire, The Rebellion of Ireland and the
+Informers of 1798</i> (Dublin, 1866), and <i>Secret Service under Pitt</i>
+(London, 1892); J.A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth
+Century</i> (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of
+England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vols. vii. and viii. (London,
+1896); Thomas Reynolds the younger, <i>The Life of Thomas Reynolds</i>
+(London, 1839); <i>The Life and Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox</i>,
+edited by the countess of Ilchester and Lord Stavordale (London,
+1901); Ida A. Taylor, <i>The Life of Lord Edward Fitzgerald</i> (London,
+1903), which gives a prejudiced and distorted picture of Pamela.
+For particulars of Pamela, and especially as to the question of
+her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, <i>Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald</i>
+(London, 1904); <i>Memoirs of Madame de Genlis</i> (London,
+1825); Georgette Ducrest, <i>Chroniques populaires</i> (Paris, 1855);
+Thomas Moore, <i>Memoirs of the Life of R.B. Sheridan</i> (London,
+1825).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, RAYMOND,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Redmond</span> (d. <i>ca.</i> 1182),
+surnamed Le Gros, was the son of William Fitzgerald and brother
+of Odo de Carew. He was sent by Strongbow to Ireland in 1170,
+and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford, where he was
+besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and Ostmen,
+whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow&rsquo;s second in command,
+and had the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the
+successful assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to
+hand over Strongbow&rsquo;s conquests to Henry II., but was back
+in Dublin in July 1171, when he led one of the sallies from the
+town. Strongbow offended him later by refusing him the
+marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de Quenci, constable
+of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and Hervey
+de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak
+of a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned
+with his uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of
+marriage with Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a
+series of successes, and with the fall of Limerick in October
+1175 order was restored. Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained
+Raymond&rsquo;s recall on the ground that his power threatened the
+royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a fresh outbreak
+at Limerick, the earl&rsquo;s troops refusing to march without
+him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until
+the arrival of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over
+the royal fortresses. He was deprived of his estates near Dublin
+and Wexford, but the Geraldines secured the recall of Fitz
+Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their power and influence.
+In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen, who was
+besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to
+be 1182, is not known.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (10th earl of Kildare),
+(1513-1537), the eldest son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of
+Kildare, was born in London in 1513. He spent much of his
+youth in England, but in 1534 when his father was for the
+third time summoned to England to answer for his maladministration
+as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held at
+Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the
+Ormond faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been
+executed in the Tower, and that his son&rsquo;s life was to be attempted.
+Inflamed with rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode
+at the head of his retainers<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> into Dublin, and before the council
+for Ireland (the 11th of June 1534) formally renounced his
+allegiance to the king and proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies,
+including Archbishop John Allen (of Dublin), who had been set
+by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took refuge in Dublin
+Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was taken
+by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by
+Fitzgerald&rsquo;s servants in his presence, but whether actually by
+his orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for
+absolution, but was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish
+Church. Leaving part of his army (with the consent of the
+citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle, Fitzgerald himself went against
+Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and succeeded at first in making
+a truce with him. But the citizens of Dublin now rose against
+him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of an English
+army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the English
+army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but
+taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir
+William Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth
+ravaged Kildare and Meath throughout the winter. He had now
+succeeded to the earldom of Kildare, his father having died in
+the Tower on the 13th of December 1534, but he does not seem
+to have been known by that title. In March Skeffington
+stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which was
+defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese,
+Fitzgerald&rsquo;s foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535,
+and most of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved
+the final blow to the rebellion. The news of what is known as
+the &ldquo;pardon of Maynooth&rdquo; reached Fitzgerald as he was
+returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his men fell
+away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail
+for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months
+in raids against the English and their allies, but his party gradually
+deserting him, on the 18th of August 1535 he surrendered
+himself to Lord Leonard Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he
+made some conditions, but what they were is very uncertain.
+He was taken to England and placed in the Tower. In February
+1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with great injustice,
+seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were hanged
+at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder
+against them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+Irish and English parliaments; but the family estates were
+restored by Edward VI. to Gerald, 11th earl of Kildare (stepbrother
+of Thomas), and the attainder was repealed by Queen
+Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances, youngest
+daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Richard Stanihurst, <i>Chronicles of Ireland</i> (vol. ii.
+of <i>Holinshed&rsquo;s Chronicles</i>); Sir James Ware, <i>Rerum Hibernicarum
+annales</i> (Dublin, 1664); <i>The Earls of Kildare</i>, by C.W. Fitzgerald,
+duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, <i>Ireland under
+the Tudors</i> (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); <i>Calendar State Papers,
+Hen. VIII., Irish</i>; G. E. C.&rsquo;s <i>Peerage</i>; John Lodge, <i>Peerage of
+Ireland</i>, ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of &ldquo;Silken Thomas,&rdquo;
+either from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished
+manners.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1470-1538), English jurist,
+was born at Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford,
+he was called to the English bar, and in 1523 became justice of
+the Court of Common Pleas, the duties of which office he continued
+to discharge till within a short time of his death in 1538.
+As a judge he left behind him a high reputation for fairness and
+integrity, and his legal learning is sufficiently attested by his
+published works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He is the author of <i>La Graunde Abridgement</i>, a digest of important
+legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; <i>The Office
+and Authority of Justices of the Peace</i>, first printed in 1538 (last ed.
+1794); the <i>New Natura Brevium</i> (1534, last ed. 1794), with a
+commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are
+sometimes attributed the <i>Book of Husbandry</i> (1523), the first published
+work on agriculture in the English language, and the <i>Book of Surveying
+and Improvements</i> (1523) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZHERBERT, THOMAS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1552-1640), English Jesuit,
+was the eldest son and heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton
+in Staffordshire, and grandson of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert,
+judge of the common pleas. He was educated at Oxford, where,
+at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy. On
+his release he went to London, where he was a member of the
+association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits
+Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew
+to the continent, where he was active in the cause of Mary,
+queen of Scots. He married in this year Dorothy, daughter of
+Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire. After the death
+of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the recommendation
+of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king. He
+continued his intrigues against the English government, and in
+1598 he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen
+Elizabeth. After this he was for a short while in the service of
+the duke of Feria at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was
+ordained priest (1601-1602) and became agent for the English
+clergy. He was unpopular with them, however, owing to his
+subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the agency in 1607
+owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest George
+Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was
+appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616,
+and in 1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held
+this post to within a year of his death, which occurred at Rome
+on the 7th of August (O.S.) 1640.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Father Fitzherbert, who is described as &ldquo;a person of excellent
+parts, a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous
+spirit,&rdquo; wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in
+the article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the <i>Dictionary of
+National Biography</i>, together with authorities for his life.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ NEAL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> or (<span class="sc">Fitz Nigel</span>), <b>RICHARD</b> (d. 1198), treasurer
+of Henry II. and Richard I. of England, and bishop of London,
+belonged to a great administrative family whose fortunes were
+closely linked with those of Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I.
+The founder of the family was Roger, bishop of Salisbury, the
+great minister of Henry I. Before the death of that sovereign
+(1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his nephew,
+Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the
+whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a
+partisan of the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession
+of her son, Henry II., who made him at first chancellor and
+then treasurer. Nigel&rsquo;s son, Richard, who was born before his
+father&rsquo;s elevation to the episcopate (1133), succeeded to the
+office of treasurer in 1158, and held it continuously for forty
+years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant justices for
+1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which he
+exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln,
+and was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among
+three select candidates for the vacant see. The king passed
+him over in favour of Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this
+occasion to make a disinterested appointment. Richard I.,
+however, rewarded the treasurer&rsquo;s services with the see of London
+(1189).</p>
+
+<p>Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked
+the broad statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided
+any connexion with political parties; he is only once mentioned
+as taking part in a debate of the Great Council (1193), and then
+spoke, in his character as a bishop, to support a royal demand for
+a special aid. But his work <i>De necessariis observantiis Scaccarii
+dialogus</i>, commonly called the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>, is of unique
+interest to the historian. It is an account, in two books, of the
+procedure followed by the exchequer in the author&rsquo;s time.
+Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm because,
+as he explains, the &ldquo;course&rdquo; of the exchequer was largely the
+creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the
+Pipe Rolls the <i>Dialogus</i> furnishes a most faithful and detailed
+picture of English fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The
+speakers in the dialogue are Richard himself and an anonymous
+pupil. The latter puts leading questions which Richard answers
+in elaborate fashion. The date of the conversation is given
+in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks the date
+at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178
+or 1179. Soon after the author&rsquo;s death we find it already recognized
+as the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was
+frequently transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians
+of every period. Hence it is the more necessary to insist that
+the historical statements which the treatise contains are sometimes
+demonstrably erroneous; the author appears to have
+relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as the work is only
+known to us through transcripts, it is possible that some of the
+blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected zeal
+of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years
+a register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three
+parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the
+time when he wrote the <i>Dialogus</i>, but has since disappeared.
+Stubbs&rsquo; conjectural identification of this <i>Liber tricolumnis</i> with
+the first part of the <i>Gesta Henrici</i> (formerly attributed to
+Benedictus Abbas) is now abandoned as untenable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Madox&rsquo;s edition in his <i>History of the Exchequer</i> (1769); and
+that of A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902).
+F. Liebermann&rsquo;s <i>Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario</i> (Göttingen,
+1875) contains the fullest account of the author.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom
+of Hereford and the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in
+1071. He did not keep on good terms with William the Conqueror,
+and in 1075, disregarding the king&rsquo;s prohibition, married
+his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, at the famous
+bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two earls
+rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west
+to join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the
+Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought
+into the field against him. On the collapse of his confederate&rsquo;s
+rising, Roger was tried before the Great Council, deprived of
+his lands and earldom, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment;
+but he was released, with other political prisoners, at the death
+of William I. in 1087.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> Earl of Hereford (d. 1071),
+was an intimate friend of William the Conqueror, and the
+principal agent in preparing for the invasion of England. He
+received the earldom of Hereford with the special duty of pushing
+into Wales. During William&rsquo;s absence in 1067, Fitz-Osbern
+was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from
+the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also
+acted as William&rsquo;s lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069.
+In 1070 William sent him to assist Queen Matilda in the government
+of Normandy. But Richilde, widow of Baldwin VI. of
+Flanders, having offered to marry him if he would protect her
+son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern accepted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span>
+the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed,
+fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vols. iii. and iv.; Sir James
+Ramsay, <i>Foundations of England</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (d. 1196), was a Londoner of good
+position who had served in the Third Crusade, and on his return
+took up the cause of the poorer citizens against the magnates
+who monopolized the government of London and assessed the
+taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It is affirmed that
+he entered on this course of action through a quarrel with his
+elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears
+to be mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives
+Fitz Osbert a high character, and he was implicitly trusted by
+the poorer citizens. He attempted to procure redress for them
+from the king; but the city magistrates persuaded the justiciar
+Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and his followers meditated
+plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were sent to seize
+the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St
+Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily
+dragged to execution at Tyburn.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief
+justiciar of England, began his official career in the later years
+of Henry II., whom he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and
+a justice of the forest. During Richard&rsquo;s absence on Crusade
+he was one of the five justices of the king&rsquo;s court who stood next
+in authority to the regent, Longchamp. It was at this time
+(1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of Essex, in the
+right of his wife, who was descended from the famous Geoffrey
+de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights
+over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Longchamp,
+and revenged himself by taking an active part in the
+baronial agitation through which the regent was expelled from
+his office. The king, however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share
+in these proceedings; and, though refusing to give him formal
+investiture of the Essex earldom, appointed him justiciar in
+succession to Hubert Walter (1198). In this capacity Fitz
+Peter continued his predecessor&rsquo;s policy of encouraging foreign
+trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter
+received, during his administration, charters of self-government.
+He was continued in his office by John, who found him a useful
+instrument and described him in an official letter as &ldquo;indispensable
+to the king and kingdom.&rdquo; He proved himself an able
+instrument of extortion, and profited to no small extent by the
+spoliation of church lands in the period of the interdict. But
+he was too closely connected with the baronage to be altogether
+trusted by the king. The contemporary <i>Histoire des ducs</i>
+describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of disgrace and
+confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured to act
+as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his
+mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I.
+(at the council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz
+Peter died a few weeks later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed
+to Peter des Roches, one of the unpopular foreign favourites.
+Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted nor a disinterested statesman;
+but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert Walter, and maintained
+the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the first and
+second Henries had founded.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I.
+and John. Also Miss K. Norgate&rsquo;s <i>Angevin England</i>, vol. ii. (1887),
+and <i>John Lackland</i> (1902); A. Ballard in <i>English Historical Review</i>,
+xiv. p. 93; H.W.C. Davis&rsquo; <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i>
+(1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZROY, ROBERT<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1805-1865), English, vice-admiral,
+distinguished as a hydrographer and meteorologist, was born
+at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the 5th of July 1805, being a grandson,
+on the father&rsquo;s side, of the third duke of Grafton, and on the
+mother&rsquo;s, of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered the
+navy from the Royal Naval College, then a school for cadets,
+on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of September 1824
+was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in the
+&ldquo;Thetis&rdquo; frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South
+America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain
+Bingham, he was in August 1828 appointed to the &ldquo;Ganges,&rdquo;
+as flag-lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the
+commander-in-chief on the South American station; and on the
+death of Commander Stokes of the &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo; on the 13th of
+November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The
+&ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo; a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had
+been for the two previous years, employed on the survey of the
+coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of
+Commander King in the &ldquo;Adventure,&rdquo; and, together with the
+&ldquo;Adventure,&rdquo; returned to England in the autumn of 1830.
+Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one of whom
+died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the
+others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a
+rudimentary knowledge of religion and of some useful handicrafts;
+and, as he had pledged himself to restore them to their
+native country, he was making preparations in the summer of the
+following year to carry them back in a merchant ship bound to
+Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to the &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo;
+to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo;
+sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying
+as a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous
+naturalist. After an absence of nearly five years, and having,
+in addition to the survey of the Straits of Magellan and a great
+part of the coast of South America, run a chronometric line round
+the world, thus fixing the longitude of many secondary meridians
+with sufficient exactness for all the purposes of ordinary navigation,
+the &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; anchored at Falmouth on the 2nd of October
+1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the rank of captain
+and was now for the next few years principally employed in
+reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he
+was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society;
+and in 1839 he published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative
+of the voyage of the &ldquo;Adventure&rdquo; and &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo; 1826-1830,
+and of the &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo; 1831-1836, with a third volume by Darwin&mdash;a
+book familiarly known as a record of scientific travel. Of
+Fitzroy&rsquo;s work as a surveyor, carried on under circumstances
+of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit that
+was semi-officially denounced as &ldquo;shabby,&rdquo; Sir Francis Beaufort,
+the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the
+House of Commons, 10th of February 1848, that &ldquo;from the
+equator to Cape Horn, and from thence round to the river
+Plata on the eastern side of America, all that is <i>immediately</i>
+wanted has been already achieved by the splendid survey of
+Captain Robert Fitzroy.&rdquo; This was written before steamships
+made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The
+survey that was sufficient then became afterwards very far
+from sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of
+Ipswich, and in the following year was returned to parliament
+as member for Durham. About the same time he accepted the
+post of conservator of the Mersey, and in his double capacity
+obtained leave to bring in a bill for improving the condition and
+efficiency of officers in the mercantile marine. This was not
+proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the &ldquo;voluntary
+certificate&rdquo; instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and
+furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act
+of 1850.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-in-chief
+of New Zealand, then recently established as a colony.
+He arrived in his government in December, whilst the excitement
+about the Wairau massacre was still fresh, and the questions
+relating to the purchase of land from the natives were in a very
+unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were greedy and unscrupulous;
+Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret of
+his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant
+elements agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the
+governor; the governor did not conciliate the settlers, who
+denounced his policy as adverse to their interests, as unjust
+and illegal; colonial feeling against him ran very high; petition
+after petition for his recall was sent home, and the government
+was compelled to yield to the pressure brought to bear on it.
+Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in November 1845.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+of the dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the
+command of the &ldquo;Arrogant,&rdquo; one of the early screw frigates
+which had been fitted out under his supervision, and with
+which it was desired to carry out a series of experiments and
+trials. When these were finished he applied to be superseded,
+on account at once of his health and of his private affairs. In
+February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor
+did he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by
+seniority to the ranks of rear-and vice-admiral on the retired
+list (1857, 1863). In 1851 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
+Society, and in 1854, after serving for a few months as private
+secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then commander-in-chief
+of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological department
+of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the peculiar
+title of &ldquo;Meteorological Statist.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the date of his joining the &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; in 1828 he had
+paid very great attention to the different phenomena foreboding
+or accompanying change of weather, and his narratives of the
+voyages of the &ldquo;Adventure&rdquo; and &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; are full of interesting
+and valuable details concerning these. Accordingly, when
+in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal Society,
+was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its
+newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without
+hesitation, nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became
+from that time identified with the progress of practical meteorology.
+His <i>Weather Book</i>, published in 1863, embodies in broad
+outline his views, far in advance of those then generally held;
+and in spite of the rapid march of modern science, it is still
+worthy of careful attention and exact study. His storm warnings,
+in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of empiricism, were
+gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and gave a high
+percentage of correct results. They were continued for eighteen
+months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and
+though stopped when the department was transferred to the
+management of a committee of the Royal Society, they were
+resumed a few months afterwards; and under the successive
+direction of Dr R.H. Scott and Dr W.N. Shaw, have been
+developed into what we now know them. But though it is
+perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy&rsquo;s name has been
+most generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of
+gratitude, not only for his labours in reducing to a more practical
+form the somewhat complicated wind charts of Captain Maury,
+but also for his great exertions in connexion with the life-boat
+association. Into this work, in its many ramifications, he threw
+himself with the energy of an excitable temperament, already
+strained by his long and anxious service in the Straits of Magellan.
+His last years were fully and to an excessive degree occupied
+by it; his health, both of body and mind, threatened to give
+way; but he refused to take the rest that was prescribed. In
+a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence on the
+30th of April 1865.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his works already named mention may be made of <i>Remarks
+on New Zealand</i> (1846); <i>Sailing Directions for South America</i> (1848);
+his official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865); and occasional
+papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
+Royal United Service Institution.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. K. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZROY,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
+2 m. by rail N.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
+31,610. It is a prosperous manufacturing town, well served with
+tramways and containing many fine residences.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh
+princess and former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable
+of Cardigan, whom Robert succeeded in that office, took service
+with Dermot of Leinster when that king visited England (1167),
+In 1169 Robert led the vanguard of Dermot&rsquo;s Anglo-Welsh
+auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford, which he was then
+allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald. Taken
+prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to
+Henry II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of
+Ireland, Hugh de Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the
+troubles of 1173, and was rewarded by receiving, jointly with
+Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177). He had difficulty in maintaining
+his position and was nearly overwhelmed by a rising of
+Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is uncertain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1190), biographer of Thomas
+Becket and royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered
+Becket&rsquo;s service at some date between 1154 and 1162. The
+chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in legal work, made him
+sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a confidant. Fitz
+Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of Northampton
+(1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to the
+world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined
+Becket&rsquo;s household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the
+tragedy in Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most
+valuable among the extant biographies of his patron. Though
+he writes as a partisan he gives a precise account of the differences
+between Becket and the king. This biography contains
+a description of London which is our chief authority for the
+social life of the city in the 12th century. Despite his connexion
+with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial preferment
+from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171
+to 1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-1190.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his &ldquo;Vita S. Thomae&rdquo; in J.C. Robertson&rsquo;s <i>Materials for the
+History of Thomas Becket</i>, vol. iii. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T.D.
+Hardy, in his <i>Catalogue of Materials</i>, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865),
+discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W.H.
+Hutton, <i>St Thomas of Canterbury</i>, pp. 272-274 (1889), gives an
+account of the author.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (d. 1274), London chronicler and
+merchant, was born in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both
+his parents were of German extraction. The family of his mother
+migrated to England from Cologne in the reign of Henry II.;
+his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of Bremen who had
+been attracted to London by the privileges which the Plantagenets
+conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in
+time to his father&rsquo;s wealth and position. He held an honourable
+position among the Hanse traders, and became their &ldquo;alderman.&rdquo;
+He was also, as he tells us himself, alderman of a London ward
+and an active partisan in municipal politics. In the Barons&rsquo;
+War he took the royal side against the populace and the mayor
+Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party planned, in 1265, to
+try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he was saved by the
+news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very day
+appointed for the trial. Even after the king&rsquo;s triumph Arnold
+suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that
+he should be unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon
+the city. He appealed for help to Henry III., and again to
+Edward I., with the result that his liability was diminished.
+In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to whose keeping the
+muniments of the city were entrusted. To this circumstance
+we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. <i>Chronica
+Maiorum et Vicecomitum</i>, which begins at the year 1188 and is
+continued to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of
+curious information. Though municipal in its outlook, it is
+valuable for the general history of the kingdom, owing to the
+important part which London played in the agitation against
+the misrule of Henry III. We have the king&rsquo;s word for the fact
+that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent from
+the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means
+blind to the faults of Henry&rsquo;s government, but preferred an
+autocracy to the mob-rule which Simon de Montfort countenanced
+in London. Arnold died in 1274; the last fact recorded of him
+is that, in this year, he joined in a successful appeal to the king
+against the illegal grants which had been made by the mayor,
+Walter Hervey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum</i>, with the other contents of
+Arnold&rsquo;s common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society
+by T. Stapleton (1846), under the title <i>Liber de Antiquis Legibus</i>.
+Our knowledge of Arnold&rsquo;s life comes from the <i>Chronica</i> and his
+own biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited
+in G.H. Pertz&rsquo;s <i>Mon. Germaniae historica, Scriptores</i>, vol. xxviii.
+See also J.M. Lappenberg&rsquo;s <i>Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen
+Stahlhofes zu London</i> (Hamburg, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZWALTER, ROBERT<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (d. 1235), leader of the baronial
+opposition against King John of England, belonged to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+official aristocracy created by Henry I. and Henry II. He
+served John in the Norman wars, and was taken prisoner by
+Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was
+implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his
+own statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest
+daughter; but Robert&rsquo;s account of his grievances varied from
+time to time. The truth seems to be that he was irritated by
+the suspicion with which John regarded the new baronage.
+Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to France. He was outlawed,
+but returned under a special amnesty after John&rsquo;s reconciliation
+with the pope. He continued, however, to take the lead in the
+baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak of
+hostilities was elected &ldquo;marshal of the army of God and Holy
+Church&rdquo; (1215). To his influence in London it was due that his
+party obtained the support of the city and used it as their base
+of operations. The famous clause of Magna Carta (§ 39) prohibiting
+sentences of exile, except as the result of a lawful trial,
+refers more particularly to his case. He was one of the twenty-five
+appointed to enforce the promises of Magna Carta; and his
+aggressive attitude was one of the causes which contributed to
+the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent leadership
+made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of France.
+He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and
+was the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered
+London. Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his
+natural lord, he served Louis with fidelity until captured at the
+battle of Lincoln (May 1217). Released on the conclusion of
+peace he joined the Damietta crusade of 1219, but returned at an
+early date to make his peace with the regency. The remainder of
+his career was uneventful; he died peacefully in 1235.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The <i>Histoire des
+ducs de Normandie et des rois d&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (ed. F. Michel, Paris, 1840)
+gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K.
+Norgate&rsquo;s <i>John Lackland</i> (1902), W. McKechnie&rsquo;s <i>Magna Carta</i>
+(1905), and Stubbs&rsquo;s <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897),
+should also be consulted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1526-1599), lord deputy of
+Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576)
+of Milton, Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson
+of another Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and
+sheriff of London, who was also treasurer and chamberlain to
+Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton in 1506. On his
+mother&rsquo;s side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell, 1st earl of
+Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to
+Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a
+member of the Irish House of Commons; and between this date
+and 1571 he was (during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe,
+earl of Sussex, and of his successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times
+lord justice of Ireland. In 1571 Fitzwilliam himself was appointed
+lord deputy, but like Elizabeth&rsquo;s other servants he received little
+or no money, and his period of government was marked by
+continuous penury and its attendant evils, inefficiency, mutiny
+and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy quarrelled with
+the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton (1527-1579),
+but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He
+disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he
+had a further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness
+he was allowed to resign his office. Returning to England in
+1575 he was governor of Fotheringhay Castle at the time of
+Mary Stuart&rsquo;s execution. In 1588 Fitzwilliam was again in
+Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and ill he displayed
+great activity in leading expeditions, and found time to quarrel
+with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of
+Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later
+he died at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne,
+daughter of Sir William Sidney, were descended the barons and
+earls Fitzwilliam.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, vol. ii. (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1748-1833), English statesman, was the son of the
+1st earl (peerage of the United Kingdom), who died in 1756.
+The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed descent from a natural
+son of William the Conqueror, and among its earlier members
+were a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of London,
+who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in Northamptonshire,
+and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see
+above). The latter&rsquo;s grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620;
+and in later generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and
+Earl Fitzwilliam (1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton
+(1742) and Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were
+added. These were all in the English house of the Fitzwilliams
+of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the Irish Fitzwilliams
+of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English family
+who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the 12th
+century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam
+died out with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these
+was Richard, 7th viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam
+library and a fund for creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to
+Cambridge University.</p>
+
+<p>The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in
+Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the
+marquess of Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth
+estates in Yorkshire, and thus became one of the wealthiest
+noblemen of the day. He had been at Eton with C.J. Fox,
+and became an active supporter of the Whig party; and in 1794,
+with the duke of Portland, Windham and other &ldquo;old Whigs&rdquo;
+he joined Pitt&rsquo;s cabinet, becoming president of the council. At
+the end of the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy.
+Fitzwilliam, however, had set his face against the jobbery of the
+Protestant leaders, and threw himself warmly into Grattan&rsquo;s
+scheme for admitting the Catholics to political power; and in
+March 1795 he was recalled, his action being disavowed by Pitt,
+the result of a series of misunderstandings which appeared to
+Fitzwilliam to give him just cause of complaint. The quarrel
+was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam was appointed
+lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He continued
+to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president
+of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in
+opposition. He died in February 1833, his son, Charles William
+Wentworth, the 3rd earl (1786-1857), and later earls, being
+notable figures in the politics and social life of the north of
+England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIUME<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Slav. <i>Rjeka</i>, <i>Rieka</i> or <i>Reka</i>, Ger. <i>St Veit am Flaum</i>),
+a royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern
+extremity of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and
+on a small stream called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m.
+by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop. (1900) 38,955; including 17,354
+Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs and Slovenes), 2482 Hungarians
+and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume belongs to
+Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7 sq. m.,
+became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque
+old town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst;
+while the modern town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric
+light and electric trams, is crowded into the amphitheatre left
+between the hills and the shore. On the north-west there is a
+fine public garden. The most interesting buildings are the
+cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377, and completed
+with a modern façade copied from that of the Pantheon
+in Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria
+della Salute in Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with
+offerings from shipwrecked sailors, and approached by a stairway
+of 400 steps. In the old town is a Roman triumphal arch, said
+to have been erected during the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> in honour
+of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a theatre and
+a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian emperor;
+a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of
+commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an
+industrial home for boys; and several large schools, including
+the marine academy (1856) and the school of seamanship (1903).
+Municipal affairs are principally managed by the Italians, who
+sympathize with the Hungarians against the Slavs.</p>
+
+<p>Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country
+it was connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through
+Karlstadt. It has two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch
+of the southern railway from Vienna to Trieste, the other of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+Hungarian state railway from Karlstadt. There are several
+harbours, including the <i>Porto Canale</i>, for coasting vessels; the
+<i>Porto Baross</i>, for timber; and the <i>Porto Grande</i>, sheltered by
+the <i>Maria Theresia</i> mole and breakwater, besides four lesser
+moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators.
+The development of the <i>Porto Grande</i>, originally named the
+<i>Porto Nuovo</i>, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals
+as trade increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the
+construction of a new mole and an enlargement of the quays
+and breakwater; these works to be completed within 5 years,
+at a cost of £420,000. The exports, worth £6,460,000 in 1902,
+chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and horses; the
+imports, worth £3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine, rice,
+fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large
+share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-Croat
+and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized
+by the state. A steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian
+emigrants, officially numbered in 1902 at 7500, passes through
+Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of 1,963,000 tons, entered
+at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000, cleared. Foremost
+among the industrial establishments are Whitehead&rsquo;s torpedo
+factory, Messrs Smith &amp; Meynie&rsquo;s paper-mill, the royal tobacco
+factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries
+and rope manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard
+was closed. The soil of the surrounding country is stony, but
+the climate is warm, and wine is extensively produced. The
+Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply of fish, and the tunny
+trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable importance.
+Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort
+of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of
+Veglia and Cherso.</p>
+
+<p>Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian
+town <i>Tersatica</i>; later it received the name of <i>Vitopolis</i>, and
+eventually that of <i>Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen</i>, from which its
+present name is derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne
+in 799, from which time it probably long remained under the
+dominion of the Franks. It was held in feudal tenure from the
+patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and afterwards,
+in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the end
+of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts
+of Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor
+Frederick III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the
+house of Austria. From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by
+imperial governors. In 1723 it was declared a free port by Charles
+VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by the empress Maria Theresa, and
+in 1779 declared a <i>corpus separatum</i> of the Hungarian crown.
+In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it was retaken
+by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the following
+year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the revolution
+of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under
+the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian
+control in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIVES,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a ball-game played by two or four players in a court
+enclosed on three or four sides, the ball being struck with the
+hand, usually protected by a glove, whence the game is known
+in America as &ldquo;handball.&rdquo; The origin of the game is probably
+the French <i>jeu de paume</i>, tennis played with the hand, the hand
+in that case being eventually superseded by the racquet. Fives
+and racquets are probably both descended from the <i>jeu de paume</i>,
+of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may be
+derived from <i>la longue paume</i>, in which five on a side played, or
+from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be
+made by the winners (in modern times the game consists of
+fifteen points). Fives is played in Great Britain principally
+at the schools and universities, although its encouragement is
+included in the functions of the Tennis Racquets and Fives
+Association, founded in 1908. In America it is much affected
+for training purposes by professional athletes and boxers. There
+are two forms of fives&mdash;the Eton game and the Rugby game&mdash;which
+require separate notice, though the main features of
+the two games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the
+service, the necessity of hitting the ball before the second
+bounce, and of hitting it above a line and within the limits of
+the court.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eton Fives.</i>&mdash;The peculiar features of the Eton court arose
+from the fact that in early times the game was played against
+the chapel-wall, so that buttresses formed side walls and the
+balustrade of the chapel-steps projected into the court, while
+a step divided the court latitudinally. These were reproduced
+in the regular courts, the buttress being known as the &ldquo;pepper-box&rdquo;
+and the space between it and the step as the &ldquo;hole.&rdquo;
+The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved;
+there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as
+the &ldquo;line,&rdquo; 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted;
+3 ft. 8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play,
+two against two; one of each pair plays in the forward court,
+the other in the back court. The server stands on the left of
+the forward court, his partner in the right-hand corner of the back
+court; the taker of the service by the right wall of the forward
+court, his partner at the left-hand corner of the back court. The
+forward court is known as &ldquo;on-wall,&rdquo; the other as &ldquo;off-wall.&rdquo;
+The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall,
+above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls
+on the &ldquo;off-wall,&rdquo; but the server&rsquo;s object is not, as at tennis
+and racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At
+fives he must send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed
+hand-out can refuse to take any service that he does not like, and
+if he fails to return the ball above the line no stroke is counted.
+After the service has been returned either of the opponents
+returns the ball if he can, and so on, each side and either member
+of it returning the ball above the line alternately till one side
+or the other hits it below the line or out of court. Only hand-in
+can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores a point;
+if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner becomes
+server, unless he has already served in this round, in which case
+the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points.
+If the score is &ldquo;13 all,&rdquo; the out side may &ldquo;set&rdquo; the game to
+5 or 3; <i>i.e.</i> the game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at &ldquo;14 all&rdquo;
+it may be set to three. The game and its terminology being
+somewhat intricate, can best be learnt in the court. No apparatus
+is required except padded gloves and fives-balls, which are
+covered with white leather tightly stretched over a hard foundation
+of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls are
+1¾ in. in diameter and weigh about 1¼ oz. apiece.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rugby Fives</i> is much less complicated owing to the simpler
+form of the court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &amp;c.,
+are the same as in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The
+courts are larger, measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may
+be roofed or open. The side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft.
+Some courts have a dwarf back wall, some have none. The
+back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in. in height. In some
+courts the side walls are plain; in others, where there is no
+back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right angles
+to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the <i>tambour</i>
+of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall about 10 ft.
+from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court.
+The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its
+upper edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handball</i>, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played
+in the United States, is practically identical with fives, though
+there are minor differences. The usual American court is about
+60 ft. long, 24½ ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to
+33 ft. at the back wall. The front wall is of brick faced with
+marble, the sides of cement and the floor of white pine laid on
+beams 10 in. apart. These are the dimensions of the Brooklyn
+court of the former American champion, Phil Casey (d. 1904),
+which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces constitute
+a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball
+is a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a &ldquo;red
+ace&rdquo; when made of solid red rubber, and &ldquo;black ace&rdquo; when
+made of black rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his
+prime about 1855, was the most celebrated Irish handball player.
+In his day nearly every village tavern in Ireland had a court.
+Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish championship in 1885,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+were his most prominent successors. In America Phil Casey
+and Michael Egan are the best-known names.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Tait&rsquo;s <i>Fives</i> in the All England Series: &ldquo;Fives&rdquo; in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; and <i>Official Handball Guide</i> in Spalding&rsquo;s
+Athletic Library.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIX, THÉODORE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1800-1846), French journalist and economist,
+was born at Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His
+father was a French physician whose ancestors had been expatriated
+by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. At first a
+land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the <i>Bulletin
+universal des sciences</i>, to which he contributed most of the
+geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the <i>Revue mensuelle
+d&rsquo;économie politique</i>, which he edited during the three years
+of its existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work,
+till his essay on <i>L&rsquo;Association des douanes allemandes</i> won him a
+prize from the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in
+1840, and also procured him work on the report on the progress
+of sciences since the Revolution, which the Institute was preparing.
+A few months before his death he published <i>Observations
+sur les classes ouvrières</i>, in which he argued against all attempts
+to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and attributed the
+condition of the working classes to their own thriftlessness and
+intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st of July
+1846.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIXTURES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Lat. <i>figere</i>, to fix), in law, chattels which have
+been so fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law,
+&ldquo;so annexed to the freehold&rdquo;), as to become, in contemplation
+of law, a part of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction
+for certain purposes, between immovables and movables, between
+real and personal property, between land and all other things.
+In the case of fixtures the question arises under which set of
+rights they are to fall&mdash;under those of real or of personal property.
+The general rule of English law is that everything attached to
+the land goes with the land&mdash;<i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i>.
+This, like many other rules of English law, is all in favour of the
+freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large
+number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the
+courts as occasion arose.</p>
+
+<p>In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree
+of annexation to the land, or to a building which forms part of it.
+Thus it has been held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but
+not fixed to the ground itself, is not a fixture; and the onus
+of showing that articles not otherwise attached to the land than
+by their own weight have ceased to be chattels, rests with those
+who assert the fact. On the other hand, an article, even slightly
+affixed to the land, is to be considered part of it, unless the
+circumstances show that it was intended to remain a chattel.
+The question is one of fact in each case&mdash;depending mainly on
+the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possibility
+of the removal of the article without injury to itself or the
+freehold. In certain cases the courts have recognized a constructive
+annexation, when the articles, though not fixed to the soil,
+pass with the freehold as if they were, <i>e.g.</i> the keys of a house,
+the stones of a dry wall, and the detached or duplicate portions
+of machines.</p>
+
+<p>Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise&mdash;(1)
+between landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor,
+(3) between executor and remainder-man or reversioner, (4)
+between seller and buyer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the
+freehold during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the
+permission of his landlord. But an exception was established in
+favour of <i>trade fixtures</i>. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that
+a soap-boiler might, <i>during his term</i>, remove the vats he had set up
+for trade purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom,
+but &ldquo;by the common law in favour of trade, and to encourage
+industry,&rdquo; and it may be stated as a general rule that things which
+a tenant has fixed to the freehold for the purpose of trade or manufacture
+may be taken away by him, whenever the removal is not
+contrary to any prevailing practice, or the particular terms of the
+contract of tenancy, and can be effected without causing material
+injury to the estate or destroying the essential character of the
+articles themselves (<i>Lambourn</i> v. <i>M<span class="sp">c</span>Lellan</i>, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agricultural
+tenants are not entitled, at common law, to remove trade
+fixtures. But the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such
+a right of removal in the case of buildings or machinery erected by a
+tenant at his own expense, and with his landlord&rsquo;s consent in writing,
+provided that the freehold was not injured or that any injury was
+made good, and that before removal a month&rsquo;s written notice was
+given to the landlord, who had an option of purchase. Under the
+Agricultural Holdings Act 1883 the tenant might, under similar
+conditions, remove fixtures, although the landlord had not consented
+to their erection. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1900 extended
+this provision to fixtures or buildings acquired, although not annexed
+or erected, by the tenant. Similar rights were created by the Allotments
+Compensation Act 1887, and by the Market Gardeners&rsquo;
+Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were re-enacted by
+the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Again, <i>ornamental</i> fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and
+convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry, iron-backs
+to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble chimney-pieces,
+are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable without the
+landlord&rsquo;s consent. Here again the extent of the privilege has been a
+matter of some uncertainty.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term.
+If the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing
+the fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a
+gift of them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could
+not be rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His
+right to the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry
+of the term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once
+left the premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In
+one case where the fixtures had actually been severed from the freehold
+after the end of the term, it was held that the tenant had no
+right to recover them.</p>
+
+<p>2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question
+of fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person
+owning land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures,
+set up for the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental
+objects, the rule <i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i> was in early times
+somewhat relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701,
+it was held that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the
+executor; and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently
+cut down, it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming
+the executor&rsquo;s right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for
+life to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment
+as chattels (<i>Leigh</i> v. <i>Taylor</i>, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same
+has been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in
+the grounds of a mansion house.</p>
+
+<p>3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures
+arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to
+the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man
+is not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to
+fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the
+preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor&rsquo;s
+fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor&rsquo;s fixtures
+against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to
+be that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life
+would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures
+are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.</p>
+
+<p>4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes
+a purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties
+is of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases,
+<i>e.g.</i> as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged
+the fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in
+the conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the
+subject of a hire purchase agreement (<i>Reynolds</i> v. <i>Ashby</i>, 1903,
+1 K.B. 87). Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises.
+Bills of sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mortgages,
+the possession remaining with the person selling them. To
+make them valid they must be registered, and so the question has
+arisen whether deeds conveying fixtures ought not to have been
+registered as bills of sale. Unless it was the intention of the parties
+to make the fixtures a distinct security, it seems that a deed of
+mortgage embracing them does not require to be registered as a bill
+of sale. The question of what is or is not a fixture must also often
+be considered in questions of rating or assessment.</p>
+
+<p>The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England.
+The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900
+(as to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal.
+The law of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation
+sketched in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>. The French Code
+Civil recognizes the right of the usufructuary to remove articles
+attached by him to the subject of his estate on the expiry of his term,
+on making good the place from which they were taken (Art. 599);
+and there are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art.
+495), Spain (Arts. 487, 489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany
+(Arts. 1037, 1049).</p>
+
+<p>The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical
+with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexation
+is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law
+rule <i>quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit</i>) as regards trade fixtures, and
+ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.</p>
+
+<p>In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without
+modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St
+Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
+right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and
+Tenant Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
+settlement (<i>e.g.</i> New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act
+1851 is in force.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;English law: Amos and Ferard, <i>Law of Fixtures</i>
+(3rd ed., London, 1883); Brown, <i>Law of Fixtures</i> (3rd ed., London,
+1875); Ryde, on <i>Rating</i> (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law:
+Hunter, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i>; Erskine&rsquo;s <i>Principles</i> (20th ed.,
+Edin., 1903). American Law: Bronson, <i>Law of Fixtures</i> (St Paul,
+1904); Reeves, <i>Real Property</i> (Boston, 1904); <i>Ruling Cases</i> (London
+and Boston, 1894-1901), Tit. &ldquo;Fixtures&rdquo; (American Notes).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1819-1896), French
+physicist, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819.
+His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photographic
+processes; and then, in association with J.B.L. Foucault,
+he engaged in a series of investigations on the interference of
+light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results obtained
+by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Light</a></span>), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity
+of electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser
+as a means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil.
+Subsequently he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and
+applied the phenomena of interference of light to the measurement
+of the dilatations of crystals. He died at Venteuil on the
+18th of September 1896. He became a member of the French
+Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FJORD,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Fiord</span>, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long
+narrow arm of the sea running far inland, with more or less
+precipitous cliffs on each side. These &ldquo;sea-lochs,&rdquo; as they are
+sometimes called, present many peculiar features. They differ
+entirely from an estuary in the fact that they are bounded seawards
+by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and they deepen
+inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up to
+the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water.
+It is pointed out by Dr H.R. Mill that Loch Morar on
+the west coast of Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep,
+with its surface 30 ft. above sea-level, which is connected with
+the sea by a short river, is exactly similar in configuration to
+Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled with sea-water which pours
+over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the retreating tide;
+that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill 8 fathoms
+below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
+more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum
+depth of 700 fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch
+Morar would become a fjord if the seaward portion sank below
+sea-level. The origin of these rock basins has not yet been
+satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon somewhat similar
+basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering of surface
+rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where material
+is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
+in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations
+in such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the
+Yosemite Valley, where there is frequently a &ldquo;reversed grade&rdquo;
+similar to that near the seaward end of rock basins and fjords,
+seem to show, in some cases at least, that such a formation may
+be due to the &ldquo;gouging&rdquo; effect of a glacier coming down the
+valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and
+the supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several
+causes, but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys.
+The mass of sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected
+by the seasonal changes in surface temperature, which
+in Norway penetrate no deeper than 200 fathoms, or else, as in
+Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water responds quickly to
+seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer penetrates
+so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
+to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found
+that where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the
+temperature may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from
+the surface. When the surface is warmest, on the other hand,
+the depths are coldest.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLACCUS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the
+most illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that
+the family came from Tusculum, where some were still living in
+the middle of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Of the Fulvii Flacci the most
+important were the following:</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Quintus Fulvius Flaccus</span>, son of the first of the family,
+Marcus, who was consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264.
+He especially distinguished himself during the second Punic
+War. He was consul four times (237, 224, 212, 209), censor (231)
+pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215). During his
+first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, Gauls
+and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum,
+and with his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege
+of Capua. The capture of this place was considered so important
+that their imperium was prolonged, but on condition that they
+should not leave Capua until it had been taken. Hannibal&rsquo;s
+unexpected diversion against Rome interfered with the operations
+for the moment, but his equally unexpected retirement enabled
+Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to protect the city,
+to return, and bring the siege to a successful conclusion. He
+punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in excuse
+that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He
+was nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which
+he was himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command
+of the army in Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further
+attempts at rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The
+chief authority for his life is the part of Livy dealing with the
+period (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>His brother <span class="sc">Gnaeus</span> was convicted of gross cowardice against
+Hannibal near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile
+at Tarquinii. His son, <span class="sc">Quintus</span>, waged war with signal success
+against the Celtiberians in 182-181, and the Ligurians in 179.
+Having vowed to build a temple to Fortuna Equestris, he
+dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium of its marble
+slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to
+restore them, though they were never put back in their places.
+Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Marcus Fulvius Flaccus</span>, grandnephew of the first Quintus,
+lived in the times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong
+supporter. After the death of Tiberius Gracchus (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+he was appointed in his place one of the commission of three
+for the distribution of the land. He was suspected of having
+had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129),
+but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul
+in 125, he proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the
+allies, and to allow even those who had not acquired it the right
+of appeal to the popular assembly against penal judgments.
+This proposal, though for the time successfully opposed by the
+senate, eventually led to the Social War. The attack made upon
+the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the Salluvii (Salyes)
+afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out of Rome.
+After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this time
+with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not
+remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates
+and the party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities,
+during which Flaccus was killed, together with Gracchus and a
+number of his supporters. It is generally agreed that Flaccus was
+perfectly honest in his support of the Gracchan reforms, but his
+hot-headedness did more harm than good to the cause. Cicero
+(<i>Brutus</i>, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate powers, but
+a diligent student.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6;
+Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, <i>C. Gracchus</i>, 10. 13;
+also A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i> (1904), and authorities quoted
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gracchus</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), French jurist and
+historian, was born at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February
+1846, of a family known at least as early as the 16th century, when
+Sigismond Flach was the first professor of law at Strassburg
+University. G.J. Flach studied classics and law at Strassburg,
+and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of law. In his theses as
+well as in his early writings&mdash;such as <i>De la subrogation réelle,
+La Bonorum possessio</i>, and <i>Sur la durée des effets de la minorité</i>
+(1870)&mdash;he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time.
+The Franco-German War engaged Flach&rsquo;s activities in other
+directions, and he spent two years (described in his <i>Strasbourg
+après le bombardement</i>, 1873) at work on the rebuilding of the
+library and the museum, which had been destroyed by Prussian
+shells. When the time came for him to choose between Germany
+and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he completed
+his scientific training at the École des Chartes and the École des
+Hautes Études. Having acted for some time as secretary to
+Jules Sénard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he
+published an original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as
+possible resumed the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant
+to the jurist Edouard Laboulaye at the Collège de France, and
+succeeded him in 1884 in the chair of comparative legislation.
+Since 1877 he had been professor of comparative law at the free
+school of the political sciences. To qualify himself for these
+two positions he had to study the most diverse civilizations,
+including those of the East and Far East (<i>e.g.</i> Hungary, Russia
+and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other
+Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published,
+particularly those concerning Ireland: <i>Histoire du régime
+agraire de l&rsquo;Irlande</i> (1883); <i>Considérations sur l&rsquo;histoire politique
+de l&rsquo;Irlande</i> (1885); and <i>Jonathan Swift, son action politique
+en Irlande</i> (1886).</p>
+
+<p>His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history
+of ancient French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded
+by his friend and compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his
+interest by reviving the question of the origin of the feudal
+laws, and gradually led him to study the formation of those
+laws and the early growth of the feudal system. His great work,
+<i>Les Origines de l&rsquo;ancienne France</i>, was produced slowly. In the
+first volume, <i>Le Régime seigneurial</i> (1886), he depicts the triumph
+of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle of
+sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the
+various functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity
+disappeared; and how the only living organisms were vassalage
+and clientship. The second volume, <i>Les Origines communales, la
+féodalité et la chevalerie</i> (1893), deals with the reconstruction of
+society on new bases which took place in the 10th and 11th
+centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman <i>villa</i> gave place to
+the village, with its fortified castle, the residence of the lord;
+how new towns were formed by the side of old, some of which
+disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations; and
+how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument
+of cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism
+from the germs of the Gallo-Roman personal <i>comitatus</i>; and
+shows how the bond that united the different parties was the
+contract of the fief; and how, after a slow growth of three
+centuries, feudalism was definitely organized in the 12th century.
+In 1904 appeared the third volume, <i>La Renaissance de l&rsquo;état</i>,
+in which the author describes the efforts of the Capetian kings
+to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the whole
+of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the
+imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords
+of the kingdom (the &ldquo;princes,&rdquo; as Flach calls them), whether as
+allies or foes, pursued the same end; and how, before the close
+of the 12th century, the Capetian kings were in possession of
+the organs and the means of action which were to render them
+so powerful and bring about the early downfall of feudalism.</p>
+
+<p>In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals,
+the author&rsquo;s theories are not always in complete harmony, nor
+are they always presented in a very luminous or coherent manner,
+but they are marked by originality and vigour. Flach gave
+them a solid basis by the wide range of his researches, utilizing
+charters and cartularies (published and unpublished), chronicles,
+lives of saints, and even those dangerous guides, the <i>chansons
+de geste</i>. He owed little to the historians of feudalism who knew
+what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He pursued the
+same method in his <i>L&rsquo;Origine de l&rsquo;habitation et des lieux habités
+en France</i> (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories
+circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubainville
+ville in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F.C.
+von Savigny, Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle
+ages and the Renaissance, and produced <i>Cujas, les glossateurs
+et les Bartolistes</i> (1883), and <i>Études critiques sur l&rsquo;histoire du
+droit romain au moyen âge, avec textes inédits</i> (1890).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLACIUS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Flach</i>; Slav. <i>Vlakich</i>), <b>MATTHIAS</b> (1520-1575),
+surnamed <span class="sc">Illyricus</span>, Lutheran reformer, was born at
+Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd of March 1520. Losing his father
+in childhood, he was in early years self-educated, and made
+himself able to profit by the instructions of the humanist,
+Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he
+decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning.
+His intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, provincial
+of the Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation,
+who induced him to enter on a university career, from 1539,
+at Basel, Tübingen and Wittenberg. Here he was welcomed
+(1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from Tübingen,
+and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In
+1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg.
+He married in the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the
+festivities. He took his master&rsquo;s degree on the 24th of February
+1546, ranking first among the graduates. Soon he was prominent
+in the theological discussions of the time, opposing strenuously
+the &ldquo;Augsburg Interim,&rdquo; and the compromise of Melanchthon
+known as the &ldquo;Leipzig Interim&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adiaphorists</a></span>). Melanchthon
+wrote of him with venom as a renegade (&ldquo;aluimus in sinu
+serpentem&rdquo;), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He
+removed to Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with
+Melanchthon was patched up. On the 17th of May 1557 he was
+appointed professor of New Testament theology at Jena; but
+was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his colleague, on
+the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in
+conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he unwittingly
+fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean
+view of sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in
+its substance, since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure,
+he left Jena (Feb. 1562) to found an academy at Regensburg.
+The project was not successful, and in October 1566 he accepted
+a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he
+was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and betook
+himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces
+against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received
+by the superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an
+asylum. But here also his religious views stood in his way;
+the authorities eventually ordering him to leave the city by Mayday
+1573. Again betaking himself to Frankfort, the prioress,
+Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White Ladies,
+harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities.
+He fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to
+leave by Mayday 1575; but death released him on the 11th
+of March 1575. His first wife, by whom he had twelve children,
+died in 1564; in the same year he remarried and had further
+issue. His son Matthias was professor of philosophy and
+medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the literary
+fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over;
+he stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church
+history, and&mdash;if we except, a great exception, the work of
+Laurentius Valla&mdash;of hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling
+motive was to prove popery to be built on bad history and bad
+exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the extirpation of bad
+history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal interest to
+all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value of
+the principles embodied in Flacius&rsquo; <i>Catalogus testium veritatis</i>
+(1556; revised edition by J.C. Dietericus, 1672) and his <i>Clavis
+scripturae sacrae</i> (1567), followed by his <i>Glossa compendiaria
+in N. Testamentum</i> (1570). His characteristic formula, &ldquo;historia
+est fundamentum doctrinae,&rdquo; is better understood now than
+in his own day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.B. Ritter, <i>Flacius&rsquo;s Leben u. Tod</i> (1725); M. Twesten, <i>M.
+Flacius Illyricus</i> (1844); W. Preger, <i>M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine
+Zeit</i> (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1607-1660), French governor
+of Madagascar, was born at Orleans in 1607. He was named
+governor of Madagascar by the French East India Company
+in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the French soldiers,
+who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives he was
+less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in
+continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he
+returned to France. Not long after he was appointed director
+general of the company; but having again returned to Madagascar,
+he was drowned on his voyage home on the 10th of June
+1660. He is the author of a <i>Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar</i>
+(1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Malotet, <i>Ét. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation
+française à Madagascar (1648-1661)</i>, (Paris, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAG<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (or &ldquo;<span class="sc">Flagge</span>,&rdquo; a common Teutonic word in this sense,
+but apparently first recorded in English), a piece of bunting
+or similar material, admitting of various shapes and colours,
+and waved in the wind from a staff or cord for use in display
+as a standard, ensign or signal. The word may simply be derived
+onomatopoeically, or transferred from the botanical &ldquo;flag&rdquo;;
+or an original meaning of &ldquo;a piece of cloth&rdquo; may be connected
+with the 12th-century English &ldquo;flage,&rdquo; meaning a baby&rsquo;s garment;
+the verb &ldquo;to flag,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> droop, may have originated in the idea
+of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the
+O. Fr. <i>flaguir</i>, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as
+soon as men began to collect together for common purposes
+some kind of conspicuous object was used, as the symbol of the
+common sentiment, for the rallying point of the common force.
+In military expeditions, where any degree of organization and
+discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be necessary
+to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep
+in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In
+addition, it cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents
+have often served, by reminding men of past resolves, past deeds
+and past heroes, to arouse to enthusiasm those sentiments of
+<i>esprit de corps</i>, of family pride and honour, of personal devotion,
+patriotism or religion, upon which, as well as upon good leadership,
+discipline and numerical force, success in warfare depends.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Among the remains of the people which has left
+the earliest traces of civilization, the records of the forms of
+objects used as ensigns are frequently to be found. From their
+carvings and paintings, supplemented by ancient writers, it
+appears that several companies of the Egyptian army had
+their own particular standards. These were formed of such
+objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the
+minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred
+animals, boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king&rsquo;s
+name, fan and feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end
+of a staff as standards, and the office of bearing them was looked
+upon as one of peculiar privilege and honour (Fig. 1). Somewhat
+similar seem to have been the customs of the Assyrians and
+Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by Layard and others
+at Nineveh, only two different designs have been noticed for
+standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on
+a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite directions
+(Fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and
+peace which were attached to the yoke of Darius&rsquo;s chariot.
+They are borne upon and attached to chariots; and this method
+of bearing such objects was the custom also of the Persians,
+and prevailed during the middle ages. That the custom survived
+to a comparatively modern period is proved from the fact that
+the &ldquo;Guns,&rdquo; which are the &ldquo;standards&rdquo; of the artillery, have
+from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours
+prescribed by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol
+of authority. In days comparatively recent there was a &ldquo;flag
+gun,&rdquo; usually the heaviest piece, which emblemized authority
+and served also as the &ldquo;gun of direction&rdquo; in the few concerted
+movements then attempted. No representations of Egyptian
+or Assyrian naval standards have been found, but the sails of
+ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices, another
+custom which survived into the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the
+emblem is frequently ornamented immediately below with
+flag-like streamers. Rabbinical writers have assigned the
+different devices of the different Jewish tribes, but the authenticity
+of their testimony is extremely doubtful. Banners,
+standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the Bible.
+&ldquo;Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard,
+with the ensign of their father&rsquo;s house&rdquo; (Num. ii. 2). &ldquo;Who
+is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear
+as the sun, terrible as an army with banners?&rdquo; (Cant. vi.
+10. See also Num. ii. 10, x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, lx. 4; Cant. ii. 4;
+Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer. iv. 21).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:403px; height:424px" src="images/img454a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Egyptian Standards.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the
+sun, as their divinity, was also represented upon their standards,
+which appear to have been formed of some kind of textile, and
+were guarded with the greatest jealousy by the bravest men of
+the army. The Carian soldier who slew Cyrus, the brother of
+Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of carrying a golden cock
+at the head of the army, it being the custom of the Carians to
+wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North American
+Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of
+eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other
+semi-savage peoples.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:445px" src="images/img454b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Assyrian Standards.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early
+times; afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+letters chosen for their particular associations&mdash;the Athenians
+the olive and the owl, the Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans
+a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the Messenians their initial
+M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was placed on
+the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians carried
+a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon
+was the military sign of many peoples&mdash;of the Chinese, Dacians
+and Parthians among others&mdash;and was probably first used by
+the Romans as the ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:454px" src="images/img455.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Roman Standards.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The question of the <i>signa militaria</i> of the Romans is a wide
+and very important one, having direct bearing on the history
+of heraldry, and on the origin of national, family and personal
+devices. With them the custom was reduced to system. &ldquo;Each
+century, or at least each maniple,&rdquo; says Meyrick, &ldquo;had its
+proper standard and standard-bearer.&rdquo; In the early days of the
+republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence probably
+came the name <i>manipulus</i> (Lat. <i>manus</i>, a hand). The forms
+of standards in later times were very various; sometimes a
+cross piece of wood was placed at the end of a spear and surmounted
+by the figure of a hand in silver, below round or oval
+discs, with figures of Mars or Minerva, or in later times portraits
+of emperors or eminent generals (Fig. 3). Figures of animals,
+as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were borne, and it was not
+till a later period that the eagle became the special standard
+of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius who, in
+his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should
+only have the eagle for their standard; &ldquo;for before that time
+the eagle marched foremost with four others&mdash;wolves, minotaurs,
+horses and bears&mdash;each one in its proper order. Not many years
+passed before the eagle alone began to be advanced in battle,
+and the rest were left behind in the camp. But Marius rejected
+them altogether, and since this it is observed that scarcely is
+there a camp of a legion wintered at any time without having
+a pair of eagles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>vexillum</i>, which was the cavalry flag, is described by
+Livy as a square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed
+crosswise to the end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval
+<i>gonfalon</i>. Examples of these vexilla are to be seen on various
+Roman coins and medals, on the sculptured columns of Trajan
+and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus. The <i>labarum</i>, which
+was the imperial standard of later emperors, resembled in shape
+and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly embroidered
+with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum
+from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags,
+that is to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff.
+After Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ
+(fig. 5, A). It is supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval
+days was often attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop,
+was derived from the labarum of the first Christian emperor,
+Constantine the Great. The Roman standards were guarded
+with religious veneration in the temples at Rome; and the
+reverence of this people for their ensigns was in proportion to
+their superiority to other nations in all that tends to success in
+war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to be
+cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of
+his soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps
+the most sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier
+swore by his ensign.</p>
+
+<p>Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for
+standards, and was often appended as ornament to those of
+other material, it was probably not until the middle ages that
+it became the special material of military and other ensigns;
+and perhaps not until the practice of heraldry had attained to
+definite nomenclature and laws does anything appear which is in
+the modern sense a flag.</p>
+
+<p>Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In
+Bede&rsquo;s description of the interview between the heathen king
+Æthelberht and the Roman missionary Augustine, the followers
+of the latter are said to have borne banners on which silver
+crosses were displayed. The national banner of England for
+centuries&mdash;the red cross of St George&mdash;was a religious one; in
+fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been sought to give
+sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be traced
+to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme
+of France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the
+legend runs that King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops
+to battle against the enemy in 1219, saw at a critical moment
+a cross in the sky. This was at once taken as an answer to his
+prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It was forthwith
+adopted as the Danish flag and called the &ldquo;Dannebrog,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the
+strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag undoubtedly
+dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is
+therefore the oldest now in existence.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin
+upon their standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally
+in the keeping of the monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the
+right to take this blue flag into battle with them was claimed
+by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore this banner against Alaric
+in 507, for victory was promised him by a verse of the Psalms
+which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered the church
+of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the battle
+of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At
+what precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply
+the banner of the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de
+St Martin as the sacred banner of all France is not known.
+Probably, however, it gradually became the national flag after
+the kings of France had transferred the seat of government to
+Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was held in high
+honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in the
+abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals
+of the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his
+quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner
+from the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having
+been the first French king to have taken the banner to war, and
+it appeared for the last time on the field of fight at Agincourt
+in 1415. The accounts also of its appearance vary considerably.
+Guillaume Guiart, in his <i>Chronicle</i> says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Oriflambe est une bannière</p>
+  <p class="i2">De cendal voujoiant et simple</p>
+<p class="i05">Sans portraiture d&rsquo;autre affaire.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst
+an English authority states &ldquo;the celestial auriflamb, so by the
+French admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner.&rdquo;
+The <i>Chronique de Flandres</i> describes it as having three points
+with tassels of green silk attached. The banner of William the
+Conqueror was sent to him by the pope, and the early English
+kings fought under the banners of Edward the Confessor and
+St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St Andrew
+and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron
+saints they severally were.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:430px; height:440px" src="images/img456a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4&mdash;Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest
+of England, contains abundant representations of the flags of
+the period borne upon the lances of the knights of William&rsquo;s
+army. They appear small in size, and pointed, frequently
+indented into three points and bearing pales, crosses and roundels.
+One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly indented into
+four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed, and
+bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent
+the raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4).
+In all, thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights
+are represented in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight
+have triple points, whilst others have two, four or five. The
+devices on these pennons are very varied and distinctive, although
+the date is prior to the period in which heraldry became definitely
+established. In fact, the flags and their charges are probably
+not really significant of the people bearing them; for, even
+admitting that personal devices were used at the time, the
+figures may have been placed without studied intention, and
+so give the general figure only of such flags as happened to have
+come under the observation of the artists. The figures are
+probably rather ornamental and symbolic than strictly heraldic,&mdash;that
+is, personal devices, for the same insignia do not appear
+on the shields of the several bearers. The dragon standard
+which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold; but
+similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which
+fact has induced a writer in the <i>Journal of the Archaeological
+Association</i> (vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of
+the Saxons they represent only trophies torn from the shields
+of the Normans, and that they are not ensigns at all. Standards
+in form much resembling these dragons appear on the Arch of
+Titus and the Trajan column as the standards of barbarians.</p>
+
+<p>At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard
+was formed of the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the
+top and bearing three sacred banners, dedicated severally to
+St Peter, St John of Beverley and St Wilfrid of Ripon, the
+whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle. Representations
+of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on seals of
+as early date as the Norman era, and the warriors in the first
+crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the
+three points with the three roundels and cross, which so often
+appear on these banners, have some reference to the faith of
+the bearers in the Trinity and in the Crucifixion, for in contemporary
+representations of Christ&rsquo;s resurrection and descent
+into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with cross above.
+The triple indentation so common on the flags of this period has
+been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable ordinaries&mdash;the
+pile. The &ldquo;pile,&rdquo; it may be explained, is in the form of a
+wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies
+the central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle
+chief. It may, however, issue from any other extremity of the
+shield, and there may be more than one. More secular characters
+were, however, not uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order
+for a &ldquo;dragon to be made in fashion of a standard of red silk
+sparkling all over with fine gold, the tongue of which should be
+made to resemble burning fire and appear to be continually
+moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones.&rdquo;
+<i>The Siege of Carlaverock</i>, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th
+century, describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the
+knights at the siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the
+writer says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;En sa bannière trois luparte</p>
+  <p class="i2">De or fin estoient mis en rouge;&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may
+be supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one
+of Sir Christopher Barker&rsquo;s heraldic collection, Harl. 4632)
+gives drawings of the standards of English kings from Edward
+III. to Henry VIII., which are roughly but artistically
+coloured.</p>
+
+<p>The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle
+ages were the pennon, the banner and the standard. The
+&ldquo;guydhommes&rdquo; or &ldquo;guidons,&rdquo; &ldquo;banderolls,&rdquo; &ldquo;pennoncells,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;streamers&rdquo; or pendants, may be considered as minor varieties.
+The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign, sometimes
+pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the
+end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart
+from the knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged
+with his personal armorial bearings so displayed that they
+stood in true position when he couched his lance for action.
+A MS. of the 16th century (Harl. 2358) in the British Museum,
+which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape and bearings
+of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes, pennoncells,
+&amp;c., says &ldquo;a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made
+round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner,&rdquo;
+and warns that &ldquo;from a standard or streamer a man may flee
+but not from his banner or pennon bearing his arms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:431px; height:431px" src="images/img456b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B, Medieval
+Pennon; C. Medieval Banner; D., Standard of Henry V.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried
+by the esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on
+any special occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state
+funerals. For instance, we find &ldquo;XII. doz. penselles&rdquo; amongst
+the items that figured at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in
+1554, and in the description of the lord mayor&rsquo;s procession in the
+following year we read of &ldquo;ij goodly pennes (state barges) deckt
+with flages and stremers, and a m (1000) penselles.&rdquo; Amongst
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of Oliver Cromwell
+up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of thirty dozen
+of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a dozen,
+and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a
+dozen.</p>
+
+<p>The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag,
+though at a later date it is often found greater in length than in
+depth, precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of
+to-day. In some very early examples it is found considerably
+longer in the depth on the staff than in its outward projection
+from the staff. The banner was charged in a manner exactly
+similar to the shield of the owner, and it was borne by knights
+banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough guide it may
+be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of a
+king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount
+or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to
+display the armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the
+right to carry it, it is evident that the square form was the most
+convenient and akin to the shield of primal heraldry. In fact,
+flags were originally heraldic emblems, though in modern devices
+the strict laws of heraldry have often been departed from.</p>
+
+<p>The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary
+knights, and they could be created on the field of battle only.
+To create a knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief
+in person tore off the fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight,
+thus turning it roughly into the square flag or banner, and so
+making the knight a banneret. The date in which this dignity
+originated is uncertain, but it was probably about the period of
+Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret
+by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the 3rd
+of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the
+reign of Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the
+Scottish king, at the battle of Durham. In more modern times
+Captain John Smith, of Lord Bernard Stuart&rsquo;s troop of the
+King&rsquo;s Guards, who saved the royal banner from the parliamentary
+troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by
+Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights
+banneret ceased until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen
+in 1743, when the dignity was again conferred. It is true, however,
+that, when in 1763 Sir William Erskine presented to George III.
+sixteen stands of colours captured by his regiment [now the
+15th (king&rsquo;s) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he was raised to the dignity
+of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was not performed on
+the field of battle, the creation was considered irregular, and his
+possession of the rank was not generally recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it
+also denoted that he who bore it was the leader of a military
+force, large or small according to his degree or estate. It was,
+in fact, the battle flag of the leader who controlled the particular
+force that followed it into the fight. Every baron who in time
+of war had furnished the proper number of men to his liege was
+entitled to charge with his arms the banner which they followed.
+There could indeed be at present found no better representative
+of the medieval &ldquo;banner&rdquo; than what we now term the &ldquo;royal
+standard&rdquo;; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of
+the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other
+royal and imperial standards have now become &ldquo;standards,&rdquo;
+inasmuch as they are to-day used for display in the same fashion,
+and for the same purposes as was the &ldquo;standard&rdquo; of old. The
+&ldquo;gonfalon&rdquo; or &ldquo;gonfannon&rdquo; was a battle flag differing from
+the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to the pole but
+hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape
+but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The
+gonfalon was in action borne close to the person of the commander-in-chief
+and denoted his position. In certain of the Italian
+cities chief magistrates had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon,
+and for this reason were known as &ldquo;gonfaloniere.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering
+towards the fly (the &ldquo;fly&rdquo; is that portion of the flag farther
+from the pole, the &ldquo;hoist&rdquo; the portion of the flag attached to
+the pole), the edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with
+the ends split and rounded off. The shape was not, however, by
+any means uniform during the middle ages nor were there any
+definite rules as to its charges. It varied in size according to
+the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS. mentioned above says
+of the royal standard of that time&mdash;&ldquo;the Standard to be sett
+before the king&rsquo;s pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in
+battayle; to be in length eleven yards.&rdquo; A MS. of the time
+of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions for standards:
+&ldquo;The King&rsquo;s had a length of eight yards; that of a duke, seven;
+a marquis, six and a half; an earl, six; a viscount, five and a
+half; a baron, five; a knight banneret, four and a half; and
+a knight four yards.&rdquo; The standard was, in fact, from its size,
+and as its very name implies, not meant to be carried into action,
+as was the banner, but to denote the actual position of its possessor
+on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the tilting ground,
+and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his following
+when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle.
+It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner
+was the rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its
+uses are now fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the
+&ldquo;banner&rdquo; which has now become the &ldquo;royal standard,&rdquo; and
+which floats over the palace where the king is in residence, is
+hoisted at the saluting point when he reviews his troops, and is
+broken from the mainmast of any ship in his navy the moment
+that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition of the
+standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George
+conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately contiguous
+to the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided
+fesse-wise by two or more stripes of colours exactly as the
+heraldic &ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; termed &ldquo;fesse&rdquo; crosses the shield horizontally.
+The colours used as stripes, as also those used in the fringe
+or bordering of the standard, were those which prevailed in the
+arms of the bearer or were those of his livery. The standard
+here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours white
+and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and
+in the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the
+Harleian MS. above mentioned: &ldquo;Every standard and guidon
+to have in the chief the cross of St George, the beast or crest with
+his devyce and word, and to be slitt at the end.&rdquo; The motto
+indeed usually figured on most standards, though occasionally
+it was missing. An excellent type of the old standard is that
+of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion, the crescent,
+and the fetterlock&mdash;all badges of the family&mdash;whilst, as tokens
+of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan
+and Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were
+respectively displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto,
+<i>Espérance en Dieu</i>. No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess
+more than one banner, since it displayed his heraldic arms, which
+were unchangeable. A single individual, however, might possess
+two or three standards since this flag displayed badges that he
+could multiply at discretion, and a motto that he could at any
+time change. For example, the standards of Henry VII., mostly
+green and white&mdash;the colours of the Tudor livery&mdash;had in one
+&ldquo;a red firye dragon,&rdquo; in another &ldquo;a donne kowe,&rdquo; in a third
+&ldquo;a silver greyhound and two red roses.&rdquo; The standard was
+always borne by an eminent person, and that of Henry V. at
+Agincourt is supposed to have been carried upon a car that
+preceded the king. At Nelson&rsquo;s funeral his banner and standard
+were borne in the procession, and around his coffin were the
+banderolls&mdash;square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms
+of his family lineage. Nelson&rsquo;s standard bore his motto, <i>Palmam
+qui meruit ferat</i>, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the
+union of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick,
+the medieval England having expanded into the United Kingdom
+of Great Britain and Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke
+of Wellington we find amongst the flags his personal banner
+and standard, and ten banderolls of the duke&rsquo;s pedigree and
+descent.</p>
+
+<p>The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. <i>Guyd-homme</i>, was
+somewhat similar to the standard, but without the cross of St
+George, rounded at the end, less elongated and altogether less
+ornate. It was borne by a leader of horse, and according to a
+medieval writer &ldquo;must be two and a half yards or three yards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+long, and therein shall no armes be put, but only the man&rsquo;s
+crest, cognisance, and devyce.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known
+as the pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was
+directed &ldquo;shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle,
+and therein be put no armes, but the man&rsquo;s cognisance or devyce,
+and may be of length twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and
+is slitt as well as a guidon or standard.&rdquo; Amongst the fittings
+of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, to France in
+the reign of Henry VII. was a &ldquo;grete stremour for the shippe
+xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede.&rdquo; In the hoist was
+&ldquo;a grete bere holding a raggid staffe,&rdquo; and the rest of the fly
+&ldquo;powdrid full of raggid staves.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">National Flags.</span>&mdash;<i>British.</i> The royal standard of England
+was, when it was hoisted on the Tower on the 1st of January
+1801, thus heraldically described:&mdash;&ldquo;Quarterly; first and
+fourth, gules, three lions passant gardant, in pale, or, for England;
+second, or, a lion rampant, gules, within a double tressure flory
+counter flory of the last, for Scotland; third, azure, a harp or,
+stringed argent, for Ireland.&rdquo; The present standard connects
+in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror. These were
+two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same
+until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for
+leopards, and a third added. The next change that took place
+was in the reign of Edward III. when the royal arms were for
+the first time quartered; <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> in the first and fourth
+quarters, and the three lions of England in the second and third.
+The <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were assumed in token of the monarch&rsquo;s claim
+to the throne of France. In the &ldquo;coats&rdquo; of Edward III. and
+the two monarchs that succeeded him, the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were
+powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>
+were reduced in number to three, and the &ldquo;coat&rdquo; so devised
+remained the same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion
+of Scotland and the Irish harp were added to the flag on the
+accession of James I., and the flag then had the French and
+English arms quartered in the first and fourth quarters, the lion
+of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the second quarter, and
+the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the third quarter.
+With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to
+which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until
+the accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart
+standard a central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen
+Anne made further alterations; the first and fourth quarters were
+subdivided, the three lions of England being in one half, the lion of
+Scotland in the other. The <i>fleurs-de-lis</i> were in the second quarter;
+the Irish harp in the third. Under George I. and George II.
+the first, second and third quarters remained the same, the arms
+of Hanover being placed in the fourth quarter, and this continued
+to be the royal standard until 1801, when the standard was rearranged
+as first described with the addition of the Hanoverian
+arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the accession of
+Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the
+flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however,
+that in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in
+the chapel of St George at Windsor, the ordinary &ldquo;winged
+woman&rdquo; form of the harp in the Irish third quartering is altered
+to a harp of the old Irish pattern. At King Edward&rsquo;s accession
+this banner replaced that of Queen Victoria which for sixty-two
+years had hung in this, the chapel of the order of the Garter.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of
+the lord high admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly
+the royal standard as deputy of the sovereign. When royalty
+ceased to be, a new flag was devised by the council of state for
+the Commonwealth, which comprised the &ldquo;arms of England
+and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red flag within a
+compartment.&rdquo; In other words, it was a red flag containing
+two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white
+ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the
+shields was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these
+flags is still in existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept
+in a wooden chest which was taken out of a Spanish galleon at
+Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke in 1704. When Cromwell
+became protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland
+and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This
+had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the
+cross of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the
+second, and the Irish harp in the third. His own arms&mdash;a lion
+on a black shield&mdash;were imposed on the centre of the flag. No
+one but royalty has a right to fly the royal standard, and though
+it is constantly seen flying for purposes of decoration its use is
+irregular. There has, however, always been one exception,
+namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command
+of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard.
+For example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the
+&ldquo;Ark Royal&rdquo; when he defeated the Spanish Armada; the
+duke of Buckingham flew it as lord high admiral in the reign
+of Charles I., and the duke of York fought under it when he
+commanded during the Dutch Wars.</p>
+
+<p>The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack,
+in which are combined in union the crosses of St George, St
+Andrew and St Patrick. St George had long been a patron
+saint of England, and his banner, argent, a cross gules, its
+national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the patron
+saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the
+national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns
+James I. issued a proclamation ordaining that &ldquo;henceforth all
+our subjects of this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and
+the members thereof, shall bear in their main-top the red cross
+commonly called St George&rsquo;s cross, and the white cross commonly
+called St Andrew&rsquo;s cross, joined together according to a form
+made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be published
+to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects
+of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont,
+and our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white
+cross only as they were accustomed.&rdquo; This was the first Union
+Jack, as it is generally termed, though strictly the name of the
+flag is the &ldquo;Great Union,&rdquo; and it is only a &ldquo;Jack&rdquo; when flown
+on the jackstaff of a ship of war. Probably the name of the
+Stuart king &ldquo;Jacques,&rdquo; which James I. always signed, gave
+the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was hoisted.
+At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being dissolved,
+the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of St
+George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became
+protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the
+Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original
+union flag was restored, and continued as described until the
+year 1801, when, on the legislative union with Ireland, the cross
+of St Patrick, a saltire gules, on a field argent, was incorporated
+in the union flag. To so combine these three crosses without
+losing the distinctive features of each was not easy; each cross
+must be distinct, and retain equally distinct its fimbriation, or
+bordering, which denotes the original ground. In the first
+union flag, the red cross of St George with the white fimbriation
+that represented-the original white field was simply imposed
+upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To
+place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St
+Andrew would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the
+red saltire have its proper bordering denoting its original white
+field; even were the red saltire narrowed in width the portion
+of the white saltire that would appear would not be the St
+Andrew saltire, but only the fimbriation appertaining to the
+saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty has been got over by making
+the white broader on one side of the red than the other. In fact,
+the continuity of direction of the arms of the St Patrick red
+saltire has been broken by its portions being removed from the
+centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew&rsquo;s saltire.
+Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distinguished
+from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white
+fimbriation.</p>
+
+<p>The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns,
+and is flown by representatives of the empire all the world over.
+It flies from the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy.
+With the Irish harp on a blue shield displayed in the centre, it is
+flown by the lord-lieutenant of Ireland. When flown by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+governor-general of India the star and device of the order of
+the Star of India are borne in the centre. Colonial governors fly
+it with the badge of their colony displayed in the centre. Diplomatic
+representatives use it with the royal arms in the centre.
+As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and headquarters,
+and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at the
+mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the
+fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours,
+and flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will
+here be only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty
+flags.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the three ensigns&mdash;the red, white, and blue&mdash;had
+its genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as
+prevailed in the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides
+the admiral in supreme command, a vice-admiral as second in
+command, and a rear-admiral as third in command, each controlling
+his own particular group or squadron. These were
+designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost invariably
+being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the
+van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any
+vessel in any group could distinguish its own admiral&rsquo;s ship,
+the flagships of centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain
+red, white, or blue flag, and so came into being those naval
+ranks of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral of the red, white,
+and blue which continued down to as late as 1864. As the
+admiral in supreme command flew the union at the main, there
+was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until November
+1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy
+as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so
+that each individual ship in the squadron should be distinguishable
+as well as the flagships, each vessel carried a large red,
+white, or blue flag according as to whether she belonged to the
+centre, van, or rear, each flag having in the left-hand upper
+corner a canton, as it is termed, of white bearing the St George&rsquo;s
+cross. These flags were called ensigns, and it is, of course, due
+to the fact that the union with Scotland was for the time dissolved
+that they bore only the St George&rsquo;s cross. Even when the
+restoration of the Stuarts restored the <i>status quo</i> the cross of St
+George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered
+until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland
+passed the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined
+the Union, the flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All
+these three ensigns belonged to the royal navy, and continued
+to do so until 1864, but as far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile
+marine were instructed to fly the red ensign. As ironclads
+replaced the wooden vessels and fleets became smaller the
+inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest, and in 1864
+the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral, vice-admiral,
+and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use
+of the red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as
+its distinctive flag. The mercantile marine retained the red
+ensign which they were already using, whilst the blue ensign
+was allotted to vessels employed on the public service whether
+home or colonial.</p>
+
+<p>The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal
+navy. It should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion
+except by a ship (or shore establishment) of the royal navy,
+with but one exception. By a grant of William IV. dating from
+1829 vessels belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, the chief
+of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the white ensign. From
+1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red ensign, as that of
+highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant ships, they
+then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more
+distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when
+the privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some
+oversight the order was not conveyed to the Royal Western
+of Ireland, whose ships flew the white ensign until in 1857 the
+usage was stopped. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron
+has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any sort flying the
+white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a grave
+offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His
+Majesty&rsquo;s service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the
+authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or
+both. The penalty incurred is £500 fine for each offence, as
+laid down in the 73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894.
+In 1883 Lord Annesley&rsquo;s yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht
+Squadron, was detained at the Dardanelles in consequence of
+her flying the white ensign of the royal navy which brought her
+under the category of a man-of-war, and no foreign man-of-war
+is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first obtaining an
+imperial <i>irade</i>. Since then owners belonging to the squadron
+have been warned that they must either sail their ships through
+the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British
+owned, or obtain imperial permission if they wish to display
+the white ensign.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer
+from the maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a
+pennant, is flown only by ships in commission; it is, in fact,
+the sign of command, and is first hoisted when a captain commissions
+his ship. The pennant, which was really the old
+&ldquo;pennoncell,&rdquo; was of three colours for the whole of its length,
+and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and so
+continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however,
+the pennant is a long white streamer with the St George&rsquo;s cross
+in the inner portion close to the mast. Pennants have been
+carried by men-of-war from the earliest times, prior to 1653 at
+the yard-arm, but since that date at the maintopgallant masthead.</p>
+
+<p>The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service
+other than the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal
+naval reserve. It is flown also by certain authorized vessels
+of the British mercantile marine, the conditions governing this
+privilege being that the captain and a certain specified portion
+of the officers and crew shall belong to the ranks of the royal
+naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to British
+government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed
+in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow
+anchor in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade
+has in the fly the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph
+branch of the post-office shows in the fly a device representing
+Father Time with his hour-glass shattered by lightning; the
+ordnance department displays upon the fly a shield with a
+cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are also
+authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign.
+Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinctive
+badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular
+agents also have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing
+badge in their case being the royal arms.</p>
+
+<p>The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant
+service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen
+Anne in 1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order
+of Queen Anne directed that merchant vessels should fly a red
+flag &ldquo;with a Union Jack described in a canton at the upper
+corner thereof next the staff,&rdquo; and this is probably the first
+time that the term &ldquo;Union Jack&rdquo; was officially used. In some
+cases those yacht clubs which fly the red ensign change it slightly
+from that flown by the merchant service, for they are allowed
+to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial merchantmen
+usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they
+have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can
+use the ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they
+are purely maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured
+in the breach than in the observance, the only flag that a private
+individual or a corporation has a right to display on shore is the
+national flag, the Union Jack, in its plain condition and without
+any emblazonment.</p>
+
+<p>There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of
+brief notice. These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the
+master of Trinity House. The admiralty flag is a plain red
+flag with a clear anchor in the centre in yellow. In a sense it is
+a national flag, for the sovereign hoists it when afloat in conjunction
+with the royal standard and the Union Jack. It would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+appear to have been first used by the duke of York as lord high
+admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had the
+royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of commissioners
+was appointed to execute the office of lord high
+admiral this was the flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the
+admiralty, minuting the navy board, then a subordinate department,
+&ldquo;requiring and directing it to cause a fitting red silk
+flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be provided against
+Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this board.&rdquo;
+In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable
+in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It
+was thus made into a &ldquo;foul anchor,&rdquo; the thing of all others that
+a sailor most hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord
+at the time, the earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The
+anchor retained its unseamanlike appearance, and was not
+&ldquo;cleared&rdquo; till 1815, and even to this day the buttons of the
+naval uniform bear a &ldquo;foul anchor.&rdquo; The &ldquo;anchor&rdquo; flag is
+solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does not carry
+the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the
+royal standard, the union or an admiral&rsquo;s flag, but on two
+occasions it has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719
+the earl of Berkeley, who at the time was not only first lord
+of the admiralty, but vice-admiral of England, obtained the
+special permission of George I. to hoist it at the main instead of
+the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr Childers, then first
+lord, accompanied by some members of his board, went on
+board the &ldquo;Agincourt&rdquo; he hoisted the admiralty flag and took
+command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons,
+thus superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who
+at the time were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly
+necessary to add that throughout the navy there was a very
+distinct feeling of dissatisfaction at the innovation. When the
+admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it is hoisted at the fore,
+his own standard being of course at the main, and the union at
+the mizzen.</p>
+
+<p>The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross
+of St George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on
+the waves in each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a
+precisely similar device and surmounted by a lion.</p>
+
+<p>The sign of a British admiral&rsquo;s command afloat is always
+the same. It is the St George&rsquo;s cross. Of old it was borne
+on the main, the fore, or the mizzen, according as to whether
+the officer to whom it pertained was admiral, vice-admiral,
+or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded wooden ships,
+and a single pole mast took the place of the old three masts,
+a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day
+the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George&rsquo;s
+cross. When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the
+white ground in the upper canton next to the staff; if flown
+by a rear-admiral there is a red ball in both the upper and lower
+cantons. As nowadays most battleships have two masts, the
+admiral&rsquo;s flag is hoisted at the one which has no masthead
+semaphore. The admiral&rsquo;s flag is always a square one, but that
+of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St George&rsquo;s
+cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of
+the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next
+to the staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails
+in most navies, though very often a star takes the place of the ball.
+In some cases, however, the indications of rank are differently
+shown. For instance, both in the Russian and Japanese navies
+the distinction is made by a line of colour on the upper or lower
+edges of the flag.</p>
+
+<p>The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the
+mother country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony
+being placed in the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or
+in the fly if it be the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are
+shown in the Plate, where the blue ensign illustrated is that of
+New Zealand, the device of the colony being the southern cross
+in the fly. Precisely the same flag, with a large six-pointed
+star, emblematic of the six states immediately under the union,
+forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of Australia.
+The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the
+device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion.
+As the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty,
+flies the Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy
+of India flies the same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the
+order of the Star of India, so too colonial governors or high
+commissioners fly the union flag with the arms of the colony
+they preside over on a white shield in the centre and surrounded
+by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the wreath, however,
+is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special emblem of the
+Dominion.</p>
+
+<p><i>French.</i>&mdash;To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have
+historical events caused so much change in the standards and
+national ensigns of a country as in the case of France. The
+oriflamme and the Chape de St Martin were succeeded at the
+end of the 16th century, when Henry III., the last of the house
+of Valois, came to the throne, by the white standard powdered
+with <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>. This in turn gave place to the famous tricolour.
+The tricolour was introduced at the time of the Revolution, but
+the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed question.
+Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag
+the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme,
+and the white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are
+said to be those of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities
+assert that the flag is copied from the shield of the Orleans family
+as it appeared after Philippe Égalité had knocked off the <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>.
+The tricolour is divided vertically into three parts of equal
+width&mdash;blue, white and red, the red forming the fly, the white
+the middle, and the blue the hoist of the flag. During the first
+and second empires the tricolour became the imperial standard,
+but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the eagle, whilst
+all three stripes were richly powdered over with the golden bees
+of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of France.</p>
+
+<p><i>American.</i>&mdash;Before the Declaration of Independence the
+flags of those colonies which now form the United States of
+America were very various. In the early days of New England
+the Puritans objected to the red cross of St George, not from
+any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a conscientious
+objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the
+year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish
+their vessels from those of England and of each other. In the
+early stages of the revolution each state adopted a flag of its
+own; thus, that of Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South
+Carolina displayed a rattlesnake, New York had a white flag
+with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white flag with a blue
+anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of Independence,
+and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter underwent
+many changes in the manner of their arrangement before
+taking the position at present established. In 1775 a committee
+was appointed to consider the question of a single flag for the
+thirteen states. It recommended that the union be retained
+in the upper corner next to the staff, the remainder of the field
+of the flag to be of thirteen horizontally disposed stripes, alternately
+red and white. This flag, curiously enough, was precisely
+the same as the flag of the old Honourable East India Company.
+On the 14th of June 1777 congress resolved &ldquo;that the flag
+of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and
+white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field,
+representing a new constellation.&rdquo; This was the origin of the
+national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were
+unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven
+white and six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six
+white, and it was not for some considerable time that it was
+authoritatively laid down that the latter arrangement was the
+one to be adopted. It has also been held that the stars and
+stripes of the American national flag, as well as the eagle, were
+suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington family.
+The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a
+raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two
+horizontal red bars, and above these a row of three red stars.
+This might, by a stretch of imagination, be supposed to have
+inspired the original idea of the flag which was that each state
+in the Union should be represented in the national flag by a star
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+and stripe. Naturally other states coming into the Union
+expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and
+Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes
+were changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other
+states joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars
+and stripes. It was, however, found objectionable to be constantly
+altering the national flag, and in the year 1818 it was
+determined to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but to
+place a star for each state in the blue union canton in the top
+corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the stars always show the
+exact number of states that are in the Union, whilst the stripes
+denote the original number of the states that formed the union.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The presidential flag of the president of the United States is
+an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield displaying
+stripes, and above the national motto <i>E pluribus unum</i>, and a
+design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;The most general and important of the
+various national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line
+representing Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the
+Union Jack (the national flag), the white ensign of the royal
+navy, the blue ensign of government service, and the red ensign
+of the commercial marine, colonial flags being shown in the case
+of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese flags shown are the
+man-of-war ensign&mdash;a rising sun, generally known as the sun-burst&mdash;and
+the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red ball
+is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white
+field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum
+on a red field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should
+invariably have sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler
+character than that of Europe, and is practically limited to the
+employment of &ldquo;Mon,&rdquo; which correspond very nearly to the
+&ldquo;crests&rdquo; of European heraldry. The great families of Japan
+possess at least one, and in many cases even three, &ldquo;Mon.&rdquo;
+The imperial family use two, the one <i>Kiku no go Mon</i> (the august
+chrysanthemum crest) and <i>Kiri no go Mon</i> (the august Kiri
+crest). The first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum,
+and, although the use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge
+is not necessarily confined to the imperial family, they alone
+have the right to use the sixteen-petalled form. If used by any
+other family, or society or corporation, it must be with a number
+of petals less or more than sixteen. The second imperial &ldquo;Mon&rdquo;
+is composed of three leaves and three flower spikes of the Kiri
+(<i>Paulownia imperialis</i>). This, however, is not displayed as an
+official emblem, that being reserved for the chrysanthemum.
+The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example, the
+chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri
+&ldquo;Mon&rdquo; adorns the harness of the emperor&rsquo;s horses. It is very
+probable that the chrysanthemum crest did not originally represent
+the chrysanthemum flower at all but the sun with sixteen
+rays, and it will be noticed that in the &ldquo;sun-burst&rdquo; flag the
+sun&rsquo;s rays are sixteen in number. The use of the number sixteen
+is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next
+depicted. The &ldquo;iron cross&rdquo; in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic
+Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five
+centuries black and white have been the Hohenzollern colours,
+and the first verse of the German war song, <i>Ich bin ein Preusse</i>,
+runs:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?</p>
+  <p class="i2">Before me floats my flag of black and white!</p>
+<p class="i05">My fathers died for freedom, &rsquo;twas their manner,</p>
+  <p class="i2">So say these colours floating in your sight.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is emblematic
+of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with
+the red and white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League.
+This flag came into being when the North German Confederacy
+was established (November 25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-Prussian
+War.</p>
+
+<p>The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white
+border displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four
+quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the
+cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown,
+and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the
+four arms of the crown are the legend <i>Gott mit uns</i> 1870. The United
+States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt
+with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-war
+and ships of the mercantile marine.</p>
+
+<p>The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile
+marine flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the
+introduction of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the
+Austrian red, white and red with the Hungarian red, white and
+green. The shields with which the flag is charged contain respectively
+the arms of Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is
+borne on the man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of
+the ancient dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191.
+The Austrian imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black
+double-headed eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed
+shields bearing the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag
+is bordered all round, the border being composed of equal-sided
+triangles with their apices alternately inwards and outwards, those
+with their apices pointing inwards being alternately yellow and
+white, the others alternately scarlet and black.</p>
+
+<p>The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805,
+when Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted
+again in 1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the
+king of Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it
+became the flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely
+similar to that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of
+the former the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal
+standard is a blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and
+displaying on its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded
+by the collar of the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all
+European orders. In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.</p>
+
+<p>For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are parti-coloured.
+It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the arms of
+Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same both
+in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal
+standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the
+royal arms, as shown in the national flag.</p>
+
+<p>In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours,
+and here again the arrangement differs from that generally used.
+The navy flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below.
+To be correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each
+of the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central
+yellow stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing
+the arms of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown.
+In the mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon,
+and is one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds
+being divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above
+in the upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal
+standards that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarterings
+of the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as
+much an anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day
+to be quartered with the <i>fleur-de-lis</i>. In all, the quarterings displayed
+are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy,
+Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The flag is
+usually depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We
+believe, however, that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre
+of which the quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted
+by a crown and encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden
+Fleece.</p>
+
+<p>The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour
+of white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white
+and red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by
+Peter the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the
+flag then stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to
+make it more distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places,
+leaving the tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian
+navy is the blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew
+is the patron saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial
+standard is of a character akin to that of Austria; the ground is
+yellow, and the centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a
+badge that dates back to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a
+niece of Constantine Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek
+empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon charged with
+the emblem of St George and the Dragon on a red ground, and this
+is surrounded by the collar of the order of St Andrew. On the splayed
+wings of the eagle are small shields bearing the arms of the various
+provinces of the empire.</p>
+
+<p>The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes
+vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a
+horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the lower
+white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the royal
+arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro is
+a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the lowermost
+white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white, green
+and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war ensign
+there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is a golden
+lion on a red ground.</p>
+
+<p>The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat
+similar in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already
+alluded to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+navy. The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangular
+instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cross
+on a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as
+in the Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but
+pointed, thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the
+mercantile marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated
+from Denmark in 1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it,
+and the arms of Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this
+was found to resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross
+with a white border was substituted for the white cross. This, it
+will be seen, is the Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the
+white one. For a man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of
+Sweden in shape; that is to say, converted from the rectangular
+into the three-pointed design. While Sweden and Norway remained
+united the flag of each remained distinct, but each bore in the top
+canton of the hoist a union device, being the combination of the
+Norwegian and Swedish national colours and crosses. In each of the
+three above nationalities the flag used for a royal standard is the
+man-of-war flag with the royal arms imposed on the centre of the
+cross.</p>
+
+<p>The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the
+hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the Netherlands
+is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre and
+blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy
+and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard
+the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black,
+yellow and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of
+Brabant, and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded.
+The original Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its
+independence were orange, white and blue, the colours of the house
+of Orange, and when and how the orange became red is not quite clear,
+though it was certainly prior to 1643.</p>
+
+<p>The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag
+shown in our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria,
+and were adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected
+to the throne of Greece. The stripes are nine in number&mdash;five blue
+and four white&mdash;with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton
+bearing a white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy
+is similar to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception
+that it has the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross.
+The royal standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre
+of which the royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar
+to that in the Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are
+not of equal length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.</p>
+
+<p>The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for
+it was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably
+considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss
+confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each
+case the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance,
+is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red,
+black and white, &amp;c., &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by
+Mahomet II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally
+they were the symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and
+were adopted by the Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always
+been the special emblem of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow
+and elsewhere the crescent emblem and the cross may be seen
+combined in Russian churches, the crescent badge, of course, indicating
+the Byzantine origin of the Russian church. The symbol originated
+at the time of the siege of Constantinople by Philip the father
+of Alexander the Great, when a night attempt of the besiegers to
+undermine the walls was betrayed by the light of a crescent moon,
+and in acknowledgment of their escape the Byzantines raised a
+statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol of the city. Both
+the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the same, but the
+imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in its centre
+the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known as the
+&ldquo;Tughra,&rdquo; and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of khan,
+and the epithet <i>al-Muzaffar Daima</i>, which means &ldquo;the ever victorious.&rdquo;
+The origin of the &ldquo;Tughra&rdquo; is that the sultan Murad I.,
+who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open
+hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and
+third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth
+finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the
+scribes wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above
+quoted. The &ldquo;Tughra&rdquo; dates from the latter part of the 14th
+century. The smaller characters in the &ldquo;Tughra&rdquo; change, of course,
+on the accession of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the
+device always remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left
+denoting the thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little
+finger made impression, and three upright lines indicating the other
+fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the
+crescent and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where
+they use an ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate
+having the British union in the centre of the red field.</p>
+
+<p>The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge
+of the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge.
+On the white ground are the lion and sun.</p>
+
+<p>The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of
+Korea, a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue,
+the colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely
+as if two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue,
+were united to form a complete circle.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the
+dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag,
+but an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with
+the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red
+with a yellow ball in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar
+inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto.</p>
+
+<p>Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in
+the case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe
+with the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war
+ensign.</p>
+
+<p>The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when
+used by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central
+white stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.</p>
+
+<p>The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the
+mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of
+the state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner
+near the hoist, as in the naval flag.</p>
+
+<p>The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and
+vessels in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of
+the president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the
+centre of the flag.</p>
+
+<p>The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the mercantile
+marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged
+on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our illustration.
+In fact, in nearly every case with the South American
+republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the
+war navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is
+used in the same way as a presidential flag.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics
+are tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no
+means such combinations as would meet with the approval of European
+heralds. All flag devising should be in accordance with
+heraldic laws, and one of the most important of these is that colour
+should not be placed on colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry
+being the equivalent of gold and white of silver. Hence, properly
+devised tricolours are such as, for example, those of France, where
+the red and blue are divided by white, or Belgium, where the black
+and red are divided by yellow. On the other hand, the yellow, blue,
+red of Venezuela is heraldically an abomination.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses.</i>&mdash;Flags, the manufacture,
+of which is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made
+from bunting, a very light, tough and durable woollen material.
+The regulation bunting as used in the navy is made in 9 in.
+widths, and the flag classes in size according to the number of
+breadths of bunting of which it is composed. The great centre
+of the manufacture of flags, as far as the royal navy is concerned,
+is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks are made in
+different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by 16½ ft.
+in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft. wide.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be
+either square or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this
+latter dimension that is used in the navy and generally.</p>
+
+<p>Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Signal</a></span>), and here
+it will only be necessary to make brief allusion to some international
+customs with regard to the use of flags to indicate
+certain purposes. For long a blood-red flag has always been
+used as a symbol of mutiny or of revolution. The black flag
+was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate; to-day, in the only
+case in which it survives, it is flown after an execution to indicate
+that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out.
+All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of infectious illness.
+A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on board suffering
+from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious malady, and
+it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This flag
+is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is universally
+used as a flag of truce.</p>
+
+<p>At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the
+flag of one country is placed over that of another the victory of
+the former is denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an
+insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation above that of another.
+If such were done by mistake, say in &ldquo;dressing ship&rdquo; for instance,
+an apology would have to be made. This custom of hoisting
+the flag of the vanquished beneath that of the victor is of comparatively
+modern date, as up to about a century ago the sign of
+victory was to trail the enemy&rsquo;s flag over the taffrail in the water.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff, and this
+is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are
+in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour
+and respect a flag is &ldquo;dipped.&rdquo; Ships at sea salute each other
+by &ldquo;dipping&rdquo; the flag, that is to say, by running it smartly
+down from the masthead, and then as quickly replacing it.
+When troops parade before the sovereign the regimental flags
+are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying half-mast high is
+the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to make
+the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national ensign
+reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to accentuate
+the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag into a
+&ldquo;weft,&rdquo; that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of
+showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval
+works written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the
+&ldquo;weft&rdquo; mentioned as a method of showing distress.</p>
+
+<p>We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting
+nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many
+other purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held
+on board any ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court
+is sitting, its hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun.
+In a fleet in company the ship that has the guard for the day
+flies it. With a white border it forms the signal for a pilot, and
+in this case is known as a Pilot Jack. In all combinations of
+signalling flags which denote a ship&rsquo;s name the Union Jack
+forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor or
+soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours
+at his funeral.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;See <i>Flags: Some Account of their History and
+Uses</i>, by A. MacGeorge (1881); <i>National Banners: Their History
+and Construction</i>, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic
+Tracts, 1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this
+pamphlet gives the design of the national banners of St George,
+St Andrew and St Patrick, and illustrates and tells the story of the
+composition of the three flags into the great union flag, commonly
+known as the Union Jack); <i>Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions</i>,
+by Rear-Admiral S. Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise,
+historical and narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; <i>A
+History of the Flag of the United States</i> (Boston, 1872), by G.H.
+Preble; <i>Flags of the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations</i>,
+by Edward Hulme, F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete monograph
+on the subject, illustrated with a very complete series of plates;
+<i>Admiralty Book of Flags of all Nations</i>, printed for H.M. Stationery
+office, 1889, kept up to date by the publication periodically of Errata,
+officially issued under an admiralty covering letter; <i>Flags of Maritime
+Nations</i>, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of
+the navy, printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two
+works have no letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale,
+delineations of all the flags at present used officially by all nations.
+Between the two there are no discrepancies, and the delineation
+of a flag taken from either may be assumed as absolutely correct.
+Both are respectively the guides for flag construction in the royal
+navy and the United States navy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. L. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of
+stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus:
+8, 7, 8, 7, 8, 8 = 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAGELLANTS<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>flagellare</i>, to whip), in religion,
+the name given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged,
+by way of discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a
+form of exalted devotion, occurs in almost all religions. According
+to Herodotus (ii. 40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient
+Egyptians to beat themselves during the annual festival in
+honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta children were flogged
+before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood flowed (Plutarch,
+<i>Instit. Laced.</i> 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese, women were
+flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The
+priests of Cybele, or <i>archigalli</i>, submitted to the discipline in the
+temple of the goddess (Plutarch, <i>Adv. Colot.</i> p. 1127; Apul.,
+<i>Metam.</i> viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were
+flogged by the celebrants to avert sterility or as a purificatory
+ceremony (W. Mannhardt, <i>Mythol. Forsch.</i>, Strassburg, 1884,
+p. 72 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according
+to Buxtorf (<i>Synagoga judaica</i>, Basel, 1603), was one of the
+ceremonies of the day of the Great Pardon. In the Christian
+church flagellation was originally a punishment, and was
+practised not only by parents and schoolmasters, but also by
+bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St
+Augustine, <i>Ep. 159 ad Marcell.</i>; cf. <i>Conc. Agd.</i> 506, can. ii.).
+Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the
+<i>libri poenitentiales</i> as a very efficacious means of penance. In
+the 11th century this new form of devotion was extolled by some
+of the most ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west,
+such as Abbot Popon of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so
+called from his practice of wearing next his skin an iron <i>lorica</i>,
+or cuirass of thongs), and especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani.
+Damiani advocated the substitution of flagellation for the recitation
+of the penitential psalms, and drew up a scale according
+to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten psalms, and 15,000
+to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers exemplified
+their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained
+great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six
+days. The custom of collective flagellation was introduced into
+the monastic houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday
+after confession.</p>
+
+<p>The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with characteristic
+rigour, and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan,
+St Anthony of Padua, preaching the praises of this means of
+penance. It is incorrect, however, to suppose that St Anthony
+took any part in the creation of the flagellant fraternities, which
+were the result of spontaneous popular movements, and later
+than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri, a monk of
+Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities
+has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant
+brotherhood in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were
+distributed over the greater part of northern Italy. The contagion
+spread very rapidly, extending as far as the Rhine provinces,
+and, across Germany, into Bohemia. Day and night,
+long processions of all classes and ages, headed by priests carrying
+crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in double file,
+reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies with
+leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns,
+and especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled the flagellants
+with threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders
+of the 14th century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and
+the Black Death, which had spread over the greater part of
+Europe, produced a condition of ferment and mystic fever which
+was very favourable to a recrudescence of morbid forms of
+devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state of
+religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between
+the papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the
+spring of 1349 bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary,
+began their propaganda in the south of Germany. Each band
+was under the command of a leader, who was assisted by two
+lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was enjoined upon
+every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants
+paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed
+to accept board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted
+33½ days, during which they flogged themselves with thongs
+fitted with four iron points. They read letters which they said
+had fallen from heaven, and which threatened the earth with
+terrible punishments if men refused to adopt the mode of penance
+taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they incited
+the populations of the towns through which they passed against
+the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propaganda.
+Many towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite
+of discouragement, they spread from Poland to the Rhine, and
+penetrated as far as Holland and Flanders. Finally, a band
+of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the court of Pope
+Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by
+several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a
+menace to the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement
+published a bull commanding the bishops and inquisitors to
+stamp out the growing heresy, and in pursuance of the pope&rsquo;s
+orders numbers of the sectaries perished at the stake or in the
+cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal justices. In 1389 the
+leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the <i>bianchi</i> was burned
+by order of the pope, and his following dispersed. In 1417,
+however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded
+the cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council
+of Constance, and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+(<i>Epistola ad Vincentium</i>), who declared that the flagellants were
+showing a tendency to slight the sacramental confession and
+penance, were refusing to perform the <i>cultus</i> of the martyrs
+venerated by the church, and were even alleging their own
+superiority to the martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>The justice of Gerson&rsquo;s protest was borne out by events.
+In Germany, in 1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic
+of flagellation, which then became a clearly-formulated heresy.
+A certain Conrad Schmidt placed himself at the head of a community
+of Thuringian flagellants, who took the name of Brethren
+of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the incarnation of
+Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church of
+Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph
+of flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of
+Beghards joined the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects
+were confounded in the rigorous persecution conducted in
+Germany by the inquisitor Eylard Schöneveld, who almost
+annihilated the flagellants. This mode of devotion, however,
+held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic piety. In
+the 16th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern France.
+Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to
+acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into
+various orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The
+king and his courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of
+penitents, and scourged themselves with ostentation. The
+king&rsquo;s encouragement seemed at first to point to a successful
+revival of flagellation; but the practice disappeared along with
+the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at the time of
+the league, and Henry III.&rsquo;s successor suppressed the Paris
+brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a
+means of salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the
+18th century, and also, towards the end of the 18th century,
+by a little Jansenist sect known as the Fareinists, founded by
+the brothers Bonjour, <i>curés</i> of Fareins, near Trévoux (Ain).
+In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared during a procession at
+Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season of great
+festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents flagellating
+themselves before the assembled faithful.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, <i>Cultes,
+mythes et religions</i> (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a bibliography
+of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in medieval
+times, see M. Röhricht, &ldquo;Bibliographische Beiträge zur Gesch. der
+Geissler&rdquo; in <i>Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, i. 313.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAGELLATA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the name given to the Protozoa whose
+dominant phase is a &ldquo;flagellula,&rdquo; or cell-body provided with
+one, few or rarely many long actively vibratile, cytoplasmic
+processes. Nutrition is variable:&mdash;(1) &ldquo;Holozoic&rdquo;; food
+taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either unspecialized
+or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an aperture
+(mouth); (2) &ldquo;Saprophytic&rdquo;; food taken in in solution through
+the general surface of the body; (3) &ldquo;Holophytic&rdquo;; food-material
+formed in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon
+from the medium, with liberation of oxygen, in presence of light,
+as in green plants. Fission in the &ldquo;active&rdquo; state occurs and is
+usually longitudinal. Multiple fission rarely occurs save in a
+sporocyst, and produces microzoospores, which in some cases
+may conjugate with others as isogametes or with larger forms
+(megagametes). &ldquo;Hypnocysts&rdquo; to tide over unfavourable
+conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to
+reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard
+shell: again a distinct cell-wall of chitin or cellulose may be
+formed: finally, an open cup, &ldquo;theca,&rdquo; of firm or gelatinous
+material may be present, with or without a stalk: such a cup
+and stalk are often found in colonial species, and are subject
+to much the same conditions as in Infusoria. The nucleus is
+simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates it is connected
+with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate relation
+with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the &ldquo;tropho-nucleus,&rdquo;
+the latter the &ldquo;kineto-nucleus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:1053px" src="images/img464.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Flagellata.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. <i>Chlamydomonas pulvisculus</i>,
+Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>) free-swimming
+individual.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = starch corpuscle.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = cellulose investment.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>e</i> = stigma (eye-spot).</p>
+
+<p>2. Resting stage of the same,
+with fourfold division of the
+cell-contents. Letters as before.</p>
+
+<p>3. Breaking up of the cell-contents
+into minute biflagellate
+swarm-spores, which escape, and
+whose history is not further
+known.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Syncrypta volvox</i>, Ehr.
+(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>). A colony
+enclosed by a common gelatinous
+test c.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = stigma.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = vacuole (non-contractile).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Uroglena volvox</i>, Ehr.
+(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>). Half of a
+large colony, the flagellates embedded
+in a common jelly.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Chlorogonium euchlorum</i>,
+Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = starch grain.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = eye-spot.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Chlorogonium euchlorum</i>,
+Ehr. (<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>). Copulation
+of two liberated microgonidia.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = eye-spot (so-called).</p>
+
+<p>8. Colony of <i>Dinobryon sertularia</i>,
+Ehr. (<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>).</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Haematococcus palustris</i>,
+Girod (= <i>Chlamydococcus</i>, Braun,
+<i>Protococcus</i>, Cohn), one of the
+<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>; ordinary individual
+with widely separated
+test.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus (pyrenoid).</p>
+
+<p>10. Dividing resting stage of
+the same, with eight fission products
+in the common test e.</p>
+
+<p>11. A microgonidium of the
+same.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Phalansterium consociatum</i>,
+Cienk. (<i>Choanoflagellata</i>); × 325.
+Disk-like colony.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Euglena viridis</i>, Ehr.;
+× 300 (<i>Euglenidae</i>).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = pigment spot (stigma).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = clear space.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = paramylum granules.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = chromatophor (endochrome plate).</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Gonium pectorale</i>, O. F.
+Müller (<i>Volvocineae</i>). Colony
+seen from the flat side; × 300.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Dinobryon sertularia</i>, Ehr.
+(<i>Chrysomonadidae</i>).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = amylon nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = free colourless flagellates, probably not belonging to Dinobryon.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>e</i> = stigma (eye-spot).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>f</i> = chromatophors.</p>
+</td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>16. <i>Peranema trichophorum</i>,
+Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping individual
+seen from the back;
+× 140.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = pharynx.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = mouth.</p>
+
+<p>17. Anterior end of <i>Euglena
+acus</i>, Ehr., in profile.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = mouth.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = vacuoles.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = pharynx.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = stigma (eye-spot).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>e</i> = paramylum-body.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>f</i> = chlorophyll corpuscles.</p>
+
+<p>18. Part of the surface of a
+colony of <i>Volvox globator</i>, L.
+(<i>Volvocidae</i>), showing the intercellular
+connective fibrils.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = starch granule.</p>
+
+<p>19. Two microgametes (spermatozoa)
+of <i>Volvox globator</i>, L.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.</p>
+
+<p>20. Ripe asexually produced
+daughter-individual of <i>Volvox
+minor</i>, Stein, still enclosed in the
+cyst of the partheno-gonidium.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = young, partheno-gonidia.</p>
+
+<p>21. 22. <i>Trypanosoma sanguinis</i>,
+Gruby (<i>Haematoflagellates</i>), from
+the blood of <i>Rana esculenta</i>.<br />
+  &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus; × 500.</p>
+
+<p>23-26. Reproduction of <i>Bodo
+caudatus</i>, Duj. (<i>Bodonidae</i>), after
+Dallinger and Drysdale:&mdash;23,
+fusion of several individuals (plasmodium);
+24, encysted fusion-product
+dividing into four; 25,
+later into eight; 26, cyst filled
+with swarm-spores.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>Distigma proteus</i>, Ehbg.,
+O.F. Müller (<i>Euglenidae</i>); × 440.
+Individual with the two flagella,
+and strongly contracting hinder
+region of the body.</p>
+
+<p>28. The same devoid of flagella.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> = the two dark pigment spots (so-called eyes) near the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Oicomonas termo</i> (<i>Monas
+termo</i>) Ehr. (one of the <i>Oicomonadidae</i>).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = food-ingesting vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = food-particle; × 440.</p>
+
+<p>30. The food-particle <i>d</i> has
+now been ingested by the vacuole.</p>
+
+<p>31. <i>Oicomonas mutabilis</i>, Kent
+(<i>Oicomonadidae</i>), with adherent
+stalk.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = food-particle in food
+      vacuole.</p>
+
+<p>32, 33. <i>Cercomonas crassicauda</i>,
+Duj. (<i>Oicomonadidae</i>), showing
+two conditions of the pseudo-podium-protruding
+tail.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuoles.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = mouth.</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum,
+leucosin (a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful composition),
+proteid granules. In the holophytic forms the cytoplasm
+contains specialized parts of more or less definite form,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+known generally as &ldquo;plastids&rdquo; or &ldquo;chromatophores&rdquo; impregnated
+with a lipochrome pigment, whether green (chlorophyll),
+yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or again red
+(chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of
+such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one
+anterior &ldquo;eye-spot,&rdquo; of a refractive globule embedded behind
+in a collection of red pigment granules. The single anterior
+&ldquo;flagellum tractellum&rdquo; of so many of the larger forms acts
+by the bending over of its free end in consecutive meridians,
+so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex backwards: we
+may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling round
+and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to
+push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body
+forwards, the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves
+on (Y. Delage). An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may
+modify this axial rotation, and help in steering. When the animal
+is at rest&mdash;attached by its base or with its body so curved as
+to resist onward motion&mdash;the current produced by the tractellum
+will bring suspended particles up against the protoplasm at its
+base of insertion. As noted by E.R. Lankester, the posterior
+flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the spermatozoon
+of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind;
+he terms it a &ldquo;pulsellum.&rdquo; Such flagellar motion is distinct
+from that of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards,
+with a swift downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane;
+though where the flagella are numerous they may behave in this
+way, and indeed flagella agree with cilia in being mere vibratory
+extensions of cytoplasm. Symmetrically placed flagella may
+have a symmetrical reciprocating motion like that of cilia.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic);
+the majority live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in
+sea and fresh waters, but are not known to be active as agents
+of putrefaction. Dallinger and Drysdale have shown that the
+spores of <i>Bodo</i> and others will survive an exposure to a higher
+temperature than do any known Schizomycetes (Bacteria),
+viz. 250° to 300° Fahr., for ten minutes, although the adults are
+killed at 180°.</p>
+
+<p>The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Protomastigopoda
+rarely exceeding 20 &mu; in length. The Euglenaceae
+contain the largest species, up to 130 &mu; in length, exclusive of
+the flagellum.</p>
+
+<p>Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler
+and Prantl, <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>) and Hartog (in <i>Cambridge Natural
+History</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<p class="pt2 center">I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA)</p>
+
+<p>Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Order 1.&mdash;<b>HOLOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Body homaxial with uniform
+flagella. <i>Multicilia</i> (Cienkowski); <i>Grassia</i> (Fisch, in frog&rsquo;s blood
+and gastric mucus).</p>
+
+<p>Order 2.&mdash;<b>RHIZOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Flagellum 1, 2 or few, diverging
+from anterior end. <i>Mastigamoeba</i> (F.E. Schulze).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1 center">II. EUFLAGELLATA</p>
+
+<p>Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true
+mouth, or by absorption; or nutrition holophytic.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Order 1.&mdash;<b>PROTOMASTIGACEAE</b>. Contractile vacuole simple, one
+or more, or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-spot
+(or 2 or more), saprophytic, or parasitic.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Oicomonadidae</span>. Flagellum 1, sometimes with
+a tail-like posterior prominence passing into a temporary
+flagellum, but without other cytoplasmic processes.
+<i>Oicomonas</i> (Kent); <i>Cercomonas</i> (Dujardin) (Fig. 1, <i>32, 33</i>);
+<i>Codonoeca</i> (James-Clark), with a gelatinous theca.</p>
+
+<p>Family 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bicoecidae</span>. Differs from <i>Oicomonadidae</i> in a unilateral
+proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often
+thecate and stalked, forming branched colonies, like
+Choanoflagellates in habit. <i>Bicoeca</i> (J.-Cl.), <i>Poteriodendron</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Family 3.&mdash;<span class="sc">Choanoflagellidae</span> (Choanoflagellata, Kent;
+Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but
+with flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical
+rim of cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive
+area. The cells of this group have the morphology of the
+flagellate cells (choanocytes) of sponges. They are often
+colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of <i>Proterospongia</i>,
+the more internal cells (Fig. 2, <i>15</i>) pass into a definite
+&ldquo;reproductive state.&rdquo; Many stalked forms are epizoic on
+Entomostracan Crustacea.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list3">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Naked forms often stalked: <i>Monosiga</i> (Kent), stalked
+solitary; <i>Codosiga</i> (Kent) (Fig. 2, <i>3</i>), stalked social;
+<i>Desmarella</i> (Kent), unstalked, and <i>Astrosiga</i> (Kent),
+stalked, form floating colonies.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: <i>Salpingoeca</i> (J.-Cl.);
+(Fig. 2, <i>1, 6, 7</i>) recalling the habit of <i>Monosiga</i>
+and <i>Cod siga</i>; <i>Polyoeca</i> forming a branched free
+swimming colony.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath: <i>Proterospongia</i>
+(Kent) (Fig. 2, <i>15</i>); <i>Phalansterium</i> (Cienk.)
+(Fig. 1, <i>12</i>), has a slender cylindrical collar, and a
+branching tubular stalk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 4.&mdash;<span class="sc">Haemoflagellidae</span>. Forms with a complex nuclear
+apparatus, and a muscular undulating membrane with
+which one or two flagella are connected, parasitic in Metazoa
+(often in the blood). <i>Trypanosoma</i> (Gruby) (Fig. 1, <i>21, 22</i>),
+<i>Herpetomonas</i>(Kent), <i>Treponema</i> (Vuillemin)(= <i>Spirochaete</i>,
+auctt., nec. Ehrbg.).</p>
+
+<p>Family 5.&mdash;<span class="sc">Amphimonadidae</span>. Flagella 2 anterior, both directed
+forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &amp;c., often
+recalling Choanoflagellata, <i>Amphimonas</i> (Kent), <i>Diplomitus</i>
+(Kent); <i>Spongomonas</i> (St.), with thick branching gelatinous
+sheath.</p>
+
+<p>Family 6.&mdash;<span class="sc">Monadidae</span>. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed
+forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short.<br />
+
+<i>Monas</i> (St.); <i>Anthophysa</i> (Bory) (Fig. 2, <i>12, 13</i>), with the
+stalk composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder
+end of the cells of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>Family 7.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bodonidae</span>. Flagella 2 (or 3) 1 anterior, the other
+(1 or 2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the
+end to form a temporary anchor.<br />
+
+<i>Bodo</i> (Ehrb.) (figs. 1, <i>23-26</i> and 2, <i>10</i>). <i>B. lens</i> is the
+&ldquo;hooked&rdquo; and <i>B. saltans</i> the &ldquo;springing monad&rdquo; of
+Dallinger and Drysdale; <i>Dallingeria</i> (Kent) with a pair of
+antero-lateral flagella; <i>Costia necatrix</i> (Leclerq) is also 3-flagellate;
+causes destructive epidemics in fish-hatcheries.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span></p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:471px; height:1044px" src="images/img466a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Flagellata.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. <i>Salpingoeca fusiformis</i>, S.
+Kent (Choanoflagellata). The
+protoplasmic body is drawn together
+within the goblet-shaped
+shell, and divided into numerous
+spores.</p>
+
+<p>2. Escape of the spores of the
+same as monoflagellate and
+swarm-spores.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Codosiga umbellata</i>, Tatem
+(Choanoflagellata); adult colony
+formed by dichotomous growth.</p>
+
+<p>4. A single zooid of the same.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = the characteristic &ldquo;collar&rdquo; of naked streaming protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Hexamita inflata</i>, Duj.(<i>Distomatidae</i>);
+normal adult.</p>
+
+<p>6, 7 <i>Salpingoeca urceolata</i>, S
+Kent (<i>Choanoflagellata</i>)&mdash;6,
+with collar extended; 7, with
+collar retracted within the
+stalked cup.</p>
+
+<p>8 <i>Polytoma uvella</i>, Mull. sp.
+(<i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>).</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Lophomonas blattarum</i>,
+Stein (<i>Trichonymphidae</i>) from
+the intestine of <i>Blatta orientalis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Bodolens</i>, Mull. (<i>Bodonidae</i>),
+the wavy filament is a
+tractellum, the straight one is
+a trailing thread.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Tetramitus sulcatus</i>, Stein
+(<i>Tetramitidae</i>)</p>
+</td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>12. <i>Anthophysa vegetans</i>, O.F.
+Müller (<i>Monadidae</i>). A typical,
+erect, shortly-branching colony
+stock with four terminal
+monad-clusters.</p>
+
+<p>13. Monad cluster of the
+same in optical section, showing
+the relation of the individual
+monads or flagellate zooids to the
+stem <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Tetramitus rostratus</i>, Perty
+(<i>Tetramitidae</i>).<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Proterospongia Haeckeli</i>,
+Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata);
+A social colony of about forty
+flagellate zooids.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = contractile vacuole.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>c</i> = amoebiform cell sunk within the colonial gelatinous
+      test compared by S. Kent to a mesoderm cell of the sponges.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>d</i> = similar cell reproducing by transverse fission.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>e</i> = normal cells, with their collars contracted.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>f</i> = substance of test.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>g</i> = individual reproducing by multiple fission, producing
+      microzoospores, comparable to the spermatozoa of sponges.</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:525px" src="images/img466b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>1. <i>Trichonympha agilis</i>, Leidy, from
+gut of White Ant (Termite).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Opalina ranarum</i>, Purkinje parasitic
+in frog rectum multinucleate
+adult.</p>
+
+<p>3, 4. Binary fissions of same, 1-nucleat
+individual at final stage of fission.</p>
+
+<p>5. Same encysted dejected from
+rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.</p>
+
+<p>6. Young 1-nucleate individual
+emerged from cyst, destined to grow,
+proliferating its nuclei to adult form.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>a</i> = nucleus.<br />
+   &emsp;&emsp; <i>b</i> = food (?) particles in Fig. 1.</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<div class="list1">
+<p class="pt2">Family 8.&mdash;<span class="sc">Tetramitidae</span>. Body pyriform, the pointed end
+posterior; flagella 4 anterior.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetramitus</i> (Perty) (<i>T. calycinus</i> of Kent, Fig. 2, <i>11, 14</i>),
+is the &ldquo;calycine monad&rdquo; of Dallinger and Drysdale;
+<i>Trichomonas</i>, Donné, possesses a longitudinal undulating
+membrane, and is an innocuous human parasite; it is
+possibly related to
+Haemoflagellates
+on one hand and
+to <i>Trichonymphidae</i>
+on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Family 9.&mdash;<span class="sc">Distomatidae</span>.
+Mouth-spots
+two, or one,
+with a distinct
+construction; flagella
+symmetrically
+arranged;
+nucleus bilobed
+or geminate. <i>Hexamitus</i>
+(Duj.) (Fig.
+2, <i>5</i>), saprophytic
+and parasitic; <i>Trepomonas</i>
+(Duj.),
+freshwater; <i>Megastoma</i>
+(Grassi) (=
+<i>Lamblia</i> of Blanchard),
+with constricted
+mouth-spot
+and blepharoplast
+(kineto-nucleus)
+parasitic
+in the small intestine
+of Mammals,
+including Man.</p>
+
+<p>Family 10.&mdash;<span class="sc">Trichonymphidae</span>.
+Flagella
+numerous,
+sometimes accompanied
+by one or
+more undulating
+membranes; cytoplasm
+highly
+differentiated;
+contractile vacuole
+absent; all
+parasitic in insects
+(all except
+<i>Lophomonas</i> in
+Termites&mdash;the so-called
+White
+Ants.)<br />
+
+<i>Lophomonas</i>(St.)
+(Fig. 2, <i>9</i>); parasitic
+in the cockroach;
+<i>Dinenympha</i> (Leidy), <i>Pyrsonympha</i> (Leidy); <i>Trichenympha</i>
+(Leidy) (Fig. 3, <i>1</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Family 11.&mdash;<span class="sc">Opalinidae</span>. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform.
+uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small,
+numerous, uniform.<br />
+
+Only genus, <i>Opalina</i> (Purkinje and Valentin) (Fig. 3, <i>2-6</i>),
+in bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an
+aberrant ciliate, but E.R. Lankester expressed doubts as
+to its position in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Order 2.&mdash;<b>CHRYSOMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole simple (in
+fresh-water forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always
+present; reserves fat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Chrysomonadidae</span>. Body naked, often amoeboid
+in active state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gelatinous
+investment, a firm cuticle, or silicified shell; reserves
+fat or leucosin (starch in <i>Zooxanthella</i>); eye-spot present.
+<i>Chromulina</i> (Cienk.) often forms a golden scum on tanks;
+<i>Chrysamoeba</i> (Klebs); <i>Hydrurus</i> (Agardh), theca of colony
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+forming branching tubes, simulating a yellow Conferva in
+mountain torrents; <i>Dinobryon</i> (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>8, 15</i>);
+<i>Stylochrysalis</i> (St.); <i>Uroglena</i> (Ehrb.); <i>Syncrypta</i> (Ehrb.),
+and <i>Synura</i> (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>5</i>) form floating spherical
+colonies; <i>Zooxanthella</i> (Brandt), symbiotic as &ldquo;yellow
+cells&rdquo; in Radiolaria <i>Foraminifera</i>, <i>Millepora</i>, and many
+Actinozoa.</p>
+
+<p>Family 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Coccolithophoridae</span>. Body invested in a spherical
+test strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential
+circular plates, &ldquo;coccoliths,&rdquo; &ldquo;discoliths,&rdquo; &ldquo;cyatholiths,&rdquo;
+or radiating rods &ldquo;rhabdoliths.&rdquo; These are often found in
+Foraminiferal ooze and its fossil condition, chalk; when
+coherent as in the complete test, they are known as &ldquo;coccospheres&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;rhabdospheres.&rdquo; <i>Coccolithophora</i> (Lohmann),
+<i>Rhabdosphaera</i> (Haeckel).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Order 3.&mdash;<b>CRYPTOMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole (in freshwater
+forms) simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or
+absent; reserves starch; holophytic or saprophytic. <i>Cryptomonas</i>
+(Ehrb.); <i>Paramoeba</i> (Greeff) has yellow plastids and
+shows two cycles, in the one amoeboid, finally encysting to produce
+a brood of flagellulae; in the other flagellate, and multiplying
+by longitudinal fission (it differs from <i>Mastigamoeba</i> in possessing
+no flagellum in the amoeboid state, though it takes in food
+amoeba-fashion); <i>Chilomonas</i> (Ehrb.).</p>
+
+<p>Order 4.&mdash;<b>CHLOROMONADACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a
+complex of variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids discoid
+chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in
+active state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior
+blind tubular depression simulating a pharynx. <i>Coelomonas</i> (St.),
+<i>Vacuolaria</i> (Cienk.).</p>
+
+<p>Order 5.&mdash;<b>EUGLENACEAE.</b> Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or
+more accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface
+by a canal (&ldquo;pharynx&rdquo;) in which are planted one or two strong
+flagella; pellicle strong often striated; nucleus large, chromatophores
+green, complex or absent; reserves paramylum granules
+of definite shape, and oil; nutrition variable; body stiff or
+&ldquo;metabolic,&rdquo; never amoeboid. Among the true Flagellates these
+are the largest, few being below 40 &mu; and several attaining 130 &mu;
+in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum). Encysted condition
+common; the green forms sometimes multiply in this state and
+simulate unicellular Algae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Euglenidae</span>. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition
+saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1)
+Chromatophore large; eye-spot conspicuous. <i>Euglena</i>
+(Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, <i>13, 17</i>), with flexible cuticle and metabolic
+movements (this is probably Priestley&rsquo;s &ldquo;green matter&rdquo;
+through which he obtained oxygen gas)&mdash;a very common
+genus; <i>Colacium</i> (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic on
+Copepoda, which it colours green; <i>Eutreptia</i> (Perty), biflagellate;
+<i>Ascoglena</i> (St.); <i>Trachelomonas</i> (Ehrb.), with
+a hard brown cuticle; <i>Phacus</i> (Nitszche), with a firm rigid
+pellicle, often symmetrically flattened; <i>Cryptoglena</i> (Ehbg.).
+(2) Chromatophores absent. <i>Astasia</i> (Duj.), body metabolic;
+<i>Menoidium</i> (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat
+inflected and crescentic; <i>Sphenomonas</i> (Stein), with a short
+accessory trailing flagellum in front peeled; <i>Distigma</i>
+(Ehbg.) (Fig. 1, <i>27, 28</i>), very metabolic, with two unequal
+flagella and two dark pigment spots.</p>
+
+<p>Family 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Peranemidae</span>. Bilaterally symmetrical, often
+creeping, pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like
+skeleton, sometimes protrusible; nutrition saprophytic
+and holozoic. <i>Peranema</i> (Ehbg.) and <i>Urceolus</i> (Mereschowsky),
+uni-flagellate creeping, very metabolic. <i>Petalomonas</i>
+(St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep ventral
+groove, not metabolic; <i>Heteronema</i> (Duj.) and <i>Tropidoscyphus</i>
+(St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing
+flagellum; <i>Anisonema</i> (Duj.) and <i>Entosiphon</i> (St.), with
+the trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much
+longer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Order 6.&mdash;<b>VOLVOCACEAE.</b> Contractile vacuole simple anterior;
+cell always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous)
+perforated by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior
+flagella; reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present,
+except in <i>Polytoma</i>, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutrition
+usually holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic.
+Brood-division in active state common, radial.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 1.&mdash;<span class="sc">Chlamydomonadidae</span>. Cell-wall firm not
+gelatinous, rarely forming colonies. Fore-end of the body
+with two or four (seldom five) flagella. Almost always
+green in consequence of the presence of a very large single
+chromatophore. Generally a delicate shell-like envelope
+of membranous consistence. 1 to 2 simple contractile
+vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one eye-speck.
+Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may
+produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may
+occur in the swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more
+continuous fission microgametes of various sizes are
+formed. Conjugation is frequent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Genera.&mdash;<i>Chlorangium</i> (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll;
+<i>Chlorogonium</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>6, 7</i>); <i>Polytoma</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 2, <i>8</i>);
+<i>Chlamydomonas</i> (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>1, 2, 3</i>); <i>Haematococcus</i> (Agardh)
+(= <i>Chlamydococcus</i>, A. Braun, Stein); <i>Protococcus</i> (Conn, Huxley
+and Martin); <i>Chlamydomonas</i> (Cienkowski), causes red snow and
+&ldquo;bloody rain&rdquo;; <i>Carteria</i> (Diesing), quadri-flagellate; <i>Spondytomorum</i>
+(Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; <i>Coccomonas</i> (St.);
+<i>Phacotus</i> (Perty); <i>Zoochlorella</i> (Brandt), is the name given to undetermined
+Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state
+within and in symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the freshwater
+sponge, <i>Ephydatia</i>, <i>Hydra viridis</i>, and to the Turbellarian,
+<i>Convoluta viridis</i> (in which last species the active form has been
+recognized as a <i>Carteria</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Family 2.&mdash;<span class="sc">Volvocidae</span>. Cell-wall gelatinous; always associated
+in colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number
+of individuals united to form a colony varies very much,
+as does the shape of the colony. Reproduction by the
+continuous division of all or of only certain individuals of
+the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter colony
+(from each such individual). In some, probably in all,
+at certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct
+sexual colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation
+of the colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female.
+The result of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also
+called zygote or oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a
+time develops itself into one or more new colonies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Genera.&mdash;<i>Gonium</i> (O.F. Müller) (Fig. 1, <i>14</i>); <i>Stephanosphaera</i>
+(Cohn); <i>Pandorina</i> (Bory de Vine); <i>Eudorina</i> (Ehr.); <i>Volvox</i>
+(Ehr.) (Fig. 1, <i>18, 20</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one
+of the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In
+some families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid,
+fuse, encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop
+simply to the parental form (Fig. 1, <i>23</i> to <i>26</i>). In the <i>Chlamydomonadidae</i>
+a single adult individual by division produces small individuals,
+so-called &ldquo;microgametes.&rdquo; These conjugate with one another or
+with similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chlorogonium,
+Fig. 1, <i>7</i>); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete
+conjugates with an ordinary individual megagamete. The result
+in either case is a &ldquo;zygote,&rdquo; a cell formed by fusion of two which
+divides in the usual way to produce new individuals. The microgamete
+in this case is the male element and equivalent to a spermatozoon;
+the megagamete is the female and equivalent to an egg-cell.
+The zygote is a &ldquo;fertilized egg,&rdquo; or oosperm. In some colony-building
+forms we find that only certain cells produce by division
+microgametes; and, regarding the colony as a multicellular individual,
+we may consider these cells as testis-cells and their microgametes
+as spermatozoa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Cystoflagellata</span>(<span class="sc">Rhynchoflagellata</span> of E.R. Lankester) and
+<span class="sc">Dinoflagellata</span> are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata;
+but, following O. Bütschli, we describe them separately; the three
+groups being united into his <span class="sc">Mastigophora</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Further Remarks on the Flagellates.</i>&mdash;Besides the work of special
+Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Bütschli, F. v. Stein, F.
+Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &amp;c., the Flagellates have been a
+favourite study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite
+N. Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W.C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P.A. Dangeard,
+G. Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schütt; the reason for this is obvious. They
+present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera
+to the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex
+colonies of <i>Proterospongia</i> and <i>Volvox</i>. By some they are regarded
+as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa&mdash;a position which
+may perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa; but they seem
+undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as
+well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the
+only distinction between the <i>Chlamydomonadidae</i> and the true green
+Algae or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting
+condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older cell-walls
+(<i>Palmella</i> state), they round off and separate, while the latter
+divide by a &ldquo;party wall&rdquo; so as to give rise either to a cylindrical
+filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of growth
+constant (<i>Conferva</i> type), or to a plate of tissue when the directions
+alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the Chrysomonadaceae
+and Cryptomonadaceae, so that these little groups are included in
+all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores of
+the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae,
+Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the <i>Bodonidae</i>. Thus in
+two directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Probably
+also the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the
+Conjugatae in the widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the
+Diatomaceae; both groups of obscure affinity, since even the reproductive
+bodies have no special organs of locomotion. For these
+reasons the Volvocaceae, Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae
+and Cryptomonadaceae have been united as Phytoflagellates; and
+the Euglenaceae might well be added to these. It is easy to understand
+the relation of the saprophytic and the holophytic Flagellates
+to true plants. The capacity to absorb nutritive matter in solution
+(as contrasted with the ingestion of solid matter) renders the encysted
+condition compatible with active growth, and what in holozoic forms
+is a true hypnocyst, a state in which all functions are put to sleep,
+is here only a rest from active locomotion, nutrition being only
+limited by the supply of nutritive matter from without, and&mdash;in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+case of holophytic species&mdash;by the illumination: this latter condition
+naturally limits the possible growth in thickness in holophytes
+with undifferentiated tissues. The same considerations apply
+indeed to the larger parasitic organisms among Sporozoa, such as
+Gregarines and Myxosporidia and Dolichosporidia, which are giants
+among Protozoa.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;W.S. Kent, <i>Manual of the Infusoria</i>, vol. i. Protozoa
+(1880-1882); O. Bütschli, <i>Die Flagellaten</i> (in Bronn&rsquo;s <i>Thierreich</i>, vol.
+i. Protozoa, 1885); these two works contain full bibliographies of the
+antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on Chlamydomonads)
+in <i>Bull. Soc. Nat.</i> (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G. Klebs, &ldquo;Flagellatenstudien&rdquo;
+in <i>Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool.</i> lv. (1892); Doflein, <i>Protozoen
+als Krankheitserreger</i> (1900); Senn, &ldquo;Flagellaten,&rdquo; in Engler and
+Prantl&rsquo;s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, 1 Teil, Abt. 1a (1900); R. Francé, <i>Der
+Organismus der Craspedomonaden</i> (1897); Grassi and Sandias, &ldquo;Trichonymphidae,&rdquo;
+in <i>Quart. J. Micr. Sci.</i> xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzenberger,
+&ldquo;Opa inidae&rdquo; in <i>Arch. Protist</i>, iii. (1903); Marcus Hartog,
+&ldquo;Protozoa,&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAGEOLET,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> in music, a kind of <i>flute-à-bec</i> with a new
+fingering, invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and
+in vogue in England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of
+the 19th century. The instrument is described and illustrated
+by Mersenne,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who states that the most famous maker and
+player in his day was Le Vacher. The flageolet differed from
+the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in front and two
+thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in front
+and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived
+in the French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in
+small orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the
+holes was as follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near
+mouthpiece; 2 and 3, finger-holes stopped by the left hand;
+4, finger-hole stopped by right hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back;
+6, hole near the open end. According to Dr Burney (<i>History
+of Music</i>) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur Juvigny, who
+played it in the <i>Ballet comique de la Royne</i>, 1581. Dr Edward
+Browne,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June
+1673, relates, &ldquo;We have with us here one ... and Mr Hadly
+upon the flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to
+invent large ones and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever
+upon any other instrument.&rdquo; About the same time was
+published Thomas Greeting&rsquo;s <i>Pleasant Companion; or New
+Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet</i> (London, 1675 or 1682),
+a rare book of which the British Museum does not possess a
+copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the beginning
+of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and
+triple flageolets.<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The three tubes were bored parallel through
+one piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which
+was common to all three. The lowest notes of the respective
+tubes were <img style="width:141px; height:47px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img468.jpg" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval
+Fr. <i>flajol</i>, the primitive whistle-pipe.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sir Thomas Browne&rsquo;s Works, vol. i. p. 206.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Capt. C.R. Day, <i>Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments</i>
+(London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also <i>Complete Instructions for
+the Double Flageolet</i> (London, 1825); and <i>The Preceptor, or a Key
+to the Double Flageolet</i> (London, 1815).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAGSHIP,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the
+symbol of authority of an admiral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1785-1870), French general and statesman,
+son of Alexandre Sébastien de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte
+de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793, and his wife
+Adélaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in
+Paris on the 21st of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally
+recognized to be the offspring of his mother&rsquo;s liaison with Talleyrand,
+with whom he was closely connected throughout his life.
+His mother took him with her into exile in 1792, and they
+remained abroad until 1798. He entered the army as a volunteer
+in 1800, and received his commission after the battle of Marengo.
+He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was wounded at the
+battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne Poniatowski,
+Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became intimate.
+After the battle of Friedland he received the Legion of
+Honour, and returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in
+1808, and then in Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka
+had established herself in Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by
+this time entered on his liaison with Hortense de Beauharnais,
+queen of Holland. The birth of their son was registered in Paris
+on the 21st of October 1811 as Charles Auguste Louis Joseph
+Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought
+with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813
+became general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and,
+after the battle of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon&rsquo;s
+abdication in 1814 he submitted to the new government, but
+was placed on the retired list in September. He was assiduous
+in his attendance on Queen Hortense until the Hundred Days
+brought him into active service again. A mission to Vienna to
+secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was
+present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II.
+on the throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand&rsquo;s influence,
+but was placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected
+to retire to Germany, and thence to England, where he married
+Margaret, daughter of Admiral George Keith Elphinstone,
+Lord Keith, and after the latter&rsquo;s death Baroness Keith in her
+own right. The French ambassador opposed the marriage, and
+Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter, Emily
+Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts
+returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the
+count the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of
+France. He remained intimately associated with Talleyrand&rsquo;s
+policy, and was, for a short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin.
+He was afterwards attached to the household of the duke of
+Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, where
+he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and retired from
+the army. After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1851 he was again actively
+employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court
+of St James&rsquo;s. He died on the 1st of September 1870. The
+comte de Flahaut is perhaps better remembered for his exploits
+in gallantry, and the elegant manners in which he had been
+carefully trained by his mother, than for his public services,
+which were not, however, so inconsiderable as they have sometimes
+been represented to be.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. de Haricourt, <i>Madame de Souza et sa famille</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAIL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>flagellum</i>, a whip or scourge, but used in
+the Vulgate in the sense of &ldquo;flail&rdquo;; the word appears in Dutch
+<i>vlegel</i>, Ger. <i>Flegel</i>, and Fr. <i>fléau</i>), a farm hand-implement formerly
+used for threshing corn. It consists of a short thick club called
+a &ldquo;swingle&rdquo; or &ldquo;swipple&rdquo; attached by a rope or leather thong
+to a wooden handle in such a manner as to enable it to swing
+freely. The &ldquo;flail&rdquo; was a weapon used for military purposes
+in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as a threshing-flail
+but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It also
+took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end
+swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was
+known as the &ldquo;morning star&rdquo; or &ldquo;holy water sprinkler.&rdquo;
+During the panic over the Popish plot in England from 1678
+to 1681, clubs, known as &ldquo;Protestant flails,&rdquo; were carried by
+alarmed Protestants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Green Ribbon Club</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMBARD, RANULF,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ralph</span> (d. 1128), bishop of Durham
+and chief minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman
+parish priest who belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating
+at an early age to England, the young Ranulf entered the
+chancery of William I. and became conspicuous as a courtier.
+He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed him Flambard
+in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he acquired
+the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played
+an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey.
+In that record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as
+holding land both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death
+of the old king he became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London,
+under whom he had formerly served in the chancery. But
+early in the next reign Ranulf returned to the royal service.
+He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he seems in
+that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the
+custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+and there can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a
+fiscal character. His name is regularly connected by the
+chroniclers with the ingenious methods of extortion from which
+all classes suffered between 1087 and 1100. He profited largely
+by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion
+of the ecclesiastical preferments which were <span class="correction" title="amended from illegaly">illegally</span> kept vacant,
+and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099).
+His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of Henry I.,
+by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry.
+A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard
+soon <span class="correction" title="amended from succeded">succeeded</span> in effecting his escape from the Tower of London.
+A popular legend represents the bishop as descending from the
+window of his cell by a rope which friends had conveyed to him
+in a cask of wine. He took refuge with Robert Curthose in
+Normandy and became one of the advisers who pressed the
+duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger brother;
+Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the administration
+of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai
+(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with
+Henry, and was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham
+he passed the remainder of his life. His private life was lax;
+he had at least two sons, for whom he purchased benefices before
+they had entered on their teens; and scandalous tales are told
+of the entertainments with which he enlivened his seclusion.
+But he distinguished himself, even among the bishops of that
+age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but completed
+the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef, had
+begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the
+priory of Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch,
+Hampshire. As a politician he ended his career with his submission
+to Henry, who found in Roger of Salisbury a financier
+not less able and infinitely more acceptable to the nation. Ranulf
+died on the 5th of September 1128.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Orderic Vitalis, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, vols. iii. and iv. (ed.
+le Prévost, Paris, 1845); the first continuation of Symeon&rsquo;s <i>Historia
+Ecclesiae Dunelmensis</i> (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury
+in the <i>Gesta pontificum</i> (Rolls ed., 1870); and the <i>Peterborough
+Chronicle</i> (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E.A. Freeman in
+his <i>William Rufus</i> (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also
+T.A. Archer in the <i>English Historical Review</i>, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs&rsquo;s
+<i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.H.
+Round&rsquo;s <i>Feudal England</i> (London, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMBOROUGH HEAD,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a promontory on the Yorkshire
+coast of England, between the Filey and Bridlington bays of
+the North Sea. It is a lofty chalk headland, and the resistance
+it offers to the action of the waves may be well judged by contrast
+with the low coast of Holderness to the south. The cliffs of the
+Head, however, are pierced with caverns and fringed with rocks
+of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata is seen
+at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on
+the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54° 7&prime; N., 0° 5&prime; W.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMBOYANT STYLE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> the term given to the phase of Gothic
+architecture in France which corresponds in period to the
+Perpendicular style. The word literally means &ldquo;flowing&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;flaming,&rdquo; in consequence of the resemblance to the curved
+lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest examples of
+flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of the
+Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the
+enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the
+foliations resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form
+and hence the term flowing tracery. In the minster and the
+church of St Mary at Beverley, dating from 1320 and 1330, are
+the earliest examples in England; in France its first employment
+dates from about 1460, and it is now generally agreed that the
+flamboyant style was introduced from English sources. One of
+the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in France is
+that known as &ldquo;interpenetration,&rdquo; in which the base mouldings
+of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which
+the faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was
+in a sense a <i>tour de force</i> of French masons, was carried to such
+an extent that in a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating
+the base-mould would be found to be those of a diagonal buttress
+situated 20 to 30 ft. above it. It was not limited, however, to
+internal work; in late 15th and early 16th century ecclesiastical
+architecture it is found on the façades of some French
+cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in later
+times.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAME<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flamma</i>; the root <i>flag</i>-appears in <i>flagrare</i>, to
+burn, blaze, and Gr. <span class="grk" title="phlégein">&#966;&#955;&#941;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>). There is no strict scientific
+definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be
+regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in
+consequence of chemical action. It is well known that the
+luminosity of gases can be induced by the electrical discharge,
+and with rapidly alternating high-tension discharges in air an
+oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced which is long and flickering,
+can be blown out, yields nitrogen peroxide, and is in fact indistinguishable
+from an ordinary flame except by its electrical
+mode of maintenance. The term &ldquo;flame&rdquo; is also applied to
+solar protuberances, which, according to the common view,
+consist of gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even
+with the restricted definition given above, difficulties present
+themselves. It is found, for example, with a hydrogen flame
+that the luminosity diminishes as the purity of the hydrogen
+is increased and as the air is freed from dust, and J.S. Stas
+declared that under the most favourable conditions he was only
+able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it,
+an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum
+of the flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand,
+there are many examples of chemical combination between gases
+where the attendant radiation is below the pitch of visibility,
+as in the case of ethylene and chlorine. It will be obvious from
+these facts that a strict definition of flame is hardly possible.
+The common distinction between luminous and non-luminous
+flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and only corresponds to a
+rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may
+be liberated during combination or decomposition. A single
+substance like gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and
+gives gaseous products, will produce a bright flame of decomposition
+if a single piece be heated in an evacuated flask. Combination
+is the more common case, and this means that we have
+two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed <i>en
+masse</i> before combination, the one which flows as a current into
+the other is called conventionally the &ldquo;combustible,&rdquo; but the
+simple experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show
+the unreality of this distinction between combustible and supporter
+of combustion, which, in fact, is only one of the many
+partial views that are explained and perhaps justified by the
+dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most
+interesting, it will be well to consider simpler flames first in
+order to discuss some fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon
+flames the complexity of the combustible, its susceptibility
+to change by heating, and the possibilities of fractional oxidation,
+create special difficulties. In the flame of hydrogen and oxygen
+or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have simpler conditions,
+though here, too, things may be by no means so simple as they
+seem from the equations 2H<span class="su">2</span> + O<span class="su">2</span> = 2H<span class="su">2</span>O and 2CO + O<span class="su">2</span> = 2CO<span class="su">2</span>.
+The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well
+known, and the molecular transactions may in reality be complicated.
+We shall, however, assume for the sake of clearness
+that in these cases we have a simple reaction taking place throughout
+the mass of flame. There are various ways in which a pair
+of gases may be burned, and these we shall consider separately.
+Let us first suppose the two gases to have been mixed <i>en masse</i>
+and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If the
+mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which
+vary for each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light
+is applied, and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame
+may be very slow in its progress or it may attain a velocity of
+the order of one or two thousand metres per second. Until
+comparatively recent times great misunderstanding prevailed
+on this subject. The slow rate of movement of flame in short
+lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity of
+explosion, but more recent researches by M.P.E. Berthelot,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+E. Mallard and H.L. le Chatelier and H.B. Dixon have shown
+that a distinction must be made between the slow <i>initial rate
+of inflammation</i> of gaseous mixtures and the <i>rapid rate of detonation</i>,
+or rate of the <i>explosive wave</i>, which in many cases is subsequently
+set up. We shall here deal only with the slow movements
+of flame. The development of a flame in such a gaseous mixture
+requires that a small portion of it should be raised to a temperature
+called the <i>temperature of ignition</i>. Here again considerable
+misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature of ignition
+has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical
+combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at
+which combination has reached a certain rate. The combination
+of hydrogen and oxygen begins at temperatures far below that
+of ignition. It may indeed be supposed that the combination
+occurs with extreme slowness even at ordinary temperatures,
+and that as the temperature is raised the velocity of the reaction
+increases in accordance with the general expression according
+to which an increase of 10°C. will approximately double the rate.
+However that may be, it has been proved experimentally by
+J.H. van&rsquo;t Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination
+of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below
+the temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be
+greatly influenced by the solid surfaces which are present; thus
+in a plain glass vessel the combination only began to be perceptible
+at 448°, whilst in a silvered glass vessel it would be
+detected at 182°C.</p>
+
+<p>The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances,
+including ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the
+application of heat to a combustible mixture as resulting in an
+increase of the rate of combination locally. Let us suppose
+that we are dealing with a stratum of the mixture in small
+contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature of the first
+section <i>a</i>°C., an increased rate of combination is set up. The
+heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduction
+and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite
+suffice to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to <i>a</i>°C. The
+combination in that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in
+the first one, and so evidently the impulse to combination will
+go on abating as we pass along the stratum. Suppose now we
+start again and heat the first section of the mixture to a temperature
+<i>c</i>°C., such that the rate of combination is very rapid and the
+heat developed by combination suffices to raise the adjacent
+section of the mixture to a temperature higher than <i>c</i>°C. The
+rate of combination will then be greater than in the first section,
+and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the same
+way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum
+temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a
+temperature of <i>b</i>°C. between <i>a</i>° and <i>c</i>° which will satisfy this
+condition, that the heat which results from the combination
+stimulated in the first section just suffices to raise the temperature
+of the second section to <i>b</i>°. This temperature <i>b</i>° is the temperature
+of ignition of the mixture; so soon as it is attained by a
+portion of the mixture the combustion becomes self-sustaining
+and flame spreads through the mixture. Ignition temperature
+may be defined briefly as the temperature at which the initial
+loss of heat due to conduction, &amp;c., is equal to the heat evolved
+in the same time by the chemical reaction (van&rsquo;t Hoff). From
+the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition
+will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the
+proportions of the same gases are varied, and also when the
+pressure is varied. We can see also that outside certain limiting
+proportions a mixture of gases will have no practicable ignition
+temperature, that is to say, the cooling effect of the gas which
+is in excess will carry off so much heat that no attainable initial
+heating will suffice to set up the transmission of a constant
+temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and air, mixtures
+containing less than 5 and more than 72% of hydrogen are not
+inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us
+to understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric
+spark may not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will
+indeed take place in the path of the spark, but the amount of it
+is not sufficient to meet the loss of heat by conduction, &amp;c. It
+must be added that the theory of ignition temperatures given
+above does not explain all the observed facts. F. Emich states
+that the inflammability of gaseous mixtures is not necessarily
+greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions theoretically
+required for complete combination, and the influence of foreign
+gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence
+of a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence
+on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of
+ethylene to hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a
+mixture of methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature
+a sensible interval (about 10 seconds) elapses before inflammation
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p>The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases
+which has been ignited depends on the proportions in which the
+gases are mixed. Fig. 1 (Bunte) represents this relationship
+for several common gases.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:372px; height:287px" src="images/img470a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with air.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 100px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:47px; height:263px" src="images/img470b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the production
+of a steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and
+ignited at the end; it is obvious that the velocity of efflux must
+be greater than the initial rate of inflammation of the mixture,
+for otherwise the mixture would fire back down the tube. If
+the velocity of efflux be considerably greater than the rate of
+inflammation, the flame will be separated from the end of the tube,
+and only appear as a flickering crown where the velocity and
+inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by
+admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux
+the flame will be blown out. J.B.A. Dumas used to show the
+experiment of blowing out a candle with electrolytic gas. A
+steady flame formed by burning a ready-made gaseous mixture
+at the end of a tube of circular section has the form shown in
+fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower limiting surface
+of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the velocity of
+efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation,
+and its conical form is explained by the fact that the
+rate of efflux of gas is greatest in the vertical axis of
+the tube where the flow is not retarded by friction
+with the walls, as well as by the further fact that
+the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards,
+the inflammation proceeding directly against it. The
+flame, it will be seen, is of considerable thickness.
+If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen, or
+carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious
+features of structure beyond those shown in the figure;
+that is to say, the shaded region of burning gas has
+the appearance of homogeneity and uniform colour
+which might be expected to accompany a uniform
+chemical condition. Some admixture of the external
+air will, of course, take place, especially in the upper
+parts of the flame, and detectable quantities of oxides of nitrogen
+may be found in the products of combustion, but this is an
+inconsiderable feature. The flame just described is essentially
+that of a blowpipe.</p>
+
+<p>A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of
+allowing one gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases
+as before, hydrogen or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span>
+again that the flame is conical in form and uniform in colour,
+but in this case, if the velocity of efflux be not immoderate,
+the burning gas only extends over a comparatively thin shell,
+limited on the inside by the pure combustible and on the outside
+by a mixture of the products of combustion with oxygen. The
+combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with
+the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of
+gas to be burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned
+gas thus becomes thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a
+point. The external surface of a flame of this kind will for
+the same consumption of gas be larger than that of a flame where
+the ready-made mixture of gases is used. If a jet of one gas be
+sent with a sufficient velocity into another, turbulent admixture
+takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame of uniform colour is
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one
+gas, mixed with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient
+for complete combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the
+second. This is the case with what are generally known as
+atmospheric burners, of which the Bunsen burner is the prototype.
+The development of a flame of this kind can be well studied in
+the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon monoxide is
+fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the burner-tube
+being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a
+cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now
+the air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same
+blue colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered
+through the air-valve (&ldquo;primary&rdquo; air) has become mixed with
+the carbon monoxide and so oxidizes its quota in an internal
+cone, the rest of the carbon monoxide (diluted now, of course,
+with carbon dioxide and nitrogen) wandering into the external
+atmosphere to burn (with &ldquo;secondary&rdquo; air) in a second cone.
+The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent thermal
+effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If
+the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion
+can take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement
+of the inner cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of
+inflammation of the mixture, and the inner cone (which only
+maintains its stability because the rate of efflux of the mixture is
+greater than the velocity of inflammation) contracts, and will, as
+the proportion of primary air is increased, soon evince a tendency
+to enter the burner-tube. At this stage an interesting phenomenon
+is to be noticed. When we have reached the point of
+aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture
+just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the
+burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion
+checks the suction flow of air through the valve at the base of
+the burner, whilst it does not appreciably check the pressure
+flow of the carbon monoxide through the gas nozzle. The
+result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor in air, and therefore
+of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when the descending
+disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the disk
+returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The
+full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated.
+This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely
+long if the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant.
+With still more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires
+back to the burner nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have
+enough air entering to produce a flame of the blast blowpipe
+type, namely, one where the carbon monoxide mixed with an
+<i>excess</i> of primary air burns with a single cone in a steady
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells
+a two-coned flame of the kind described may be resolved into
+its components. The apparatus is like a half-extended telescope
+made of two glass tubes, and it is evident that the velocity of
+a mixture of gases flowing through it must be greater in the
+narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of the narrower
+tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at the
+end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a
+certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and
+attach itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs
+when the velocity of inflammation is just greater than the
+upward velocity of the gaseous stream in the wide tube and less
+than the upward velocity in the narrow tube. If the outer
+tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame burns at the end
+of the inner tube; if the outer tube <span class="correction" title="amended from he">be</span> slid up again, it
+detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus
+has been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in
+various flames.</p>
+
+<p><i>Temperature of Flames.</i>&mdash;The term &ldquo;flame-temperature&rdquo; is
+used very vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by
+some description. It <span class="correction" title="amended from it">is</span> least ambiguous when used in reference
+to flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical
+proportions before issuing from the burner. The flame in such
+a case has considerable thickness and uniformity, and, though
+the temperature is not constant throughout, flames of this
+type given by different combustibles admit of comparison. In
+other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop
+large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how
+temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will
+not, from the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient
+temperature for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum
+wire may be melted at the edge of the lower part of such a flame.
+The maximum temperature of the flame is therefore not in any
+serious sense an available temperature. It will suffice to point
+out here that in order to burn a gas so that it may have the
+highest available temperature, we must burn it with the smallest
+external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the combining
+gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner.
+Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the
+Bunsen type, and arrange matters so that a large amount of
+primary air is supplied. It is in this direction that modern
+improvements have been made with a view to obtaining hot
+flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern burner,
+for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where
+much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being
+well mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be
+produced with a great tendency to light back. The burner head
+is therefore usually provided with a mixing chamber and the
+mixture issues through a slit or a mesh. A great many modified
+Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim in all of them being
+to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness with the
+smallest attainable external surface.</p>
+
+<p>To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have
+been employed. The method of calculation, based on the
+supposition that the whole heat of combustion is localized in
+the product (or products) of combustion and heats it to a temperature
+depending on its specific heat, cannot be applied in a
+simple way. Apart from the assumption (which there is reason
+to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy assumes
+the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change
+of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation
+and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of temperature
+must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules
+and not to a single one, and therefore any influence which means
+delay in combination will result in reduction of temperature by
+radiation and conduction. It can hardly be maintained that
+in the present state of knowledge we have the requisite data for
+the calculation of flame temperature, though good approximations
+may be made. Many attempts have been made to determine
+flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples
+and by radiation pyrometers. The couple most employed is that
+known as H.L. le Chatelier&rsquo;s, consisting of two wires, one of
+platinum and the other an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of
+rhodium. When all possible precautions are taken it is possible
+by means of such thermo-couples to measure local flame temperatures
+with a considerable degree of accuracy. Subjoined are
+some results obtained at different times and by different observers
+with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896)</td> <td class="tcl">1770° C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp; &rdquo; &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp; (Berkenbusch, 1899)</td> <td class="tcl">1830°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp; &rdquo; &emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp; (White &amp; Traver, 1902)</td> <td class="tcl">1780°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp; &rdquo; &emsp;  &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp; (Féry, 1905)</td> <td class="tcl">1871°</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span></p>
+
+<p>The following are given by Féry:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Acetylene</td> <td class="tcl">2548° C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Alcohol</td> <td class="tcl">1705°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen (in air)</td> <td class="tcl">1900°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oxy-hydrogen</td> <td class="tcl">2420°</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oxy-coal gas blowpipe</td> <td class="tcl">2200°</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Source of Light in Flames.</i>&mdash;We may consider first those
+flames where solid particles are out of the question; for example,
+the flame of carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the
+luminosity was due to the thermal glow of the highly heated
+product of combustion has been challenged independently by a
+number of observers, and the view has been advanced that the
+emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a kind of
+discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules.
+E. Wiedemann proposed the name &ldquo;chemi-luminescence&rdquo;
+for radiation of this kind. The fact is that colourless gases
+cannot be made to glow by any purely thermal heating at present
+available, and products of combustion heated to the average
+temperature of the flames in which they are produced are non-luminous.
+On the other hand, it must be remembered that in a
+mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules
+are engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination,
+and that the energy liberated in such individual transactions,
+if localized momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules
+a unique condition of temperature far transcending that of the
+average, and the distribution of heat in a flame would be very
+different from that existing in the same mixture of gases heated
+from an external source to the same average temperature. The
+view advocated by Smithells is that in the chemical combination
+of gases the initial phase of the formation of the new molecule
+is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and that the
+damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the
+source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat.
+This, it will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.</p>
+
+<p>The view of Sir H. Davy that &ldquo;whenever a flame is remarkably
+brilliant and dense it may always be concluded that some solid
+matter is produced in it&rdquo; can be no longer entertained. The
+flames of phosphorus in oxygen and of carbon disulphide in
+nitric oxide contain only gaseous products, and Frankland
+showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide became
+highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frankland
+was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames
+is associated with high density of the gases, and he does
+not draw a distinction in this respect between high density due
+to high molecular weight and high density due to the close
+packing of lighter molecules. The increased luminosity of a
+compressed flame is not difficult to understand from the kinetic
+theory of gases, but no explanation has appeared of the luminosity
+considered by Frankland to be due merely to high molecular
+weight. It is possible that the electron theory may ultimately
+afford a better understanding of these phenomena.</p>
+
+<p><i>Structure of Flame.</i>&mdash;The vagueness of the term structure,
+as applied to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting
+accounts which are current as to the number of differentiated
+parts in different flames. Unless this term is restricted to
+sharp differences in appearance, there is no limit to the number
+of parts which may be selected for mention. The flame of carbon
+monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before it issues
+from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure, but is
+a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity&mdash;a hollow cone if
+the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas
+not immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have
+a slit or two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas
+to spread each other out. Such a flame has but one single
+distinct feature, and this is not surprising, as there is no reason
+to suppose that there is any difference in the chemical process
+or processes that are occurring in different quarters of the flame.
+The amount of materials undergoing this transformation in
+different parts of the flame may and does vary; the gases
+become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular
+vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a
+variation in the intensity of the light in different quarters, but
+the differences induced are not sharp or in any proper sense
+structural. A flame of this kind may develop a secondary
+feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be burnt in oxygen
+which is mixed or combined with another element there may
+be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in
+air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a
+greenish cast, apparently associated with the combination of
+nitrogen with oxygen (H.B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being
+strongly heated begins to dissociate into carbon and carbon
+dioxide; if the unburnt carbon monoxide within a flame of
+that gas were so highly heated by its own burning walls as to
+reach the temperature of dissociation, we might expect to see
+a special feature of structure due to the separated carbon. Such
+a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published
+in reference to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is
+of peculiar interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists
+of an almost crimson shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue.
+Investigations have shown that these two colours correspond
+to two steps in the progress of the combustion, in the first of
+which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized to carbon monoxide
+and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to carbon
+dioxide.</p>
+
+<p>The inversion of combustion may bring new features of
+structure into existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt
+in oxygen no solid carbon can be found in the flame, but when
+a jet of oxygen is burnt in cyanogen solid carbon separates on
+the edge of the flame.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydrocarbon Flames.</i>&mdash;As already stated the flames of carbon
+compounds and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more
+studied than any other kind, as is natural from their common
+use and practical importance. The earliest investigations were
+made with coal gas, vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite
+and complex nature of these substances led to difficulties and
+confusion in the interpretation of results. One such difficulty
+may be illustrated by the fact, often overlooked, that when a
+mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the individual component
+gases will separate spontaneously in accordance with
+their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer
+edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.</p>
+
+<p>The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of
+course on the manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme
+cases are (i.) when the issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the
+burner with sufficient air for complete combustion, as in the
+blast blowpipe, in which case we have a sheet of blue undifferentiated
+flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to find all the air it
+requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate stage is
+when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with
+a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame
+is produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already
+been discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one
+kind of flame into the others can be effected gradually, and this
+is seen with particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene
+vapour admixed with gradually increasing quantities of air.
+The key to the explanation of the structure of an ordinary
+luminous flame, such as that of a candle, is to be found, according
+to Smithells, by observing the changes undergone by a well-aerated
+Bunsen flame as the &ldquo;primary&rdquo; air is gradually cut off by
+closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It is then seen
+that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the two
+recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst
+the appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes
+increasingly emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper
+part of the blue sheath. There are thus three recognizable
+features of structure in an ordinary luminous flame, each region
+being as it were a mere shell and the interior of the flame filled
+with gas which has not yet entered into active combustion.
+If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame
+are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the chemistry
+of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What
+happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen
+burner? The air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+combustion so that the inner cone of the flame may be considered
+as air burning in an excess of coal gas. What will be the products
+of this combustion? This question has been answered at
+different times in very different ways. There are many conceivable
+answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be wholly oxidized
+and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air and burn
+as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has
+been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner
+cone whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon
+set free or oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon
+might be oxidized to carbon dioxide or monoxide and the
+hydrogen set free. There might of course be other intermediate
+kinds of action. Now it is important at this point to insist upon
+a distinction between what can be found by direct analysis as
+to the products of partial combustion, and what can be imagined
+or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of which
+the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We
+shall consider only in the first instance what substances are
+found by analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner
+in which coal gas was used, and the gases withdrawn directly
+from the flame by aspiration, gave no very clear results, but the
+introduction of the cone-separating apparatus and the use of
+single hydrocarbons led to more definite conclusions. The
+analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene flame gave
+the following numbers:&mdash;carbon dioxide = 3.6; water = 9.5;
+carbon monoxide = 15.6; hydrocarbons = 1.3; hydrogen = 9.4;
+nitrogen = 60.6.</p>
+
+<p>It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a
+considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst
+practically all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide.
+As the gases have cooled down before analysis and as the reaction
+CO + H<span class="su">2</span>O &#8644; CO<span class="su">2</span> + H<span class="su">2</span> is reversible, it may be objected that the
+inter-conal gases may have a composition when they are hot
+very different from what they show when cold. Experiments
+made to test this question have not sustained the objection.
+Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons
+have made it appear undesirable to use the expression &ldquo;preferential
+combustion&rdquo; or &ldquo;selective combustion&rdquo; in connexion
+with the facts just stated; but for the purpose of describing in
+brief the chemistry of a hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say
+that in the inner cone of a Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon
+monoxide are the result of the limited oxidation, and that the
+combustion of these gases with the external air generates the
+outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the limited
+oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable
+work has been carried out by W.A. Bone and his collaborators.
+Different hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated
+continuously through a vessel heated to various temperatures,
+beginning with that (about 250° C.) at which the rate of oxidation
+is easily appreciable. Proceeding in this way, Bone, without
+effecting a complete transformation of the hydrocarbon into
+partially oxidized substances, has isolated large quantities of
+such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a hydrocarbon
+involves nothing in the nature of a selective or preferential
+oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He maintains
+that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which oxygen
+enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule,
+forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are
+alcohols and aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and
+ethylene with an equal volume of oxygen would be represented
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:498px; height:199px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img473.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind">The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high
+temperature is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is
+sufficient to carry the oxidation as far as the second stage,
+practically no decomposition of the monohydroxy molecule
+formed in the first stage occurs. This is especially the case
+with unsaturated hydrocarbons.</p>
+
+<p>As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential
+carbon oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture
+of equal volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb.
+In such a case a lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a
+black cloud of carbon particles and considerable condensation
+of water. About 10% of methane is also found. It is impossible
+within the limits of this article to give a more extended account
+of these later researches on the oxidation of hydrocarbons.
+They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of carbon
+and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the
+combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view
+that hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference
+from the behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own
+volume of oxygen, viz. that carbon is the more oxidizable element
+in hydrocarbons, are not in harmony with experimental facts.</p>
+
+<p>The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is
+due &ldquo;to the deposition of solid charcoal&rdquo; was first put forward
+by Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. In explaining the origin of
+this charcoal, Davy used somewhat ambiguous language, stating
+that it &ldquo;might be owing to a decomposition of a part of the gas
+towards the interior of the flame where the air was in smallest
+quantity.&rdquo; This statement was interpreted commonly as
+implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential
+combustion of the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was
+given explicitly by Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy&rsquo;s
+view with regard to this part of the theory, his conclusion that
+finely divided carbon was the cause of luminosity in hydrocarbon
+flames was not questioned until 1867, when E. Frankland, in
+connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained that
+the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important
+degree to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of
+dense hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced
+against this view the most decisive is furnished by the optical
+test first used by J.L. Soret. If the image of the sun be focussed
+upon the glowing part of a hydrocarbon flame the scattered
+light is found to be polarized, and it is indisputable that the
+luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of finely divided solid
+matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by H.H.C. Bunte
+to be 0.1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft. per hour)
+is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy&rsquo;s original
+view may be said to be now universally accepted.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a
+hydrocarbon flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is
+set free. The fact-that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in
+absence of air will deposit carbon has long been known and is
+daily evident in the operation of coal-gas making, when gas
+carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the highly-heated
+crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing therefore
+that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon
+within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls
+of the flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm
+this view. It is sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire
+be so disposed in a small flame as to make a girdle within the
+blue walls towards the base, the withdrawal of heat is rapid
+enough to prevent the maintenance of a temperature sufficient
+to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright luminosity
+disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed
+through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral
+gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of
+the burning gas and the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great
+that the temperature of separation is not attained, no carbon is
+separated and the flame consists of a single blue shell.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon
+becomes separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to
+trace the processes by which the carbon becomes separated in
+the case of a given hydrocarbon. According to M.P.E.
+Berthelot, who made prolonged and elaborate researches on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons, these compounds
+only liberate carbon by a process of the continual coalescence
+of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen,
+until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly distinguishable
+from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot
+of flames.</p>
+
+<p>V.B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a
+study of the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on temperature
+measurements of flames and analysis of their gases, has
+more recently developed a theory of flame luminosity in which
+the formation and sudden exothermic decomposition of acetylene
+are regarded as the essential incidents productive of carbon
+separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed the evidence
+on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained no
+adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but
+as it has not been formally disavowed by the author and has
+found its way into some text-books, it is mentioned here.</p>
+
+<p>W.A. Bone and H.F. Coward (<i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1908)
+published the results of a very careful study of the decomposition
+of hydrocarbons when heated in a stationary condition and when
+continually circulated through hot vessels. Their results disclose
+once more the great difficulty of tracing the processes of decomposition
+and of arriving at a generalization of wide applicability,
+but they appear to be conclusive against the views both of
+Berthelot and of Lewes.</p>
+
+<p>They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons
+can be adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations
+owing to the complexity of the changes which really take place.
+Methane, which is the most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears
+to be resolved at high temperatures directly into carbon and
+hydrogen, but the phenomenon is dependent mainly on surface
+action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene undergo decomposition
+throughout the body of the gas (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 1197 et seq.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the
+<i>primary</i> effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of
+hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond
+between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution)
+residues such as : CH<span class="su">2</span> and &#8758; CH. These residues, which can only
+have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (<i>a</i>) form
+H<span class="su">2</span>C : CH<span class="su">2</span> and HC &#8758; CH, as the result of encounters with other
+similar residues, or (<i>b</i>) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen,
+or (<i>c</i>) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in
+hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simultaneously
+in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent
+on the temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present.
+The whole process may be represented by the following scheme, the
+dotted line indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the
+carbon atoms which becomes actually effective at higher temperatures:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:385px; height:114px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img474a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+
+<p class="pt2">&ldquo;In the ease of acetylene, the main primary change may be either
+one of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature,
+and if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down
+across the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to
+2(&#8758; CH), and that these residues are subsequently either resolved into
+carbon and hydrogen or &ldquo;hydrogenized&rdquo; according to circumstances,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:399px; height:56px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img474b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">&ldquo;Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of polymerization
+at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas
+initially heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decomposition
+of another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an
+extent dependent on temperature.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to
+the genesis of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick,
+let us suppose, in a cylindrical column. This column is not
+sharply marked off from the air but is so penetrated by it that
+we must suppose a gradual transition from the pure hydrocarbon
+in the centre of column to the pure air on the outside. Let us
+take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the lower part of
+the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral distance
+from the centre will combustion begin? Clearly, where enough
+oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combustion
+as takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This
+then defines the blue region. Outside this the combustion of
+the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which
+pass from the blue region takes place in a faintly luminous
+fringe. These two layers form a sheath of active combustion,
+surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed hydrocarbons
+in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise
+and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They
+are accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the
+higher parts of the flame, giving the region of bright yellow
+luminosity. There remains a central core in which neither is
+there any oxygen for combustion nor a sufficiently high temperature
+to cause carbon separation. This constitutes the dark
+interior region of the flame. We thus account for the different
+parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the bright
+blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst
+the pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame.
+The flame also is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing
+explanation is therefore not quite complete. Let us suppose
+that the changes have gone on in the small section of the flame
+exactly as described and consider how the processes will differ
+in parts above this section. The central core of unburned gases
+will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new cylindrical
+column which will undergo changes just as the original one,
+leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other
+words, each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller
+diameter. This gives us the conical form of the flame. Again,
+the higher we ascend the flame the greater proportionally is the
+amount of separated carbon, for we have not only the heat of
+laterally outlying combustion to effect decomposition, but also
+that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower part of a luminous
+flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than the upper.
+Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion
+we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in
+the upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades
+away. The luminous fringe would, however, be continued,
+for the separated hydrogen has still to burn. In this way
+then we may reasonably account for the existence, position
+and relative sizes of the four regions of an ordinary luminous
+flame.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMEL, NICOLAS<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist
+and scrivener to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or
+Pontoise about 1330, and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the
+bulk of his property to the church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie,
+where he was buried. During his life he contributed freely to
+charitable and religious purposes from the considerable wealth
+he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or, as some surmise
+without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or money
+lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a document
+purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in
+Waite&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Alchemystical Philosophers</i>, London, 1888),
+there fell into his hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book
+on alchemy by Abraham the Jew, which taught in plain words
+the transmutation of metals. It did not, however, explain the
+<i>materia prima</i>, but merely figured or depicted it, and for more
+than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find out the secret. Then,
+returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with a Christian
+Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after
+three more years&rsquo; work he succeeded in preparing the <i>materia
+prima</i>, thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into
+both silver and gold. But this fantastic story was disposed
+of by the facts, derived from parish records, set forth in Vilain&rsquo;s
+<i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire de Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie</i>, 1758, and his
+<i>Histoire critique de Nicolas Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme,
+recueillie d&rsquo;actes anciens qui justifient l&rsquo;origine et la médiocrité de
+leur fortune contre les imputations des alchimistes</i>, 1761.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibliothèque, <i>Le Trésor de philosophie</i>,
+professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises bearing
+his name, such as the <i>Sommaire philosophique de Nicolas Flamel</i>,
+published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises entitled <i>Transformation
+métallique</i>, are certainly spurious.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMEN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (from <i>flare</i>, &ldquo;to blow up&rdquo; the altar fire), a Roman
+sacrificial priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (<i>q.v.</i>)
+maximus, and were consecrated to the service of some particular
+deity. The highest in rank were the <i>flamen Dialis</i>, <i>flamen
+Martialis</i> and <i>flamen Quirinalis</i>, who were always selected
+from among the patricians. Their institution is generally
+ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens was raised
+from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled
+<i>majores</i>, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were
+called <i>minores</i>, as connected with less important deities, and were
+chosen from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the
+number of the lesser flamens seems to have diminished. The
+flamens were held to be elected for life, but they might be compelled
+to resign office for neglect of duty, or on the occurrence
+of some ill-omened event (such as the cap falling off the head)
+during the performance of their rites. The characteristic dress
+of the flamens in general was the <i>apex</i>, a white conical cap, the
+<i>laena</i> or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official insignia
+of the <i>flamen Dialis</i> (of Jupiter), the highest of these priests,
+were the white cap (<i>pileus, albogalerus</i>), at the top of which was
+an olive branch and a woollen thread; the <i>laena</i>, a thick woollen
+<i>toga praetexta</i> woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a
+rod to keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice.
+He was never allowed to appear without these emblems of office,
+every day being considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his
+office he was entitled to a seat in the senate and a curule chair.
+The sight of fetters being forbidden him, his toga was not allowed
+to be tied in a knot but was fastened by means of clasps, and the
+only kind of ring permitted to be worn on his finger was a broken
+one. If a person in fetters took refuge in his house he was
+immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal on his
+way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself
+at his feet he was respited for that day. The <i>flamen Dialis</i> was
+not allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even
+touch a horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the
+consulship), to swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything
+unclean, or to look upon people working. His marriage,
+which was obliged to be performed with the ceremonies of
+<i>confarreatio</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), was dissoluble only by death, and on the death
+of his wife (called <i>flaminica Dialis</i>) he was obliged to resign his
+office. The <i>flaminica Dialis</i> assisted her husband at the sacrifices
+and other religious duties which he performed. She wore long
+woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her hair being
+plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (<i>tutulus</i>); and
+shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband,
+she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens
+was the offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of October the
+three major flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to <i>Fides
+Publica</i> (the Honour of the People). Some of the municipal
+towns in Italy had flamens as well as Rome.</p>
+
+<p>We may mention, as distinct from the above, the <i>flamen
+curialis</i>, who assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the
+religious affairs of each curia (<i>q.v.</i>); the flamens of various
+sacerdotal corporations, such as the Arval Brothers; the <i>flamen
+Augustalis</i>, who superintended the worship of the emperor in
+the provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336,
+473; H. Dessau, in <i>Ephemeris epigraphica</i>, iii. (1877); and the
+exhaustive article by C. Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire
+des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMINGO<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (Port. <i>Flamingo</i>, Span. <i>Flamenco</i>), one of the
+tallest and most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright
+flame-coloured or scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known
+by its classical name <i>Phoenicopterus</i>, as an inhabitant of most
+of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos
+have a very wide distribution, and the sole genus comprises
+only a few species. <i>Ph. roseus</i> or <i>antiquorum</i>, white, with a rosy
+tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the remiges
+are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde Islands
+to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards
+through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as <i>P. minor</i>. <i>P. ruber</i>,
+entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the
+Galapagos; <i>P. chilensis</i> s. <i>ignipalliatus</i>, from Peru to Patagonia,
+more resembles the classical species; while <i>P. andinus</i>, the tallest
+of all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the
+elevated desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and
+Argentina. Fossil remains of flamingos have been described
+from the Lower Miocene of France as <i>P. croizeti</i>, and from the
+Pliocene of Oregon. From the Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene
+of France are known several species of <i>Palaelodus</i>, <i>Elornis</i> and
+<i>Agnopterus</i>, which have relatively shorter legs, longer toes and a
+complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier family, less
+specialized although not directly ancestral to the flamingos.
+<i>Palaelodidae</i> and <i>Phoenicopteridae</i> together form the larger group
+Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly intermediate
+between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact that
+T.H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as <i>Amphimorphae</i>.
+However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos
+obviously reveal themselves as much nearer related to the
+<i>Ciconiae</i>, especially to <i>Platalea</i> and <i>Ibis</i>, than to the Anseres. This
+is the opinion arrived at by W.F.R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer
+and Gadow, while others prefer the goose-like voice and the
+webbed toes as reliable characters. (For a detailed analysis of this
+instructive question see Bronn&rsquo;s <i>Thierreich</i>, Aves Syst. p. 146.)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:466px; height:683px" src="images/img475.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">The Flamingo.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small
+aquatic invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons,
+for instance Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low
+salt-water algae. Whilst feeding, the bird wades about, stirs
+up the mud with its feet, and, reversing the ordinary position
+of its head so as to hold the crown downwards and to look
+backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is abruptly
+bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather
+flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished
+with numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+large tongue, act like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the
+considerable movability of the upper jaw. Then the bird
+erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. When flying,
+flamingos present a striking and beautiful sight, with legs and
+neck stretched out straight, looking like white and rosy or scarlet
+crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock of these
+sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with
+their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat
+conical structure rising above the water according to the depth,
+of which the cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as
+often happens, the water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher.
+On the top is a shallow cup for the reception of the one or two
+eggs, which have a bluish-white shell with chalky incrustation.
+Of course the hen sits with her legs doubled up under her, as
+does any other long-legged bird. It seems strange that many
+ornithologists should have given credence to W. Dampier&rsquo;s
+statement of the mode of incubation (<i>New Voyage round the
+World</i>, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): &ldquo;And when they lay their
+eggs, or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock,
+but close by it with their legs on the ground and in the water,
+resting themselves against the hillock, and covering the hollow
+nest upon it with their rumps,&rdquo; &amp;c. P.S. Pallas (<i>Zoograph.
+Rosso-Asiatica</i>, ii. p. 208) tried to improve upon this by stating
+that the standing bird leans upon the nest with its breast! The
+young, which are hatched after about four weeks&rsquo; incubation,
+look very different from the adult. The small bill is still quite
+straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered with
+a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour.
+These <i>neossoptiles</i> or first feathers bear no resemblance to those
+of the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills,
+the young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking
+extent, but they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift
+for themselves like ducks and geese.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. F. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMINIA, VIA,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> an ancient high road of Italy, constructed
+by C. Flaminius during his censorship (220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It led from
+Rome to Ariminum, and was the most important route to the
+north. We hear of frequent improvements being made in it
+during the imperial period. Augustus, when he instituted a
+general restoration of the roads of Italy, which he assigned for
+the purpose among various senators, reserved the Flaminia for
+himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except the Pons Mulvius, by
+which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built by M. Scaurus
+in 109 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal
+arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at
+Ariminum, the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian
+constructed a new tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern
+Furlo, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 77 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cales</a></span>), and Trajan, as inscriptions show,
+repaired several bridges along the road.</p>
+
+<p>The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable
+remains of its pavement being extant in the modern high road,
+passing slightly E. of the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through
+Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it crossed the Nar by a splendid
+four-arched bridge to which Martial alludes (<i>Epigr.</i> vii. 93, 8), one
+arch of which and all the piers are still standing; and went on,
+followed at first by the modern road to Sangemini which passes
+over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past Carsulae to
+Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more
+circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted,
+passing by Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which
+a branch diverged to Perusia), and increasing the distance by
+12 m. The road thence went on to Nuceria (whence a branch
+road ran to Septempeda and thence either to Ancona or to
+Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed
+the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus
+standing at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to
+Cales (where it turned N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa
+to Forum Sempronii (Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae,
+when it reached the coast of the Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W.
+through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total distance from Rome
+was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer. The road
+gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was
+at first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under
+Augustus it had formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after
+Constantine was always administered with Picenum.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 228-174 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman
+general and statesman. He began his public life as a military
+tribune under M. Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse.
+In 199 he was quaestor, and the next year, passing over the
+regular stages of aedile and praetor, he obtained the consulship.</p>
+
+<p>Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the
+rising school of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow
+patriotism of which Cato was the type, the disciples of Greek
+culture, and the advocates of a wide imperial policy. His
+winning manners, his polished address, his knowledge of men,
+his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge of Greek,
+all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in the
+East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct
+of the war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years,
+Rome had as yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him.
+Flamininus modified both the policy and tactics of his predecessors.
+After an unsuccessful attempt to come to terms, he
+drove the Macedonians from the valley of the Aous by skilfully
+turning an impregnable position. Having thus practically
+made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece,
+where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean
+League (<i>q.v.</i>) at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis,
+the tyrant of Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome;
+Acarnania and Boeotia submitted in less than a year, and, with
+the exception of the great fortresses, Flamininus had the whole
+of Greece under his control. The demand of the Greeks for the
+expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from Demetrias, Chalcis and
+Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of Greece, was
+refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were
+renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field
+supported by nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae
+the Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legion for the first time
+met in open fight, and the day decided which nation was to be
+master of Greece and perhaps of the world. It was a victory of
+superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman army was retiring
+in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip in person,
+when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged
+the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights.
+Before the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon
+them, and a massacre rather than a fight ensued. This defeat
+was turned into a general rout by a nameless tribune, who
+collected twenty companies and charged in the rear the victorious
+Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left the Roman
+right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome,
+but Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands.
+Philip lost all his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian
+kingdom almost entire. He was required to reduce his army,
+to give up all his decked ships except five, and to pay an indemnity
+of 1000 talents (£244,000). Ten commissioners arrived from
+Rome to regulate the final terms of peace, and at the Isthmian
+games a herald proclaimed to the assembled crowds that &ldquo;the
+Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having conquered
+King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states
+which had been subject to the king henceforward free and
+independent.&rdquo; Flamininus&rsquo;s last act before returning home
+was characteristic. Of the Achaeans, who vied with one another
+in showering upon him honours and rewards, he asked but one
+personal favour, the redemption of the Italian captives who had
+been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic War. These,
+to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of his
+departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his
+triumph.</p>
+
+<p>In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III.
+the Great, Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil
+representative of Rome. His personal influence and skilful
+diplomacy secured the wavering Achaean states, cemented the
+alliance with Philip, and contributed mainly to the Roman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook an embassy
+to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up Hannibal,
+who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is
+known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his
+end was peaceful and happy.</p>
+
+<p>There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a
+genuine love of Greece and its people. To attribute to him a
+Machiavellian policy, which foresaw the overthrow of Corinth
+fifty years later and the conversion of Achaea into a Roman
+province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more force in
+the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from
+seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek
+states of that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay
+in submitting to the protectorate of the Roman republic. But
+if the event proved that the liberation of Greece was a political
+mistake, it was a noble and generous mistake, and reflects
+nothing but honour on the name of Flamininus, &ldquo;the liberator
+of the Greeks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by
+F.D. Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, <i>Hist. of Rome</i> (Eng. tr.),
+bk. iii. chs. 8, 9.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMINIUS, GAIUS,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> Roman statesman and general, of
+plebeian family. During his tribuneship (232 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in spite of
+the determined opposition of the senate and his own father, he
+carried a measure for distributing among the plebeians the <i>ager
+Gallicus Picenus</i>, an extensive tract of newly-acquired territory
+to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, <i>De senectute</i>, 4, <i>Brutus</i>, 14).
+As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting gratitude of the people
+of his province (Sicily) by his excellent administration. In 223,
+when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the field against the
+Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his agrarian
+law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at
+first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate.
+Reinforced by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the
+banks of the Addua. He had previously been recalled by the
+optimates, but ignored the order. The victory seems to have
+been due mainly to the admirable discipline and fighting qualities
+of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a triumph only
+after the decree of the senate against it had been overborne by
+popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly
+limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Comitia</a></span>). His
+name is further associated with two great works. He erected
+the Circus Flaminius on the Campus Martius, for the accommodation
+of the plebeians, and continued the military road from
+Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto only reached as far as
+Spoletium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flaminia, Via</a></span>). He probably also instituted
+the &ldquo;plebeian&rdquo; games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic
+opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the
+measure brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which
+prohibited senators and senators&rsquo; sons from possessing sea-going
+vessels, except for the transport of the produce of their own
+estates, and generally debarred them from all commercial
+speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective support of this measure
+vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius with his own order,
+and secured his second election as consul in the following year
+(217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus at the
+Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of
+the western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the
+Apennines, but was defeated and killed at the battle of the
+Trasimene lake (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)&mdash;no
+friendly critics&mdash;shows that Flaminius was a man of ability,
+energy and probity. A popular and successful democratic
+leader, he cannot, however, be ranked among the great statesmen
+of the republic. As a general he was headstrong and self-sufficient
+and seems to have owed his victories chiefly to personal
+boldness favoured by good fortune.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Gaius Flaminius</span>, was quaestor under P. Scipio
+Africanus the elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture
+of New Carthage. Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he
+distributed large quantities of grain among the citizens at a very
+low price. In 193, as praetor, he carried on a successful war
+against the insubordinate populations of his recently constituted
+province of Hispania Citerior. In 187 he was consul with M.
+Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the warlike Ligurian tribes.
+In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia connecting
+Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he
+founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life
+is the portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAMSTEED, JOHN<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1646-1719), English astronomer, was
+born at Denby, near Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The
+only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a maltster, he was educated at
+the free school of Derby, but quitted it finally in May 1662, in
+consequence of a rheumatic affection of the joints, due to a
+chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved of no
+avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be &ldquo;stroked&rdquo; by Valentine
+Greatrakes, but &ldquo;found not his disease to stir.&rdquo; Meanwhile,
+he solaced his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Beginning
+with J. Sacrobosco&rsquo;s <i>De sphaera</i>, he read all the books
+on the subject that he could buy or borrow; observed a partial
+solar eclipse on the 12th of September 1662; and attempted the
+construction of measuring instruments. A tract on the equation
+of time, written by him in 1667, was published by Dr John Wallis
+with the <i>Posthumous Works</i> of J. Horrocks (1673); and a paper
+embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon,
+which appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> (iv. 1099),
+signed <i>In Mathesi a sole fundes</i>, an anagram of &ldquo;Johannes
+Flamsteedius,&rdquo; secured for him, from 1670, general scientific
+recognition.</p>
+
+<p>On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became
+acquainted with Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name
+at Jesus college, and took, four years later, a degree of M.A.
+by letters-patent. An essay composed by him in 1673 on the
+true and apparent diameters of the planets furnished Newton
+with data for the third book of the <i>Principia</i>, and he fitted
+numerical elements to J. Horrocks&rsquo;s theory of the moon. In
+1674, and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas
+Moore, governor of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in
+a private observatory at Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated
+by the determination of Charles II. to have the tables of the
+heavenly bodies corrected, and the places of the fixed stars
+rectified &ldquo;for the use of his seamen,&rdquo; and Flamsteed was appointed
+&ldquo;astronomical observator&rdquo; by a royal warrant dated
+4th of March 1675. His salary of £100 a year was cut down by
+taxation to £90; he had to provide his own instruments, and to
+instruct, into the bargain, two boys from Christ&rsquo;s hospital.
+Sheer necessity drove him, in addition, to take many private
+pupils; but having been ordained in 1675, he was presented by
+Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in Surrey; and his
+financial position was further improved by a small inheritance
+on his father&rsquo;s death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense of
+£120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began
+to observe systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>). The latter part of Flamsteed&rsquo;s life
+passed in a turmoil of controversy regarding the publication of
+his results. He struggled to withhold them until they could be
+presented in a complete form; but they were urgently needed
+for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a public
+servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting
+of his lunar theory upon &ldquo;places of the moon&rdquo; reluctantly
+doled out from Greenwich, led the movement for immediate
+communication; whence arose much ill-feeling between him
+and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince George of Denmark
+undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the Royal
+Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed,
+protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only
+partially through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of
+October 1708, and its completion devolved upon a board of
+visitors to the observatory endowed with ample powers by a
+royal order of the 12th of December 1712. As the upshot, the
+<i>Historia coelestis</i>, embodying the first Greenwich star-catalogue,
+together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705, was
+issued under Edmund Halley&rsquo;s editorship in 1712. Flamsteed
+denounced the production as surreptitious; he committed to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+the flames three hundred copies, of which he obtained possession
+through the favour of Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of
+bodily infirmities, vigorously prosecuted his designs for the
+entire and adequate publication of the materials he continued
+to accumulate. They were but partially executed when he died
+on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his monumental
+work, <i>Historia coelestis Britannica</i> (3 vols. folio, 1725),
+was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by
+Abraham Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of
+Flamsteed&rsquo;s observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third
+contained the <i>British Catalogue</i> of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous
+errors in this valuable record having been detected by Sir William
+Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up a list of 560 stars observed,
+but not catalogued, while 111 of those catalogued proved to have
+never been observed (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> lxxxvii. 293; see also F.
+Baily, <i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, iv. 129). The appearance
+of the <i>Atlas coelestis</i>, corresponding to the <i>British Catalogue</i>,
+was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by
+Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society.
+The extent and quality of his performance were the more remarkable
+considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened
+means, and the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable
+in private life, he was highly susceptible in professional matters,
+and hence failed to keep on terms with his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Francis Baily&rsquo;s <i>Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed</i> (1835) is the
+leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical
+narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of
+Flamsteed&rsquo;s letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the <i>British
+Catalogue</i>, besides authoritative and detailed introductory discussions.
+Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame
+for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell
+vindicated his character in <i>Flamsteed and Newton</i> (1836).</p>
+
+<p>See also <i>General Dictionary</i>, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied
+by James Hodgson, Flamsteed&rsquo;s nephew-in-law; <i>Biographia Britannica</i>,
+iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud&rsquo;s <i>Correspondence of Scientific Men</i>;
+Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Lives of Eminent Englishmen</i>, iv. 366 (1835); Mark
+Noble&rsquo;s Continuation of James Granger&rsquo;s Biog. <i>Hist. of England</i>,
+ii. 132; R. Grant&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Phys. Astronomy</i>, p. 467; W. Whewell&rsquo;s
+<i>Hist. of the Inductive Sciences</i>, ii. 162; J.S. Bailly&rsquo;s <i>Hist. de
+l&rsquo;astronomie moderne</i>, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre&rsquo;s <i>Hist. de
+l&rsquo;astronomie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, p. 93; <i>Observatory</i>, xv. 355, 379,
+382.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLANDERS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Vlaanderen</i>), a territorial name for part of
+the Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges
+and the immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries
+it was gradually extended to the whole of the coast region from
+Calais to the Scheldt. In the middle ages this was divided into
+two parts, one looking to Bruges as its capital, and the other to
+Ghent. The name is retained in the two Belgian provinces of
+West and East Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and
+its coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for
+a little over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns
+of the province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agriculture
+is the chief occupation of the population, and the country
+is under the most careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration
+of the foreign observer for the Belgian system of market gardening
+is not diminished on learning that the subsoil of most of this
+tract is the sand of the &ldquo;dunes.&rdquo; Fishing employs a large
+proportion of the coast population. The area of West Flanders
+is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1263 sq. m. In 1904 the
+population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western
+province, and extends northwards to the neighbourhood of
+Antwerp. It is still more productive and richer than Western
+Flanders, and is well watered by the Scheldt. The district of
+Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory of man, is
+supposed to be the most productive district of its size in Europe.
+The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St
+Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is
+given at 749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population
+was 1,073,507, showing an average of 916 per sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not
+only the modern provinces known as East and West Flanders,
+but the southernmost portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland
+and a considerable district in north-western France. In the time
+of Caesar it was inhabited by the Morini, Atrebates and other
+Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that followed the land was
+repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally became
+a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the
+Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun
+(843) made the line of division between the kingdom of East
+Francia (Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the
+kingdom of West Francia (Neustria) under Charles the Bald.
+In virtue of this compact Flanders was henceforth attached to
+the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus acquired a
+position unique among the provinces of the territory known in
+later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that
+northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor
+Lothaire (855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called
+Lotharingia or Lorraine.</p>
+
+<p>The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record
+is Baldwin, surnamed <i>Bras-de-fer</i> (Iron-arm). This man, a brave
+and daring warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with
+the king&rsquo;s daughter Judith, the youthful widow of two English
+kings, married her, and fled with his bride to Lorraine. Charles,
+though at first very angry, was at last conciliated, and made
+his son-in-law margrave (<i>Marchio Flandriae</i>) of Flanders, which
+he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at this time
+continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was
+entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the
+west Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders.
+He was the first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date
+early in the 10th century exchanged the title of margrave for
+that of count. His son, Baldwin II.&mdash;the Bald&mdash;from his stronghold
+at Bruges maintained, as did his father before him, a
+vigorous defence of his lands against the incursions of the Northmen.
+On his mother&rsquo;s side a descendant of Charlemagne, he
+strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by marrying
+Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918
+his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the
+Elder and Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time
+and Arnulf succeeded to the whole inheritance. His reign was
+filled with warfare against the Northmen, and he took an active
+part in the struggles in Lorraine between the emperor Otto I.
+and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the government in the
+hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the count of
+Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very
+short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial
+progress of the country, establishing the first weavers and
+fullers at Ghent, and instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges
+and other places.</p>
+
+<p>On Baldwin III.&rsquo;s death in 961 the old count resumed the
+control, and spent the few remaining years of his life in securing
+the succession of his grandson Arnulf II.&mdash;the Younger. The
+reign of Arnulf was terminated by his death in 989, and he was
+followed by his son Baldwin IV., named <i>Barbatus</i> or the Bearded.
+This Baldwin fought successfully both against the Capetian
+king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found himself
+obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the burgraveship
+of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count
+of Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of
+the French crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish
+history as Crown Flanders (<i>Kroon-Vlaanderen</i>), the German fiefs
+as Imperial Flanders (<i>Rijks-Vlaanderen</i>). Baldwin&rsquo;s son&mdash;afterwards
+Baldwin V.&mdash;rebelled in 1028 against his father at
+the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter of Robert II. of
+France; but two years later peace was sworn at Oudenaarde,
+and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036.
+Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the
+people the surname of <i>Débonnaire</i>. He was an active enterprising
+man, and greatly extended his power by wars and
+alliances. He obtained from the emperor Henry IV. the territory
+between the Scheldt and the Dender as an imperial fief, and the
+margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become that the
+Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060
+was appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>). Before his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda
+(d. 1083) sharing the English throne with William the Conqueror,
+his eldest son Baldwin of Mons in possession of Hainaut in right
+of his wife Richilde, heiress of Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow
+of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hainaut</a></span>), and his second
+son Robert the Frisian regent (<i>voogd</i>) of the county of Holland
+during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude of
+Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had
+married (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holland</a></span>). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin
+of Mons, already count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship
+of Flanders. Baldwin V. had granted to Robert the Frisian
+on his marriage in 1063 his imperial fiefs. His right to these was
+disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out between the two
+brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert now
+claimed the tutelage of Baldwin&rsquo;s children and obtained the
+support of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin&rsquo;s
+widow, appealed to Philip I. of France. The contest was decided
+at Ravenshoven, near Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071,
+where Robert was victorious. Richilde was taken prisoner and
+her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain. Robert obtained from
+Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and from Henry IV.
+the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hainaut</a></span>), which was thus after a brief union separated from
+Flanders. Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son
+Robert II., who acquired great renown by his exploits in the
+first crusade, and won the name of the Lance and Sword of
+Christendom. His fame was second only to that of Godfrey
+of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1100. He fought
+with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English,
+and was drowned in 1111 by the breaking of a bridge. His son
+and successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also
+fought against the English in France. He died at the age of
+twenty-seven from the wound of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no
+heir. He nominated as his successor his cousin Charles, son of
+Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of Robert the
+Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and to
+promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname
+of &ldquo;the Good.&rdquo; His determination to enforce the right made
+him many enemies, and he was foully murdered on Ash
+Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died childless, and there
+were no less than six candidates to the countship. The contest
+lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of
+Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda
+of Flanders, and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother
+Gertrude was a daughter of Robert the Frisian. William Clito,
+through the support of Louis of France, was at first accepted by
+the Flemish nobles as count, but he gave offence to the communes,
+who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued and William
+was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without
+further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good,
+Marguerite of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise
+and prudent prince, encouraging the growth of popular liberty
+and of commerce. In 1146 he took part in the second crusade
+and distinguished himself by his exploits. In 1157 he resigned
+the countship to his son Philip of Alsace and betook himself
+once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East twenty
+years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own
+land.</p>
+
+<p>Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did
+much to promote the growth of the municipalities for which
+Flanders was already becoming famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
+Lille and Douai under him made much progress as flourishing
+industrial towns. He also conferred rights and privileges on
+a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel,
+Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the
+development of the communes and &ldquo;free towns,&rdquo; Philip sternly
+repressed any spirit of independence or attempted uprisings
+against his authority. This count was a powerful prince. He
+acted for a time as regent in France during the minority of his
+godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his niece
+Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third
+crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence
+in 1191.</p>
+
+<p>As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of
+Hainaut, who had married Philip&rsquo;s sister Margaret. The countships
+of Flanders and Hainaut were thus united under the same
+ruler. Baldwin did not obtain possession of Flanders without
+strong opposition on the part of the French king, and he was
+obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin and a great part
+of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of Portugal,
+the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in right of
+her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following
+year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both countships.
+Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the
+Latin empire at Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in
+1206. The emperor&rsquo;s two daughters were both under age, and
+the government was carried on by their uncle Philip, marquess
+of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent on his departure
+to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his charge, and
+he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip Augustus,
+who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his
+nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to
+the French king&rsquo;s supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as
+governor in the name of his wife, joined himself to the confederacy
+formed by Germany, England, and the leading states of the
+Netherlands against Philip Augustus. Ferdinand was, however,
+taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of Bouvines (1214) and
+was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre. The countess
+Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and courage.
+On Ferdinand&rsquo;s death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died
+in 1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities
+by her younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly
+known amongst her contemporaries as &ldquo;Black Meg&rdquo; (<i>Zwarte
+Griet</i>). Margaret had been twice married. Her first husband
+was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the first of Hainaut&rsquo;s
+nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally destined
+for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by
+Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with
+the result that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him.
+She married in second wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre.
+Two sons were the issue of the first marriage, three sons and three
+daughters of the second.</p>
+
+<p>When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and
+Hainaut, she wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknowledged
+as her successor. John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly
+protested against this and was supported by the French king.
+A civil war ensued, which ended in a compromise (1246), the
+succession to Flanders being granted to William of Dampierre,
+that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however, ruled
+with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons,
+dying at the age of eighty in 1280. On her death her grandson,
+John II. of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut: Guy of Dampierre,
+her second son by her second marriage, count of Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>The two counties were once more under separate dynasties.
+The government of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was
+the interest of the Flemish weavers to be on good terms with
+England, the wool-producing country, and Guy entered into an
+alliance with Edward I. against France. This led to an invasion
+and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his sons
+and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris,
+and Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though
+in the principal towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a
+powerful French faction&mdash;known as <i>Leliaerts</i> (adherents of the
+lily)&mdash;the arbitrary rule of the French governor and officials
+stirred up the mass of the Flemish people to rebellion. The
+anti-French partisans (known as <i>Clauwaerts</i>) were strongest at
+Bruges under the leadership of Peter de Conync, master of
+the cloth-weavers, and John Breydel, master of the butchers.
+The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May 19th, 1302),
+and on the following 11th of July a splendid French army of
+invasion was utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was concluded
+in 1305, but owing to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading
+Flemish nobles being in the hands of the French king, on terms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very shortly afterwards the
+aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair. Robert of
+Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties with
+France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a
+stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence.
+Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers.
+Louis had been brought up at the French court, and had married
+Margaret of France. His sympathies were entirely French, and
+he made use of French help in his contests with the communes.</p>
+
+<p>Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the
+status of a French province. In his time the long contest between
+Flanders and Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland
+was brought to an end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March
+1323, by which West Zeeland was assigned to the count of Holland,
+the rest to the count of Flanders. The latter part of the reign of
+Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the successful revolt of the
+Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to great material
+prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artevelde, Jacob
+van</a></span>). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in
+his contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while
+Louis of Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle
+of Crécy (1346). He was followed in the countship by his son
+Louis II. of Mâle. The reign of this count was one long struggle
+with the communes, headed by the town of Ghent, for political
+supremacy. Louis was as strong in his French sympathies as
+his father, and relied upon French help in enforcing his will
+upon his refractory subjects, who resented his arbitrary methods
+of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon them by
+his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with
+their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their
+opposition to the count&rsquo;s despotism, they would have proved
+successful, but Ghent and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out
+into open feud. The power of Ghent reached its height under
+Philip van Artevelde (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artevelde, Philip van</a></span>) in 1382.
+He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made <i>ruward</i> of Flanders.
+But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular party was
+called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382
+Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at
+Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years
+later, leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in
+1369 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.</p>
+
+<p>Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian
+domain, which in the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret&rsquo;s
+grandson, had absorbed almost the whole of the Netherlands
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>). The history of Flanders as
+a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of the
+countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts
+from time to time of great towns against the exactions even of
+these powerful princes, but they were in vain. The conquest
+and humiliation of Bruges by Philip the Good in 1440, and the
+even more relentless punishment inflicted on rebellious Ghent
+by the emperor Charles V. exactly a century later are the most
+remarkable incidents in the long-continued but vain struggle of
+the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their privileges.
+The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of
+Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders
+and its rich commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished
+to them no small part of their resources, but for this very reason,
+while fostering the development of Flemish industry and trade,
+they were the more determined to brook no opposition which
+sought to place restrictions upon their authority.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of
+Dutch Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders.
+Albert and Isabel on their accession to the sovereignty of the
+southern Netherlands in 1599 found &ldquo;the great cities of Flanders
+and Brabant had been abandoned by a large part of their inhabitants;
+agriculture hardly in a less degree than commerce
+and industry had been ruined.&rdquo; In 1633 with the death of
+Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty
+of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known
+as States (or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the
+United Provinces (1648). By a succession of later treaties&mdash;of
+the Pyrenees (1659), Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679)
+and others&mdash;a large slice of the southern portion of the old county
+of Flanders became French territory and was known as French
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic
+provinces, was incorporated in France, and was divided into
+two departments&mdash;<i>département de l&rsquo;Escaut</i> and <i>département de la
+Lys</i>. This division has since been retained, and is represented
+by the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders in the
+modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of Flanders
+was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son,
+Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905).</p>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1809-1864), French painter,
+was born at Lyons in 1809. His father, though brought up to
+business, had great fondness for art, and sought himself to follow
+an artist&rsquo;s career. Lack of early training, however, disabled
+him for success, and he was obliged to take up the precarious
+occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the second
+of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third
+son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern
+landscape school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest,
+passed the greater part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he
+died. After studying for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and
+Paul, who had long determined on the step and economized for
+it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to place themselves under the
+tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to enter the atelier of
+Ingres, who became not only their instructor but their friend for
+life. At first considerably hampered by poverty, Hippolyte&rsquo;s
+difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832, the
+Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the &ldquo;Recognition
+of Theseus by his Father.&rdquo; This allowed him to study five years
+at Rome, whence he sent home several pictures which considerably
+raised his fame. &ldquo;St Clair healing the Blind&rdquo; was done
+for the cathedral of Nantes, and years after, at the exhibition of
+1855, brought him a medal of the first class. &ldquo;Jesus and the
+Little Children&rdquo; was given by the government to the town of
+Lisieux. &ldquo;Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck
+with Blindness,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Euripides writing his Tragedies,&rdquo; belong
+to the museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in
+1838 he soon received a commission to ornament the chapel of
+St John in the church of St Séverin at Paris, and reputation
+increased and employment continued abundant for the rest of
+his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above, and others of a
+similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits. The works,
+however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his monumental
+decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those
+executed in the following churches:&mdash;in the sanctuary of St
+Germain des Prés at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same
+church (1846-1848), in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-1849),
+of St Vincent de Paul at Paris (1850-1854), in the church
+of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave of St Germain des Prés
+(1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was elected to the
+Académie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health, rendered
+worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts
+of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of smallpox
+at Rome on the 21st of March 1864. As might naturally
+be expected in one who looked upon painting as but the vehicle
+for the expression of spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too
+little pride in the technical qualities of his art. There is shown
+in his works much of that austerity and coldness, expressed in
+form and colour, which springs from a faith which feels itself in
+opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life. He has been
+compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long processions
+of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity of
+souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted
+life which shines from the work of the early master.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Delaborde, <i>Lettres et pensées de H. Flandrin</i> (Paris, 1865);
+Beulé, <i>Notice historique sur H. F.</i> (1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLANNEL,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and
+fineness, made usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of
+the word is uncertain, but in the 16th century flannel was a
+well-known production of Wales, and a Welsh origin has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+suggested. The French form <i>flanelle</i> was used late in the 17th
+century, and the Ger. <i>Flanell</i> early in the 18th century. Baize,
+a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to have been first
+introduced to England about the middle of the 16th century
+by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture
+of flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases,
+deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture
+of silk or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become
+the predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine
+quality from a Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was
+principally in favour with the flannel manufacturers of Rochdale,
+who also used largely the wool from the Norfolk breed, a cross
+between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In Wales the short
+staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in Ireland that
+of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the New
+Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively
+employed, and English wools are not commonly used alone.
+Over 2000 persons are employed in flannel manufacture in
+Rochdale alone, which is the historic seat of the industry, and a
+good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen Valley district,
+Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch of the
+flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and
+Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation,
+and make an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There
+are also flannel manufactories in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain.
+The following table gives the quantities exported during three
+years:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1904.</td> <td class="tcc">1905.</td> <td class="tcc">1906.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Yards</td> <td class="tcc">9,758,300</td> <td class="tcc">9,220,500</td> <td class="tcc">8,762,200</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this
+trade has varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel
+are not very large.</p>
+
+<p>Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture
+of cotton, but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something
+to limit the indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the
+development of the flannel trade has been checked by the great
+increase in the production of flannelettes, the better qualities
+of which have become formidable competitors with flannel.
+There must, however, be a regular and large demand for flannel
+while theory and experience confirm its value as a clothing
+particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLANNELETTE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel.
+The word seems to have been first used in the early &rsquo;eighties,
+and there is a reference in the <i>Daily News</i> of 1887 to &ldquo;a poverty-stricken
+article called flannelette.&rdquo; Now it is used very extensively
+for underclothing, night gear, dresses, dressing-gowns,
+shirts, &amp;c. It is usually made with a much coarser weft than
+warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained by the raising
+or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing processes.
+Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may
+be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is
+required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed,
+and also in woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any
+heavy or coarse cotton cloth can be made into flannelette. It is
+now largely used by the poorer classes of the community, and
+the flimsier kinds have been a frequent source of accident by
+fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in a fair quality,
+a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented under the
+title of &ldquo;Non-flam,&rdquo; has been made with fire-resisting properties,
+but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in the lower
+and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the
+continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great
+Britain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLASK,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for
+carrying liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applications
+in current usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood,
+formerly of horn, used for carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-necked,
+round-bodied glass vessel, usually covered with plaited
+straw or maize leaves, containing olive or other oil or Italian
+wines&mdash;it is often known as a &ldquo;Florence flask&rdquo;: similarly
+shaped vessels are used for experiments, &amp;c., in a laboratory;
+(3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine or other
+liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster, usually
+covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance,
+and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup.
+&ldquo;Flask&rdquo; is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or
+case to contain part of the mould. The word &ldquo;flagon,&rdquo; which
+is by derivation a doublet of &ldquo;flask,&rdquo; is usually applied to a
+larger type of vessel for holding liquor, more particularly to a
+type of wine-bottle with a short neck and circular body with
+flattened sides. The word is also used of a jug-shaped vessel
+with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be decanted
+from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped vessel
+to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the chalice.
+&ldquo;Flask&rdquo; (in O. Eng. <i>flasce</i> or <i>flaxe</i>) is represented both in Teutonic
+and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in
+Med. Lat. <i>flasco</i>, <i>flasconis</i>, whence come Ital. <i>fiascone</i>, O. Fr.
+<i>flascon</i> (mod. <i>flacon</i>), adapted in the Eng. &ldquo;flagon.&rdquo; Another
+Lat. form is <i>flasca</i>, this gave a Fr. <i>flasque</i>, which in the sense of
+&ldquo;powder flask&rdquo; remained in use till later than the 16th century.
+In Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the
+common one for &ldquo;bottle,&rdquo; so in Ger. <i>Flasche</i>, Dutch <i>flesch</i>, &amp;c.
+If the word is of Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized
+form of the Lat. <i>vasculum</i>, diminutive of <i>vas</i>, vessel. There is
+no very satisfactory etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin;
+the New English Dictionary considers a connexion with &ldquo;flat&rdquo;
+probable phonetically, but finds no evidence that the word was
+used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAT<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (a modification of O. Eng. <i>flet</i>, an obsolete word of
+Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term
+commonly used as an adjective, signifying level in surface, level
+with the ground, and so, figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate,
+tasteless, dull; or, by another transference, downright; or, in
+music, below the true pitch. In a substantival form, the term is
+used in physical geography for a level tract.</p>
+
+<p>The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a
+self-contained residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the
+term <i>flatted house</i> is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which
+form a portion, usually on a single floor, of a larger building,
+called the tenement house, the remainder being similarly divided.
+The approach to it is over a hall, passage and stairway, which
+are common to all residents in the building, but from which each
+private flat is divided off by its own outer door (Clode, <i>Tenement
+Houses and Flats</i>, pp. 1, 2).</p>
+
+<p>There is in England a considerable body of special law applicable
+to flats. The following points deserve notice:&mdash;(i.) The
+occupants of distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into
+flats are generally, and subject, of course, to any special terms
+in their agreements, not lodgers but tenants with exclusive
+possession of separate dwelling-houses placed one above the
+other. They are, therefore, liable to distress by the immediate
+landlord, and each flat is separately rateable, though as a general
+rule by the contract of tenancy the rates are payable by the
+landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes are exempt
+from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878
+(see <i>Grant</i>, v. <i>Langston</i>, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue
+Act 1903 (s. 11), provision is made for excluding from assessment
+or for assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate
+dwellings at rents not exceeding £60 a year. It appears that
+tenants of a flat would not come within the meaning of &ldquo;lodger&rdquo;
+for the purposes of the Lodgers&rsquo; Goods Protection Act 1871.
+(ii.) The owner of an upper storey, without any express grant or
+enjoyment for any given time, has a right to the support of the
+lower storey (<i>Dalton</i> v. <i>Angus</i>, 1881, 6 A.C. 740, 793). The owner
+of the lower storey, however, so long as he does nothing actively
+in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to repair,
+in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation
+upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of
+the owner of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in
+law entitled to enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing
+the necessary repairs. It appears, however, that there is an
+implied obligation by the landlord to the tenants to keep the
+common stair and the lift or elevator in repair, and, for breach
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span>
+of this duty, he will be liable to a third party who, while visiting
+a tenant in the course of business, is injured by its defective
+condition (<i>Miller</i> v. <i>Hancock</i>, 1893, 2 Q.B. 177). No such
+liability would be involved in a mere licence to the tenants to
+use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of their
+flats. (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the rent
+abates <i>pro tanto</i> and an apportionment is made; <i>pari ratione</i>,
+where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether
+(Clode, p. 14); unless the tenant has entered into an express
+and unqualified agreement to pay rent, when he will remain
+liable till the expiration of his tenancy. (iv.) Where the agreements
+for letting the flats in a single building are in common
+form, an agreement by the lessor not to depart from the kind of
+building there indicated may be held to be implied. Thus an
+injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion into a
+club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in
+residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an
+agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules
+suitable only for residential purposes (<i>Hudson</i> v. <i>Cripps</i>, 1896,
+1 Ch. 265). (v.) The porter is usually appointed and paid by
+the landlord, who is liable for his acts while engaged on
+his general duties; while engaged on any special duty for any
+tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who is liable for
+his conduct within the scope of his employment.</p>
+
+<p>In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and
+lessees of flats, or&mdash;as they are called&mdash;&ldquo;flatted houses,&rdquo; spring
+partly from the exclusive possession by each lessee of his own
+flat, partly from the common interest of all in the tenement as a
+whole. The &ldquo;law of the tenement&rdquo; may be thus summed up.
+The <i>solum</i> on which the flatted house stands, the area in front
+and the back ground are presumed to belong to the owner of the
+lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally, subject to
+the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury
+to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external
+walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat;
+but the other owners can prevent operations on them which
+would endanger the security of the building. The roof and
+uppermost storey belong to the highest owner or owners, but
+he or they may be compelled to keep them in repair and to refrain
+from injuring them. The gables are common to the owner of
+each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner of
+the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building
+have cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the
+stability of the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are
+divided in ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle
+of the joists; they may be used for ordinary purposes, but may
+not be weakened or exposed to unusual risk from fire. The
+common passages and stairs are the common property of all to
+whose premises they form an access, and the walls which bound
+them are the common property of those persons and of the owners
+on their farther side.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the term &ldquo;apartment-house&rdquo; is applied
+to what in England are called flats. The general law is the same
+as in England. The French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that
+where the different storeys of a house belong to different owners
+the main walls and roof are at the charge of all the owners,
+each one in proportion to the value of the storey belonging
+to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible for his own
+flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the staircase
+which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning from
+where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and
+so on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium
+(Art. 664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<span class="sc">English Law</span>: Clode, <i>Law of Tenement-Houses
+and Flats</i> (London, 1889); Daniels, <i>Manual of the Law of Flats</i>
+(London, 1905). <span class="sc">Scots Law</span>: Erskine, <i>Principles of the Law of
+Scotland</i> (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, <i>Principles of the Law
+of Scotland</i> (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899). <span class="sc">American Law</span>: Bouvier,
+<i>Law Dicty.</i> (Boston and London, 1897). <span class="sc">Foreign Laws</span>: Burge,
+<i>Foreign and Colonial Laws</i> (2nd ed., London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLATBUSH,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> formerly a township of Kings county, Long
+Island, New York, U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and
+after the 1st of January 1898 a part of the borough of Brooklyn,
+New York City. The first settlement was made here by the
+Dutch about 1651, and was variously called &ldquo;Midwout,&rdquo; &ldquo;Midwoud&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Medwoud&rdquo; (from the Dutch words, <i>med</i>, &ldquo;middle&rdquo;
+and <i>woud</i>, &ldquo;wood&rdquo;) for about twenty years, when it became more
+commonly known as Vlachte Bos (<i>vlachte</i>, &ldquo;wooded&rdquo;; <i>bos</i>,
+&ldquo;plain&rdquo;) or Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the
+present name. Farming was the chief occupation of the early
+settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776 the village was occupied
+by General Cornwallis&rsquo;s division of the invading force under Lord
+Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous battle of Long Island
+(or &ldquo;battle of Flatbush,&rdquo; as it is sometimes called), &ldquo;Flatbush
+Pass,&rdquo; an important strategic point, was vigorously defended by
+General Sullivan&rsquo;s troops.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAT-FISH<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (<i>Pleuronectidae</i>), the name common to all those
+fishes which swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill,
+plaice, flounder, sole, &amp;c. The side which is turned towards the
+bottom, and in some kinds is the right, in others the left, is
+generally colourless, and called &ldquo;blind,&rdquo; from the absence of an
+eye on this side. The opposite side, which is turned upwards and
+towards the light, is variously, and in some tropical species even
+vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this side of the head.
+All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more strongly
+developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these
+fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are symmetrical
+like other fishes.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes,
+the question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans
+may be regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old
+notion that they are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was
+the result of the artificial classification of the past and is now
+generally abandoned. The condition of the caudal fin, which
+in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that of ordinary
+Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing the idea
+of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the Anacanthini,
+and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks against
+such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as
+noticed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dory</a></span>, that considerable, deep-seated
+resemblances exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the
+more generalized of the Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish
+from the Upper Eocene, <i>Amphistium paradoxum</i>, evidently
+allied to the Zeidae, appears to realize in every respect the
+prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they had assumed the
+asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In accordance
+with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G.A. Boulenger
+in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called <i>Zeorhombi</i>.
+The three families included in that division can be traced back
+to the Upper Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably
+be found in the Upper Cretaceous associated with the <i>Berycidae</i>,
+to which they will no doubt prove to be related. The very young
+are transparent and symmetrical, with an eye on each side, and
+swim in a vertical position. As they grow, the eye of one side
+moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes the upper
+eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the frontal
+region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the profile,
+temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some
+of the less modified genera, such as <i>Psettodes</i>; in other genera,
+the dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the
+migration takes place, and the eye, passing between the frontal
+bone and the tissues supporting the fin, appears to make its
+way from side to side through the head, as was believed by some
+of the earlier observers.</p>
+
+<p>About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a
+few species allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters
+of South America, West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago,
+whilst a few others, such as the English flounder, ascend streams,
+though still breeding in the sea. They range from the Arctic
+Circle to the southern coasts of the southern hemisphere and
+may occur at great depths.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLATHEADS,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan
+stock. They formerly occupied the mountains of north-western
+Montana and the country around. They have always been
+friendly to the whites. Curiously enough they have not the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span>
+custom, so general among American tribes, of flattening the
+heads of their infants. Father P.J. de Smet in 1841 founded
+among them a mission which proved the most successful in
+the north-west. With the Pend d&rsquo;Oreille tribe and some
+Kutenais they are on a reservation in Montana, and number
+a few hundreds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1821-1880), French novelist, was
+born at Rouen on the 12th of December 1821. His father,
+of whom many traits are reproduced in Flaubert&rsquo;s character of
+Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at Rouen; his mother
+was connected with some of the oldest Norman families. He was
+educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840, when
+he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at
+school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age
+of eleven. Flaubert in his youth &ldquo;was like a young Greek,&rdquo;
+full of vigour of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic,
+intensely individual, and apparently without any species of
+ambition. He loved the country, and Paris was extremely
+distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo,
+and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees and
+Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre
+dreams, living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left
+quite alone through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline,
+Flaubert gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law
+together, to make a home for her at Croisset, close to Rouen.
+This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down
+to the Seine, became Flaubert&rsquo;s home for the remainder of his
+life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations with the poetess,
+Mlle Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved, and according
+to M. Émile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode
+of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married.
+His principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with
+whom he travelled in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in
+1849. Greece and Egypt made a profound impression upon the
+imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occasional
+visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.</p>
+
+<p>On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the composition
+of <i>Madame Bovary</i>. He had hitherto scarcely written
+anything, and had published nothing. The famous novel took
+him six years to prepare, but was at length submitted to the
+<i>Revue de Paris</i>, where it appeared in serial form in 1857. The
+government brought an action against the publisher and against
+the author, on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted;
+and when <i>Madame Bovary</i> appeared in book-form it met with
+a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in
+1858, and now settled down to the archaeological studies which
+were required to equip him for <i>Salammbô</i>, which, however, in
+spite of the author&rsquo;s ceaseless labours, was not finished until
+1862. He then took up again the study of contemporary
+manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth
+and childhood, wrote <i>L&rsquo;Éducation sentimentale</i>, the composition
+of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869.
+Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert
+had been comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather
+around him. He felt the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly
+that the break-up of his health has been attributed to it; he
+began to suffer greatly from a distressing nervous malady. His
+best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal misunderstanding;
+in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances
+became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by
+his niece, Mme Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of
+friendship with George Sand, with whom he carried on a correspondence
+of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw
+his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet, Tourgenieff, the
+Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert&rsquo;s life
+from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however,
+to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. <i>La Tentation
+de Saint-Antoine</i>, of which fragments had been published as early
+as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In
+that year he was subjected to a disappointment by the failure
+of his drama <i>Le Candidat</i>. In 1877 Flaubert published, in one
+volume, entitled <i>Trois contes, Un C&oelig;ur simple, La Légende de
+Saint-Julien-l&rsquo;Hospitalier and Hérodias</i>. After this something of
+his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the remainder of
+his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the futility of
+human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he
+left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering <i>Bouvard
+et Pécuchet</i> (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious
+irony, he believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly
+and prematurely aged since 1870, and he was quite an old man
+when he was carried off by a stroke of apoplexy at the age of only
+58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died at Croisset, but was buried
+in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful
+monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of
+Rouen in 1890.</p>
+
+<p>The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities.
+He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed
+from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The
+same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the
+build of a guardsman, with a magnificent Viking head, but his
+health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to
+the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by misanthropy
+and disgust of life. His hatred of the &ldquo;bourgeois&rdquo;
+began in his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania.
+He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence,
+their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has
+been compared to that of an ascetic monk. Flaubert&rsquo;s curious
+modes of composition favoured and were emphasized by these
+peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying
+a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what
+he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best
+turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot
+be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His
+private letters show that he was not one of those to whom
+easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his
+extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow.
+One of the most severe of academic critics admits that &ldquo;in all his
+works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be considered
+a model of style.&rdquo; That he was one of the greatest writers
+who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his
+greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour
+and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other
+writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields
+admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression
+which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition.
+He never allowed a <i>cliché</i> to pass him, never indulgently or
+wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which &ldquo;almost&rdquo;
+expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost
+equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous
+propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both
+schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which
+he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his
+work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in
+his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since
+his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting
+chapter of literary history. The publication of <i>Madame Bovary</i>
+in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration;
+it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning
+of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.
+Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to
+crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as
+a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised
+an extraordinary influence over É. de Goncourt, Alphonse
+Daudet and M. Zola. But even since the decline of the realistic
+school Flaubert has not lost prestige; other facets of his genius
+have caught the light. It has been perceived that he was not
+merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost
+boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more clearly than
+the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who
+must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at
+large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of
+perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated
+the lax felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most
+sacred procedures of the literary artist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original
+manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already,
+the two plays, <i>Le Candidat</i> and <i>Le Château des c&oelig;urs</i>. Another
+edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert&rsquo;s correspondence
+with George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by
+Guy de Maupassant. Other posthumous works are <i>Par les champs
+et par les grèves</i> (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four
+volumes of <i>Correspondance</i> (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget,
+<i>Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1883); Émile Faguet, <i>Flaubert</i>
+(1899); Henry James, <i>French Poets and Novelists</i> (1878); Émile Zola,
+<i>Les Romanciers naturalistes</i> (1881); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries
+du lundi</i>, vol. xiii., <i>Nouveaux lundis</i>, vol. iv.; and the <i>Souvenirs
+littéraires</i> (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVEL, JOHN<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine,
+was born at Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627.
+He was the elder son of Richard Flavel, described in contemporary
+records as &ldquo;a painful and eminent minister.&rdquo; After
+receiving his early education, partly at home and partly at the
+grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered University
+College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he
+obtained a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the
+vicar he was appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he removed
+in 1656 to Dartmouth. He was ejected from his living
+by the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, but continued
+to preach and administer the sacraments privately till the Five
+Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away. He
+then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth,
+where he laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four
+times. He was a vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without
+a play of fine fancy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal works are his <i>Navigation Spiritualized</i> (1671); <i>The
+Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons</i> (1672); <i>The Method of Grace</i>
+(1680); <i>Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man</i> (1698); <i>A
+Token for Mourners</i>; <i>Husbandry Spiritualized</i> (1699). Collected
+editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles
+Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN I.<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
+born about 320, most probably in Antioch. He inherited great
+wealth, but resolved to devote his riches and his talents to the
+service of the church. In association with Diodorus, afterwards
+bishop of Tarsus, he supported the Catholic faith against the
+Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius as bishop of
+Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside
+the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion;
+and, according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the
+practice of antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services
+of the church. When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch
+in 361 he raised Flavian to the priesthood, and on the death of
+Meletius in 381 Flavian was chosen to succeed him. The
+schism between the two parties was, however, far from being
+healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt refused to
+acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme Eustathians
+had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius,
+still exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the
+death of Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor,
+but after the death of Evagrius (<i>c.</i> 393) Flavian succeeded in
+preventing his receiving a successor, though the Eustathians still
+continued to hold separate meetings. Through the intervention
+of Chrysostom, soon after his elevation to the patriarchate of
+Constantinople (398), and the influence of the emperor Theodosius,
+Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate bishop of Antioch
+by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was not
+finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is
+venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article
+&ldquo;Flavianus von Antiochien&rdquo; by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Real-encyklop.</i>
+(ed. 3). For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack&rsquo;s,
+<i>Hist. of Dogma</i>, iv. 95.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN II.<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
+chosen by the emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most
+probably in 498. He endeavoured to please both parties by
+steering a middle course in reference to the Chalcedon (<i>q.v.</i>)
+decrees, but was induced after great hesitation to agree to the
+request of Anastasius that he should accept the Henoticon,
+or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing so,
+while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of
+Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who
+in 511 found in the riots which were occurring between the rival
+parties in the streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian,
+and banishing him to Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was
+soon after his death enrolled among the saints of the Greek
+Church, and after some opposition he was also canonized by the
+Latin Church.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVIAN<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent
+of the Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided
+at the council which deposed Eutyches (<i>q.v.</i>) in 448, but in the
+following year he was deposed by the council of Ephesus (the
+&ldquo;robber synod&rdquo;), which reinstated Eutyches in his office.
+Flavian&rsquo;s death shortly afterwards was attributed, by a pious
+fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his theological opponents.
+The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a martyr, and in the
+Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of February.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVIGNY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the department of
+Côte-d&rsquo;Or, situated on a promontory overlooking the river
+Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725.
+Among its antiquities are the remains of an abbey of the 8th
+century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the manufacture
+of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as the
+17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th
+centuries, containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine
+rood-screen (early 16th century). A Dominican convent, some
+old houses and ancient gateways are also of interest. About
+3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont Auxois, the probable
+site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52 defeated the
+Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been erected
+on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman
+period have been discovered on the hill.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAVIN<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Lat. <i>flavus</i>, yellow), the commercial name for an
+extract or preparation of quercitron bark (<i>Quercus tinctoria</i>),
+which is used as a yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered
+bark (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quercitron</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAX.<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> The terms flax or lint (Ger. <i>Flachs</i>, Fr. <i>lin</i>, Lat.
+<i>linum</i>) are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and
+the plant from which it is prepared. The flax plant (<i>Linum
+usitatissimum</i>) belongs to the natural order <i>Linaceae</i>, and, like
+most plants which have been long under cultivation, it possesses
+numerous varieties, while its origin is doubtful. As cultivated
+it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a height of from
+20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly lance-shaped leaves,
+branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet ending in a
+bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical,
+having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin,
+five petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing
+five distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five
+cells, each of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten
+divisions, each of which contains a single seed. The seeds of the
+flax plant, well known as linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and
+of a bright greenish-brown colour. They are oval in section,
+but their maximum contour represents closely that of a pear
+with the stalk removed. The contents are of an oily nature,
+and when liquefied are of great commercial value.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest cultivated flax was <i>Linum angustifolium</i>, a smaller
+plant with fewer and narrower leaves than <i>L. usitatissimum</i>,
+and usually perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by
+the inhabitants of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild
+in south and west Europe (including England), North Africa,
+and western Asia. The annual flax (<i>L. usitatissimum</i>) has been
+cultivated for at least four or five thousand years in Mesopotamia,
+Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the districts included between
+the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. This
+annual flax appears to have been introduced into the north of
+Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by
+the western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians;
+lastly, into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after
+their separation from the European Aryans. (De Candolle,
+<i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most
+ancient of all textile industries, very distinct traces of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+existence during the stone age being preserved to the present
+day. &ldquo;The use of flax,&rdquo; says Ferdinand Keller (<i>Lake Dwellings
+of Switzerland</i>, translated by J.E. Lee), &ldquo;reaches back to the
+very earliest periods of civilization, and it was most extensively
+and variously applied in the lake-dwellings, even in those of the
+stone period. But of the mode in which it was planted, steeped,
+heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we can form
+no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by
+the settlers in its cultivation.... Rough or unworked flax is
+found in the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what are
+technically called heads, and, as much attention was given to
+this last operation, it was perfectly clean and ready for use.&rdquo;
+As to its applications at this early period, Keller remarks:
+&ldquo;Flax was the material for making lines and nets for fishing and
+catching wild animals, cords for carrying the earthenware vessels
+and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly imagine how
+navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings themselves
+be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the erection
+of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to
+whatever people these monuments may belong, would be altogether
+impracticable without the use of strong ropes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:405px; height:509px" src="images/img485.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Flax Plant (<i>Linum usitatissimum</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Manufacture.</i>&mdash;That flax was extensively cultivated and was
+regarded as of much importance at a very early period in the
+world&rsquo;s history there is abundant testimony. Especially in
+ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a most important place, linen
+having been there not only generally worn by all classes, but it
+was the only material the priestly order was permitted to wear,
+while it was most extensively used as wrappings for embalmed
+bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are
+told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph &ldquo;in vestures of fine linen&rdquo;
+(Gen. xlii. 42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail
+destroyed the flax and barley crops, &ldquo;for the barley was in the
+ear, and the flax was bolled&rdquo; (Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous
+pictorial representations of flax culture and preparation exist
+to the present day on the walls of tombs and in Egypt. Sir J.
+G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt shows clearly
+the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing flax.
+&ldquo;At Beni Hassan,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;the mode of cultivating the plant,
+in the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much
+resembling our salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and
+making them into ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth
+are distinctly pointed out.&rdquo; The preparation of the fibre as
+conducted in Egypt is illustrated by Pliny, who says: &ldquo;The
+stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed by the
+heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon
+them, for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind,
+becoming loose is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated.
+They are then taken out and repeatedly turned over in the sun
+until perfectly dried, and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone
+slabs. That which is nearest the rind is called <i>stupa</i> [&rsquo;tow&rsquo;],
+inferior to the inner fibres, and fit only for the wicks of lamps.
+It is combed out with iron hooks until the rind is all removed.
+The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality. Men are not
+ashamed to prepare it&rdquo; (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xix. 1). For many ages,
+even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax
+occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent
+into all regions with which open intercourse was maintained.
+Among Western nations it was, without any competitor, the
+most important of all vegetable fibres till towards the close of
+the 18th century, when, after a brief struggle, cotton took its
+place as the supreme vegetable fibre of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture
+resting upon a moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or
+potatoes, as it requires the soil to be in fresh condition without
+being too rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it
+well, as these are generally freer from weeds than those that have
+been long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply
+manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is to
+produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of the
+fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason
+it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall,
+slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been
+ploughed in autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with
+the grubber, harrow and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained.
+On the smooth surface the seed is sown broadcast by hand or
+machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, and covered in the
+same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to
+hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all
+stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants.
+When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully
+hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and
+hence the importance of sowing the crop on land as free as
+possible from weeds of all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind,
+move slowly on hands and knees, and should remove every vestige
+of weed in order that the flax plants may receive the full benefit
+of the land. When flax is cultivated primarily on account of
+the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before the capsules are
+quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from a green
+to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have
+become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.</p>
+
+<p>The various operations through which the crop passes from
+this point till flax ready for the market is produced are&mdash;(1)
+Pulling, (2) Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling,
+(6) Scutching.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pulling</i> and <i>rippling</i> may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is
+always pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it
+cut or shorn like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in
+dry clear weather; and care is to be taken in this, as in all the
+subsequent operations, to keep the root-ends even and the stalks
+parallel. At the same time it is desirable to have, as far as
+possible, stalks of equal length together,&mdash;all these conditions
+having considerable influence on the quality and appearance
+of the finished sample. As a general rule the removal of the
+&ldquo;bolls&rdquo; or capsules by the process of rippling immediately
+follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the field;
+but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the
+Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into
+sheaves, dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the
+early part of the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or
+apparatus for separating the seed capsules from the branches,
+consists of a kind of comb having, set in a wooden frame, iron
+teeth made of round-rod iron <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>ths of an inch asunder at
+the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in. long, to
+allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The
+points should begin to taper 3 in, from the top. A sheet or other
+cover being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the
+middle of it, and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+the machine between them, work at the same time. It is unadvisable
+to ripple the flax so severely as to break or tear the
+delicate fibres at the upper part of the stem. The two valuable
+commercial products of the flax plant, the seeds and the stalk,
+are separated at this point. We have here to do with the latter
+only.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retting</i> or <i>rotting</i> is an operation of the greatest importance,
+and one in connexion with which in recent years numerous
+experiments have been made, and many projects and processes
+put forth, with the view of remedying the defects of the primitive
+system or altogether supplanting it. From the earliest times
+two leading processes of retting have been practised, termed respectively
+water-retting and dew-retting; and as no method
+has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these
+operations, they will first be described.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water-retting.</i>&mdash;For this&mdash;the process by which flax is generally
+prepared&mdash;pure soft water, free from iron and other materials
+which might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much
+impregnated with lime is also specially objectionable. The dams
+or ponds in which the operation is conducted are of variable size,
+and usually between 4 and 5 ft. in depth. The rippled stalks
+are tied in small bundles and packed, roots downwards, in the
+dams till they are quite full; over the top of the upper layer
+is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with the grassy
+side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to
+keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a
+process of fermentation should immediately be set up, which
+soon makes itself manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles.
+After a few days the fermentation subsides; and generally in
+from ten days to two weeks the process ought to be complete.
+The exact time, however, depends upon the weather and upon
+the particular kind of water in which the flax is immersed.
+The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies in
+deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain
+under water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed
+&ldquo;over-retting,&rdquo; a condition which increases the amount of
+codilla in the scutching process; whilst &ldquo;under-retting&rdquo; leaves
+part of the gummy or resinous matter in the material, which
+hinders the subsequent process of manufacture. As the steeping
+is such a critical operation, it is essential that the stalks be
+frequently examined and tested as the process nears completion.
+When it is found that the fibre separates readily from the woody
+&ldquo;shove&rdquo; or core, the beets or small bundles are ready for removing
+from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly and
+equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes
+from a week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the
+fibres may spin equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is
+necessary to turn the material over several times during the
+process. It is ready for gathering when the core cracks and
+separates easily from the fibre. At this point advantage is
+taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax, which is now
+ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stooking
+and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching
+mill.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dew-retting</i> is the process by which all the Archangel flax
+and a large portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are prepared.
+By this method the operation of steeping is entirely
+dispensed with, and the flax is, immediately after pulling, spread
+on the grass where it is under the influence of air, sunlight,
+night-dews and rain. The process is tedious, the resulting fibre
+is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly liable to undergo
+heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of the flax) if
+exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little access of
+air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in
+structure, although in all probability water-retting would result
+in a fibre as good or even better in quality.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb,
+is that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence
+of heat and moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular
+substance&mdash;pectose or an analogue of that body&mdash;into pectin
+and pectic acid. The former, being soluble, is left in the water;
+but the latter, an insoluble body, is in part attached to the
+fibres, from which it is only separated by changing into soluble
+metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline ley in the
+subsequent process of bleaching.</p>
+
+<p>To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the
+primitive fashions above described, although numerous and
+persistent attempts have been made to improve upon it, or to
+avoid the process altogether. The uniform result of all experiments
+has only been to demonstrate the scientific soundness
+of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all the proposed
+improvements of recent times seek to obviate the tediousness,
+difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on in the
+open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention
+was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by
+Mr James Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely
+mechanical means without any retting whatever; but after the
+Irish Linen Board had expended many thousands of pounds
+and much time in making experiments and in erecting his
+machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete failure. About
+the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a process of
+&ldquo;cottonizing&rdquo; flax&mdash;a method of proceeding which had been
+suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen&rsquo;s process
+consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours
+in a weak solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two
+hours in a similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution
+containing 5% of carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed
+in a vat containing water acidulated with ½% of sulphuric
+acid. The action of the acid on the carbonate of soda with which
+the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre to split up into a
+fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to manufacture in
+the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax into
+bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recommend
+it to public acceptance; and Claussen&rsquo;s process therefore
+remains only as an interesting and suggestive experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto
+endured the test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm
+position as a distinct improvement, is the warm-water retting
+patented in England in 1846 by an American, Robert B. Schenck.
+For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes large wooden vats
+under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in an upright
+position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and
+maintained at a temperature of from 75° to 95° F. during the
+whole time the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermentation
+is set up, gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently
+becoming very repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy
+scum over the surface of the water. The whole process occupies
+only from 50 to 60 hours. A still further improvement, due
+to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at this point, which
+consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are taken
+out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream
+of pure water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all
+the slimy glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but
+the subsequent processes of breaking and scutching are much
+facilitated.</p>
+
+<p>A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of
+Glasgow in 1852, and subsequently modified and improved by
+J. Buchanan. The system possessed the advantages of rapidity,
+being completed in about ten hours, and freedom from any
+noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh, ill-spinning fibre,
+and consequently failed to meet the sanguine expectations of
+its promoters.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael
+Andrews, secretary of the Belfast Flax Supply Association,
+made some suggestions and experiments which deserve close
+attention. In a paper contributed to the International Flax
+Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details regarding an
+experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of imitating
+by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary
+methods. In brief, Mr Andrews&rsquo; method consists in introducing
+water at the proper temperature into the retting vat, and maintaining
+that temperature by keeping the air of the chamber
+at a proper degree of heat. By this means the flax is kept at a
+uniform temperature with great certainty, since even should the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span>
+heat of the air vary considerably through neglect, the water in the
+vat only by slow degrees follows such fluctuations. &ldquo;It may be
+remarked,&rdquo; says Mr Andrews, &ldquo;that the superiority claimed
+for this method of retting flax over what is known as the
+&rsquo;hot-water steeping&rsquo; is uniformity of temperature; in fact
+the experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control
+can be exercised over the means adopted to produce the
+artificial climate in which the vats containing the flax are
+situated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtaining
+a quick and practical method of retting flax. The one by
+Messrs Doumer and Deswarte appears to have been well received
+in France, but in Ireland the invention of Messrs Loppens and
+Deswarte has recently received the most attention. The
+apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the partition
+being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and
+covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other.
+Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately
+under the perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters
+the upper chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams,
+the latter being prevented from rising too high. The soluble
+substances are dissolved by the water, and the liquid thus formed
+being heavier than water, sinks to the bottom of the tank
+where it is allowed to escape through an outlet. By this arrangement
+the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh water, a
+condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids,
+in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow,
+and hence the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the
+operation is completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the
+flax remains on the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly
+before being removed to dry.</p>
+
+<p>The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
+Ireland, and the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly
+made some experiments with this method, and the following
+extract from the Association&rsquo;s report for 1905 shows the success
+which attended their efforts:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;By desire of the department (which has taken up the position
+of an impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was
+divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the
+patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to
+Courtrai and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched
+were examined by an inspector of the department and by several
+flax spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced
+superior to the other&rdquo; ...</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;To summarise results up to date&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+
+<p>    1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in
+        the field in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>    2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.</p>
+
+<p>    3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte&rsquo;s
+        patent) is at least equal to the Lys, as to quality and
+        yield of fibre produced.&rdquo;</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to
+expect further attempts with the same object of supplanting
+the ordinary steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical
+or other method would probably be the means of reviving the
+flax industry in the remote parts of the British Isles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scutching</i> is the process by which the fibre is freed from its
+woody core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-retted
+flax two operations are required, first breaking and then
+scutching, and these are done either by hand labour or by means
+of small scutching or lint mills, driven either by water or steam
+power. Hand labour, aided by simple implements, is still much
+used in continental countries; also in some parts of Ireland
+where labour is cheap or when very fine material is desired;
+but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these being
+more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks
+between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these
+rollers, of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes
+arranged to work alternately forwards and backwards in order to
+thoroughly break the woody material or &ldquo;boon&rdquo; of the straw,
+while the broken &ldquo;shoves&rdquo; are beaten out by suspending the
+fibre in a machine fitted with a series of revolving blades, which,
+striking violently against the flax, shake out the bruised and
+broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching machines
+and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view
+of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of
+fibre, both in respect of cleanness and in producing the least
+proportion of codilla or scutching tow.</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable
+staple in the market, on account of its fineness, strength and
+particularly bright colour. There the flax is dried in the field,
+and housed or stacked during the winter succeeding its growth,
+and in the spring of the following year it is retted in crates sunk
+in the sluggish waters of the river Lys. After the process has
+proceeded a certain length, the crates are withdrawn, and the
+sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter once more tied
+up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to complete the
+retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably
+practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in
+cones, instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored
+for some time previous to undergoing the operation of scutching.
+In all operations the greatest care is taken, and the cultivators
+being peculiarly favoured as to soil, climate and water, Courtrai
+flax is a staple of unapproached excellence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb
+of air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he
+separated 1946 &#8468; of bolls which yielded 910 &#8468; of seed. The 5824 lb
+(52 cwt.) of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving
+39 cwt. of retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. 1 qr. 2 &#8468; (702 &#8468;) of
+finished flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal
+to about 9% of the dried flax with the bolls, 12% of the boiled straw,
+and over 16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by
+Schenck&rsquo;s method gave 33 tons bolls, with 27.50 tons of loss in steeping;
+32.13 tons were separated in scutching, leaving 5.90 tons of
+finished fibre, with 1.47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following
+analysis of two varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo
+Müller (Hoffmann&rsquo;s <i>Berichte über die Entwickelung der chemischen
+Industrie</i>):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ash</td> <td class="tcr">0.70</td> <td class="tcr">1.32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td class="tcr">8.65</td> <td class="tcr">10.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Extractive matter</td> <td class="tcr">3.65</td> <td class="tcr">6.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fat and wax</td> <td class="tcr">2.39</td> <td class="tcr">2.37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cellulose</td> <td class="tcr">82.57</td> <td class="tcr">71.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Intercellular substance and pectose bodies</td> <td class="tcr">2.74</td> <td class="tcr">9.41</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (<i>Die Rohstoffe
+des Pflanzenreiches</i>), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140 centimetres,
+the length of the individual cells being from 2.0 to 4.0
+millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0.012 and 0.025 mm.,
+the average being 0.016 mm.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement
+both in the growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till
+comparatively recent times, the whole industry was conducted
+only on a domestic scale has had much influence. At no very
+remote date it was the practice in Scotland for every small
+farmer and cotter not only to grow &ldquo;lint&rdquo; or flax in small
+patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven,
+bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own
+premises, and all by members or dependents of the family.
+The same practice obtained and still largely prevails in other
+countries. Thus the flax industry was long kept away from the
+most powerful motives to apply to it labour-saving devices,
+and apart from the influence of scientific inquiry for the improvement
+of methods and processes. As cotton came to the front,
+just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving
+were being introduced, the result was that in many localities
+where flax crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually
+drooped and ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by
+degrees ceased to be a domestic industry, and began to centre
+in and become the characteristic factory employment of special
+localities, which depended, however, for their supply of raw
+material primarily on the operations of small growers, working,
+for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote thinly
+populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the
+preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day,
+not come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities)
+of scientific knowledge and experience.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation.</i>&mdash;The approximate number of acres (1905) under
+cultivation in the principal flax-growing countries is as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td> <td class="tcc">acres.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Caucasia</td> <td class="tcr">450,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Austria</td> <td class="tcr">175,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Italy</td> <td class="tcr">120,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Poland</td> <td class="tcr">95,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr">80,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">75,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">65,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">53,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr">50,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr">46,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">38,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably
+the combined quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned
+countries, the quality of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is cultivated
+in the Russian provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia,
+Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka,
+Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or Jaroslav, while the bulk of the
+material is exported through the Baltic ports. Riga and St
+Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal ports, but
+flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau,
+Narva and Königsberg. Sometimes it is exported from
+Archangel, but this port is frost-bound for a great period
+of the year; moreover, most of the districts are nearer to the
+Baltic.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the Change in Price
+                                 of a few well-known Varieties.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb tb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1898.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1899.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec. 1906.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Riga&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&ensp; SPK</td> <td class="tcc rb">23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">21  to 22</td> <td class="tcc rb">28  to 32</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 to 32</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; XHDX</td> <td class="tcc rb">27</td> <td class="tcc rb">26½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½ to 33</td> <td class="tcc rb">43½</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; W<br />St Petersburg&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">16 to 16¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">15½ to 16</td> <td class="tcc rb">22½ to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">18 to 19</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">23</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Bajetsky</td> <td class="tcc rb">28 to 29</td> <td class="tcc rb">26  to 27</td> <td class="tcc rb">32  to 32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Jaropol<br />Tows&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 25</td> <td class="tcc rb">23  to 23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Mologin</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 24¼</td> <td class="tcc rb">23  to 23½</td> <td class="tcc rb">24½ to 25</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; Novgorod<br />Archangel&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>23½ to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>23</td> <td class="tcc rb"><a href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>26 to 26½</td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">34½</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp; ½ and ½ tow</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 to 24½</td> <td class="tcc rb">26  to 27</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">31½</td> <td class="tcc rb">32½</td> <td class="tcc rb">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp; 2nd Codilla</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24 to 24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25½ to 26</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as
+the district in which it is grown, and it is further classified by
+special marks. The following names amongst others are given to
+the fibre:&mdash;Archangel, Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher,
+Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin, Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz,
+Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol, Jaroslav, Kama,
+Kashin, Königsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns, Krasnoholm,
+Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Malmuish,
+Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky,
+Nolinsk, Novgorod, Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy,
+Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel, Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg,
+Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk, Sytcheffka, Taroslav.
+Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni, Vologda,
+Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk.</p>
+
+<p>These names indicate the particular district in which the flax
+has been grown, but it is more general to group the material
+into classes such as Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs,
+Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens, Pernau, Archangel, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one
+or other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not
+necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October
+1906 quotations appeared as under:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Livonian</td> <td class="tcc">basis</td> <td class="tcl">K</td> <td class="tcl">£26 to £27</td> <td class="tcc">per ton,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hoffs</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">HD</td> <td class="tcl">£21 to £22</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pernau</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">D</td> <td class="tcl">£28 to £28 : 10</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dorpat</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">D</td> <td class="tcl">£32 to £32 : 10</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="tcc" colspan="2">cleaned.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to
+variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and
+demand.</p>
+
+<p>The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">K</td> <td class="tcc">means</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="4">Crown and is usually the base mark.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">H</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="4">Light and represents a rise of about</td> <td class="tcl">£1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">P</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Picked</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">£3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">G</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Grey</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">£3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">S</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Superior</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">£4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">W</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">White</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">£4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Z</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Zins</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">£10</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be
+understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two
+letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more,
+since every mark has not the same value.</p>
+
+<p>If we take £25 as  the value of the base mark, the value per ton for
+the different groups would be:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">K</td> <td class="tcl">£25</td> <td class="tcr">HSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">HK</td> <td class="tcl">£26</td> <td class="tcr">GSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">PK</td> <td class="tcl">£28</td> <td class="tcr">WSPK</td> <td class="tcl">£36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">HPK</td> <td class="tcl">£29</td> <td class="tcr">ZK</td> <td class="tcl">£35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">GPK</td> <td class="tcl">£31</td> <td class="tcr">HZK</td> <td class="tcl">£36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">SPK</td> <td class="tcl">£32</td> <td class="tcr">GZK</td> <td class="tcl">£38, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for
+Hoffs, D for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and
+R for Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before,
+after or in both places. With £20 as base mark we have:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">HD</td> <td class="tcc">£20</td> <td class="tcc">per</td> <td class="tcc">ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">PHD</td> <td class="tcc">£23</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">FPHD</td> <td class="tcc">£26</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">SFPHD</td> <td class="tcc">£29</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">XHDX</td> <td class="tcc">£32</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">XRX</td> <td class="tcc">£35</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">W,</td> <td class="tcl">Wrack flax.</td> <td class="tcr">PW,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked wrack flax.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">WPW,</td> <td class="tcl">White picked wrack.</td> <td class="tcr">GPW,</td> <td class="tcl">Grey picked wrack flax.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">D,</td> <td class="tcl">Dreiband (Threeband).</td> <td class="tcr">PD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Dreiband flax.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">LD,</td> <td class="tcl">Livonian Dreiband.</td> <td class="tcr">PLD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Livonian Dreiband.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">SD,</td> <td class="tcl">Slanitz Dreiband.</td> <td class="tcr">PSD,</td> <td class="tcl">Picked Slanitz Dreiband.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped
+from Riga either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or
+Wiasma Slanitz, showing from what district they come, as there
+are differences in the quality of the produce of each district. The
+lowest quality of Riga flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband
+Wrack.</p>
+
+<p>Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is imported
+is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few.
+The leading marks are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">LOD,</td> <td class="tcc">indicating</td> <td class="tcl">Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">OD,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Ordinary Dreiband.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">D,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Dreiband.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">HD,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Light Dreiband.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">R,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Risten.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">G,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Cut.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">M,</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Marienburg.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being
+the best.</p>
+
+<p>Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Petersburg,
+the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd
+and 4th Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. 2, while all the
+Archangel flax is dew-retted.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered
+from the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this
+quantity a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom.
+The Chief British ports for the landing of flax are:&mdash;Belfast, Dundee,
+Leith, Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the
+chief centres of the flax industry.</p>
+
+<p>The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast
+Flax Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all
+sources into the different parts of the United Kingdom:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />Ireland.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imports to<br />England and<br />Scotland.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,622</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,506</td> <td class="tcc rb">67,116</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">95,199</td> <td class="tcc rb">36,650</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,549</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,802</td> <td class="tcc rb">37,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">61,087</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">97,253</td> <td class="tcc rb">34,440</td> <td class="tcc rb">62,813</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,052</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,145</td> <td class="tcc rb">58,907</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">71,586</td> <td class="tcc rb">31,563</td> <td class="tcc rb">40,023</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,565</td> <td class="tcc rb">28,785</td> <td class="tcc rb">46,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,611</td> <td class="tcc rb">29,727</td> <td class="tcc rb">43,884</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,701</td> <td class="tcc rb">38,168</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,533</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,917</td> <td class="tcc rb">33,024</td> <td class="tcc rb">41,893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">90,098</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">40,063</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50,035</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the
+acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864
+it reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433.
+After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that
+year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated
+considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to
+89,225 acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage
+was above 108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000,
+while the average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000
+acres.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Wo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> 8 and 2, which means 80% of one quality and 20% of
+another. Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not
+unusual to have quotations for flaxes containing four different
+kinds.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLAXMAN, JOHN<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughtsman,
+was born on the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary
+residence of his parents at York. The name John was hereditary
+in the family, having been borne by his father after a forefather
+who, according to the family tradition, had fought on the side of
+parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled as a carrier or
+farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the father
+of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder
+and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New
+Street, Covent Garden, London. His wife&rsquo;s maiden name was
+See, and John was their second son. Within six months of his
+birth the family returned to London, and in his father&rsquo;s back
+shop he spent an ailing childhood. His figure was high-shouldered
+and weakly, the head very large for the body. His mother
+having died about his tenth year, his father took a second wife,
+of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and
+that she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother.
+Of regular schooling the boy must have had some, since he is
+reputed as having remembered in after life the tyranny of some
+pedagogue of his youth; but his principal education he picked
+up for himself at home. He early took delight in drawing and
+modelling from his father&rsquo;s stock-in-trade, and early endeavoured
+to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the light of
+translations from classic literature.</p>
+
+<p>Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped
+him with books, advice, and presently with commissions. The
+two special encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney,
+and a cultivated clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose
+house in Rathbone Place the young Flaxman used to meet the
+best &ldquo;blue-stocking&rdquo; society of those days, and, among
+associates of his own age, the artists Blake and Stothard, who
+became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to work
+with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve
+years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal,
+and became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society
+of Artists; at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of
+Arts and began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the
+second year of its existence. In the same year, 1770, he entered
+as an Academy student and won the silver medal. But all these
+successes were followed by a discomfiture. In the competition
+for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman, who had
+made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged
+by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor
+named Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement,
+and indeed seemed to have had a wholesome effect in curing
+the successful lad of a tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency
+which made Thomas Wedgwood say of him in 1775: &ldquo;It is but
+a few years since he was a most supreme coxcomb.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the
+schools and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy,
+occasionally also attempting diversions into the sister art of
+painting. To the Academy he contributed a wax model of
+Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax (1771); a terracotta
+bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History (1772);
+a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During these
+years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew
+family, for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work
+of this class he could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The
+means of such a livelihood, however, presented themselves in
+his twentieth year, when he first received employment from
+Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, as a modeller of
+classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental vessels and
+medallion portraits, in those varieties of &ldquo;jasper&rdquo; and &ldquo;basalt&rdquo;
+ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the
+manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention.
+In the same year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from
+New Street, Covent Garden, to a more commodious house in
+the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years, from his twentieth to
+his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted chiefly by his
+work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the minute
+refinements of figure outline and modelling which these manufacturers
+aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities
+best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the
+gifts of an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long
+upon such a minor and half-mechanical art of household decoration;
+but the beauty of the product it would be idle to deny, or
+the value of the training which the sculptor by this practice
+acquired in the delicacies and severities of modelling in low
+relief and on a minute scale.</p>
+
+<p>By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another
+branch of his profession, which was in the future to furnish
+his chief source of livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for
+the dead. Three of the earliest of such monuments by his hand
+are those of Chatterton in the church of St Mary Redcliffe at
+Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in Gloucester cathedral (1784),
+and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in the cathedral at
+Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman&rsquo;s career memorial
+bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his
+industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches
+throughout the length and breadth of England, and in them the
+finest qualities of his art are represented. The best are admirable
+for pathos and simplicity, and for the alliance of a truly Greek
+instinct for rhythmical design and composition with that spirit
+of domestic tenderness and innocence which is one of the secrets
+of the modern soul.</p>
+
+<p>In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married
+to Anne Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until
+almost his life&rsquo;s end. She was a woman of attainments in letters
+and to some extent in art, and the devoted companion of her
+husband&rsquo;s fortunes and of his travels. They set up house at first
+in Wardour Street, and lived an industrious life, spending their
+summer holidays once and again in the house of the hospitable
+poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five years, in 1787,
+they found themselves with means enough to travel, and set out
+for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice.
+Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman&rsquo;s
+residence in Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than
+in the shape of correspondence. He soon ceased modelling
+himself for Wedgwood, but continued to direct the work of other
+modellers employed for the manufacture at Rome. He had
+intended to return after a stay of a little more than two years,
+but was detained by a commission for a marble group of a Fury
+of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with circumstances
+of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious
+Comte-Évêque, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of
+Derry. He did not, as things fell out, return until the summer
+of 1794, after an absence of seven years,&mdash;having in the meantime
+executed another ideal commission (a &ldquo;Cephalus and Aurora&rdquo;)
+for Mr Hope, and having sent home models for several sepulchral
+monuments, including one in relief for the poet Collins in
+Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord Mansfield
+in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span></p>
+
+<p>But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and
+European fame was not his work in sculpture proper, but those
+outline designs to the poets, in which he showed not only to what
+purpose he had made his own the principles of ancient design
+in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but also by what a natural
+affinity, better than all mere learning, he was bound to the
+ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the <i>Iliad</i> and
+<i>Odyssey</i> were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for
+Dante by Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer;
+they were all engraved by Piroli, not without considerable loss
+of the finer and more sensitive qualities of Flaxman&rsquo;s own lines.</p>
+
+<p>During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled
+through central and northern Italy. On their return they took
+a house, which they never afterwards left, in Buckingham Street,
+Fitzroy Square. Immediately afterwards we find the sculptor
+publishing a spirited protest against the scheme already entertained
+by the Directory, and carried out five years later by
+Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of art
+with the spoils of conquered Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The record of Flaxman&rsquo;s life is henceforth an uneventful record
+of private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious
+industry, with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not
+loud but loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best
+worth having&mdash;Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a
+son of Hayley&rsquo;s, who presently afterwards sickened and died.
+In 1797 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy. Every
+year he exhibited work of one class or another: occasionally a
+public monument in the round, like those of Paoli (1798), or
+Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, of Sir William
+Jones for St Mary&rsquo;s, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or Howe for
+St Paul&rsquo;s; more constantly memorials for churches, with symbolic
+Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both commonly
+in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell,
+Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and
+many more]; and these pious labours he would vary from time
+to time with a classical piece like those of his earliest predilection.
+Soon after his election as associate, he published a scheme, half
+grandiose, half childish, for a monument to be erected on Greenwich
+Hill, in the shape of a Britannia 200 ft. high, in honour of
+the naval victories of his country. In 1800 he was elected full
+Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to Paris to
+see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself
+according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next
+event which makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a
+chair specially created for him by the Royal Academy&mdash;the
+chair of Sculpture: this took place in 1810. We have ample
+evidence of his thoroughness and judiciousness as a teacher in
+the Academy schools, and his professorial lectures have been
+often reprinted. With many excellent observations, and with
+one singular merit&mdash;that of doing justice, as in those days
+justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval
+schools&mdash;these lectures lack point and felicity of expression,
+just as they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are
+somewhat heavy reading. The most important works that
+occupied Flaxman in the years next following this appointment
+were the monument to Mrs Baring in Micheldever church, the
+richest of all his monuments in relief (1805-1811); that for the
+Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, which is the next
+richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul&rsquo;s (1807),
+to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and
+Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of
+Wales&rsquo;s Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813).
+At this time the antiquarian world was much occupied with the
+vexed question of the merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman
+was one of those whose evidence before the parliamentary
+commission had most weight in favour of the purchase which
+was ultimately effected in 1816.</p>
+
+<p>After his Roman period he produced for a good many years
+no outline designs for the engraver except three for Cowper&rsquo;s
+translations of the Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets
+of outline illustrations drawn about the same time, but not
+published, were one to the <i>Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>, and one to a
+Chinese tale in verse, called &ldquo;The Casket,&rdquo; which he wrote to
+amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to his
+old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the
+happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod,
+excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Immediately
+afterwards he was much engaged designing for the
+goldsmiths&mdash;a testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and
+following that, the great labour of the famous and beautiful
+(though quite un-Homeric) &ldquo;Shield of Achilles.&rdquo; Almost at the
+same time he undertook a frieze of &ldquo;Peace, Liberty and Plenty,&rdquo;
+for the duke of Bedford&rsquo;s sculpture gallery at Woburn, and an
+heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord Egremont&rsquo;s
+house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is
+shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed
+to Rees&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopaedia</i> (1819-1820).</p>
+
+<p>In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis
+six years earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the
+sculptor&rsquo;s own sister,, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house,
+and his industry was scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he
+delivered at the Academy a lecture in memory of his old friend
+and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then lately dead;
+in 1823 he received from A.W. von Schlegel a visit of which
+that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring
+soon after this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work
+and exhibition, but on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold
+in church, and died four days later, in his seventy-second year.
+Among a few intimate associates, he left a memory singularly
+dear; having been in companionship, although susceptible and
+obstinate when his religious creed&mdash;a devout Christianity with
+Swedenborgian admixtures&mdash;was crossed or slighted, yet in other
+things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of
+modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true
+friend and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or
+of his age, which in England offered neither training nor much
+encouragement to a sculptor, that he is weakest when he is
+most ambitious, and most inspired when he makes the least
+effort; but so it is. Not merely does he fail when he seeks to
+illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival the tumultuousness
+of Michelangelo&mdash;to be intense or tumultuous he was never
+made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his
+work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as
+it is partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures,
+the &ldquo;St Michael&rdquo; at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably
+composed from all points of view; but it lacks fire and force,
+and it lacks the finer touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like
+the diploma piece of the &ldquo;Apollo&rdquo; and &ldquo;Marpessa&rdquo; in the Royal
+Academy compares with it favourably. This is one of the very
+few things which he is recorded to have executed in the marble
+entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he entrusted the finishing
+work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his employ, and
+was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they
+imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked
+at the Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman&rsquo;s complicated
+monuments in the round, such as the three in Westminster
+Abbey and the four in St Paul&rsquo;s, there is scarcely one
+which has not something heavy and infelicitous in the arrangement,
+and something empty and unsatisfactory in the surface
+execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in
+relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The
+truth is that he did not thoroughly understand composition on
+the great scale and in the round, but he thoroughly understood
+relief, and found scope in it for his remarkable gifts of harmonious
+design, and tender, grave and penetrating feeling. But if we
+would see even the happiest of his conceptions at their best,
+we must study them, not in the finished marble but rather in
+the casts from his studio sketches (marred though they have been
+by successive coats of paint intended for their protection) of
+which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the Flaxman
+gallery at University College And the same is true of his
+happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-known
+relief of &ldquo;Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury.&rdquo; Nay,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span>
+going farther back still among the rudiments and first conceptions
+of his art, we can realize the most essential charm of his
+genius in the study, not of his modelled work at all, but of his
+sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of these the principal
+public collections are at University College, in the British
+Museum, and the Victoria &amp; Albert Museum; many others are
+dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the
+excellence of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus
+and Hesiod, in all cases save when the designer aims at that which
+he cannot hit, the terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman
+at his best it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the
+original studies for such designs as these (which, with the exception
+of the Hesiod series, are far finer than the engravings), but
+still more with those almost innumerable studies from real life
+which he was continually producing with pen, tint or pencil.
+These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor&rsquo;s notes in
+existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and
+expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that
+struck his fancy. There are groups of Italy and London,
+groups of the parlour and the nursery, of the street, the
+garden and the gutter; and of each group the artist knows
+how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual secret,
+expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art
+of sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and
+balancings of the various figures in any given group, and not
+less happily the charm of the affections which link the figures
+together and inspire their gestures.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various biographical
+and other publications; the principal are the following:&mdash;An
+anonymous sketch in the <i>European Magazine</i> for 1823; an anonymous
+&ldquo;Brief Memoir,&rdquo; prefixed to <i>Flaxman&rsquo;s Lectures</i> (ed. 1829, and
+reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan Cunningham&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters</i>, &amp;c., vol. iii.; notices in
+the <i>Life of Nollekens</i>, by John Thomas Smith; in the <i>Life of Josiah
+Wedgwood</i>, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the <i>Diaries and
+Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson</i> (London, 1869), the latter an
+authority of great importance; in the <i>Lives</i> of Stothard, by Mrs Bray,
+of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and of Blake, by
+Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated essays, principally
+on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the <i>Art Journal</i>
+for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G.F. Teniswood; <i>Essays in English Art</i>,
+by Frederick Wedmore; <i>The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 plates,
+with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and Genius
+of Flaxman</i>, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article
+&ldquo;Flaxman&rdquo; in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEA<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (0. Eng. <i>fléah</i>, or <i>fléa</i>, cognate with <i>flee</i>, to run away
+from, to take flight), a name typically applied to <i>Pulex irritans</i>,
+a well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other
+mammals, remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly
+cosmopolitan. In ordinary language the name is used for any
+species of <i>Siphonaptera</i> (otherwise known as <i>Aphaniptera</i>),
+which, though formerly regarded as a suborder of <i>Diptera</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>), are now considered to be a separate order of insects. All
+<i>Siphonaptera</i>, of which more than 100 species are known, are
+parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
+belong to the family <i>Pulicidae</i>, of which <i>P. irritans</i> may be taken
+as the type; but the order also includes the <i>Sarcopsyllidae</i>, the
+females of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the
+<i>Ceratopsyllidae</i>, or bat-fleas.</p>
+
+<p>Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body,
+small and indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae
+situated in cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes,
+which are always minute and sometimes absent. The structure
+of the mouth-parts is different from that seen in any other insects.
+The actual piercing organs are the mandibles, while the upper
+lip or labrum forms a sucking tube. The maxillae are not piercing
+organs, and their function is to protect the mandibles and
+labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of the host. Maxillary
+and labial palpi are also present, and the latter, together with
+the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.</p>
+
+<p>Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis.
+The footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very
+active; they feed upon almost any kind of waste animal matter,
+and when full-grown form a silken cocoon. The human flea is
+considerably exceeded in size by certain other species found
+upon much smaller hosts; thus the European <i>Hystrichopsylla
+talpae</i>, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small mammals,
+attains a length of 5½ millimetres; another large species infests
+the Indian porcupine. Of the <i>Sarcopsyllidae</i> the best known
+species is the &ldquo;jigger&rdquo; or &ldquo;chigoe&rdquo; (<i>Dermatophilus penetrans</i>),
+indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West
+Africa during the second half of last century. Since then this
+pest has spread across the African continent and even reached
+Madagascar. The impregnated female jigger burrows into the
+feet of men and dogs, and becomes distended with eggs until
+its abdomen attains the size and appearance of a small pea.
+If in extracting the insect the abdomen be ruptured, serious
+trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At least
+four species of fleas (including <i>Pulex irritans</i>) which infest the
+common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the
+active agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human
+beings.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. E. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLÈCHE<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (French for &ldquo;arrow&rdquo;), the term generally used in
+French architecture for a spire, but more especially employed
+to designate the timber spire covered with lead, which was
+erected over the intersection of the roofs over nave and transepts;
+sometimes these were small and unimportant, but in cathedrals
+they were occasionally of large dimensions, as in the flèche of
+Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly 100 ft. high; this, however,
+is exceeded by the example of Amiens cathedral, which measures
+148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its finial.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1632-1710), French preacher and author,
+bishop of Nîmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse,
+on the 10th of June 1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by
+his uncle, Hercule Audiffret, superior of the Congrégation des
+Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered the order. On the death of
+his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the strictness of its rules,
+and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to writing poetry.
+His French poems met with little success, but a description in
+Latin verse of a tournament (<i>carrousel, circus regius</i>), given
+by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
+subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefèvre de Caumartin,
+afterwards <i>intendant</i> of finances and counsellor of state,
+whom he accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (<i>q.v.</i>), where the
+king had ordered the <i>Grands Jours</i> to be held (1665), and where
+Caumartin was sent as representative of the sovereign. There
+Fléchier wrote his curious <i>Mémoires sur les Grand Jours tenus à
+Clermont</i>, in which he relates, in a half romantic, half historical
+form, the proceedings of this extraordinary court of justice.
+In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured for him the post of
+<i>lecteur</i> to the dauphin. The sermons of Fléchier increased his
+reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest pitch
+by his funeral orations. The most important are those on
+Madame de Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership
+of the Academy, the duchesse d&rsquo;Aiguillon (1675), and, above all,
+Marshal Turenne (1676). He was now firmly established in the
+favour of the king, who gave him successively the abbacy of St
+Séverin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the office of almoner to the
+dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of Lavaur, from which
+he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nîmes. The edict of Nantes
+had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were still
+very numerous at Nîmes. Fléchier, by his leniency and tact,
+succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even
+gained the esteem of those who declined to change their faith.
+During the troubles in the Cévennes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Huguenots</a></span>) he softened
+to the utmost of his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed
+himself so indulgent even to what he regarded as error, that his
+memory was long held in veneration amongst the Protestants of
+that district. It is right to add, however, that some authorities
+consider the accounts of his leniency to have been greatly
+exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond what the
+edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of February
+1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
+Fléchier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust
+and sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal
+Bourdaloue in earnestness of thought and vigour of expression;
+nor can he rival the philosophical depth or the insinuating and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+impressive eloquence of Massillon. But he is always ingenious,
+often witty, and nobody has carried farther than he the harmony
+of diction, sometimes marred by an affectation of symmetry
+and an excessive use of antithesis. His two historical works,
+the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more remarkable
+for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive
+insight.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The last complete edition of Fléchier&rsquo;s works is by J.P. Migne
+(Paris, 1856); the <i>Mémoires sur les Grands Jours</i> was first published
+in 1844 by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as <i>Mém. sur les Gr. J. d&rsquo;Auvergne</i>, with
+notice by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M. Chéruel, 1862). His
+chief works are: <i>Histoire de Théodose le Grand</i>, <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>,
+<i>Histoire du Cardinal Ximénès</i>, <i>Sermons de morale</i>, <i>Panégyriques des
+saints</i>. He left a <i>portrait</i> or <i>caractère</i> of himself, addressed to one of
+his friends. The <i>Life of Theodosius</i> has been translated into English
+by F. Manning (1693), and the &ldquo;Funeral Oration of Marshal
+Turenne&rdquo; in H.C. Fish&rsquo;s <i>History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence</i>
+(ii., 1857). On Fléchier generally see Antonin V.D. Fabre, <i>La
+Jeunesse de Fléchier</i> (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, <i>Fléchier, orateur</i>
+(1886); A. Delacroix, <i>Hist, de Fléchier</i> (1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span>
+(1820-1899), German philologist and critic, was born at Wolfenbüttel
+on the 23rd of September 1820. He was educated at the
+Helmstedt gymnasium and the university of Göttingen. After
+holding several educational posts, he was appointed in 1861 to
+the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum&rsquo;sches Gymnasium at
+Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died on
+the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his
+labours on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these
+authors he was unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-long
+friend and a worker in the same field. His chief works are:
+<i>Exercitationes Plautinae</i> (1842), one of the most masterly productions
+on the language of Plautus; &ldquo;Analecta Plautina,&rdquo;
+printed in <i>Philologus</i>, ii. (1847); <i>Plauti Comoediae</i>, i., ii. (1850-1851,
+unfinished), introduced by an <i>Epistula critica ad F.
+Ritschelium; P. Terenti Afri Comoediae</i> (new ed., 1898). In
+his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance
+with the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin
+language and metre. He attached great importance to the question
+of orthography, and his short treatise <i>Fünfzig Artikel</i> (1861)
+is considered most valuable. Fleckeisen also contributed largely
+to the <i>Jahrbücher fur Philologie</i>, of which he was for many years
+editor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See obituary notice by G. Götz in C. Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Biographisches
+Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i> (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener
+in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> (where the date of birth is given
+as the 20th of September).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLECKNOE, RICHARD<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1600-1678?), English dramatist
+and poet, the object of Dryden&rsquo;s satire, was probably of English
+birth, although there is no corroboration of the suggestion of
+J. Gillow (<i>Bibliog. Dict. of the Eng. Catholics</i>, vol. ii., 1885), that
+he was a nephew of a Jesuit priest, William Flecknoe, or more
+properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few known facts of his life
+are chiefly derived from his <i>Relation of Ten Years&rsquo; Travels in
+Europe, Asia, Affrique and America</i> (1655?), consisting of letters
+written to friends and patrons during his travels. The first of
+these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to escape
+the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Béatrix de
+Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him
+to Rome to secure the legalization of her marriage. There in
+1645 Andrew Marvell met him, and described his leanness and
+his rage for versifying in a witty satire, &ldquo;Flecknoe, an English
+Priest at Rome.&rdquo; He was probably, however, not in priest&rsquo;s
+orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in 1648 crossed
+the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a detailed
+description. On his return to Europe he entered the household
+of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back
+to England. His royalist and Catholic convictions did not
+prevent him from writing a book in praise of Oliver Cromwell,
+<i>The Idea of His Highness Oliver</i> ... (1659), dedicated to Richard
+Cromwell. This publication was discounted at the restoration
+by the <i>Heroick Portraits</i> (1660) of Charles II. and others of the
+Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking horse
+from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in <i>Mac Flecknoe</i>
+(1682). The opening lines run:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;All human things are subject to decay.</p>
+<p class="i05">And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.</p>
+<p class="i05">This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young</p>
+<p class="i05">Was called to empire, and had governed long;</p>
+<p class="i05">In prose and verse was owned, without dispute,</p>
+<p class="i05">Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Dryden&rsquo;s aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe&rsquo;s
+affectation of contempt for the players and his attacks on
+the immorality of the English stage. His verse, which hardly
+deserved his critic&rsquo;s sweeping condemnation, was much of it
+religious, and was chiefly printed for private circulation. None
+of his plays was acted except <i>Love&rsquo;s Dominion</i>, announced as a
+&ldquo;pattern for the reformed stage&rdquo; (1654), that title being altered
+in 1664 to <i>Love&rsquo;s Kingdom</i>, with a <i>Discourse of the English Stage</i>.
+He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the actors whom
+he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been staged.
+Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and
+is said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted
+with the nobility than with the muses. He died probably about
+1678.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Discourse of the English Stage</i>, was reprinted in W.C. Hazlitt&rsquo;s
+<i>English Drama and Stage</i> (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert
+Southey, in his <i>Omniana</i> (1812), protested against the wholesale
+depreciation of Flecknoe&rsquo;s works. See also &ldquo;Richard Flecknoe&rdquo;
+(Leipzig, 1905, in <i>Munchener Beiträge zur ... Philologie</i>), by A.
+Lohr, who has given minute attention to his life and works.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEET,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a word in all its significances, derived from the root
+of the verb &ldquo;to fleet,&rdquo; from O. Eng. <i>fleotan</i>, to float or flow,
+which ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="pleein">&#960;&#955;&#941;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to sail, and Lat. <i>pluere</i>, to rain; cf. Dutch <i>vliessen</i>, and
+Ger. <i>fliessen</i>. In English usage it survives in the name of many
+places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream
+in London that formerly ran into the Thames between the
+bottom of Ludgate Hill and the present Fleet Street. From
+the idea of &ldquo;float&rdquo; comes the application of the word to ships,
+when in company, and particularly to a large number of warships
+under the supreme command of a single officer, with the
+individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and subordinate
+command. The distinction between a fleet and a
+squadron is often one of name only. In the British navy the
+various main divisions are or have been called fleets and
+squadrons indifferently. The word is also frequently used of
+a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is also applied to a
+row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original meaning
+of the word &ldquo;flowing&rdquo; comes the adjectival use of the word,
+swift, or speedy; so also &ldquo;fleeting,&rdquo; of something evanescent
+or fading away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEET PRISON,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> an historic London prison, formerly situated
+on the east side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from
+the Fleet stream, which flowed into the Thames. Concerning
+its early history little is known, but it certainly dated back to
+Norman times. It came into particular prominence from being
+used as a place of reception for persons committed by the Star
+Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and persons imprisoned
+for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It was burnt
+down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was destroyed
+in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782.
+In pursuance of an act of parliament (5 &amp; 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842),
+by which the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen&rsquo;s Bench prisons were
+consolidated into one under the name of Queen&rsquo;s prison, it was
+finally closed, and in 1844 sold to the corporation of the city of
+London, by whom it was pulled down. The head of the prison
+was termed &ldquo;the warden,&rdquo; who was appointed by patent. It
+became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to &ldquo;farm
+out&rdquo; the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which
+made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted
+on prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly
+evil repute, by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid,
+with another, the sum of £5000 to John Huggins for the wardenship.
+He was guilty of the greatest extortions upon prisoners,
+and, in the words of a committee of the House of Commons
+appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the kingdom,
+&ldquo;arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into dungeons,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most
+barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of
+the laws of this kingdom.&rdquo; He was committed to Newgate, and
+an act was passed to prevent his enjoying the office of warden
+or any other office whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the
+Fleet were the limits within which particular prisoners were
+allowed to reside outside the prison walls on observing certain
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fleet Marriages.</i>&mdash;By the law of England a marriage was
+recognized as valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by
+a person in holy orders, even if those orders were not of the
+Church of England. Neither banns nor licence were necessary,
+and the time and place were alike immaterial. Out of this
+state of the marriage law, in the period of laxness which succeeded
+the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable clandestine marriages.
+They were contracted at first to avoid the expenses attendant
+on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which imposed a
+penalty of £100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted
+another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or
+licence, acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned
+for debt in the Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors,
+for they had &ldquo;neither liberty, money nor credit to lose by any
+proceedings the bishop might institute against them.&rdquo; The
+earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage is 1613, while the
+earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in 1674, but it
+was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or licence
+that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition,
+and &ldquo;many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the
+neighbourhood fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or
+houses as a chapel,&rdquo; and employed touts to solicit custom for
+them. The scandal and abuses brought about by these clandestine
+marriages became so great that they became the object
+of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke&rsquo;s Act (26 Geo. ii.
+c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity, that banns
+should be published according to the rubric, or a licence obtained,
+and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in
+church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must
+be by the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect
+of putting a stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England
+was concerned, and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna
+Green (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Fleet Registers</i>, consisting of &ldquo;about two or three hundred
+large registers&rdquo; and about a thousand rough or &ldquo;pocket&rdquo; books,
+eventually came into private hands, but were purchased by the
+government in 1821, and are now deposited in the office of the
+registrar-general, Somerset House. Their dates range from 1686
+to 1754. In 1840 they were declared not admissible as evidence
+to prove a marriage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;J.S. Burn, <i>The Fleet Registers; comprising the
+History of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and
+Marriage-house Keepers</i>, &amp;c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, <i>The Fleet:
+its River, Prison and Marriages</i> (London, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD, CHARLES<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (d. 1692), English soldier and
+politician, third son of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle,
+Northamptonshire, and of Anne, daughter of Nicholas Luke of
+Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into Gray&rsquo;s Inn on the
+30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great Rebellion,
+like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished
+themselves in the field, he joined Essex&rsquo;s life-guard, was wounded
+at the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and
+fought at Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of
+the court of wards, and in 1646 became member of parliament
+for Marlborough. In the dispute between the army and parliament
+he played a chief part, and was said to have been the
+principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at Holmby,
+but he did not participate in the king&rsquo;s trial. In 1649 he was
+appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as
+lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell&rsquo;s campaign
+in Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next
+year he was elected a member of the council of state, and being
+recalled from Scotland was entrusted with the command of the
+forces in England, and played a principal part in gaining the
+final triumph at Worcester. In 1652 he married <a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Cromwell&rsquo;s
+daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and was made commander-in-chief
+in Ireland, to which title that of lord deputy was added.
+The chief feature of his administration, which lasted from
+September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the
+soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of
+the original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed
+also great severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic
+priests, and favoured the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan
+sects to the disadvantage of the moderate Presbyterians, exciting
+great and general discontent, a petition being finally sent in for
+his recall.</p>
+
+<p>Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell&rsquo;s
+policy. He supported his assumption of the protectorate and
+his dismissal of the parliaments. In December 1654 he became
+a member of the council, and after his return to England in 1655
+was appointed one of the major-generals. He approved of the
+&ldquo;Petition and Advice,&rdquo; only objecting to the conferring of the
+title of king on Cromwell, became a member of the new House
+of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell&rsquo;s foreign policy in
+Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the
+Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell&rsquo;s
+death, naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said
+that Cromwell had in fact so nominated him. He, however,
+gave his support to Richard&rsquo;s assumption of office, but allowed
+subsequently, if he did not instigate, petitions from the army
+demanding its independence, and finally compelled Richard
+by force to dissolve parliament. His project of re-establishing
+Richard in close dependence upon the army met with failure,
+and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of
+May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the
+committee of safety and of the council of state, and one of the
+seven commissioners for the army, while on the 9th of June
+he was nominated commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his
+power was undermined and was attacked by parliament, which
+on the 11th of October declared his commission void. The next
+day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of the parliament
+and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk&rsquo;s approach
+from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order.
+While hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on
+the point of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th
+of December restored the Rump, when he was deprived of his
+command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer
+for his conduct. The Restoration therefore took place without
+him. He was included among the twenty liable to penalties
+other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding
+any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he
+survived till the 4th of October 1692.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a
+third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward
+Hartopp.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1656-1723), English divine, was
+descended of an ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the
+Tower of London on New Year&rsquo;s Day 1656. He received his
+education at Eton and at King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. About
+the time of the Revolution he took orders, and was shortly
+afterwards made rector of St Austin&rsquo;s, London, and lecturer of
+St Dunstan&rsquo;s in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in
+1702, and in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from
+which he was translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at
+Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood
+was regarded as the best preacher of his time. He was accurate
+in learning, and effective in delivery, and his character stood
+deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal administration
+he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a
+zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite
+of his Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance
+brought him into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with
+Swift, but he never entered into personal controversy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal writings are&mdash;-<i>An Essay on Miracles</i> (1701); <i>Chronicum
+preciosum</i> (an account of the English coinage, 1707); and <i>Free
+Sermons</i> (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last
+was condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384
+of <i>The Spectator</i>, circulated more widely than ever. A collected
+edition of his works, with a biographical preface, was published in
+1737.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEETWOOD,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of
+the Wyre, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London, the terminus of a
+joint branch of the London &amp; North-Western and Lancashire
+&amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274; (1901) 12,082. It
+dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir Peter
+Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward
+views, especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine,
+but the neighbouring country is flat and of little interest. The
+two railways jointly are the harbour authority. The dock is
+provided with railways and machinery for facilitating traffic,
+including a large grain elevator. The shipping traffic is chiefly
+in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers serve
+Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other
+ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there
+are salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant
+promenade, with other appointments of a watering-place.
+There are also barracks with a military hospital and a rifle
+range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one of the principal public
+schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall was the seat of Sir
+Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of the school
+on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided
+into classical and modern sides, with a special department for
+preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A
+number of entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships
+tenable at the universities are offered annually. The number
+of boys is about 350.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1855-1886), German traveller
+in West Africa, was born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna,
+Russia. After receiving a commercial education he obtained in
+1875 a position in Lagos, West Africa. In 1879 he ascended
+the Benue river some 125 m. above the farthest point hitherto
+reached. His careful survey of the channel secured him a
+commission from the German African Society to explore the
+whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba,
+and then visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct
+from the sultan for his intended expedition to Adamawa. This
+expedition was undertaken in 1882, and on the 18th of August
+in that year Flegel discovered the source of the Benue at
+Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the
+Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed.
+After a short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in
+April 1885 with a commission from the German African Company
+and the Colonial Society to open up the Niger-Benue district
+to German trade. This expedition had the support of Prince
+Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for
+Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of
+influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger
+Company). Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue
+to Yola, but was unable to accomplish his mission. He returned
+to the coast and died at Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the
+11th of September 1886. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goldie, Sir George</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Flegel wrote <i>Lose Blatter aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaafreunde</i>
+(Hamburg, 1885), and <i>Vom Niger-Benue. Briefe aus Afrika</i> (edited
+by K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1801-1888), German
+Orientalist, was born at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of
+February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he studied theology and
+oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently continuing his
+studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of oriental
+languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till his
+death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda&rsquo;s
+<i>Historia ante-Islamica</i> (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi&rsquo;s <i>Commentary
+on the Koran</i> (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue
+of the oriental MSS, in the royal library at Dresden (1831);
+published an edition and German translation of Ali&rsquo;s <i>Hundred
+Sayings</i> (1837); the continuation of Babicht&rsquo;s edition of <i>The
+Thousand and One Nights</i> (vols. ix.-xii., 1842-1843); and an
+edition of Mahommed Ibrihim&rsquo;s <i>Persian Grammar</i> (1847). He
+also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS.
+at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the 10th of
+February 1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members
+of the French Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the
+German <i>Ordre pour le mérite</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, PAUL<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1609-1640), German poet, was born at
+Hartenstein in the Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October
+1609, the son of the village pastor. At the age of fourteen he was
+sent to school at Leipzig and subsequently studied medicine
+at the university. Driven away by the troubles of the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, he was fortunate enough to become attached to an
+embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp
+to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller
+Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned
+to Reval, and here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined
+to settle as a physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a
+doctor&rsquo;s diploma, but died suddenly at Hamburg on his way
+home on the 2nd of April 1640.</p>
+
+<p>Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming
+is distinguished from most of his contemporaries by the ring of
+genuine feeling and religious fervour that pervades his lyric
+poems, even his occasional pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite
+form of verse, he was particularly happy. Among his religious
+poems the hymn beginning &ldquo;In allen meinen Taten lass ich den
+Höchsten raten&rdquo; is well known and widely sung.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fleming&rsquo;s <i>Teutsche Poëmata</i> appeared posthumously in 1642;
+they are edited by J.M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des litterarischen
+Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains
+Fleming&rsquo;s Latin poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann
+in the second volume of the series entitled <i>Deutsche Dichter des siebzehnten
+Jahrhunderts</i> (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Österley (Stuttgart,
+1885). A life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ense&rsquo;s
+<i>Biographische Denkmale</i>, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1826). See also J. Straumer,
+<i>Paul Flemings Leben und Orientreise</i> (1892); L.G. Wysocky, <i>De
+Pauli Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio</i> (Paris, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, RICHARD<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and
+founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in
+Yorkshire. He was descended from a good family, and was
+educated at University College, Oxford. Having taken his
+degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next
+year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he
+became an ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some
+of high rank, to the side of the reformer, and incurring the
+censure of Archbishop Arundel. He afterwards became one of
+Wycliffe&rsquo;s most determined opponents. Before 1415 he was
+instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in 1420
+he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended
+the councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope,
+Martin V., made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native
+country, and in eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this
+occasion that he was named chamberlain to the pope. To
+Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution of the decree of
+the council for the exhumation and burning of Wycliffe&rsquo;s
+remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it on
+Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the
+appointment. In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence
+empowering him to found a college at Oxford for the special
+purpose of training up disputants against Wycliffe&rsquo;s heresy.
+He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January 1431. Lincoln
+College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its endowments
+were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1827-&emsp;&emsp;), Canadian engineer
+and publicist, was born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of
+January 1827, but emigrated to Canada in 1845. Great powers
+of work and thoroughness in detail brought him to the front,
+and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of the Dominion
+government. Under his control was constructed the Intercolonial
+railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his
+retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian
+and Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning
+throughout the world, and the construction of a state-owned
+system of telegraphs throughout the British empire. After
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+years of labour he saw the first link forged in the chain, in the
+opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable between Canada and
+Australia. Though not a party man he strongly advocated
+Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the
+Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States.
+He took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became
+chancellor of Queen&rsquo;s University, Kingston.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He published <i>The Intercolonial: a History</i> (Montreal and London,
+1876); <i>England and Canada</i> (London, 1884); and numerous <i>brochures</i>
+and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEMING, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1544-1613), English judge, was
+born at Newport, Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called
+to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1574. He represented Winchester
+in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when he was returned for
+Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of London,
+and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon.
+This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603.
+In 1604 he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided
+over many important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted
+to the chief justiceship of the king&rsquo;s bench, and was one of the
+judges at the trial of the <i>post-nati</i> in 1608, siding with the majority
+of the judges in declaring that persons born in Scotland after
+the accession of James I. were entitled to the privileges of
+natural-born subjects in England. He was praised by his
+contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his &ldquo;great judgments,
+integrity and discretion.&rdquo; He died on the 7th of August
+1613 at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEMISH LITERATURE.<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> The older Flemish writers are
+dealt with in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Literature</a></span>; after the
+separation of Belgium, however, from the Netherlands in 1830
+there was a great revival of Flemish literature. The immediate
+result of the revolution was a reaction against everything
+associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard the French
+language as the speech of liberty and independence. The
+provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the
+Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois.
+For some years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1793-1846)
+had been advocating the claims of the Flemish language. He
+had done his best to allay the irritation between Holland and
+Belgium and to prevent a separation. As archivist of Antwerp
+he made use of his opportunities by writing a history of Flemish
+letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies had made
+it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he settled
+at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish.
+He edited old Flemish classics, <i>Reinaert de Vos</i> (1836), the
+rhyming Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &amp;c.,
+and gathered round him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the
+chevalier Philipp Blommaert (1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk
+Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874), F.A. Snellaert
+(1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others.
+Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809,
+founded in 1834 in his native town the <i>Nederduitsche letteroefeningen</i>,
+a review for the new writers, and it was speedily followed
+by other Flemish organs, and by literary societies for the promotion
+of Flemish. In 1851 a central organization for the Flemish
+propaganda was provided by a society, named after the father
+of the movement, the &ldquo;Willemsfonds.&rdquo; The Catholic Flemings
+founded in 1874 a rival &ldquo;Davidsfonds,&rdquo; called after the energetic
+J.B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of Louvain,
+and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium (<i>Vaderlandsche
+historie</i>, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda
+the Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in
+law, and in administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools
+in 1883. Finally in 1886 a Flemish Academy was established
+by royal authority at Ghent, where a course in Flemish literature
+had been established as early as 1854.</p>
+
+<p>The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified
+by the appearance (1837) of <i>In&rsquo;t Wonderjaar</i> 1566 (In the Wonderful
+year) of Hendrik Conscience (<i>q.v.</i>), who roused national
+enthusiasm by describing the heroic struggles of the Flemings
+against the Spaniards. Conscience was eventually to make his
+greatest successes in the description of contemporary Flemish
+life, but his historical romances and his popular history of
+Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which
+had been started by professors and scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best
+known of whose poems are those on the &ldquo;three sister cities&rdquo;
+of Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp (<i>Die drie zustersteden, vaderlandsche
+trilogie</i>, Ghent, 1846), in which he makes an impassioned
+protest against the adoption of French ideas, manners
+and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The book
+speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who
+was a magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish.
+Jan Theodoor van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a
+volunteer in the campaign of 1830, settled down as a clerk in
+Antwerp, and became one of the hottest champions of the
+Flemish movement. He wrote a series of political and satirical
+songs, admirably suited to his public. The romantic and
+sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (<i>q.v.</i>), was typically Flemish
+in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse,
+whose most ambitious work was the epic <i>Artavelde</i> (1859), is
+perhaps best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for
+children. Peter Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native
+of Antwerp, wrote novels, poems, dramas, and a work on the
+Flemish revival (<i>De Vlaemsche Beweging</i>, 1847).</p>
+
+<p>Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht
+Damien Sleeckx (1818-1901). An inspector of schools by
+profession, he was an indefatigable journalist and literary critic.
+He was one of the founders in 1844 of the <i>Vlaemsch België</i>, the
+first daily paper in the Flemish interest. His works include a
+long list of plays, among them <i>Jan Steen</i> (1852), a comedy;
+<i>Grétry</i>, which gained a national prize in 1861; <i>De Visschers
+van Blankenberg</i> (1863); and the patriotic drama of <i>Zannekin</i>
+(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to
+the idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete
+in his methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of
+carefully observed detail. He was particularly successful in
+describing the life of the shipping quarter of his native town.
+Among his novels are: <i>In&rsquo;t Schipperskwartier</i> (1856), <i>Dirk Meyer</i>
+(1860), <i>Tybaerts en K<span class="sp">ie</span></i> (1867), <i>Kunst en Liefde</i> (&ldquo;Art and Love,&rdquo;
+1870), and <i>Vesalius in Spanje</i> (1895). His complete works were
+collected in 17 vols. (1877-1884).</p>
+
+<p>Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with
+North Brabant; his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by
+writing historical novels in the manner of Conscience, but his
+later novels are satires on contemporary society. A more original
+talent was displayed by Anton Bergmann (1835-1874), who,
+under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Tony,&rdquo; wrote <i>Ernest Staas, Advocat</i>,
+which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in 1874. In
+the same year appeared the <i>Novellen</i> of the sisters Rosalie (1834-1875)
+and Virginie Loveling (b. 1836). These simple and
+touching stories were followed by a second collection in 1876.
+The sisters had published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie
+Loveling&rsquo;s gifts of fine and exact observation soon placed her in
+the front rank of Flemish novelists. Her political sketches,
+<i>In onze Vlaamsche gewesten</i> (1877), were published under the
+name of &ldquo;W.G.E. Walter.&rdquo; <i>Sophie</i> (1885), <i>Een dure Eed</i>
+(1892), and <i>Het Land der Verbeelding</i> (1896) are among the more
+famous of her later works. Reimond Stÿns (b. 1850) and Isidoor
+Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular
+novel, <i>Arm Vlaanderen</i> (1884), and some others, and have since
+written separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling,
+is a disciple of Zola. <i>Het Recht van den Sterkste</i> (&ldquo;The Right of
+the Strongest,&rdquo; 1893) is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders;
+<i>Schoppenboer</i> (&ldquo;The Knave of Spades,&rdquo; 1898) deals with
+brutalized peasant life; and <i>Sursum corda</i> (1895) describes the
+narrowness and religiosity of village life.</p>
+
+<p>In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed
+translation of <i>Reinaert</i> (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888),
+&amp;c., produced a social epic in three parts, <i>Drie menschen van in de wieg tot in het graf</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+(&ldquo;Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave,&rdquo;
+1861), in which he propounded radical and humanitarian views.
+The songs of Julius Vuylsteke (1836-1903) are full of liberal and
+patriotic ardour; but his later life was devoted to politics rather
+than literature. He had been the leading spirit of a students&rsquo;
+association at Ghent for the propagation of &ldquo;<i>flamingant</i>&rdquo; views,
+and the &ldquo;Willemsfonds&rdquo; owed much of its success to his
+energetic co-operation. His <i>Uit het studenten leven</i> appeared in
+1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of
+Mme van Ackere (1803-1884), <i>née</i> Maria Doolaeghe, were
+modelled on Dutch originals. Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890),
+née Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her tales than her
+poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales are
+sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets
+were Emmanuel Hiel (<i>q.v.</i>), author of comedies, opera libretti
+and some admirable songs; the abbé Guido Gezelle (1830-1899),
+who wrote religious and patriotic poems in the dialect of West
+Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck (b. 1838), who attempted a
+great epic subject in <i>Menschdon Verlost</i> (1872); J.M. Dautzenberg
+(1808-1869), author of a volume of charming <i>Volksliederen</i>.
+The best of Dautzenberg&rsquo;s work is contained in the posthumous
+volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort
+(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs
+from Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The <i>Makamen
+en Ghazelen</i> (1866), adapted from Rückert&rsquo;s version of Hariri,
+and other volumes by &ldquo;Jan Ferguut&rdquo; (J.A. van Droogenbroeck,
+b. 1835) show a growing preoccupation with form, and
+with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b. 1840), they prepare
+the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of the
+younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is
+the leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and
+became professor in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp.
+He introduced something of the ideas and methods of contemporary
+French writers into Flemish verse; and explained
+his theories in 1898 in an <i>Inleiding tot de Poëzie</i>. Among Pol
+de Mont&rsquo;s numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards
+are <i>Claribella</i> (1893), and <i>Iris</i> (1894), which contains amongst
+other things a curious &ldquo;<i>Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef</i>,&rdquo;
+a version of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.</p>
+
+<p>Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (<i>Gent
+van den vroegsten Tijd tot heden</i>, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter
+(b. 1834), and of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839),
+curator of the Plantin museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe
+(b. 1846).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ida van Düringsfeld, <i>Von der Schelde bis zur Maas</i>. <i>Das
+geistige Leben der Vlamingen</i> (Leipzig, 3 vols., 1861); J. Stecher,
+<i>Histoire de la littérature néerlandaise en Belgique</i> (1886); <i>Geschiedenis
+der Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden</i> (1899), by
+Theodoor Coopman and L. Scharpé; A. de Koninck, <i>Bibliographie
+nationale</i> (3 vols., 1886-1897); and <i>Histoire politique et littéraire du
+mouvement flamand</i> (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The <i>Vlaamsche
+Bibliographie</i>, issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans
+de Potter, contains a list of publications between 1830 and 1890;
+and there is a good deal of information in the excellent <i>Biographisch
+woordenboeck der Noord- en Zuid- Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (1878)
+of Dr W.J.A. Huberts and others.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Max Rooses, <i>Keus van Dicht- en Prozawerken van J.F.
+Willems</i>, and his <i>Brieven</i> in the publications of the Willemsfonds
+(Ghent, 1872-1874).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLENSBURG<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (Danish, <i>Flensborg</i>), a seaport of Germany, in
+the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the
+Flensburg Fjord, 20 m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction
+of the main line Altona-Vamdrup (Denmark), with branches
+to Kiel and Glücksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The principal
+public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored
+1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval
+church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the
+exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineering,
+navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery
+contains the remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle
+of Idstedt (25th of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument,
+erected by the Danes to commemorate their victory, was removed
+to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a busy centre of trade and
+industry, and is the most important town in what was formerly
+the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent wharves, does a
+large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards, breweries,
+distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works, copper-works,
+soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade with the
+West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous development
+of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in the
+Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It
+attained municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged
+by the Swedes after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under
+Danish rule, of Schleswig.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Holdt, <i>Flensburg fruher und jetzt</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLERS,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a manufacturing town of north-western France, in
+the arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on
+the Vère, 41 m. S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906)
+11,188. A modern church in the Romanesque style and a
+restored château of the 15th century are its principal buildings.
+There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
+a communal college and a branch of the Bank of France. Flers
+is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region which
+includes the towns of Condé-sur-Noireau and La Ferté-Macé.
+Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton
+and linen fabrics, of which the annual value is about £1,500,000,
+drugs and chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour
+mills and dyeworks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETA,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a treatise, with the sub-title <i>seu Commentarius juris
+Anglicani</i>, on the common law of England. It appears, from
+internal evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward
+I., about the year 1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation
+of Bracton. The author is supposed to have written it during
+his confinement in the Fleet prison, hence the name. It has
+been conjectured that he was one of those judges who were imprisoned
+for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first printed
+by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+ethnologist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She
+studied the remains of Indian civilization in the Ohio and
+Mississippi valleys, became a member of the Archaeological
+Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with the
+Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American
+Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she
+was appointed special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes,
+in 1884 prepared and sent to the New Orleans Exposition an
+exhibit showing the progress of civilization among the Indians of
+North America in the quarter-century previous, in 1886 visited
+the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on a mission
+from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United
+States special agent in the distribution of lands among the
+Winnebagoes and Nez Percés. She was made assistant in
+ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and received the
+Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president of the Anthropological
+Society of Washington and of the American Folk-Lore Society,
+and vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science; and, working through the Woman&rsquo;s National
+Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans
+to Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In
+1888 she published <i>Indian Education and Civilization</i>, a special
+report of the Bureau of Education. In 1898 at the Congress
+of Musicians held at Omaha during the Trans-Mississippi Exposition
+she read &ldquo;several essays upon the songs of the North
+American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of
+Omaha Indians ... sang their native melodies.&rdquo; Out of this
+grew her <i>Indian Story and Song from North America</i> (1900),
+illustrating &ldquo;a stage of development antecedent to that in which
+culture music appeared.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, ANDREW,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish
+politician, was the son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-1664),
+and was born at Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East
+Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of
+Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of Saltoun, he
+completed his education by spending some years in travel and
+study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament
+which met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher
+was a fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced
+by John Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+Charles II. in Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York,
+afterwards King James II.; but he left Scotland about 1682,
+subsequently spending some time in Holland as an associate
+of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents.</p>
+
+<p>Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the
+rising of 1685, he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England,
+but left the army after killing one of the duke&rsquo;s trusted advisers.
+This incident is thus told by Sir John Dalrymple:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of
+danger to be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the
+horse of a country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood
+ready equipt for its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion
+to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious language, shook his cane and
+attempted to strike. Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality,
+yet having been accustomed to foreign services both by sea and
+land in which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier
+and a gentleman and of the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol
+and shot him dead on the spot. The action was unpopular in
+countries where such refinements were not understood. A clamour
+was raised against it among the people of the country, in a body
+they waited upon the duke with their complaints; and he was forced
+to desire the only soldier and almost the only man of parts in his
+army, to abandon him.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as
+quitting the rebel army because he disapproved of the action of
+Monmouth in proclaiming himself king.</p>
+
+<p>His history during the next few years is rather obscure.
+He probably travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks
+in Hungary; and having in his absence lost his estates and been
+sentenced to death, he joined William of Orange at the Hague,
+and returned to Scotland in 1689 in consequence of the success
+of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were restored to him;
+and he soon became a leading member of the &ldquo;club,&rdquo; an organization
+which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland,
+and in general an active opponent of the English government.
+In 1703, at a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher
+again became a member of the Scottish parliament. The failure
+of the Darien expedition had aroused a strong feeling of resentment
+against England, and Fletcher and the national party
+seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree of independence
+for their country.</p>
+
+<p>His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the
+union of the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third
+edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The thought of England&rsquo;s domineering over Scotland was what
+his generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression
+which Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his
+learned and elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted
+courage and pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union,
+he performed essential service. He got the act of security passed,
+which declared that the two crowns should not pass to the same head
+till Scotland was secured in her liberties civil and religious. Therefore
+Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war
+after the queen&rsquo;s demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some
+of the articles, and indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as
+the act of security was his own work, he had all the merit of that
+important transaction.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired
+from public life. Employing his abilities in another direction,
+he did a real, if homely, service to his country by introducing
+from Holland machinery for sifting grain. He died unmarried
+in London in September 1716.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher&rsquo;s integrity, but
+he was also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as
+&ldquo;a Scotch gentleman of great parts and many virtues, but a
+most violent republican and extremely passionate.&rdquo; In appearance
+he was &ldquo;a low, thin man, of a brown complexion; full of
+fire; with a stern, sour look.&rdquo; Fletcher was a fine scholar and
+a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford
+bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his
+time. His chief works are: <i>A Discourse of Government relating
+to Militias</i> (1698); <i>Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of
+Scotland</i> (1698); and <i>An Account of a Conversation concerning
+a right regulation of Governments for the common good of Mankind</i>
+(1704). In Two Discourses he suggests that the numerous
+vagrants who infested Scotland should be brought into compulsory
+and hereditary servitude; and in <i>An Account of a
+Conversation</i> occurs his well-known remark, &ldquo;I knew a very
+wise man so much of Sir Christopher&rsquo;s (Sir C. Musgrave) sentiment,
+that he believed if a man were permitted to make all the
+ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher</i> were published in London
+in 1737. See D.S. Erskine, 11th earl of Buchan, <i>Essay on the Lives
+of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson</i> (1792); J.H. Burton,
+<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang,
+<i>History of Scotland</i>, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, GILES<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1548-1611), English author, son of
+Richard Fletcher, vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the
+poets Phineas and Giles Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549.
+He was educated at Eton and at King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+taking his B.A. degree in 1569. He was a fellow of his college, and
+was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had married Joan Sheafe
+of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr Bridgwater,
+chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for
+Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland,
+Germany and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the
+court of the czar Theodore with instructions to conclude as
+alliance between England and Russia, to restore English trade,
+and to obtain better conditions for the English Russia Company.
+The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey, had already obtained
+large concessions through the favour of the protector, Boris
+Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he
+found that Godunov&rsquo;s interest was alienated, and that the Russian
+government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The
+envoy was badly lodged, and treated with obvious contempt,
+and was not allowed to forward letters to England, but the
+English victory over the Armada and his own indomitable
+patience secured among other advantages for English traders
+exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from
+the infliction of torture. Fletcher&rsquo;s treatment at Moscow was
+later made the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth.
+He returned to England in 1589 in company with Jerome
+Horsey, and in 1591 he published <i>Of the Russe Commonwealth,
+Or Maner of Government by the Russe Emperour</i> (<i>commonly called
+The Emperour of Moskovia</i>) <i>with the manners and fashions of the
+people of that Countrey</i>. In this comprehensive account of
+Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare,
+church and manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to
+arrange his material during the return journey, doubtless
+received some assistance from the longer experience of his
+travelling companion, who also wrote a narrative of his travels,
+published in <i>Purchas his Pilgrimes</i> (1626). The Russia Company
+feared that the freedom of Fletcher&rsquo;s criticisms would give
+offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage
+their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was
+not reprinted in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from
+a copy of the original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an
+introduction by Mr Edward A. Bond.</p>
+
+<p>Fletcher was appointed &ldquo;Remembrancer&rdquo; to the city of
+London, and an extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and
+became treasurer of St Paul&rsquo;s in 1597. He contemplated a
+history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord
+Burghley he suggested that it might be well to begin with an
+account from the Protestant side of the marriage of Henry VIII.
+and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties prevented the execution
+of this plan. He had become security to the exchequer for
+the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of London,
+who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprisonment
+by the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually
+in prison in 1601, when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous
+letter to Burghley from which it may be gathered that his prime
+offence had been an allusion to Essex&rsquo;s disgrace as being the work
+of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed in 1610 to
+negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the &ldquo;Eastland
+Merchants,&rdquo; and he died next year, and was buried on the 11th
+of March in the parish of St Catherine Colman, London.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Russe Commonwealth</i> was issued in an abridged form in
+<i>Hakluyt&rsquo;s Principal Navigations, Voyages</i>, &amp;c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of
+1598), a somewhat completer version in <i>Purchas his Pilgrimes</i>
+(pt. iii. ed. 1625), also as <i>History of Russia</i> in 1643 and 1657.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+Fletcher also wrote <i>De literis antiquae Britanniae</i> (ed. by Phineas
+Fletcher, 1633), a treatise on &ldquo;The Tartars,&rdquo; printed in <i>Israel Redux</i>
+(ed. by S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost
+tribes of Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and
+<i>Licia, or Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular
+vertues of his Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets ... whereunto
+is added the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third</i> (1593).
+This series of love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was published
+anonymously. Most critics, with the notable exception of
+Alexander Dyce (Beaumont and Fletcher, <i>Works</i>, i. p. xvi., 1843)
+have accepted it as the work of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence
+afforded in the first of the <i>Piscatory Eclogues</i> of his son Phineas, who
+represents his father (Thelgon), as having &ldquo;raised his rime to sing
+of Richard&rsquo;s climbing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>See E.A. Bond&rsquo;s Introduction to the Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s edition;
+also Dr A.B. Grosart&rsquo;s prefatory matter to <i>Licia</i> (<i>Fuller Worthies
+Library</i>, Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of
+Phineas Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher&rsquo;s letters relative to
+the college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved
+in the Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in
+Grosart&rsquo;s edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, GILES<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1584-1623), English poet, younger
+son of the preceding, was born about 1584. Fuller in his <i>Worthies
+of England</i> says that he was a native of London, and was educated
+at Westminster school. From there he went to Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1606, and became
+a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was reader in Greek
+grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he contributed
+a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to <i>Sorrow&rsquo;s
+Joy</i>. His great poem of <i>Christ&rsquo;s Victory</i> appeared in 1610, and
+in 1612 he edited the <i>Remains</i> of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall.
+It is not known in what year he was ordained, but his sermons at
+St Mary&rsquo;s were famous. Fuller tells us that the prayer before
+the sermon was a continuous allegory. He left Cambridge about
+1618, and soon after received, it is supposed from Francis Bacon,
+the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk coast, where &ldquo;his clownish
+and low-parted parishioners ... valued not their pastor
+according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy
+and hastened his dissolution.&rdquo; (Fuller, <i>Worthies of England</i>,
+ed. 1811, vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, <i>The Reward of the Faithful</i>,
+appeared in the year of his death (1623).</p>
+
+<p>The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is
+<i>Christ&rsquo;s Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and
+after Death</i> (1610). An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page
+illustrative engravings by George Tate. It is in four cantos
+and is epic in design. The first canto, &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s Victory in
+Heaven,&rdquo; represents a dispute in heaven between Justice and
+Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ&rsquo;s life on earth; the second,
+&ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s Victory on Earth,&rdquo; deals with an allegorical account
+of the Temptation; the third, &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s Triumph over Death,&rdquo;
+treats of the Passion; and the fourth, &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s Triumph after
+Death,&rdquo; treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes
+with an affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher
+(<i>q.v.</i>) as &ldquo;Thyrsilis.&rdquo; The metre is an eight-line stanza owing
+something to Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and
+the stanza concludes with a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit
+which nearly every verse embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his
+brother Phineas, to whom he was deeply attached, was a close
+follower of Spenser. In his very best passages Giles Fletcher
+attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear of Milton, who
+did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the <i>Christ&rsquo;s
+Victory and Triumph</i> in his <i>Paradise Regained</i>. Fletcher lived
+in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and
+Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion
+with the sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away
+by his theme and forgets to be ingenious, he attains great
+solemnity and harmony of style. His descriptions of the Lady
+of Vain Delight, in the second canto, and of Justice and of
+Mercy in the first, are worked out with much beauty of detail
+into separate pictures, in the manner of the <i>Faerie Queene</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Giles Fletcher&rsquo;s poem was edited (1868) for the <i>Fuller Worthies
+Library</i>, and (1876) for the <i>Early English Poets</i> by Dr A.B. Grosart.
+It is also reprinted for <i>The Ancient and Modern Library of Theological
+Literature</i> (1888), and in R. Cattermole&rsquo;s and H. Stebbing&rsquo;s
+<i>Sacred Classics</i> (1834, &amp;c.) vol. 20. In the library of King&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, is a MS. <i>Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica Lamentationum
+Jeremiae</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1729-1785), English divine,
+was born at Nyon in Switzerland on the 12th of September
+1729, his original name being <span class="sc">de la Fléchière</span>. He was
+educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to a clerical
+one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his
+sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders,
+where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went
+to England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutor
+in a Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of
+the new Methodist preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being
+ordained by the bishop of Bangor. He often preached with
+John Wesley and for him, and became known as a fervent
+supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of Dunham,
+he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five
+years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and
+zeal. Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood
+Wesley and his work, yet he never wrote or said anything
+inconsistent with his own Anglican position. In theology he
+upheld the Arminian against the Calvinist position, but always
+with courtesy and fairness; his resignation on doctrinal grounds
+of the superintendency (1768-1771) of the countess of Huntingdon&rsquo;s
+college at Trevecca left no unpleasantness. The outstanding
+feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and saintliness
+of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his godliness
+is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the
+words &ldquo;Mark the perfect man.&rdquo; Southey said that &ldquo;no age
+ever provided a man of more fervent piety or more perfect
+charity, and no church ever possessed a more apostolic minister.&rdquo;
+His fame was not confined to his own country, for it is said
+that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a character as perfect
+as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of Madeley. He
+died on the 14th of August 1785.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836.
+The chief of them, written against Calvinism, are <i>Five Checks to
+Antinomianism</i>, <i>Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth</i>,
+and the <i>Portrait of St Paul</i>. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L.
+Tyerman (1882); F.W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also
+C.J. Ryle, <i>Christian Leaders of the 18th Century</i>, pp. 384-423 (1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLETCHER, PHINEAS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1582-1650), English poet, elder son
+of Dr Giles Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed
+above, was born at Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the
+8th of April 1582. He was admitted a scholar of Eton, and in
+1600 entered King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A.
+in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of the contributors to
+<i>Sorrow&rsquo;s Joy</i> (1603). His pastoral drama, <i>Sicelides or Piscatory</i>
+(pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance before James I.,
+but only produced after the king&rsquo;s departure at King&rsquo;s College.
+He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow
+of his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently
+because certain emoluments were refused him. He became
+chaplain to Sir Henry Willoughby, who presented him in 1621
+to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk, where he married and spent
+the rest of his life. In 1627 he published <i>Locustae, vel Pietas
+Jesuitica</i>. <i>The Locusts or Apollyonists</i>, two parallel poems in
+Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr Grosart
+saw in this work one of the sources of Milton&rsquo;s conception of
+Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, <i>Brittains Ida</i>,
+with Edmund Spenser&rsquo;s name on the title-page. It is certainly
+not by Spenser, and is printed by Dr Grosart with the works
+of Phineas Fletcher. <i>Sicelides</i>, a play acted at King&rsquo;s College
+in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632 appeared two theological
+prose treatises, <i>The Way to Blessedness</i> and <i>Joy in Tribulation</i>,
+and in 1633 his <i>magnum opus, The Purple Island</i>. The book was
+dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his
+<i>Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies</i>. He died in
+1650, his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December
+of that year. <i>The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man</i>, is a poem
+in twelve cantos describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological
+structure of the human body and the mind of man. The intellectual
+qualities are personified, while the veins are rivers,
+the bones the mountains of the island, the whole analogy being
+worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of Spenser is
+preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his moral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the <i>Faerie Queene</i>.
+What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses
+in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem
+lies in its descriptions of rural scenery. The <i>Piscatory Eclogues</i>
+are pastorals the characters of which are represented as fisher
+boys on the banks of the Cam, and are interesting for the light
+they cast on the biography of the poet himself (Thyrsil) and
+his father (Thelgon). The poetry of Phineas Fletcher has not
+the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother Giles. The
+mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more far-fetched,
+but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor
+music.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of his works (4 vols.) was privately printed
+by Dr A.B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur
+de</span> (1491-1537), marshal of France and historian, was the son
+of Robert II. de la Marck; duke of Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan
+and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the celebrated William de
+la Marck, &ldquo;The Wild Boar of the Ardennes.&rdquo; A fondness for
+military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years, and at
+the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed
+in charge of the count of Angoulême, afterwards King Francis I.
+In his twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d&rsquo;Amboise,
+but after three months he quitted his home to join the French
+army in the Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself
+into Verona, then besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was
+protracted, and being impatient for more active service, he
+rejoined the army. He then took part in the relief of Mirandola,
+besieged by the troops of Pope Julius II., and in other actions
+of the campaign. In 1512 the French being driven from Italy,
+Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of 10,000 men,
+in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy
+in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara.
+But the French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped
+with his life, having received more than forty wounds. He was
+rescued by his father and sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons.
+Returning to Italy with Francis I. in 1515, he distinguished
+himself in various affairs, and especially at Marignano, where
+he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so powerfully
+to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with
+his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called
+home by the news of his father&rsquo;s illness. In 1519 he was sent
+into Germany on the difficult errand of inducing the electors
+to give their votes in favour of Francis I.; but in this he failed.
+The war in Italy being rekindled, Fleuranges accompanied the
+king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was taken prisoner
+with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the defection
+of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into confinement
+in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this
+imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed
+his enforced leisure in writing his <i>Histoire des choses mémorables
+advenues du règne de Louis XII et de François I, depuis 1499
+jusqu&rsquo;en l&rsquo;an 1521</i>. In this work he designates himself <i>Jeune
+Adventureux</i>. Within a small compass he gives many curious
+and interesting details of the time, writing only of what he had
+seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was first
+published in 1735, by Abbé Lambert, who added historical and
+critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections.
+The last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active
+service was at the defence of Péronne, besieged by the count of
+Nassau in 1536. In the following year he heard of his father&rsquo;s
+death, and set out from Amboise for his estate of La Marck;
+but he was seized with illness at Longjumeau, and died there in
+December 1537.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his own book in the <i>Nouvelle Collection des mémoires pour
+servir à l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F.
+Poujoulat, series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEUR-DE-LIS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (Fr. &ldquo;lily flower&rdquo;), an heraldic device, very
+widespread in the armorial bearings of all countries, but more
+particularly associated with the royal house of France. The
+conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littré says, represents very imperfectly
+three flowers of the white lily (<i>Lilium</i>) joined together,
+the central one erect, and each of the other two curving outwards.
+The fleur-de-lis is a common device in ancient decoration, notably
+in India and in Egypt, where it was the symbol of life and resurrection,
+the attribute of the god Horus. It is common also in
+Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the conventional
+fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or white
+iris&mdash;the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare&mdash;or an arrow-head, a
+spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the
+evil eye, &amp;c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the
+fleur-de-lis is a frequent sculptured ornament. As early as
+1120 three fleurs-de-lis were sculptured on the capitals of the
+Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The fleur-de-lis was first
+definitely connected with the French monarchy in an <i>ordonnance</i>
+of Louis le Jeune (<i>c.</i> 1147), and was first figured on a seal of
+Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry
+dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became
+a very common charge in France, England and Germany, where
+every gentleman of coat-armour desired to adorn his shield
+with a loan from the shield of France, which was at first <i>d&rsquo;azur,
+semé de fleurs de lis d&rsquo;or</i>. In February 1376 Charles V. of France
+reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis to three&mdash;in honour of the
+Trinity&mdash;and the kings of France thereafter bore <i>d&rsquo;azur, à trois
+fleurs de lis d&rsquo;or</i>. Tradition soon attributed the origin of the
+fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish monarchy,
+and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an
+angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation
+for this legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William
+Newton (<i>Display of Heraldry</i>, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was
+the figure of a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre
+at the proclamation of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the
+true origin of the fleur-de-lis as a conventional decoration, it
+is demonstrably far older than the Frankish monarchy, and
+history does not record the reason of its adoption by the royal
+house of France, from which it passed into common use as an
+heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the
+Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman
+states by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged
+to defend the patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the
+church. Another order of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII.
+in 1816, in memory of the silver fleurs-de-lis which the comte
+d&rsquo;Artois had given to the troops in 1814 as decorations; it was
+abolished by the revolution of 1830.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:440px; height:147px" src="images/img499.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Middle Ages.</td>
+ <td class="caption">17th century.</td>
+ <td class="caption">18th and 19th centuries.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEURUS,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
+5 m. N.E. of Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles.
+The first of these was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between
+the forces of Count Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick and
+the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter being defeated. The
+second is described below, and the third and fourth, incidents
+of Jourdan&rsquo;s campaign of 1794, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary
+Wars</a></span>. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms
+the battlefield of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo
+Campaign</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:517px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img500.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The second battle was fought on the 1st of July 1690 between
+45,000 French under François-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville,
+duke of Luxemburg, and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and
+Imperialists under George Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The
+latter had formed up his army between Heppignies and St
+Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a double
+barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a
+village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army
+exactly. But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard
+from Velaine, decided, after a cursory survey of the ground, to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+attack the front and both flanks of the Allies&rsquo; position at once&mdash;a
+decision which few, if any, generals then living would have dared
+to make, and which of itself places Luxemburg in the same rank
+as a tactician as his old friend and commander Condé. The
+left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of woods, houses
+and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect with the
+frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop
+Waldeck&rsquo;s right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of
+cavalry and some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep
+round the enemy&rsquo;s left by way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes,
+concealed by the high-standing corn. At 8 o&rsquo;clock the frontal
+attack began by a vigorous artillery engagement, in which
+the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns, held their
+own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been
+absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy
+already formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second
+line back to oppose them, but while he was doing so the French
+leader filled up the gap between himself and the frontal assailants
+by posting infantry around Wagnelée, and also guns on the
+neighbouring hill whence their fire enfiladed both halves of the
+enemy&rsquo;s army up to the limit of their ranging power. At 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>
+Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole line. He himself
+scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the Dutch
+infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded.
+The left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and
+in their first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean
+Christophe, comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers
+in the service. But Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary
+success, sent a portion of his right wing towards St Amand,
+where it merely shared the fate of his left, and the day was decided.
+Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14 battalions of infantry
+(English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck could do no
+more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the Spaniards
+at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the
+infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them&mdash;the French
+cavalry, eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest.
+Then slowly and in perfect order, they retired into the broken
+ground above Mellet, where they were in safety. The French
+slept on the battlefield, and then returned to camp with their
+trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost some 2500 killed,
+amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of artillery,
+the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg
+was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-Dame.
+But the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV.
+ordered Luxemburg to keep in line with other French armies
+which were carrying on more or less desultory wars of man&oelig;uvre
+on the Meuse and Moselle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEURY<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Abraham Joseph Bénard</span>] (1750-1822), French
+actor, was born at Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and
+began his stage apprenticeship at Nancy, where his father was
+at the head of a company of actors attached to the court of King
+Stanislaus. After four years in the provinces, he came to Paris
+in 1778, and almost immediately was made <i>sociétaire</i> at the
+Comédie Française, although the public was slow to recognize
+him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like
+the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of
+the presentation of Laya&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Ami des lois</i>, and, when liberated,
+appeared at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the
+rehabilitated Comédie Française. After forty years of service
+he retired in 1818, and died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was
+notoriously illiterate, and it is probable that the interesting
+<i>Mémoire de Fleury</i> owes more to its author, Lafitte, than to the
+subject whose &ldquo;notes and papers&rdquo; it is said to contain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1653-1743), French
+cardinal and statesman, was born at Lodève (Hérault) on the
+22nd of June 1653, the son of a collector of taxes. Educated
+by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the priesthood, and became
+in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi, almoner to
+Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of
+Fréjus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined
+him to seek a position at court. He became tutor to the king&rsquo;s
+great-grandson and heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of
+ambition, he acquired over the child&rsquo;s mind an influence which
+proved to be indestructible. On the death of the regent Orleans
+in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred
+his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis
+Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present
+at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and
+on Bourbon&rsquo;s attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired
+from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the
+11th of July 1726 took affairs into his own hands, and secured
+the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame
+de Prie. He refused the title of first minister, but his elevation
+to the cardinalate in that year secured his precedence over the
+other ministers. He was naturally frugal and prudent, and
+carried these qualities into the administration, with the result
+that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 15,000,000 livres instead
+of the usual deficit. In 1726 he fixed the standard of the currency
+and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment
+thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced
+labour from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though
+at the cost of rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen
+years of his orderly government the country found time to
+recuperate its forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances
+of Louis XIV. and of the regent, and the general
+prosperity <span class="correction" title="amended from rapidy">rapidly</span> increased. Internal peace was only seriously
+disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise
+against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to
+accept the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>, and he met the opposition of the
+parlement of Paris by exiling forty of its members.</p>
+
+<p>In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance
+of peace, which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore
+led to a continuance of the good understanding between France
+and England. It was only with reluctance that he supported
+the ambitious projects of Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain,
+in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the succession of Don Carlos
+to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had economized
+in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was
+forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled
+by public opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.&rsquo;s father-in-law
+Stanislaus Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish
+crown on the death of Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-Austrian
+candidate; but the despatch of a French expedition
+of 1500 men to Danzig only served to humiliate France. Fleury
+was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic measures; he concluded
+a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and sent
+two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+Rhine and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty
+of Vienna (1735-1738). France had joined with the other
+powers in guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa under
+the Pragmatic sanction, but on the death of Charles VI. in 1740
+Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an excuse for repudiating
+his engagements, when he found the party of war supreme
+in the king&rsquo;s counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian
+campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian
+general Königsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury disavowed
+his own letter, and died a few days after the French
+evacuation of Prague on the 29th of January 1743. He had
+enriched the royal library by many valuable oriental MSS., and
+was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of Science,
+and the Academy of Inscriptions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;F.J. Bataille, <i>Éloge historique de M. le Cardinal
+A. H. de Fleury</i> (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, <i>Oraison
+funèbre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Fleury</i> (Paris, 1743); P.
+Vicaire, <i>Oraison funèbre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury</i> (Caen, 1743);
+M. van Hoey, <i>Lettres et négotiations pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire de la vie
+du Cardinal de Fleury</i> (London, 1743); <i>Leben des Cardinals A. H.
+Fleury</i> (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morénas, <i>Parallèle du ministère du
+Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury</i> (Avignon, 1743); <i>Nachrichten
+von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury</i>
+(Hamburg, 1744).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35606-h.htm or 35606-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/6/0/35606/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8150513
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39d5816
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1a85fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c6f792
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394c.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..195ac5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394d.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e58c77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394e.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea1cb96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394f.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a1e38c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394g.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1249b69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394h.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a881c0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394i.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8417595
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394j.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c798be8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394k.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70003ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394l.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg b/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6303edd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img394m.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img395.jpg b/35606-h/images/img395.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..407fcb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img395.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b81845
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img454a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c773540
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img454b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img455.jpg b/35606-h/images/img455.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..605b8e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img455.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ba5396
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img456a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..971ff8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img456b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img464.jpg b/35606-h/images/img464.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..328e06b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img464.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4387cb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img466a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8ef4f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img466b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img468.jpg b/35606-h/images/img468.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..404abae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img468.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d1a9de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img470a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731aa8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img470b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img473.jpg b/35606-h/images/img473.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b623fcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img473.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg b/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c628907
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img474a.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg b/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b223ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img474b.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img475.jpg b/35606-h/images/img475.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0fd422
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img475.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img485.jpg b/35606-h/images/img485.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac00d58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img485.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img499.jpg b/35606-h/images/img499.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..539f659
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img499.jpg
diff --git a/35606-h/images/img500.jpg b/35606-h/images/img500.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d817a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606-h/images/img500.jpg
diff --git a/35606.txt b/35606.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0185f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18088 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4
+       "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 18, 2011 [EBook #35606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE FINLAND: "... but does not reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13
+      m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards." 'Arctic' amended
+      from 'Artic'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISCHART, JOHANN: "Sie haben Nasen und riechen's nit."
+     'und' amended from 'vnd'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISHER, JOHN: "The constancy of Fisher, while driving Henry
+      to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the whole
+      Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most
+      learned and pious bishops of the time." 'Christian' amended from
+      'Christain'.
+
+    ARTICLE FISHKILL LANDING: "... in which the New York Provincial
+      Congress met in August and September 1776." 'Provincial' amended
+      from 'Provinical'.
+
+    ARTICLE FITZGERALD, EDWARD: "... until 1873 in the town of
+     Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house hard by,
+     called Little Grange." 'called' amended from 'ealled'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "He profited largely by the tyranny of
+      Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion of the
+      ecclesiastical preferments which were illegally kept vacant, and
+      obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099)."
+      'illegally' amended from 'illegaly'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "A bishop, however, was an inconvenient
+      prisoner, and Flambard soon succeeded in effecting his escape from
+      the Tower of London." 'succeeded' amended from 'succeded'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAME: "... if the outer tube be slid up again, it detaches
+      the outer cone and carries it upward." 'be' amended from 'he'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLAME: "It is least ambiguous when used in reference to
+      flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical
+      proportions before issuing from the burner." 'is' amended from
+      'it'.
+
+    ARTICLE FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE: "During the seventeen years of
+      his orderly government the country found time to recuperate its
+      forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis
+      XIV. and of the regent, and the general prosperity rapidly
+      increased." 'rapidly' amended from 'rapidy'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME X, SLICE IV
+
+          Finland to Fleury, Andre
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  FINLAND                        FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM FITZWILLIAM
+  FINLAY, GEORGE                 FIUME
+  FINN MAC COOL                  FIVES
+  FINNO-UGRIAN                   FIX, THEODORE
+  FINSBURY                       FIXTURES
+  FINSTERWALDE                   FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS
+  FIORENZO DI LORENZO            FJORD
+  FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA             FLACCUS
+  FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS     FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES
+  FIR                            FLACIUS, MATTHIAS
+  FIRDOUSI                       FLACOURT, ETIENNE DE
+  FIRE                           FLAG
+  FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION       FLAGELLANTS
+  FIREBACK                       FLAGELLATA
+  FIRE BRAT                      FLAGEOLET
+  FIREBRICK                      FLAGSHIP
+  FIREFLY                        FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, JOSEPH
+  FIRE-IRONS                     FLAIL
+  FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO             FLAMBARD, RANULF
+  FIRESHIP                       FLAMBOROUGH HEAD
+  FIRE-WALKING                   FLAMBOYANT STYLE
+  FIREWORKS                      FLAME
+  FIRM                           FLAMEL, NICOLAS
+  FIRMAMENT                      FLAMEN
+  FIRMAN                         FLAMINGO
+  FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS      FLAMINIA, VIA
+  FIRMINY                        FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS
+  FIRST-FOOT                     FLAMINIUS, GAIUS
+  FIRST OF JUNE                  FLAMSTEED, JOHN
+  FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING         FLANDERS
+  FIRTH, MARK                    FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE
+  FIRUZABAD                      FLANNEL
+  FIRUZKUH                       FLANNELETTE
+  FISCHART, JOHANN               FLASK
+  FISCHER, EMIL                  FLAT
+  FISCHER, ERNST BERTHOLD        FLATBUSH
+  FISH, HAMILTON                 FLAT-FISH
+  FISH                           FLATHEADS
+  FISHER, ALVAN                  FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE
+  FISHER, GEORGE PARK            FLAVEL, JOHN
+  FISHER, JOHN                   FLAVIAN I.
+  FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER  FLAVIAN II.
+  FISHERIES                      FLAVIAN
+  FISHERY                        FLAVIGNY
+  FISHGUARD                      FLAVIN
+  FISHKILL LANDING               FLAX
+  FISK, JAMES                    FLAXMAN, JOHN
+  FISK, WILBUR                   FLEA
+  FISKE, JOHN                    FLECHE
+  FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN          FLECHIER, ESPRIT
+  FISTULA                        FLECKEISEN, CARL WILHELM ALFRED
+  FIT                            FLECKNOE, RICHARD
+  FITCH, JOHN                    FLEET
+  FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING      FLEET PRISON
+  FITCH, RALPH                   FLEETWOOD, CHARLES
+  FITCHBURG                      FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM
+  FITTIG, RUDOLF                 FLEETWOOD
+  FITTON, MARY                   FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT
+  FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY          FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT
+  FITZBALL, EDWARD               FLEMING, PAUL
+  FITZGERALD                     FLEMING, RICHARD
+  FITZGERALD, EDWARD             FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD
+  FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD        FLEMING, SIR THOMAS
+  FITZGERALD, RAYMOND            FLEMISH LITERATURE
+  FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS        FLENSBURG
+  FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY       FLERS
+  FITZHERBERT, THOMAS            FLETA
+  FITZ NEAL, RICHARD             FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM
+  FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER             FLETCHER, ANDREW
+  FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM           FLETCHER, GILES (English author)
+  FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM           FLETCHER, GILES (English poet)
+  FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY           FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM
+  FITZROY, ROBERT                FLETCHER, PHINEAS
+  FITZROY                        FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK
+  FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT           FLEUR-DE-LIS
+  FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM          FLEURUS
+  FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD           FLEURY
+  FITZWALTER, ROBERT             FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE
+  FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM
+
+
+
+
+FINLAND (Finnish, _Suomi_ or _Suomenmaa_), a grand-duchy governed
+subject to its own constitution by the emperor of Russia as grand-duke
+of Finland. It is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and
+includes, moreover, a large territory in Lapland. It touches at its
+south-eastern extremity the government of St Petersburg, includes the
+northern half of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian
+governments of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
+roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing into the
+Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is
+separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken line which takes the course
+of the valley of the Tornea river up to its sources, thus falling only
+21 m. short of reaching the head of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs
+south-east and north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not
+reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
+southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Aland
+archipelago--its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the Swedish
+coast--as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytars,
+&c. Its utmost limits are: 59 deg. 48'--70 deg. 6' N., and 19 deg.
+2'--32 deg. 50' E. The area of Finland, in square miles, is as follows
+(_Altas de Finlande, 1899_):--
+
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  |  Government.   |Continent.| Islands | Islands | Lakes.| Total. |
+  |                |          |in Lakes.| in Seas.|       |        |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  | Nyland         |   4,062  |    24   |   210   |   286 |  4,582 |
+  | Abo-Bjorneborg |   7,594  |     8   |  1331   |   400 |  9,333 |
+  | Tavastehus     |   6,837  |    97   |   ..    | 1,400 |  8,334 |
+  | Viborg         |  11,630  |   362   |   130   | 4,502 | 16,624 |
+  | St Michel      |   5,652  |  1018   |   ..    | 2,149 |  8,819 |
+  | Kuopio         |  13,160  |   643   |   ..    | 2,696 | 16,499 |
+  | Vasa           |  14,527  |    62   |   203   | 1,313 | 16,105 |
+  | Uleaborg       |  60,348  |   171   |    94   | 3,344 | 63,957 |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+  |    Total       | 123,810  |  2385   |  1968   |16,090 |144,253 |
+  +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+
+
+  _Orography._--A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the
+  eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts,
+  the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to
+  the Kjolen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, and to the
+  slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White
+  Sea. At the head-waters of the Tornea, Finland penetrates as a narrow
+  strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjolen (the Keel), where the
+  Haldefjall (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and
+  is surrounded by other _fjalls_, or flat-topped summits, of from 3300
+  to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into
+  which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are
+  deeply sunk, and which take the character of a mountain region in the
+  Saariselka (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the remainder of
+  Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach
+  on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to 1000 ft. Quite different
+  is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs
+  of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line
+  traced through the lakes Ulea and Piellis. The meridional ridges which
+  formerly used to be traced here along the main water-partings do not
+  exist in reality, and the country appears on the hypsometrical map in
+  the _Atlas de Finlande_ as a plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude,
+  covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300
+  ft. The three main lake-basins of Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are
+  separated by low and flat hills only; but one sees distinctly
+  appearing on the map a line of flat elevations running south-west to
+  north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from
+  Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A
+  regular gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia
+  (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie tracts in its lower parts.
+
+  A notable feature of Finland are the _asar_ or narrow ridges of
+  morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some of
+  them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
+  they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the
+  rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in
+  the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs
+  from Hangoudd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued farther east under the
+  name of Salpausellia, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
+  are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
+  ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As a
+  rule these forest-clothed _asar_ rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
+  120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to
+  the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways are
+  traced in preference along them.
+
+  _Lakes and Rivers._--A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the
+  aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
+  (_fjarden_), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great
+  facilities for internal navigation, while the connecting streams
+  supply an enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake
+  Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three
+  and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen,
+  flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the
+  lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the Gulf of
+  Finland; the basins of Pyha-selka, Ori-vesi and Piellis-jarvi; Pajane,
+  surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are
+  discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; Nasi-jarvi
+  and Pyha-jarvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing into the Gulf
+  of Bothnia; Ulea-trask, discharged by the Ulea into the same gulf; and
+  Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. Two large rivers,
+  Kemi and Tornea, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Ulea
+  is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel.
+
+  _Geology._--Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits
+  are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and
+  also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in
+  the Kjolen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age are met with in the Kola
+  peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder
+  of Finland is built up of the oldest known crystalline rocks belonging
+  to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem
+  to be the granites of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of
+  the granites gave rise to the _Ladoga schists_ and various deposits of
+  the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the
+  country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
+  formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in
+  West Finland, formed the so-called _Bothnian series_. New masses of
+  granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits
+  underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at work
+  on a grand scale. A new series of _Jatulian deposits_ was formed and a
+  new system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this part
+  of the globe. The _Jotnian series_, which were formed next, remain
+  still undisturbed. It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi
+  granite of Aland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine deposits
+  younger than those just mentioned--all belonging to a pre-Cambrian
+  epoch--are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater
+  part of the country has probably been dry land since Palaeozoic times.
+  The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial
+  deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine of the
+  ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial clays (partly of
+  lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral
+  coast-region--or in separate areas in the interior depressions. Some
+  Finnish geologists--Sederholm for one--consider it probable that
+  during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (_Yoldia_ sea) covered all
+  southern Finland and also Scania (Skane) in Sweden, thus connecting
+  the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad
+  channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in
+  Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a
+  post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the
+  Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to
+  260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces of a large inner
+  post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North America, have been
+  discovered. The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal
+  rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken),
+  from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero in the Baltic
+  provinces.
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds
+  the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
+  corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
+  isotherms of 41 deg. and 28 deg. Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
+  direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from 9
+  deg. Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30 deg. along the south coast; while in
+  July the difference between the monthly averages is only eight
+  degrees, being 53 deg. in the north and 61 deg. in the south-east.
+  Everywhere, and especially in the interior, the winter lasts very
+  long, and early frosts (June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops.
+  The amount of rain and snow is from 25-1/2 in. along the south coast
+  to 13.8 in. in the interior of southern Finland.
+
+  _Flora_, _Forests_, _Fauna_.--The flora of Finland has been most
+  minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
+  were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
+  provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province.
+  These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651
+  in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the total
+  for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants are not met with
+  in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the
+  Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch fir
+  (_Pinus sylvestris_, L.), the fir (_Picea excelsa_, Link.); two
+  species of birch (_B. verrucosa_, Ehrh., and _B. odorata_, Bechst.),
+  as well as the birch-bush (_B. nana_); two species of _Alnus_
+  (_glutinosa_ and _incana_); the oak (_Q. pedunculata_, Ehrh.), which
+  grows only on the south coast; the poplar (_Populus tremula_); and the
+  Siberian larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over
+  6,000,000 trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large
+  saw-mills, and about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The
+  total export of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is
+  estimated, however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for
+  fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used
+  for export in different shapes. The total area under forests is
+  estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the
+  state. The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
+  vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
+  necessary bibliographical indications in _Travaux geographiques en
+  Finlande_, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.
+
+  _Population._--The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in 1751,
+  832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was
+  2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 men. Of
+  these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country
+  districts. The distribution of population in various provinces was as
+  follows:--
+
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    |      1904.      | Population.| Density per  |
+    |                 |            |sq. kilometre.|
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Abo-Bjorneborg  |   447,098  |     20.3     |
+    | Kuopio          |   313,951  |      8.9     |
+    | Nyland          |   297,813  |     29.3     |
+    | St Michel       |   189,360  |     11.1     |
+    | Tavastehus      |   301,272  |     17.7     |
+    | Uleaborg        |   280,899  |      1.9     |
+    | Viborg          |   421,610  |     14.6     |
+    | Vasa            |   460,460  |     12.5     |
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+    |      Total      | 2,712,562  |      8.6     |
+    +-----------------+------------+--------------+
+
+  The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing
+  an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was estimated at
+  about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased
+  then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish autonomy. In 1899 the
+  emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952
+  in 1904.
+
+  The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes
+  (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces
+  of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran
+  faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek Orthodox Church
+  and 755 Roman Catholics.
+
+  The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the
+  grand-duchy and of the province (_lan_) of Nyland, principal seaport
+  (111,654 inhabitants); Abo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province and
+  ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading
+  manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of
+  province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleaborg, capital
+  of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa lan
+  (18,028); Bjorneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519);
+  and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545).
+
+  _Industries._--Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority of
+  the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has been
+  marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign exports
+  of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. Measures
+  have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the
+  state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose.
+  There are two high schools, one experimental station, twenty-two
+  middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides
+  ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies exist in each
+  province.
+
+  Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of fish,
+  &c., was L140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of
+  L61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy,
+  machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern development, but
+  the aggregate production approaches one and a half millions sterling
+  in value.
+
+  Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output,
+  which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951
+  grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and iron. The
+  last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes. In
+  1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile industries
+  are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high
+  duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of paper out of wood is
+  also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, there are upwards of 500
+  saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over
+  L3,000,000 annually.
+
+  _Communications._--The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500
+  m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway was
+  opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in
+  1870 (cost only L4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type began to
+  be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of railway,
+  mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the state
+  railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. Finland
+  has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced
+  canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one.
+  It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 m. inland, and
+  is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. Considerable works
+  have also been made to connect the different lakes and lake-basins
+  for inland navigation, a sum of L1,000,000 having been spent for that
+  purpose.
+
+  The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an enormous
+  extension both in the towns and between the different towns of
+  southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 40
+  to 60 marks,[1] and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.
+
+  _Commerce._--The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
+  reached in 1904 the following values:--
+
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+    |         | From or to |   From or to   |   Totals.   |
+    |         |   Russia.  |other Countries.|             |
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+    | Imports | L4,036,000 |  L6,488,000    | L10,524,000 |
+    | Exports |  2,332,000 |   6,292,000    |   8,624,000 |
+    +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+
+
+  The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
+  Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports are:
+  cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding L3,000,000), metals,
+  machinery, textile materials and textile products. The chief articles
+  of export are: timber and wood articles (L5,250,000), paper and paper
+  pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. The chief ports are
+  Helsingfors, Abo, Viborg, Hango and Vasa.
+
+  _Education._--Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new
+  education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
+  occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
+  given in the maternal house, or in "maternal schools," or by
+  ambulatory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the
+  necessary examination in the houses of every parish. All education
+  above that level is in the hands of the educational department and
+  school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound
+  (since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts
+  and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these
+  expenses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each female
+  teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. Secondary
+  education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and
+  scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to
+  scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or
+  gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors
+  (formerly the Abo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328
+  women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the Helsingfors
+  polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical,
+  commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several scientific
+  societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific
+  Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several
+  medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian
+  Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical,
+  one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, as also
+  the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, &c., issue
+  publications well known to the scientific world. The numerous local
+  branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular
+  Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller
+  communes in establishing schools, and the latter in publishing popular
+  works, starting their own schools as well as free libraries (in nearly
+  every commune), and organizing lectures for the people. The university
+  students take a lively part in this work.
+
+_Government and Administration._--From the time of its union with Russia
+at the Diet of Borga in 1809 till the events of 1899 (see _History_)
+Finland was practically a separate state, the emperor of Russia as
+grand-duke governing by means of a nominated senate and a diet elected
+on a very narrow franchise, and meeting at distant and irregular
+intervals. This diet was on the old Swedish model, consisting of
+representatives of the four estates--nobility, clergy, burghers and
+peasants--sitting and voting in separate "Houses." The government of the
+country was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
+with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the Russian
+government. War and foreign affairs were entirely in the hands of
+Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence in Helsingfors. The
+senate also controlled the administration of the law. The constitutional
+conflict of 1899-1905 brought about something like a revolution in
+Finland. For some years the country was subject to a practically
+arbitrary form of government, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese
+War and the growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
+peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution. As a
+Finnish writer puts it: "just as the calamities which had befallen
+Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to come from Russia."
+The _status quo ante_ was restored, the diet met in extraordinary
+session, and proceeded to the entire recasting of the Finnish
+government. Freedom of the press was voted, and the diet next proceeded
+to reform its own constitution. Far-reaching changes were voted. The
+new diet, instead of being composed of four estates sitting separately,
+consists of a single chamber of 200 members elected directly by
+universal suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
+grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not more
+than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion to
+population. A scheme of "proportional representation," the votes being
+counted in accordance with the system invented by G.M. d'Hondt, a
+Belgian, was also adopted. The executive was to consist of a
+minister-secretary of state and of the members of the senate, who were
+entitled to attend and address the diet and who might be the subject of
+interpellations. The members of the senate were made responsible to the
+diet as well as to the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has
+power to consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government.
+After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty of the
+senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate is not obliged
+to accept the decision of the majority of the diet, nor, apparently, is
+the sovereign bound to accept the advice of the senate. The first
+elections, April 1907, resulted in the election to the diet of about 40%
+representatives of the Social Democratic party, and nineteen women
+members. The budget of Finland in 1905 was L4,273,970 of "ordinary"
+revenue. The "ordinary" expenditure was L3,595,300. The public debt
+amounted at the end of 1905 to L5,611,170.
+
+_History._--It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning of
+the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what is now Finland,
+though it was only when Christianity was introduced, about 1157, that
+they were brought into contact with civilized Europe. They probably
+found the Lapps in possession of the country. The early Finlanders do
+not seem to have had any governmental organization, but to have lived in
+separate communities and villages independent of each other. Their
+mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, as
+"Ukko," the god of the air, "Tapio," god of the forests, "Ahti," the god
+of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to have been both brave and
+troublesome to their neighbours, and their repeated attacks on the coast
+of Sweden drew the attention of the kings of that country. King Eric IX.
+(St Eric), accompanied by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it
+is said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the country in
+1157, when the people were conquered and baptized. King Eric left Bishop
+Henry with his priests and some soldiers behind to confirm the conquest
+and complete the conversion. After a time he was killed, canonized, and
+as St Henry became the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend
+to her own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence and
+paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, Thomas (also an
+Englishman), arrived and recommenced the work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas
+nearly succeeded in detaching Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a
+province subject only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a
+crusade in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the
+subdivisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and
+building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who conquered and
+connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and built the strong castle
+of Viborg. Almost continuous wars between Russia and Sweden were the
+result of the conquest of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled
+that the river Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
+Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by the Swedes,
+they spread among the Finlanders their civilization, gave them laws,
+accorded them the same civil rights as belonged to themselves, and
+introduced agriculture and other beneficial arts. The Reformed religion
+was introduced into Finland by Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John
+III. raised the country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to
+suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by Sweden,
+especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor having created an
+order of nobility,--counts, barons and nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the
+beginning of the 17th century established the diet of Finland, composed
+of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants.
+Gustavus and his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
+gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing
+printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696) the country
+suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the diocese of Abo
+alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months. Finland has been
+visited at different periods since by these scourges; so late as 1848
+whole villages were starved during a dreadful famine. Peter the Great
+cast an envious eye on Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in
+1710 he managed to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and
+Villmanstrand; and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime
+the sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished in the
+wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721 the province of
+Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was finally ceded to Russia.
+But the country had been laid very low by war, pestilence and famine,
+though it recovered itself with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes
+made an effort to recover the ceded province, but through wretched
+management suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
+1742, ceding by the peace of Abo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand
+and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have occurred till 1788,
+under Gustavus III., who began to reign in 1771, and who confirmed to
+Finland those "fundamental laws" which they have succeeded in
+maintaining against kings and tsars for over two centuries. The country
+was divided into six governments, a second superior court of justice was
+founded at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
+science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the academic
+language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war again broke out between
+Sweden and Russia, and was carried on for two years without much glory
+or gain to either party, the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the
+lost Finnish province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
+broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the cession in
+1809 of the whole of Finland and the Aland Islands to Russia. Finland,
+however, did not enter Russia as a conquered province, but, thanks to
+the bravery of her people after they had been abandoned by an
+incompetent monarch and treacherous generals, and not less to the wisdom
+and generosity of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her
+free constitution and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
+grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates were summoned to
+a free diet at Borga and accepted Alexander as grand-duke of Finland, he
+on his part solemnly recognizing the Finnish constitution and
+undertaking to preserve the religion, laws and liberties of the country.
+A senate was created and a governor-general named. The province of
+Viborg was reunited to Finland in 1811, and Abo remained the capital of
+the country till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were
+removed to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had
+not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors in
+1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous and
+progressive, and his statue in the great square in front of the
+cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors testifies to the regard in
+which his memory is cherished by his Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his
+successor soon fell under the influence of the reactionary party which
+had begun to assert itself in Russia even before the assassination of
+Alexander II. One of Alexander III.'s first acts was to confirm "the
+constitution which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
+Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious memory, and
+developed with the consent of the estates of Finland by our dearly
+beloved father of blessed memory the emperor Alexander Nicolaievich."
+But the Slavophil movement, with its motto, "one law, one church, one
+tongue," acquired great influence in official circles, and its aim was,
+in defiance of the pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to
+Orthodoxy and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
+years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the defenders of the
+Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were complicated by the
+rivalry between the Swedish party, which had hitherto been dominant in
+Finland, and the Finnish "nationalist" party which, during the latter
+half of the 19th century, had been determinedly asserting itself
+linguistically and politically. With some exceptions, however, the whole
+country united in defence of its constitution; "Fennoman" and
+"Svecoman," recognizing that their common liberties were at stake,
+suspended their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
+(see RUSSIA) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the "February
+manifesto" (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated the legislative
+power of the Finnish diet. A new military law, practically amalgamating
+the Finnish with the Russian forces, followed in July 1901; Russian
+officials and the Russian language were forced on Finland wherever
+possible, and in April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was
+invested with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
+with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the expenses
+being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian system was now in
+full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests and banishments, and the
+suppression of newspapers, were the order of the day. To all this the
+people of Finland opposed a dogged and determined resistance, which
+culminated in November 1905 in a "national strike." The strike was
+universal, all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
+industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
+steamship, telephone and postal services were practically suspended.
+Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and electricity; no shops
+except provision shops were open; public departments, schools and
+restaurants were closed. After six days the unconstitutional
+government--already much shaken by events in Russia and
+Manchuria--capitulated. In an imperial manifesto dated the 7th of
+November 1905 the demands of Finland were granted, and the _status quo
+ante_ 1899 was restored.
+
+But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution, although
+precious to those whose only protection it was, was an antiquated and
+not very efficient instrument of government. Popular feeling had been
+excited by the political conflict, advanced tendencies had declared
+themselves, and when the new diet met it proceeded as explained above to
+remodel the constitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with
+freedom of the press, speech, meeting and association.
+
+In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The Imperial
+government insisted that the decision in all Finnish questions affecting
+the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed attempt was made to
+curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.
+
+_Ethnology._--The term Finn has a wider application than Finland, being,
+with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) or Ugro-Finnic, the
+collective name of the westernmost branch of the Ural-Altaic family,
+dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, the Baltic provinces (Esthonia,
+Livonia, Curland), parts of Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both
+banks of middle Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural
+Mountains and the Yenissei) and Hungary.
+
+Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people except
+the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence of
+civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
+agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be
+distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who retain their
+Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race, of low stature, with
+almost round head, low forehead, flat features, prominent cheek bones,
+eyes mostly grey and oblique (inclining inwards), short and flat nose,
+protruding mouth, thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the
+occiput seems flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard
+weak and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
+with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion also somewhat
+brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, faithful and
+submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom and independence, but
+also somewhat stolid, revengeful and indolent. Many of these physical
+and moral characteristics they have in common with the so-called
+"Mongolian" race, to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also
+linguistically, related.
+
+Considerable researches have been accomplished since about 1850 in the
+ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale which has no parallel
+in any other country. The study of the prehistoric population of
+Finland--Neolithic (no Palaeolithic finds have yet been made)--of the
+Age of Bronze and the Iron Age has been carried on with great zeal. At
+the same time the folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked
+out with wonderful completeness (see _L'Oeuvre demi-seculaire de la
+Societe de Litterature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois_, by Dr
+E.G. Palmen, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn's report to the London
+Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun by Porthan, Z.
+Topelius, and especially E. Lonnrot (1802-1884), for collecting the
+popular poetry of the Finns, was continued by Castren (1813-1852),
+Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka (1854-1889), who extended their
+researches to the Finns settled in other parts of the Russian empire,
+and collected a considerable number of variants of the _Kalewala_ and
+other popular poetry and songs. In order to study the different eastern
+kinsfolk of the Finns, Sjogren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
+North Russia, and Castren to West and East Siberia (_Nordische Reisen
+und Forschungen_), and collected the materials which permitted himself
+and Schiefner to publish grammatical works relative to the Finnish,
+Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas,
+Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx
+of linguists, continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and
+the Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (_Foundations of
+Finno-Ugrian Archaeology_, in Finnish, and _Atlas of Antiquities_) led
+the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their attention to the
+basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga. A series of expeditions (of
+Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were consequently directed to those
+regions, especially since the discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable
+Orkhon inscriptions (see TURKS, p. 473), which finally enabled the
+Danish linguist, V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to
+discover that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See _Inscriptions
+de l'Ienissei recueillies et publiees par la Societe Finl.
+d'Archeologie_, 1889, and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, 1892.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The general history of Finland is fully treated by Yrjo
+  Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889). Both works have
+  been translated into German. The constitutional conflict gave rise to
+  a host of books and pamphlets in various languages. Mechelin,
+  Danielson and Hermanson were the leading writers on the Finnish side,
+  and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the political documents have been
+  published and translated. A finely illustrated book, _Finland in the
+  Nineteenth Century_, by various Finnish writers, gives an excellent
+  account of the country; also Reuter's _Finlandia_, a very complete
+  work with an exhaustive bibliography. The constitutional question was
+  fully discussed in English in _Finland and the Tsars_, by J.R. Fisher
+  (2nd ed., 1900). _The Atlas de Finlande_, published in 1899 by the
+  Geographical Society of Finland, is a remarkably well executed and
+  complete work. _The Statistical Annual for Finland--Statistisk Arsbok
+  for Finland_--published annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in
+  Helsingfors, gives the necessary figures.
+       (P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*)
+
+
+_Finnish Literature._
+
+The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael Agricola
+(1506-1557), who published an _A B C Book_ in 1544, and, as bishop of
+Abo, a number of religious and educational works. A version of the New
+Testament in Finnish was printed by Agricola in 1548, and some books of
+the Old Testament in 1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at
+Stockholm in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable to
+the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the poets of
+Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a wider audience.
+It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of Finland, the _Kalewala_
+(q.v.), was introduced to readers by the exertions of Elias Lonnrot
+(q.v.), that the Finnish language was used for literary composition.
+Lonnrot also collected and edited the works of the peasant-poets P.
+Korhonen (1775-1840) and Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing
+the improvisations of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last
+quarter of the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary
+activity in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the
+publication of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
+aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the political
+troubles, books in almost every branch of research are found in the
+language, mainly translations or adaptations. We meet with, during the
+present century, a considerable number of names of poets and dramatists,
+no doubt very minor, as also painters, sculptors and musical composers.
+At the Paris International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish
+painters and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
+country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied a
+position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution to a history
+of Finnish literature is Krohn's _Suomenkielinen runollisuns
+ruotsinvallan aikana_ (1862). Finland is wonderfully rich in periodicals
+of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish Societies of Literature
+and of Sciences and other learned bodies being specially valuable. A
+great work in the revival of an interest in the Finnish language was
+done by the _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura_ (the Finnish Literary
+Society), which from the year 1841 has published a valuable annual,
+_Suomi_. The Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition
+of the works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
+(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published at
+Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjo Koskinen, and has been translated into
+both Swedish and German. The author was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the
+above form being a Finnish translation. Other works on Finnish history
+and some important works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In
+language we have Lonnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
+by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner's _Comparative
+Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig) is in
+German. In imaginative literature Finland has produced several important
+writers of the vernacular. Alexis Stenwall ("Kiwi") (1834-1872), the son
+of a village tailor, was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular
+dramas and an historical romance, _The Seven Brothers_ (1870). Among
+recent playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
+successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895), P. Cajander
+(b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish, and Karl Bergbom (b.
+1843). Among lyric poets are J.H. Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jannes (b. 1848)
+and Yrjo Weijola (b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari
+Paivarinta (b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a
+grimly realistic story, _His Life_. Many of the popular Finnish authors
+of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio Filander a
+farmer; Heikki Mavilainen a smith; Juhana Kokko (Kyosti) a gamekeeper.
+The most gifted of the writers of Finland, however, is certainly Juhani
+Aho (b. 1861), the son of a country clergyman. His earliest writings
+were studies of modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went
+to reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods of the
+leading French novelists of the newer school. About the year 1893 he
+began to publish short stories, some of which, such as _Enris_, _The
+Fortress of Matthias_, _The Old Man of Korpela_ and _Finland's Flag_,
+are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a very interesting
+degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary Finnish population.
+It has been well said that in the writings of Juhani Aho can be traced
+all the idiosyncrasies which have formed the curious and pathetic
+history of Finland in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b.
+1857), in tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
+which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country life.
+Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Jarnefelt (b. 1861). Santeri
+Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naively, but not without skill, has followed
+in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to exaggerate either the force
+or the originality of these early developments of a national Finnish
+literature, which, moreover, are mostly brief and unambitious in
+character. But they are eminently sincere, and they have the great merit
+of illustrating the local aspects of landscape and temperament and
+manners.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--E.G. Palmen, _L'Oeuvre demi-seculaire de la Suomalaisen
+  Kirjallisuuden Seura_, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882); J. Krohn,
+  _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet_ (Helsingfors, 1897); F.W.
+  Pipping, _Forteckning ofver bocker pa finska spraket_ (Helsingfors,
+  1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, _Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und
+  seiner Dichter_ (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, _Popular Poetry of the
+  Finns_ (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, _Ofversigt af Finlands
+  Litteraturhistoria for skolor_ (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using
+  the Swedish language, see SWEDEN: _Literature_.     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The Finnish mark, _markka_, of 100 _penni_, equals about 9-1/2 d.
+
+
+
+
+FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875), British historian, was born of Scottish
+parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December 1799. He studied for
+the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went to Gottingen. He had already
+begun to feel a deep interest in the Greek struggle for independence,
+and in 1823 he resolved to visit the country. In November he arrived in
+Cephalonia, where he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly
+afterwards he landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he
+improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities of the
+country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion of the Greek leaders,
+both civil and military, he by no means lost his enthusiasm for their
+cause. A severe attack of fever, however, combined with other
+circumstances, induced him to spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the
+spring of 1825 in Rome, Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland,
+and, after spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to
+Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the
+university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His
+enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he resided almost
+uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in the unsuccessful
+operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard Church for the relief of
+Athens in 1827. When independence had been secured in 1829 he bought a
+landed estate in Attica, but all his efforts for the introduction of a
+better system of agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to
+the literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first
+publications were _The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation_ (1836);
+_Essai sur les principes de banque appliques a l'etat actuel de la
+Grece_ (Athens, 1836); and _Remarks on the Topography of Oropia and
+Diacria, with a map_ (Athens, 1838). The first instalment of his great
+historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed., 1857) under the title _Greece
+under the Romans; a Historical View of the Condition of the Greek Nation
+from the time of its Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the
+Roman Empire in the East_. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself
+still further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several
+tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of one of
+them he published a volume _On the Site of the Holy Sepulchre; with a
+plan of Jerusalem_ (1847). _The History of the Byzantine and Greek
+Empires from 716-1453_ was completed in 1854. It was speedily followed
+by the _History of Greece under the Ottoman and Venetian Domination_
+(1856), and by the _History of the Greek Revolution_ (1861). In weak
+health, and conscious of failing energy, he spent his last years in
+revising his history. From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of
+_The Times_ newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable
+attention, and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct
+influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned
+societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edinburgh the
+honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the 26th of January 1875.
+A new edition of his _History_, edited by the Rev. H.F. Tozer, was
+issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in 1877. It includes a brief but
+extremely interesting fragment of an autobiography of the author, almost
+the only authority for his life.
+
+As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field of
+research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon alone being
+a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious; as a scholar he was
+accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute and profound; and in all that
+he wrote he was unswerving in his loyalty to the principles of
+constitutional government and to the cause of liberty and justice.
+
+
+
+
+FINN MAC COOL (in Irish FIND MAC CUMAILL), the central figure of the
+later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called Ossianic or Fenian. In
+Scotland Find usually goes by the name of Fingal. This appears to be due
+to a misunderstanding of the title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Ri
+Fionnghall, i.e. king of the Norse. Find's father, Cumall mac Trenmoir,
+was uncle to Conn Cetchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in A.D.
+157. Cumall carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named
+Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which Cumall
+was slain by Goll mac Morna (A.D. 174). Find was born after his father's
+death and was at first called Demni. He is leader of the _fiann_ or
+_feinne_ (English "Fenians"), a kind of militia or standing army which
+was drawn from all quarters of Ireland. His father had held the same
+office before him, but after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac
+Morna, who retained it until Find came to man's estate. Find usually
+resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded by some
+of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered throughout
+Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those coming from over the
+sea. In times of invasion Find collected his forces, overcame the foe,
+and pursued him to Scotland or Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might
+be. When not engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or
+love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the conditions of
+admission to this privileged band, which were at once singular and
+exacting. The foremost heroes in Find's train were his son Ossian, his
+grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain, and Diarmait O'Duibne, whose
+elopement with Find's destined bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King
+Cormac mac Airt (A.D. 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story.
+These, like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was
+allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance. The
+latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being Goll and Conan. By
+the annalists Find is represented as having met with death by treachery
+either in 252 or 283. Under Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac
+Airt, the power of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly
+took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the battle of
+Gabra (A.D. 283). Very few survived the defeat, but the story makes
+Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival of St Patrick in 432.
+
+It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have existed in
+the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older in date than the
+Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal with events happening
+in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196), Lugaid mac Con (196-227),
+and Cormac mac Airt (227-266), but none of these in their oldest shape
+contain any allusion whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history
+of the Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a
+Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster against
+Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was originally a figure in
+Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the Viking age, but we have no
+documentary evidence concerning him at this time. He seems primarily to
+have been regarded as a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been
+transformed into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that his
+personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local tradition out of
+stories clustering round the figure of the Viking leader Ketill Hviti
+(Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the year 1000 Find was
+certainly connected in the minds of the people with the reign of Cormac
+mac Airt, but the process is obscure. Recently John MacNeill has pointed
+out that in the oldest genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui
+Tairrsigh of Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county
+of Kildare and parts of King's and Queen's counties). The Ui Tairrsigh
+were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill would account in this
+manner for the slow acceptance of the stories by the conquering
+Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was fashionable at court, the subject
+races clung to the Fenian cycle. For the last 800 years Find has been
+the national hero of the Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the
+Scottish Highlands and the Isle of Man. See also CELT (subsection _Irish
+Literature_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Nutt, _Ossian and the Ossianic Literature_ (London,
+  1899); H. Zimmer, "Keltische Beitrage iii.," _Zeitschrift fur
+  deutsches Altertum_ (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L.C. Stern, "Die
+  Ossianischen Heldenlieder," _Zeitschrift fur vergleichende
+  Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895; trans, by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions
+  of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp.
+  257-325); J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+FINNO-UGRIAN, or Finno-Ugric, the designation of a division of the
+Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers. The first part is
+the name given by their neighbours, though not used by themselves, to
+the inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Baltic. It is probably the
+same word as the Fenni of Tacitus and [Greek: Phinnoi] of Ptolemy,
+though it is not certain that those races were Finns in the modern
+sense. It possibly means people of the fens or marshes, and corresponds
+to the native word _Suomi_, which appears to be derived from _suo_, a
+marsh. Finn and Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland
+but also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia and
+sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this sense the
+Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and Mordvins (Volga),
+and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The name is not, however, extended
+to the Ostiaks, Voguls and Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate
+subdivision called Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country
+on either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castren in a
+scientific sense.
+
+The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not be pressed as
+indicating a community of physical features and customs. But making
+allowance for the change of language by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians
+form, with the striking exception of the Hungarians, a moderately
+homogeneous whole. They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and
+Manchus, have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power of
+political organization. Those of them who have not come under European
+influence live under the simplest form of patriarchal government, and
+states, kings or even great chiefs are almost unknown among them.
+
+Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south Siberia
+extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large parts of it are
+still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and marsh was no doubt
+much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric tribes seem to shun the open
+steppes but are widely spread in the wooded country, especially on the
+banks of lakes and rivers. Their want of political influence renders
+them obscure, but they form a considerable element in the population of
+the northern, middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found
+much to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except
+in the Baltic provinces). The difference of temperament between the
+Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little Russians is partly
+due to an infusion of Finnish blood.
+
+Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built and, though
+there is considerable variation in height and the cephalic index, are
+mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat squat, and brachy- or
+mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish or olive coloured, the eyes
+grey or blue, the hair light, the beard scanty. Most of them seem
+deficient in energy and liveliness, both mental and physical; they are
+slow, heavy, conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined
+to be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are patient,
+persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When their natural
+mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly and hospitable.
+
+I. _Tribes and Nations._--The Ugrian subdivision, which seems to be in
+many respects the more primitive, consists of three peoples standing on
+very different levels of civilization, the Ostiaks and Voguls and the
+Hungarians.
+
+
+  Ostiaks.
+
+  Voguls.
+
+The _Ostiaks_ (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic fishermen and
+hunters inhabiting at present the government of Tobolsk and the banks of
+the Obi. They formerly extended into the government of Perm on the
+European side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the
+Yenisei appear to be a different race and not to belong to the
+Finno-Ugrian group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship
+the River Obi. Allied to them are the _Voguls_, a similar nomadic tribe
+found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly extending at least as far
+as the government of Vologda. The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls
+are allied, though not mere dialects of one another, and form a small
+group separated from the languages of the Finns both Western and
+Eastern. For further details of these and other tribes see under the
+separate headings.
+
+
+  Magyars or Hungarians.
+
+According to the legend, Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and Magyor. They
+married daughters of the prince of the Alans and became the ancestors of
+the two kindred nations, Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story
+corresponds with what can be ascertained scientifically about the origin
+of these peoples. It is probable that the Huns and Magyars were allied
+tribes of mixed descent comprising both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian
+elements. The language is indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name
+Hungarian seems to lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish
+connexions which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and
+Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu as far east
+as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are of opinion that
+the tribes from whom the present Hungarians are descended were formed
+originally in the Terek-Kuban country to the north of the Caucasus,
+where a mixture of Turkish and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian
+language but Turkish mode of life predominating. They were also
+influenced by Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns
+and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe in the 5th
+century and made no permanent settlement in spite of the devastation
+they caused, whereas the Magyars remained for some centuries near the
+banks of the Don. According to tradition they were compelled to leave a
+country called Lebedia under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved
+westward under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary in
+the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions was called
+Arpad. For the chequered and often tragic history of the country see
+HUNGARY. The Magyars were converted to Christianity in the 11th century
+and adhered to the Roman not the Eastern Church. They have in all
+probability entirely lost their ancient physique, but have retained
+their language, and traces of their older life may be seen in their
+fondness for horses and flocks.
+
+
+  Permians and Syryenians.
+
+The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The _Permians_ and
+_Syryenians_ may be treated as one tribe. The latter name is very
+variously spelt as Syrjenian, Sirianian, Zyrjenian, Zirian, &c. They
+both call themselves Komi and speak a mutually intelligible language,
+allied to Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied to this
+sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found chiefly in the
+governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel, but there are a few
+Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals. The Syryenian headquarters
+are at the town of Ishma on the Pechora, whereas the name Permian is
+more correctly restricted to the inhabitants of the right bank of the
+upper Kama. Both probably extended much farther to the west in former
+times. The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than
+most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for trading
+purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.
+
+
+  Votiaks.
+
+The _Votiaks_ are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons
+dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government of Viatka.
+Their language indicates that they have borrowed a good deal from the
+Tatars and Chuvashes, and they seem to have little individuality, being
+described as weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves
+Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them migrated,
+doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into the government of
+Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are said to have improved in
+physique.
+
+
+  Cheremissians.
+
+The _Cheremissians_, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call themselves
+Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the neighbourhood of
+Kazan. Those inhabiting the right bank of the Volga are physically
+stronger and are known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place names
+makes it probable that their present position is the result of their
+being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then southwards by the
+Russians. There is some discrepancy between their language and their
+physical characteristics. The former shows affinities to both Mordvinian
+and the Permian group, but their crania are said to be mainly
+dolichocephalic, and it has been suggested that they are connected with
+the neolithic dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle
+and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.
+
+
+  Mordvinians.
+
+The _Mordvinians_, also called Mordva, Mordvins and Mordvs, are
+scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially Nizhniy
+Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk, Ufa and even Orenburg. Though
+not continuous, their settlements are considerable both in extent and
+population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns, and their
+traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought with the Tatars.
+They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the 6th century, but do not
+now use the name, calling themselves after one of their two divisions,
+Moksha or Erza. Their country is still covered with forest to a large
+extent. Their language is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the
+other it shows a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other
+Eastern languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar
+to itself.
+
+
+  Lapps.
+
+The _Lapps_ are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They call
+themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians. They are the
+shortest and most brachycephalic race in Europe. The majority are nomads
+who live by pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but
+others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or fishing.
+From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation among the Finns
+and other neighbouring nations for skill in sorcery.
+
+
+  Esthonians.
+
+The _Esthonians_ are the peasantry of the Russian province Esthonia and
+the neighbouring districts. They were serfs until 1817 when they were
+liberated, but their condition remained unsatisfactory and led to a
+serious rebellion in 1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns,
+and are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting the
+Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they are known to
+foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii of Tacitus, and to have
+properly belonged to quite a different tribe. They call themselves Ma
+mes, or country people, and their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish,
+Virolaiset, Esthonians.) Though not superior to other tribes in general
+intelligence, they have become more civilized owing to their more
+intimate connexion with the Russian and German population around them.
+
+
+  Livonians.
+
+_Livs_, _Livlanders_ or _Livonians_ is the name given to the old
+Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and north
+Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and predatory pagan tribe in the
+middle ages, and it is possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish
+race from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost
+completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken in a few
+places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been disputed if it still
+exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and is allied to Esthonian.
+
+
+  Votes.
+
+The _Votes_ (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also called
+southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent the original
+inhabitants of Ingria, the district round St Petersburg, but have
+decreased before the advance of the Russians and also of Karelians from
+the north. They are heard of in the 11th century, but now occupy only
+about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria.
+
+
+  Vepsas.
+
+The _Vepsas_ or _Vepses_, also called Northern Chudes, are another tribe
+allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the Votes. They are
+found in the district of Tikhvinsk and other parts of the government of
+Old Novgorod, and apparently extended farther east into the government
+of Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and Vepsas are
+closely related to the Esthonians.
+
+
+  Finns.
+
+The _Finns_ proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the most
+important and civilized division of the group. They inhabit at present
+the grand duchy of Finland and the adjacent governments, especially
+Olonetz, Tver and St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called
+Kainulaiset was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns
+Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns, the
+Tavastlanders or Hamalaiset, who occupy the southern and western parts
+of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaiset found in the east
+and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards the White Sea.
+
+The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the grand
+duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There is a considerable
+admixture of Swedish blood; the language is full of Swedish words;
+Christianity is universal; and the upper classes and townspeople are
+mainly Swedish in their habits and speech, though of late a persistent
+attempt has been made to Russify the country. The Finns have much the
+same mental and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but
+have reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several
+collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been made, the
+most celebrated of which is the _Kalewala_, compiled by Lonnrot about
+1835, and there is a copious modern literature. The study of the
+national languages and antiquities is prosecuted in Helsingfors and
+other towns with much energy: several learned societies have been formed
+and considerable results published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that
+this scientific activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit,
+owes much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary language
+there are several dialects, the most important of which is that of
+Savolaks.
+
+
+  Karelians.
+
+The _Karelians_ are not usually regarded as separate from the Finns,
+though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas and Votes. Living
+farther east they have come less under Swedish and more under Russian
+influence than the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the
+districts which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this
+influence has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of
+European civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more
+than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better proportioned
+build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and friendly, but less
+persevering and tenacious. They number about 260,000, of whom about
+63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000 in Tver and Novgorod, but in the
+southern districts are less distinguished from the Russian population.
+They belong to the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy
+are Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a Karelian
+population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda and Tambov. It was
+among them that the _Kalewala_ was collected, chiefly in East Finland
+and Olonetz.
+
+
+  Samoyedes.
+
+There is some difference of opinion as to whether the _Samoyedes_ should
+be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given the rank of a
+separate division equivalent to Finno-Ugrian and Turkish. The linguistic
+question is discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe who wander
+with their reindeer over the treeless plains which border on the White
+and Kara seas on either side of the Urals. In culture and habits they
+resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes, and there seems to be no adequate
+reason for separating them.
+
+
+  Other inclusions.
+
+Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian group, but
+some doubt must remain as to the propriety of the classification, either
+because they are now extinct, or because they are suspected of having
+changed their language.
+
+The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga before they
+invaded the country which now bears their name, were probably a tribe
+similar to the Magyars, though all record of their language is lost. It
+has been disputed whether the Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied
+parts of south Russia and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians
+or Turks, and there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs,
+which without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the
+difference ethnographically important. The formation of hordes of
+warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different races,
+was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably often a matter
+of chance what language was adopted as the common speech.
+
+At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who speak Tatar
+languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are also the
+Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified by Finnish
+influence. The little known Soyots of the head-waters of the Yenisei are
+also said to be Finno-Ugrians.
+
+The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas and Votes
+but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all Finno-Ugrian tribes,
+and to all extinct tribes of whatever race who have left tombs,
+monuments or relics of mining operations in European Russia or Siberia.
+Some Russian archaeologists use it specifically of the Permian group.
+But its extension is so vague that it is better to discard it as a
+scientific term.
+
+II. _Languages._--The Finno-Ugric languages are generally considered as
+a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists of four families:
+Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric, including Samoyede unless it is
+reckoned separately as a fifth. The chief character of the group is that
+agglutination, or the addition of suffixes, is the only method of
+word-formation, prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown,
+as is also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages,
+such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A connexion
+between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has also been suggested.
+On the other hand, the more highly developed agglutinative languages,
+such as Finnish, approach the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan
+languages may have been developed from an ancestor not unlike the
+Ural-Altaic group.
+
+The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other divisions of
+the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabulary. Compared with
+Mongol and Manchu they have a much greater wealth of forms, both in
+declension and conjugation; the suffixes form one word with the root and
+are not wholly or partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal
+element is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and
+nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages, but
+Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting position or
+motion, and the union of the case termination with the noun is more
+complete; in some languages the object can be incorporated in the verb,
+which does not occur in Turkish, but the negative is rarely
+(Cheremissian) thus incorporated after the Turkish fashion (e.g.
+_yazmak_, "to write"; _yazmamak_, "not to write"), and in some languages
+takes pronominal suffixes (Finnish _en tule_, _et tule_, _eivat tule_,
+"I, you, they do not come"). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in
+Finnish and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed,
+or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns and
+particles exist and are fully developed in some languages. The tendency
+to form compounds, which is not characteristic of Turkish, is very
+marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is said also to be found in
+Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian. The original order in the sentence
+seems to be that the governing word follows the word governed, but there
+are many exceptions to this, particularly in Hungarian where the
+arrangement is very free.
+
+In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of Turkish,
+Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance between the numbers.
+Many of the languages contain numerous Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but
+with this exception the resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and
+indicates an ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of
+word-building and of the elements used, even if they have not the same
+sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of sentences and
+in some details (e.g. the use of the infinitive or verbal substantive),
+seem to justify the hypothesis of an original relationship with the
+Turkish languages, which in their turn have connexions with the other
+groups.
+
+Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by some among the
+Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate displays a far closer
+resemblance to them in both grammar and vocabulary than do any of the
+Turkish languages. The numerals are different, but the personal and
+interrogative pronouns and many common words (e.g. _joha_, "river,"
+Finn. _joki_; _sava_, "good," Finn, _hywa_; _kole_, "fish," Finn,
+_kala_) show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is
+very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb differs, verb
+and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In detail, however, the
+verbal suffixes show analogies to those of Finno-Ugrian. Vowel-harmony
+and weakening of consonants occur as in Finnish.
+
+Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be divided into two
+sections: (1) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak, Vogul and Magyar; and (2)
+Finnish. The Permian languages (Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a
+distinct group within this latter section, and the remainder may be
+divided into the Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West
+Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).
+
+The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the Finnish branch
+before the systems of declension or conjugation were developed. Their
+case suffixes seem to be later formations, though we find, _t_, _tl_ or
+_k_ for the plural and traces of _l_ as a local suffix. Ostiak and
+Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods and tenses are less numerous
+but the number of verbal forms is increased by those in which the
+pronominal object is incorporated. Hungarian has naturally advanced
+enormously beyond the stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks
+of strong European influence, but also retains primitive features.
+Vowel-harmony is observed (_varok_, "I await," but _verek_, "I strike").
+The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive or
+intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated. Alone
+among Finno-Ugrian languages it has developed an article, and the
+adjective is inflected when used as a predicate though not as an
+attribute (_Jo emberek_, "good men," but _Az emberek jok_, "the men are
+good"). There is great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish,
+a tendency to form long compounds.
+
+The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by any striking
+differences, but show greater resemblances to one another in details.
+None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian an objective conjugation.
+The case system is elaborate and generally comprises twelve or fifteen
+forms. The negative conjugation is peculiar; there are negative
+adjectives ending in _tem_ or _tom_ and abessive cases (e.g. Finnish
+_syytta_, without a cause, _tiedotta_, without knowledge).
+
+Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development less fully
+than the more western languages. They are less completely inflected than
+the Finnish languages and more thoroughly agglutinative in the strict
+sense. In vocabulary, e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the
+Ugrian division. Syryenian has older literary remains than any
+Finno-Ugrian language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th
+century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals and
+translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.
+
+Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of the Volga
+Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been influenced by Russian and
+Tatar rather than by Scandinavian, and hence show apparent differences.
+But Mordvinian has points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem
+to point to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of _kemen_ for
+ten, _-nza_ as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the
+regular formation of the imperfect with _i_, the infinitive with _ma_,
+and the participle with _f_ (Finnish _va_). On the other hand it has
+many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation like the Ugrian
+languages, and has developed two forms of declension, the definite and
+indefinite.
+
+Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages and
+Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations and also in
+marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable (Syry. _yas_,
+Cher. _vlya_) between the singular and the case suffixes. Most of the
+numerals are like Syryenian but _kandekhsye_, _indekhsye_, for eight and
+nine, recall Finnish forms (_kahdeksan_, _yhdeksan_), as do also the
+pronouns.
+
+The connexion between the various West Finnish languages is more obvious
+than between those already discussed. Lappish (or Lapponic) forms a link
+between them and Mordvinian. Its pronouns are remarkably like the
+Mordvinian equivalents, but the general system of declension and
+conjugation, both positive and negative, is much as in Finnish.
+Superficially, however, the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the
+difference in phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for
+diphthongs and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.
+
+The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and Livish) to
+Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but to the casual
+learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than Finnish, but on the
+whole is less primitive and has assumed under foreign influence the
+features of a European language even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony
+is found only in the Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the
+pronominal affixes are not used, and the negative has become an
+unvarying particle, though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in
+Finnish. On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the
+general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and the
+positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish. Esthonian
+has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and a certain amount
+of literary culture, the best-known work being the national epic or
+_Kalewi-poeg_.
+
+Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian or
+Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken language of the
+Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian, but the _Kalewala_ and
+their other old songs are written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has
+come to be accepted as the ordinary language of poetry throughout modern
+Finland, just as the Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic
+poetry. It is more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves
+many old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is
+softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in
+ordinary speech, e.g. _saa'a, kosen_ for _saada, kosken_.
+
+The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the group is
+clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian and in its
+present form consists of non-Aryan material recast in an Aryan and
+European mould. Not only are some of the simplest words borrowed from
+Scandinavian, but the grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan
+peculiarities have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian.
+The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with a string
+of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms a whole with the
+root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the adjective is declined and
+compared and agrees with its substantive; compound tenses are formed
+with the aid of the auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of
+relative pronouns and particles.
+
+Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting examples of
+non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both translation and
+imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it may be doubted if the
+experiment is successful. The sense of effort is felt less in Hungarian
+than in the other languages; though they are admirable instruments for
+terse conversation or popular poetry, there appears to be some
+deep-seated difference in the force of the verb and the structure of
+phrases which renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to
+express sentences of the type common in European literature.
+
+III. _Civilization and Religion._--The Finno-Ugric tribes have not been
+equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and Magyars, have adopted,
+at least in towns, the ordinary civilization of Europe; others are
+agriculturists; others still nomadic. The wilder tribes, such as the
+Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly consist of one section which is
+nomadic and another which is settling down. The following notes apply to
+traces of ancient conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere
+universal. Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike,
+though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages as they
+advanced among this older population. But most Finno-Ugrians are astute
+and persevering hunters, and the Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow.
+The tribes are divided into numerous small clans which are exogamous.
+Marriage by capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are
+still polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the
+more general form. Women are treated as servants and often excluded
+from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive form of house
+consists of poles inclined towards one another and covered with skins or
+sods, so as to form a circular screen round a fire; winter houses are
+partly underground. Long snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are
+largely employed in summer. The Finns in particular are very good
+seamen. The Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden
+moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different languages,
+which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that the original system
+did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude for calculating and
+trading is not great. Several thousands of the Ostiaks, Voguls and
+Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much paganism lingers among the
+nominal Christians, and in poetry such as the _Kalewala_. The deities
+are chiefly nature spirits and the importance of the several gods varies
+as the tribes are hunters, fishermen, &c. Sun or sky worship is found
+among the Samoyedes and _Jumala_, the Finnish word for god, seems
+originally to mean sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river
+Obi and also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns,
+Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by each clan
+with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship are also found. The
+Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice to ghosts, and the Ostiaks
+to make images of the more important dead, which are tended and
+honoured, as if alive, for some years. Images are found in the tombs and
+barrows of most tribes, and the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use
+idols, generally of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of
+the idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations of
+Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are said to
+sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is due to possession
+by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and cured by spells, seems to
+prevail among all tribes, and in general extraordinary power is supposed
+to reside in incantations and magical formulae. This belief is
+conspicuous in the _Kalewala_, and almost every tribe has its own
+collection of prayers, healing charms and spells to be used on the most
+varied occasions. A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards
+(Finnish noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples. They
+are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the will of the gods; a
+magic drum plays a great part in their invocations, and their office is
+generally hereditary. The non-Buddhist elements of Chinese and Japanese
+religion present the same features as are found among the
+Finno-Ugrians--nature-worship, ancestor-worship and exorcism--but in a
+much more elaborate and developed form.
+
+IV. _History._--Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history or
+written records, and little in the way of traditions of their past. In
+their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter to some extent the
+course of ordinary European history. For the earlier period we have no
+positive information, but the labours of investigators, especially in
+Finland, have collected a great number of archaeological and
+philological data from which an account of the ancient wanderings of
+these tribes may be constructed. Barrows containing skulls and ornaments
+may mark the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be
+of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan words of
+an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact with the other
+language from which it borrowed at the time when such forms were
+current. But clearly all such deductions contain a large element of
+theory, and the following sketch is given with all reserve.
+
+The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the Urals and
+spoke a common language. It is not certain if they were all of the same
+physical type, for the association of different races speaking one
+language is common in central Asia. They were hunters and fishermen, not
+agriculturists. At an unknown period the Finns, still undivided, moved
+into Europe and perhaps settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps
+arrived there before 1500 B.C., learned some rudiments of agriculture,
+and developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still in the
+neolithic stage. About 600 B.C. they came in contact with an Iranian
+people, from whom they learned the use of metals, and borrowed numerals
+for a hundred (Finnish _sata_, Ostiak _sat_, Magyar _szaz_; cf. Zend
+_sata_) and a thousand (Magyar _ezer_; cf. _hazanra_ and _hazar_).
+Magyar and some other languages also borrowed a word for ten (_tiz_, cf.
+_das_). This Iranian race may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are
+believed by many authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented
+by the Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route up the
+Volga in the 4th century B.C. About that time the Western Finns must
+have broken away from the Mordvinians and wandered north-westwards. At a
+period not much later than the Christian era, they must have come in
+contact with Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also
+with Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter first
+in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as there may
+have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces. But the distribution of
+tombs and barrows seems to indicate that they entered Finland not from
+the east through Karelia but from the Baltic provinces by sea to
+Satakunta and the south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From
+both Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous quantity of
+culture-words and probably the ideas and materials they indicate. Thus
+the Finnish words for gold, king and everything concerned with
+government are of Scandinavian origin. Their migration to Finland was
+probably complete about A.D. 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later
+as Russians were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns
+northwards, overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country
+between St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to drive the
+Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east. The Finns know the
+Russians by the name of _Venaja_, or Wends, and as this name is not used
+by Slavs themselves but by Scandinavians and Teutons, it seems clear
+that they arrived among the Finns as greater strangers than the
+Scandinavians and known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps
+first preached to the Finns as early as A.D. 1000, but there was a long
+political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of the 13th
+century Finland was definitely converted and annexed to Sweden,
+remaining a dependency of that country until 1809, when it was ceded to
+Russia.
+
+The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward movement and
+did not fall under western influences but came into contact with Tatar
+tribes and were more or less Tatarized. In some cases this took the form
+of the adoption of a Tatar language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and
+Votiak) a large number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that
+there were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting
+to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such was Great
+Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the Mongols in 1238. The
+pressure of tribes farther east acting on these settlements dislodged
+sections of them from time to time and created the series of invasions
+which devastated the East Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But
+we do not know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians,
+Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were Turks,
+Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking a Ugrian
+language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspection of the
+performances of the various tribes, as far as we can distinguish them,
+suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the warlike element. The names
+Hun and Hungarian may possibly be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot
+assume that this tribe passed across Asia unchanged in language and
+physique. The Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of
+the 9th century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and
+conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or so before
+this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu, probably a
+district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The isolated groups of
+Hungarians now found in Transylvania and called Szeklers are considered
+the purest descendants of the invading Magyars. Those who settled in the
+plains of Hungary probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars
+and earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as
+Pechenegs and Kumans.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the older writers may be mentioned Strahlenberg
+  (_Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia_, 1730), Johann
+  Gottlieb Georgi (_Description de toutes les nations de l'empire de la
+  Russie_, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777); but especially the various
+  works of Matthias A. Castren (1852-1853) and W. Schott (1858). Modern
+  scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their languages was
+  founded by these two authors. Among newer works some of the most
+  important separate publications are: J.R. Aspelin, _Antiquites du nord
+  finno-ougrien_ (1877-1884); J. Abercromby, _Pre- and Proto-historic
+  Finns_ (1898); and A. Hackmann, _Die altere Eisenzeit in Finnland_
+  (1905).
+
+  The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and
+  languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not
+  in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there
+  are several: _Journal de la Societe Finno-ougrienne_ (Helsingfors)
+  (_Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja_); _Finnisch-Ugrische
+  Forschungen_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig); _Mitteilungen der
+  archaologischen, historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der
+  Kais. Universitat zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les
+  etudes ouralo-altaiques_ (Budapest). In all of these will be found
+  numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halevy,
+  Heikel, Krohn, Muncacsi, Paasonen, Setala, Smurnow, Thomsen and
+  Vambery.
+
+  The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the
+  headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions
+  may be consulted the works of Castren, Schott and Otto Donner, also
+  such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages: Byrne,
+  _Principles of the Structure of Language_, vol. i. (1892); Friedrich
+  Muller, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft II._, Band ii., Abth. 1882;
+  Steinthal and Misleli, _Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft_ (1893).
+       (C. El.)
+
+
+
+
+FINSBURY, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N.
+by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the city of London and W. by
+Holborn and St Pancras. Pop. (1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares
+are Pentonville Road, from King's Cross east to the Angel, Islington,
+continuing E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate
+Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre from W. to
+E., King's Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon Road, and so to the
+City; St John Street and Road and Goswell Road (the residence of
+Dickens' Pickwick) running S. from the Angel towards the City; and
+Rosebery Avenue running S.W. from St John Street into Holborn. The
+commercial character of the City extends into the southern part of the
+borough; the residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local
+industries include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing
+and paper-making.
+
+An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation is not known.
+The place was supposed by some to take name from an extensive fen, a
+part of which, commonly known as Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was
+drained in the 16th century and subsequently laid out as public grounds.
+It was a frequent resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of
+entertainment and the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that
+it furnished a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in
+the fire of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous at
+a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of Clerkenwell
+(q.v.), a locality of considerable historic interest, including the
+former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which the gateway and other
+traces remain. Among several other sites and buildings of historical
+interest the Charterhouse (q.v.) west of Aldersgate Street, stands
+first, originally a Carthusian monastery, subsequently a hospital and a
+school out of which grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill
+Fields, City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the
+middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons interred
+here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother of John and Charles
+Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends. A
+neighbouring chapel is intimately associated with the Wesleys, and the
+house of John Wesley is opened as a museum bearing his name. Many
+victims of the plague were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields,
+near the junction of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the
+fields lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable
+Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and armoury.
+Sadler's Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as a place of
+entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a fashionable medicinal
+spring, music room and theatre, the last most notable in its connexion
+with the names of Joseph Grimaldi the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other
+institutions are the technical college, Leonard Street, and St Mark's,
+St Luke's and the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the
+parcels department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green
+the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the Thames).
+Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the New River Head. The
+municipal borough coincides with the east and central divisions of the
+parliamentary borough of Finsbury, each returning one member. The
+borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors.
+Area, 589.1 acres.
+
+
+
+
+FINSTERWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
+Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster, 28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The town has a Gothic church (1581), a
+chateau, schools, cloth and cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and
+saw mills and factories for machine building. The town, which is first
+mentioned in 1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635
+and of Prussia in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+FIORENZO DI LORENZO (c. 1440-1522), Italian painter, of the Umbrian
+school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most of his authentic works
+are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There is probably no other
+Italian master of importance of whose life and work so little is known.
+In fact the whole edifice that modern scientific criticism has built
+around his name is based on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in
+the Pinacoteca of Perugia--a niche with lunette, two wings and
+predella--and on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that
+city in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint an
+altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova--the pentatych of the "Madonna and
+Saints" now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth and death and pupilage
+nothing is known, and Vasari does not even mention Fiorenzo's name,
+though he probably refers to him when he says that Cristofano,
+Perugino's father, sent his son to be the shop drudge of a painter in
+Perugia, "who was not particularly distinguished in his calling, but
+held the art in great veneration and highly honoured the men who
+excelled therein." Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino
+and of Pinturicchio show certain mannerisms which point towards
+Fiorenzo's influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some
+fifty pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes
+works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be surprised
+to find great divergence of opinion as regards the masters under whom
+Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied. Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo
+Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione,
+Filippo Lippi, Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with
+this distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter that
+stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the probability is that
+he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly influenced by Gozzoli.
+Fiorenzo's authentic works are remarkable for their sense of space and
+for the expression of that peculiar clear, soft atmosphere which is so
+marked a feature in the work of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity
+of feeling and a power of expressing character which are far removed
+from the somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures
+bearing Fiorenzo's name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight charming
+St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-authenticated works,
+so Florentine in conception and movement, that the Perugian's authorship
+is very questionable. On the other hand the beautiful "Nativity," the
+"Adoration of the Magi," and the "Adoration of the Shepherds" in the
+same gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the
+fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco at Deruta.
+The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the Frankfort museums
+contain each a "Madonna and Child" ascribed to the master, but the
+attribution is in each case open to doubt.
+
+  See Jean Carlyle Graham, _The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo_
+  (Perugia, 1903); Edward Hutton, _The Cities of Umbria_ (London).
+       (P. G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
+Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft. above sea-level.
+Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via Aemilia, and has a
+picturesque piazza with an old tower in the centre. The Palazzo Grossi
+also is a fine building. Alseno lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is
+the Cistercian abbey of Chiaravalle della Colomba, with a fine Gothic
+church and a large and beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble),
+of the 12th-14th century.
+
+
+
+
+FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS (1748-1821), German painter and historian of
+art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th of October 1748. He received his
+first instructions in art at an academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in
+1761, to continue his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to
+Bologna, where he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769
+admission to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained
+the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick. In 1781
+he removed to Gottingen, occupied himself as a drawing-master, and was
+named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints at the university
+library. He was appointed professor extraordinary in the philosophical
+faculty in 1799, and ordinary professor in 1813. During this period he
+had made himself known as a writer by the publication of his _Geschichte
+der zeichnenden Kunste_, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in
+1815 to 1820 by the _Geschichte der zeichnenden Kunste in Deutschland
+und den vereinigten Niederlanden_, in 4 vols. These works, though not
+attaining to any high mark of literary excellence, are esteemed for the
+information collected in them, especially on the subject of art in the
+later middle ages. Fiorillo practised his art almost till his death, but
+has left no memorable masterpiece. The most noticeable of his painting
+is perhaps the "Surrender of Briseis." He died at Gottingen on the 10th
+of September 1821.
+
+
+
+
+FIR, the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch pine (_Pinus
+sylvestris_), but at present not infrequently employed as a general term
+for the whole of the true conifers (_Abielineae_); in a more exact
+sense, it has been transferred to the "spruce" and "silver firs," the
+genera _Picea_ and _Abies_ of most modern botanists.
+
+The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having their
+needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of growing in
+clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their cones are composed of
+thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales, each with a more or less
+conspicuous bract springing from the base. The trees have usually a
+straight trunk, and a tendency to a conical or pyramidal growth,
+throwing out each year a more or less regular whorl of branches from the
+foot of the leading shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend
+horizontally.
+
+In the spruce firs (_Picea_), the cones are pendent when mature and
+their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the shoots,
+though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally. In the genus
+_Abies_, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their scales drop off
+when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct rows on each side of
+the shoot.
+
+The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the Norway
+spruce (_Picea excelsa_), so well known in British plantations, though
+rarely attaining there the gigantic height and grandeur of form it often
+displays in its native woods. Under favourable conditions of growth it
+is a lofty tree, with a nearly straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in
+somewhat irregular whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed
+with dark, clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as
+they increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even
+in large trees, often sweeping the ground--a habit that, with the jagged
+sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses, gives a peculiarly
+graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway spruce. The slender,
+sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered thickly around the shoots;
+the upper one pressed towards the stem, and the lower directed sideways,
+so as to give a somewhat flattened appearance to the individual sprays.
+The elongated cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper
+branches; they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and
+eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the
+extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge their seeds
+until the following spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Male Flowers.
+A, branch bearing male cones, reduced; B, single male cone, enlarged; C,
+single stamen, enlarged.]
+
+The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on most of the
+mountain ranges of northern and central Europe; while in Asia it occurs
+at least as far east as the Lena, and in latitude extends from the
+Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle. On the Swiss Alps it is one
+of the most prevalent and striking of the forest trees, its dark
+evergreen foliage often standing out in strong contrast to the snowy
+ridges and glaciers beyond. In the lower districts of Sweden it is the
+predominant tree in most of the great forests that spread over so large
+a portion of that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part
+of the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according to
+Franz Christian Schubeler, on the mountain slopes up to an altitude of
+from 2800 to 3100 ft., and clothing the shores of some of the fjords to
+the water's edge; in the higher regions it is generally mingled with the
+pine. Less abundant on the western side of the fjelds, it again forms
+woods in Nordland, extending in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to
+the 67th parallel; but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at
+a greater elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish
+Lapland it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft.,
+its upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In all the
+Scandinavian countries it is known as the _Gran_ or _Grann_. Great
+tracts of low country along the southern shores of the Baltic and in
+northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce. It everywhere shows
+a preference for a moist but well-drained soil, and never attains its
+full stature or luxuriance of growth upon arid ground, whether on plain
+or mountain--a peculiarity that should be remembered by the planter. In
+a favourable soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of
+the stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of from
+150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5 to 6 ft. at the
+base. But when it grows in dense woods, where the lower branches decay
+and drop off early, only a small head of foliage remaining at the
+tapering summit, its stem, though frequently of great height, is rarely
+more than 1-1/2 or 2 ft. in thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight
+leading shoot, in the vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2-1/2
+or even 3 ft. in a single season. In its native habitats it is said to
+endure for several centuries; but in those countries from which the
+commercial supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection
+in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  SILVER FIR (_Abies pectinata_).
+  A, Cone and foliage.
+
+  SPRUCE FIR (_Picea excelsa_).
+  B, Cone and foliage.
+
+  HEMLOCK SPRUCE (_Tsuga canadensis_)
+  C, Cone, seed and foliage.
+
+  DOUGLAS FIR (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_).
+  D, Cone, seed and foliage.
+
+  _Photos by Henry Irving_.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  CYPRESS (_Cupressus sempervirens_).
+  A, Cone and branchlets.
+
+  JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_).
+  B, Fruit and foliage.
+
+  ARAUCARIA (_A. imbricata_, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle).
+  C, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed.
+
+  YEW (_Taxus baccata_).
+  D, Seed and foliage.
+
+  Photos by Henry Irving.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Cones; scale
+with seeds. A, Branch bearing (a) young female cones, (b) ripe cones,
+reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, enlarged.]
+
+In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood is white,
+apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an open place, but, as
+produced in the close northern forests, often of fine and even grain.
+Immense quantities are imported into Britain from Norway, Sweden and
+Prussia, under the names of "white Norway," "Christiania" and "Danzig
+deal." The larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used
+for the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and
+rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably as
+lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears less
+adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from Sweden in a
+manufactured state, in the form of door and window-frames and
+ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap "white deal" furniture is
+made of this wood. The younger and smaller trees are remarkably durable,
+especially when the bark is allowed to remain on them; and most of the
+poles imported into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and
+similar uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often
+made of it, and are said to be lighter than those of pine. The best
+poles are obtained in Norway from small, slender, drawn-up trees,
+growing under the shade of the larger ones in the thick woods, these
+being freer from knots, and tougher from their slower growth. A variety
+of the spruce, abounding in some parts of Norway, produces a red
+heartwood, not easy to distinguish from that of the Norway pine (Scotch
+fir), and imported with it into England as "red deal" or "pine." This
+kind is sometimes seen in plantations, where it may be recognized by its
+shorter, darker leaves and longer cones. The smaller branches and the
+waste portion of the trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported
+as fire-wood, or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce
+is also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.
+
+The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded by the tree
+in less abundance than those furnished by the pine, are of considerable
+economic value. In Scandinavia a thick turpentine oozes from cracks or
+fissures in the bark, forming by its congelation a fine yellow resin,
+known commercially as "spruce rosin," or "frankincense"; it is also
+procured artificially by cutting off the ends of the lower branches,
+when it slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of
+Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce, a long
+strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin that
+slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in the latter part
+of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the following spring to
+ensure a continuance of the supply. The process is repeated every
+alternate year, until the tree no longer yields the resin in abundance,
+which under favourable circumstances it will do for twenty years or
+more. The quantity obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on
+the vigour of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected
+to the operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed, and
+the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value even for
+fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better sort of "Burgundy
+pitch" of the druggists is prepared. By the peasantry of its native
+countries the Norway spruce is applied to innumerable purposes of daily
+life. The bark and young cones afford a tanning material, inferior
+indeed to oak-bark, and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value
+in countries where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In
+Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over the
+floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses, as a
+fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting. The young
+shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of those northern
+latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to obtain. In times of
+scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the sweetish inner bark, beaten
+in a mortar and ground in his primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke
+out a scanty supply of meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable
+though somewhat resinous substitute for his ordinary _flad-brod_. A
+decoction of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy for
+scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential ingredient
+in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as an occasional
+beverage. The well-known "Danzig-spruce" is prepared by adding a
+decoction of the buds or cones to the wort or saccharine liquor before
+fermentation. Similar preparations are in use wherever the spruce fir
+abounds. The wood is burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being
+reckoned in Germany about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the
+widespreading roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland and
+Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are selected, split
+through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley of wood-ashes and salt,
+which, dissolving out the resin, loosens the fibres and renders them
+easily separable, and ready for twisting into cordage. Light portable
+boats are sometimes made of very thin boards of fir, sewn together with
+cord thus manufactured from the roots of the tree.
+
+The Norway spruce seems to have been the "Picea" of Pliny, but is
+evidently often confused by the Latin writers with their "Abies," the
+_Abies pectinata_ of modern botanists. From an equally loose application
+of the word "fir" by our older herbalists, it is difficult to decide
+upon the date of introduction of this tree into Britain; but it was
+commonly planted for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th
+century. In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as
+well as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for its
+successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be turned to
+agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for economic planting in
+Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which come to perfection in more
+bleak and elevated regions, and on comparatively barren ground, though
+it may perhaps be grown to advantage on some moist hill-sides and
+mountain hollows. Its great value to the English forester is as a
+"nurse" for other trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form
+render it admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the
+young saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out.
+For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a picturesque
+tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among the best of the
+conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet harmonizing with the olive
+green and rounded outline of oaks and beeches, or with the red trunk and
+glaucous foliage of the pine. When young its spreading boughs form good
+cover for game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are
+useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring. In a
+good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous size: one
+in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft. in height, and the
+trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the ground. The spruce bears the
+smoke of great cities better than most of the _Abietineae_; but in
+suburban localities after a certain age it soon loses its healthy
+appearance, and is apt to be affected with blight (_Eriosoma_), though
+not so much as the Scotch fir and most of the pines.
+
+The black spruce (_Picea nigra_) is a tree of more formal growth than
+the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle and in more
+regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce; and, though the lower
+ones become bent to a horizontal position, they do not droop, so that
+the tree has a much less elegant appearance. The leaves, which grow very
+thickly all round the stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a
+dark greyish-green. The cones, produced in great abundance, are short
+and oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are deep
+purple when young, but become brown as they ripen. The tree also occurs
+in the New England states and extends over nearly the whole of British
+North America, its northern limit occurring at about 67 deg. N. lat.,
+often forming a large part of the dense forests, mostly in the swampy
+districts. A variety with lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in
+Newfoundland and some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees
+usually grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great
+height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the Norway
+spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a diameter of 1-1/2
+or 2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty soil, and often grows
+luxuriantly in very moist situations. The wood is strong, light and very
+elastic, forming an excellent material for small masts and spars, for
+which purpose the trunks are used in America, and exported largely to
+England. The sawn timber is inferior to that of _P. excelsa_, besides
+being of a smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the
+log-houses of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks.
+The spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots of
+this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for some time in
+water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the resulting decoction is
+then poured into a cask with molasses or maple sugar and a little yeast,
+and left to ferment. It is often made by the settlers and fishermen of
+the St Lawrence region, being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The
+American "essence of spruce," occasionally used in England for making
+spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and
+concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree are of no
+great value. It was introduced into Britain at the end of the 17th
+century.
+
+The white spruce (_Picea alba_), sometimes met with in English
+plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce, the
+branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light glaucous
+green; the small light-brown cones are more slender and tapering than in
+_P. nigra_, and the scales have even edges. It is of comparatively small
+size, but is of some importance in the wilds of the Canadian dominion,
+where it is found to the northern limit of tree-vegetation growing up to
+at least 69 deg.; the slender trunks yield the only useful timber of
+some of the more desolate northern regions. In the woods of Canada it
+occurs frequently mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The
+fibrous tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used
+by the Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark covering of
+their canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark is employed to
+varnish over the seams. It was introduced to Great Britain at the end of
+the 17th century and was formerly more extensively planted than at
+present.
+
+The hemlock spruce (_Tsuga canadensis_) is a large tree, abounding in
+most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador; in lower
+Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often the prevailing tree.
+The short leaves are flat, those above pressed close to the stem, and
+the others forming two rows; they are of a rather light green tint
+above, whitish beneath. The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The
+large branches droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays
+are much lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most
+elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old, the branches,
+broken and bent down by the winter snows, give it a ragged but very
+picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently 3 ft. thick near the base.
+The hemlock prefers rather dry and elevated situations, often forming
+woods on the declivities of mountains. The timber is very much twisted
+in grain, and liable to warp and split, but is used for making
+plasterers' laths and for fencing; "shingles" for roofing are sometimes
+made of it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most
+valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are sometimes used
+for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It was introduced into
+Great Britain in about the year 1736.
+
+The Douglas spruce (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_), one of the finest
+conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes considerably
+more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures 8 or 10 ft. across.
+The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are of a deep green tint; the
+cones are furnished with tridentate bracts that project far beyond the
+scales. It forms extensive forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia
+and Oregon, whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its
+strength, durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep
+yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick bark. It
+was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery by David Douglas
+in 1827, and has been widely planted, but does not flourish well where
+exposed to high winds or in too shallow soil.
+
+Of the _Abies_ group, the silver fir (_A. pectinata_), may be taken as
+the type,--a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size, with large
+spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward the extremities. The
+flat leaves are arranged in two regular, distinct rows; they are deep
+green above, but beneath have two broad white lines, which, as the
+foliage in large trees has a tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery
+appearance from below. The large cones stand erect on the branches, are
+cylindrical in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which
+project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is of a
+silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to have been
+the true "Abies" of the Latin writers--the "pulcherrima abies" of
+Virgil. From early historic times it has been held in high estimation in
+the south of Europe, being used by the Romans for masts and all purposes
+for which timber of great length was required. It is abundant in most of
+the mountain ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in
+the northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the Caucasus
+and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Extensive woods of this
+fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree grows up to nearly 4000
+ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms great part of the extensive forest
+of the Hochwald, and occurs in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is
+plentiful likewise on the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior
+to that of _Picea excelsa_, but, being soft and easily worked, is
+largely employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all the
+purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently made of it,
+and it is in great esteem for carving and for the construction of
+stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the wood is more perishable
+than that of the spruce fir when exposed to the air, though it is said
+to stand well under water. The bark contains a large amount of a fine,
+highly-resinous turpentine, which collects in tumours on the trunk
+during the heat of summer. In the Alps and Vosges this resinous
+semi-fluid is collected by climbing the trees and pressing out the
+contents of the natural receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels
+held beneath them. After purification by straining, it is sold as
+"Strasburg turpentine," much used in the preparation of some of the
+finer varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar
+process as that from _Picea excelsa_. A fine oil of turpentine is
+distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse resin.
+Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th century, the silver
+fir has become common there as a planted tree, though, like the Norway
+spruce, it rarely comes up from seed scattered naturally. There are many
+fine trees in Scotland; one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his
+_Sylva Britannica_, then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In
+the more southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90
+ft., and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young
+shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on light
+soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents a
+ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top and horizontal
+boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque relief above the rounded
+summits of the neighbouring trees. The silver fir flourishes in a deep
+loamy soil, and will grow even upon stiff clay, when well drained--a
+situation in which few conifers will succeed. On such lands, where
+otherwise desirable, it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones
+do not ripen till the second year.
+
+The silver fir of Canada (_A. balsamea_), a small tree resembling the
+last species in foliage, furnishes the "Canada balsam"; it abounds in
+Quebec and the adjacent provinces.
+
+Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies, and some
+furnish valuable products in their native countries; but they are not
+yet of sufficient economic or general interest to demand mention here.
+
+  For further information see Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed.,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+FIRDOUSI, FIRDAUSI or FIRDUSI, Persian poet. Abu 'l Kasim Mansur (or
+Hasan), who took the _nom de plume_ of Firdousi, author of the epic poem
+the _Shahnama_, or "Book of Kings," a complete history of Persia in
+nearly 60,000 verses, was born at Shadab, a suburb of Tus, about the
+year 329 of the Hegira (941 A.D.), or earlier. His father belonged to
+the class of _Dihkans_ (the old native country families and landed
+proprietors of Persia, who had preserved their influence and status
+under the Arab rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of
+Tus (in Khorasan). Firdousi's own education eminently qualified him for
+the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook, for he was profoundly
+versed in the Arabic language and literature and had also studied deeply
+the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was conversant with the ancient
+historical records which existed in that tongue.
+
+The _Shahnama_ of Firdousi (see also PERSIA: _Literature_) is perhaps
+the only example of a poem produced by a single author which at once
+took its place as the national epic of the people. The nature of the
+work, the materials from which it was composed, and the circumstances
+under which it was written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and
+necessarily tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the
+empire and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series
+of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient
+sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory of so
+imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th century of the
+Christian era we find mention made of these historical traditions in the
+work of an Armenian author, Moses of Chorene (according to others, he
+lived in the 7th or 8th century). During the reign of Chosroes I.
+(Anushirvan) the contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch,
+an attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the kingdom,
+all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient kings, and the
+results were deposited in the royal library. During the last years of
+the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed, the former collection being
+revised and greatly added to by the Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by
+several learned mobeds. His work was entitled the _Khoda'inama_, which
+in the old dialect also meant the "Book of Kings." On the Arab invasion
+this work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the
+iconoclastic caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately
+preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira being
+paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a learned Persian who
+had embraced Islam. Other Guebres occupied themselves privately with the
+collection of these traditions; and, when a prince of Persian origin,
+Yakub ibn Laith, founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing
+off his allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the
+work of his illustrious predecessors. His "Book of Kings" was completed
+in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely circulated in Khorasan and
+Irak. Yakub's family did not continue long in power; but the Samanid
+princes who succeeded applied themselves zealously to the same work, and
+Prince Nuh II., who came to the throne in 365 A.H. (A.D. 976), entrusted
+it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki's labours were
+brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination, and the fall of the
+Samanian house happened not long after, and their kingdom passed into
+the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahmud ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the
+dynasty (998-1030), continued to make himself still more independent of
+the caliphate than his predecessors, and, though a warrior and a
+fanatical Moslem, extended a generous patronage to Persian literature
+and learning, and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic
+institutions. The task of continuing and completing the collection of
+the ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted
+him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many of the
+influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount of materials for the
+work, and after having searched in vain for a man of sufficient learning
+and ability to edit them faithfully, and having entrusted various
+episodes for versification to the numerous poets whom he had gathered
+round him, he at length made choice of Firdousi. Firdousi had been
+always strongly attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun
+at an early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of the
+death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design of himself
+carrying out the work which the latter had only just commenced; and,
+although he had not then any introduction to the court, he contrived,
+thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed Lashkari, to procure a copy of
+the Dihkan Danishwer's collection, and at the age of thirty-six
+commenced his great undertaking. Abu Mansur, the governor of Tus,
+patronized him and encouraged him by substantial pecuniary support. When
+Mahmud succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the
+work, Firdousi was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni. At first
+court jealousies and intrigues prevented Firdousi from being noticed by
+the sultan; but at length one of his friends, Mahek, undertook to
+present to Mahmud his poetic version of one of the well-known episodes
+of the legendary history. Hearing that the poet was born at Tus, the
+sultan made him explain the origin of his native town, and was much
+struck with the intimate knowledge of ancient history which he
+displayed. Being presented to the seven poets who were then engaged on
+the projected epic, Abu 'l Kasim was admitted to their meetings, and on
+one occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud's request, in praise of his
+favourite Ayaz, with such success that the sultan bestowed upon him the
+name of Firdousi, saying that he had converted his assemblies into
+paradise (_Firdous_). During the early days of his sojourn at court an
+incident happened which contributed in no small measure to the
+realization of his ambition. Three of the seven poets were drinking in a
+garden when Firdousi approached, and wishing to get rid of him without
+rudeness, they informed him who they were, and told him that it was
+their custom to admit none to their society but such as could give proof
+of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed that each
+should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own to be the last, and
+all four ending in the same rhyme. Firdousi accepted the challenge, and
+the three poets having previously agreed upon three rhyming words to
+which a fourth could not be found in the Persian language, 'Ansari
+began--
+
+  "Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun";
+
+Farrakhi added--
+
+  "The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun";
+
+'Asjadi continued--
+
+  "Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior's johsun";[1]
+
+and Firdousi, without a moment's hesitation, completed the quatrain--
+
+  "Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun."
+
+The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdousi
+recited to them the battle as described in the _Shahnama_, and delighted
+and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.
+
+Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling and
+versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such marks of his
+favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet an enthusiastic
+panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of the _Shahnama_, and forms
+a curious contrast to the bitter satire which he subsequently prefixed
+to the book. The sultan ordered his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to
+pay to Firdousi a thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but
+the poet preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was
+finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct a
+dike for his native town of Tus, which suffered greatly from defective
+irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream of his childhood.
+Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy of Hasan Maimandi, who
+often refused to advance him sufficient for the necessaries of life,
+Firdousi passed the later portion of his life in great privation, though
+enjoying the royal favour and widely extended fame. Amongst other
+princes whose liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary
+difficulties, was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who
+sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy of the
+episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which Firdousi had sent him, and
+promised him a gracious reception if he should ever come to his court.
+As this prince belonged, like Firdousi, to the Shiah sect, while Mahmud
+and Maimandi were Sunnites, and as he was also politically opposed to
+the sultan, Hasan Maimandi did not fail to make the most of this
+incident, and accused the poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and
+patron, as well as of heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in
+the attack, and for some time Firdousi's position was very precarious,
+though his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work
+prevented him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the
+misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.
+
+At length, after thirty-five years' work, the book was completed (1011),
+and Firdousi entrusted it to Ayaz, the sultan's favourite, for
+presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi to take the poet as
+much gold as an elephant could carry, but the jealous treasurer
+persuaded the monarch that it was too generous a reward, and that an
+elephant's load of silver would be sufficient. 60,000 silver dirhems
+were accordingly placed in sacks, and taken to Firdousi by Ayaz at the
+sultan's command, instead of the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse,
+which had been promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and
+seeing the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold,
+received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he
+complained to Ayaz that he had not executed the sultan's order. Ayaz
+related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan Maimandi, and
+Firdousi in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to Ayaz himself, the same
+amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the rest to a beer seller for a
+glass of beer (_fouka_), sending word back to the sultan that it was not
+to gain money that he had taken so much trouble. On hearing this
+message, Mahmud at first reproached Hasan with having caused him to
+break his word, but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master's
+anger upon Firdousi to such an extent that he threatened that on the
+morrow he would "cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the feet of his
+elephants." Being apprised by one of the nobles of the court of what had
+taken place, Firdousi passed the night in great anxiety; but passing in
+the morning by the gate that led from his own apartments into the
+palace, he met the sultan in his private garden, and succeeded by humble
+apologies in appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being
+appeased himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Returning
+home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses which he had
+composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing to the grand mosque
+of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the place where the sultan was in
+the habit of praying, the following lines:--
+
+  "The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea.
+  What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein without
+  finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the sea."
+
+He then gave a sealed paper to Ayaz, begging him to hand it to the
+sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed, and set off on his
+travels with no better equipment than his staff and a dervish's cloak.
+At the expiration of the 20 days Ayaz gave the paper to the sultan, who
+on opening it found the celebrated satire which is now always prefixed
+to copies of the _Shahnama_, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest
+and severest pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage,
+sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture, but he
+was already in comparative safety. Firdousi directed his steps to
+Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of Jorjan, who at first
+received him with great favour, and promised him his continued
+protection and patronage; learning, however, the circumstances under
+which he had left Ghazni, he feared the resentment of so powerful a
+sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew already coveted his kingdom, and
+dismissed the poet with a magnificent present. Firdousi next repaired to
+Bagdad, where he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him
+to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic poem
+which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier gave Firdousi an
+apartment near himself, and related to the caliph the manner in which he
+had been treated at Ghazni. The caliph summoned him into his presence,
+and was so much pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which
+Firdousi composed in his honour, that he at once received him into
+favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to
+chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however,
+somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph's eyes; in order therefore to
+recover his prestige, Firdousi composed another poem of 9000 couplets on
+the theme borrowed from the Koran of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar's
+wife--_Yusuf and Zuleikha_ (edited by H. Ethe, Oxford, 1902; complete
+metrical translation by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem,
+though rare and little known, is still in existence--the Royal Asiatic
+Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time heard of his
+asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter menacing his liege
+lord, and demanding the surrender of the poet. Firdousi, to avoid
+further troubles, departed for Ahwaz, a province of the Persian Irak,
+and dedicated his _Yusuf and Zuleikha_ to the governor of that district.
+Thence he went to Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his
+intimate and devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon
+the frontier. Firdousi confided to him that he contemplated writing a
+bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the sultan
+of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of the latter,
+dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and remonstrated with
+Mahmud. Nasir Lek's message and the urgent representations of Firdousi's
+friends had the desired effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his
+intention of offering full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy
+Maimandi to death. The change, however, came too late; Firdousi, now a
+broken and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tus, and,
+while wandering through the streets of his native town, heard a child
+lisping a verse from his own satire in which he taunts Mahmud with his
+slavish birth:--
+
+  "Had Mahmud's father been what he is now
+   A crown of gold had decked this aged brow;
+   Had Mahmud's mother been of gentle blood,
+   In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood."
+
+He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his
+misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was buried in a
+garden, but Abu'l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of Tus, refused to read
+the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging that he was an infidel, and
+had devoted his life to the glorification of fire-worshippers and
+misbelievers. The next night, however, having dreamt that he beheld
+Firdousi in paradise dressed in the sacred colour, green, and wearing an
+emerald crown, he reconsidered his determination; and the poet was
+henceforth held to be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the
+Hegira (1020 A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion
+of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the meanwhile
+despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of gold to Firdousi,
+with a robe of honour and ample apologies for the past. But as the
+camels bearing the treasure reached one of the gates of the city,
+Firdousi's funeral was leaving it by another. His daughter, to whom they
+brought the sultan's present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister
+remembering his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for
+the river of Tus, this work was completed in honour of the poet's
+memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.
+
+  Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon that
+  prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by order of
+  Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is rejected by
+  modern scholars (see T. Noldeke, "Das iranische Nationalepos," in W.
+  Geiger's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii. pp. 150-158).
+
+  The _Shahnama_ is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends
+  current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, a
+  class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There
+  is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousi adhered faithfully
+  to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect
+  storehouse of the genuine traditions of the country.
+
+  The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of the
+  19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation in a
+  magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French government, by
+  the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. The size and number of
+  the volumes, however, and their great expense, made them difficult of
+  access, and Frau von Mohl published the French translation (1876-1878)
+  with her illustrious husband's critical notes and introduction in a
+  more convenient and cheaper form. Other editions are by Turner Macan
+  (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden,
+  1877-1883). There is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London,
+  1832; reprinted 1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly
+  rhymed and partly unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with
+  an introduction containing an account of Firdousi and the Shahnama;
+  the version by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work.
+  The episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers from
+  Matthew Arnold's poem. The only complete translation is Il Libro dei
+  Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author of a
+  history of Persian poetry.
+
+  See also E.G. Browne's _Literary History of Persia_, i., ii.
+  (1902-1906); T. Noldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shahnama,
+  editions, &c.; and H. Ethe, "Neupersische Litteratur," in the same
+  work.     (E. H. P.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A sort of cuirass.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE (in O. Eng. _fyr_; the word is common to West German languages, cf.
+Dutch _vuur_, Ger. _Feuer_; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit
+_pu_, _pavaka_, and Gr. [Greek: pur]; the ultimate origin is usually
+taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. _purus_), the term
+commonly used for the visible effect of combustion (see FLAME),
+operating as a heating or lighting agency.
+
+So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a question
+whether we have any authentic instance on record of a tribe altogether
+ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to be found in the voluminous
+literature of travel which would decide the question in the affirmative;
+but when they are carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be
+far from conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe
+in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the bamboo
+jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no better authority has
+been found for the statement, and the story, which seems to be current
+in eastern Africa, may be nothing else than the propagation of fables
+about the Pygmies whom the ancients located around the sources of the
+Nile. Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring
+expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island "there
+was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of fire," and that
+the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced by flint and steel
+and the smoke emitted by those with cigars in their mouths. The presence
+of the word _afi_, fire, in the Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the
+ethnographer of the expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as
+equivalent only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the
+supposition of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a
+missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word _afi_ in his list
+for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin of fire, and
+describes some peculiar customs connected with its use. Alvaro de
+Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us that the inhabitants of
+Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific, showed great fear when they saw
+fire--which they did not know before. But that island has not been
+identified with certainty by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to
+the Ladrones or Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre
+Gobien, "till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants,
+burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts ablaze,
+their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats up wood. Some
+of them having approached the fire too near were burnt, and the others
+kept aloof, fearing to be torn or poisoned by the powerful breath of
+that terrible animal." To this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone
+islanders made pottery before the arrival of Europeans, that they had
+words expressing the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and
+cooking. Let us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have
+been found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus the
+question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing impossible in
+the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe, it cannot be said
+that such a tribe has been discovered.
+
+It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that fire was
+subject to his control, and could even be called into being by
+appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon and its various aspects
+he must soon have become familiar. The volcano lit up the darkness of
+night and sent its ashes or its lava down into the plains; the lightning
+or the meteor struck the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less
+obvious cause produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is
+possible that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings
+save awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity as
+with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have bred
+confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary to suppose that
+the practical discovery of fire was made only at one given spot and in
+one given way; it is much more probable indeed that different tribes and
+races obtained the knowledge in a variety of ways.
+
+It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable to
+rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers in
+Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman bearing always
+about with her a burning brand, which it is one of her principal duties
+to protect and foster; and it has been supposed that it was only
+ignorance which imposed on her the endless task. This is absurd. The
+Australian methods of producing fire by the friction of two pieces of
+wood are perfectly well known, and are illustrated in Howitt's _Native
+Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a
+little trouble to the men.
+
+The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably in detail, but
+are for the most part merely modified applications of concussion or
+friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the working up of stone into
+implements must have been followed sooner or later by the discovery of
+fire; for in the process of chipping sparks were elicited, and in the
+process of polishing heat was generated. The first or concussion method
+is still familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of
+use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are
+comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians take two
+pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur, strike them
+together till the sulphur catches fire, and then transfer the flame to a
+heap of dry grass over which a few feathers have been scattered. Instead
+of two pieces of quartz the Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of
+iron pyrites. Mr Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken
+china violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same process
+in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China two pieces of bamboo
+are considered sufficient, the silicious character of the outside layer
+rendering it as good as native flint. The friction methods are more
+various. One of the simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and
+groove--"a blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own
+making in a piece of wood lying on the ground." Much, of course, depends
+on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the manipulator. In
+Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce fire in a few seconds, but
+only succeeded himself after much labour. The same device was employed
+in New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak
+Islands. Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards
+other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary
+piece of wood--thus making what Tylor has happily designated a
+fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia, Kamchatka,
+Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs of Ceylon, throughout a
+great part of southern Africa, among the Eskimo and Indian tribes of
+North America, in the West Indies, in Central America, and as far south
+as the Straits of Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient
+Mexicans, and Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a
+Mexican MS.--a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick to
+rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method of rotation
+seems to be very generally in use; but various devices have been
+resorted to for the purpose of diminishing the labour and hastening the
+result. The Gaucho of the Pampas takes "an elastic stick about 18 in.
+long, presses one end to his breast and the other in a hole in a piece
+of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's
+centre-bit." In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord
+or thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end and
+that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others put the upper
+end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold firmly in their mouth.
+A further advance was made by the Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who
+applied the principle of the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious
+pump-drill was used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of
+these instruments and a rich variety of details connected with
+fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor's valuable chapter in his
+_Researches_. These methods of producing fire are but rarely used in
+Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious observances. We read in
+Wuttke that some time ago the authorities of a Mecklenburg village
+ordered a "wild fire" to be lit against a murrain amongst the cattle.
+For two hours the men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was
+not to be ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the
+atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting to
+the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such a fire, to be
+efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded female was
+compelled to give in; fire was obtained---but of bad quality, for it did
+not stop the murrain.
+
+It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be concentrated by
+a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions the burning-lens in _The
+Clouds_, and the story of Archimedes using a mirror to fire the ships at
+Syracuse is familiar to every schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be
+trusted as an authority the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the
+sacred fire with a concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the
+burning-glass is in common use.
+
+To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the cosmogonies,
+those records of pristine speculative thought, do not give any reply
+which would not be found in the relations of travellers and historians.
+
+  They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes is
+  likewise the god of fire. At Mangaia it is told that the great Maui
+  went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making fire by
+  rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the tale
+  differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind
+  grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands. Wishing
+  to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out, and so he
+  obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every thing
+  melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother herself were
+  already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven, saved the hero and
+  the perishing world; but before the waters extinguished all the blaze,
+  Mahuika shut a few sparks into some trees, and thence men draw it now.
+  The Maoris have also the legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki's
+  footsteps, and that lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western
+  Point, Victoria, the Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened
+  the door of the sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that
+  Karakorok, the good man's good daughter, seeing the earth to be full
+  of serpents, went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had
+  killed them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame
+  burst out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the
+  Persian _Shahnama_ also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter.
+  Hushenk, the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone,
+  which, evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it.
+  "Light shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out
+  in glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." The
+  snake escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.
+
+  North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering
+  through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the
+  prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same idea
+  in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have been, among
+  many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on the Akmon or
+  hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that their ancestor
+  obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its
+  claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.
+
+  Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like
+  the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri,
+  the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by
+  hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children.
+  Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed "the secret of
+  the stone's edge and the iron's hardness." The Slavonian god of
+  thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from
+  his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head;
+  the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other.
+  Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six
+  little ones. Finnish poems describe how "fire, the child of the sun,
+  came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper,
+  in a large pail of gold." Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth
+  lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the
+  Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and
+  from the nail issued the "fiery babe." He gave it to the Wind's
+  daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea,
+  where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been
+  lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He
+  dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and
+  found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to
+  earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's chariot.
+
+Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses
+increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save the labour
+expended on the initial process of procuring light, or on carrying it
+about constantly, primitive men hit on the expedient of a fire which
+should burn night and day in a public building. The Egyptians had one in
+every temple, the Greeks, Latins and Persians in all towns and villages.
+The Natchez, the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their "national
+fires" burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the "eternal lamps"
+in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic churches, may be a
+survival. The "Regia," Rome's sacred centre, supposed to be the abode of
+Vesta, stood close to a fountain; it was convenient to draw from the
+same spot the two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and
+political interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was at
+once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: all
+public business and most private affairs were transacted by the light
+and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder that its flagstones
+should become sacred. Primitive communities consider as holy everything
+that ensures their existence and promotes their welfare, material things
+such as fire and water not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew
+into a religious institution. And if we hear a little more of fire
+worship than of water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole
+more difficult to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and
+the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the Roman
+temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all authority, all
+public or private business had to stop immediately. The connexion
+between heaven and earth had been broken, and it had to be restored in
+some way or other--either by Jove sending down divine lightning on his
+altars, or by the priests making a new fire by the old sacred method of
+rubbing two pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun
+in a concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier without
+carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum burned night
+and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the emigrants took with them
+living coals from the altar of Hestia, and had in their new country a
+fire lit as a representative of that burning in the mother country.[1]
+Not before the three curiae united their fires into one could Rome
+become powerful; and Athens became a shining light to the world only,
+we are told, when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought
+each its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated,
+making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated around
+Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.
+
+_Periodic Fires._--Because the sun loses its force after noon, and after
+midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the ancients
+inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, as time goes
+on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. Therefore men set
+about renewing the fires in the temples and on the hearth on the longest
+day of summer or at the beginning of the agricultural year. The ceremony
+was attended with much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites.
+Houses were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent
+lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels were
+made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by the creditor;
+criminals were released by the civil authorities in imitation of the
+heavenly judges, who were believed to grant on the same day a general
+remission of sins. All things were made new; each man turned over a new
+page in the book of his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in
+the Old World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried these
+ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated with magnificent
+ceremonies the renewal of the _saecula_, or astronomic periods, which
+might be shorter or longer than a century. Some details of the festival
+among the Aztecs have been preserved. On the last night of every period
+(52 years) every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn
+procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, the
+priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if they had a
+vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and stars, had been wound
+up like a clock for a definite period of time. And had they failed to
+raise the vital spark, they would have believed that it was because the
+great fire was being extinguished at the central hearth of the world.
+The Stoics and many other ancient philosophers thought that the world
+was doomed to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the
+end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, how the
+cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying everything. The
+Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is also found in the
+Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha (2 Esdras xvi. 15).
+
+  See Dupuis, _Origine de tous les cultes_ (1794); Burnout, _Science des
+  religions_; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert
+  Kuhn. _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Gottertranks_ (1859);
+  Steinthal, _Uber die ursprungliche Form der Sage von Prometheus_
+  (1861); Albert Reville, "Le Mythe de Promethee," in _Revue des deux
+  mondes_ (August 1862); Michel Breal, _Hercule et Cacus_ (1863); Tylor,
+  _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, ch. ix. (1865);
+  Bachofen, _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (1870); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric
+  Times_ (6th ed., 1900); Haug, _Religion of the Parsis_ (1878).
+       (E. Re.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among the
+    Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people with
+    a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care of a
+    so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating
+    from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
+    The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
+    temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
+    Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, had
+    each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die out,
+    they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, Pueblos and
+    Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins discussed
+    important affairs of state at the "council fires," around which each
+    _sachem_ marched three times, turning to it all the sides of his
+    person. "It was a saying among our ancestors," said an Iroquois chief
+    in 1753, "that when the fire goes out at Onondaga"--the Delphi of the
+    league--"we shall no longer be a people."
+
+
+
+
+FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this article, primarily,
+from the point of view of the protection against fire that can be
+accorded by preventive measures and by the organization of fire
+extinguishing establishments.
+
+History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in towns and
+cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. The following is
+a list of notable fires of early days:--
+
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
+
+   798. _London_, nearly destroyed.
+
+   982.    "    greater part of the city burned.
+
+  1086.    "    all houses and churches from the east to the west gate
+                  burned.
+
+  1212.    "    greater part of the city burned.
+
+  1666.    "    "The Great Fire," September 2-6.
+                It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
+                  for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres,
+                  400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul's
+                  church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall,
+                  the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals
+                  and libraries, 52 companies' halls, and a vast number
+                  of other stately edifices, together with three of the
+                  city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of
+                  Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street
+                  Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple
+                  church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six
+                  persons were killed. The total loss of property was
+                  estimated at the time to be L10,731,500.
+
+  1794. _London_, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
+                  L1,000,000.
+
+  1834.    "    Houses of Parliament burned.
+
+  1861.    "    Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at
+                  L2,000,000.
+
+  1873.    "    Alexandra palace destroyed.
+
+  1137. _York_, totally destroyed.
+
+  1184. _Glastonbury_, town and abbey burned.
+
+  1292. _Carlisle_, destroyed.
+
+  1507. _Norwich_, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.
+
+  1544. _Leith_, burned.
+
+  1598. _Tiverton_, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33
+                      persons killed. Loss, L150,000.
+
+  1612.     "      600 houses burned. Loss over L200,000.
+
+  1731.     "      300 houses burned.
+
+  1700. _Edinburgh_, "the Great Fire."
+
+  1612. _Cork_, greater part burned, and again in 1622.
+
+  1613. _Dorchester_, nearly destroyed. Loss, L200,000.
+
+  1614. _Stratford-on-Avon_, burned.
+
+  1644. _Beaminster_, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.
+
+  1675. _Northampton_, almost totally destroyed.
+
+  1683. _Newmarket_, large part of the town burned.
+
+  1694. _Warwick_, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.
+
+  1707. _Lisburn_, burned.
+
+  1727. _Gravesend_, destroyed.
+
+  1738. _Wellingborough_, 800 houses burned.
+
+  1743. _Crediton_, 450 houses destroyed.
+
+  1760. _Portsmouth_, dockyard burned. Loss, L400,000.
+
+  1770.      "           "        "    Loss, L100,000.
+
+  1802. _Liverpool_, destructive fire. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+  1827. _Sheerness_, 50 houses and much property destroyed.
+
+  1854. _Gateshead_, 50 persons killed. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+  1875. _Glasgow_. Great fire. Loss, L300,000.
+
+
+  FRANCE
+
+    59. _Lyons_, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.
+
+  1118. _Nantes_, greater part of the city destroyed.
+
+  1137. _Dijon_, burned.
+
+  1524. _Troyes_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1720. _Rennes_, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.
+
+  1784. _Brest_. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+  1862. _Marseilles_, destructive fire.
+
+  1871. _Paris_. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
+          L32,000,000.
+
+
+  CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE
+
+    64. _Rome_ burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were
+          destroyed.
+
+  1106. _Venice_, greater part of the city was burned.
+
+  1577.    "     fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
+                   an explosion.
+
+  1299. _Weimar_, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.
+
+  1379. _Memel_ was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540,
+          1678, 1854.
+
+  1405. _Bern_ was destroyed.
+
+  1420. _Leipzig_ lost 400 houses.
+
+  1457. _Dort_, cathedral and large part of the town burned.
+
+  1491. _Dresden_ was destroyed.
+
+  1521. _Oviedo_, large part of the city destroyed.
+
+  1543. _Komorn_ was burned.
+
+  1634. _Furth_ was burned by Austrian Croats.
+
+  1680. _Furth_ was again destroyed.
+
+  1686. _Landau_ was almost destroyed.
+
+  1758. _Pirna_ was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.
+
+  1762. _Munich_ lost 200 houses.
+
+  1764. _Konigsberg_, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, L600,000.
+
+  1769.      "       almost destroyed.
+
+  1784. _Rokitzan_ (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, L300,000.
+
+  1801. _Brody_, 1500 houses destroyed.
+
+  1859.   "    1000 houses destroyed.
+
+  1803. _Posen_, large part of older portion of city burned.
+
+  1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.
+
+  1818. _Salzburg_ was partly destroyed.
+
+  1842. _Hamburg_. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.
+           During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219
+             buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed.
+             One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100
+             persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to
+             L7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany
+             came in to help to rebuild the city.
+
+  1861. _Glarus_ (Switzerland), 500 houses burned.
+
+
+  NORTHERN EUROPE
+
+  1530. _Aalborg_, almost entirely destroyed.
+
+  1541. _Aarhuus_, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.
+
+  1624. _Opslo_, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.
+
+  1702. _Bergen_, greater part of the town destroyed.
+
+  1728. _Copenhagen_, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.
+
+  1794.       "       royal palace with contents burned.
+
+  1795.       "       50 streets, 1563 houses burned.
+
+  1751. _Stockholm_, 1000 houses destroyed.
+
+  1759.      "       250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.
+
+  1775. _Abo_, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.
+
+  1827.   "    780 houses burned, with the university.
+
+  1790. _Carlscrona_, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.
+
+  1802. _Gothenburg_, 178 houses burned.
+
+  1858. _Christiania_. Loss estimated at L250,000.
+
+  1865. _Carlstadt_ (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's
+          residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.
+
+
+  RUSSIA
+
+  1736. _St Petersburg_, 2000 houses burned.
+
+  1862.        "         great fire. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+  1752. _Moscow_, 18,000 houses burned.
+
+  1812.   "       The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive
+                    out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five
+                    days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number
+                    of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, L30,000,000.
+
+  1753. _Archangel_, 900 houses burned.
+
+  1793.      "       3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.
+
+  1786. _Tobolsk_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1788. _Milau_, nearly destroyed.
+
+  1812. _Riga_, partly destroyed.
+
+  1834. _Tula_, destructive fire.
+
+  1848. _Orel_, large part of the town destroyed.
+
+  1850. _Cracow_, large part of the town burned.
+
+  1864. _Novgorod_, large amount of property destroyed.
+
+
+  TURKEY
+
+    The following fires have occurred at _Constantinople_:--
+
+  1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.
+
+  1745. A fire lasted five days.
+
+  1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
+          estimated from L1,000,000 to L3,000,000. Later in the year
+          10,000 houses were destroyed.
+
+  1751. 4000 houses were burned.
+
+  1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761,
+          1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.
+
+  1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m.
+          in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly
+          650 houses were destroyed.
+
+  1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.
+
+  1778. 2000 houses were burned.
+
+  1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
+          mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In
+          February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.
+
+  1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
+          houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of
+          1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of
+          Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at
+          2,000,000 florins.
+
+  1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been
+          burned, and as many in 1795.
+
+  1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
+          magnificent buildings.
+
+  1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
+          were destroyed.
+
+  1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.
+
+  1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.
+
+  1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
+          L3,000,000.
+
+  1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c.
+          Over 22,000 people were left homeless.
+
+  1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population
+          and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed
+          over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city,
+          including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss
+          estimated at nearly L5,000,000.
+
+  1797. _Scutari_, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.
+
+  1763. _Smyrna_, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, L200,000.
+
+  1772.     "     3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c.
+                    consumed. Loss, L4,000,000.
+
+  1796.     "     4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.
+
+  1841.     "     12,000 houses were burned.
+
+
+  INDIA
+
+  1631. _Rajmahal_. Palace and great part of the town burned.
+
+  1799. _Manilla_, vast storehouses were burned.
+
+  1833.     "      10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
+                     rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.
+
+  1803. _Madras_, more than 1000 houses burned.
+
+  1803. _Bombay_. Loss by fire of L600,000.
+
+
+  CHINA AND JAPAN
+
+  1822. _Canton_ was nearly destroyed by fire.
+
+  1866. _Yokohama_, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the
+           foreign settlement destroyed.
+
+  1872. _Yeddo_. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind,
+                   destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m.
+                   20,000 persons were made homeless.
+
+  1873.    "     A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.
+
+
+  UNITED STATES
+
+  1679. _Boston_. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in
+                    the dockyards were consumed. Loss, L200,000.
+
+  1760.    "      A fire caused a loss estimated at L100,000.
+
+  1787.    "      A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.
+
+  1794.    "      96 buildings were burned. Loss, L42,000.
+
+  1872.    "      Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
+                    quarter of Boston was destroyed.
+         The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston
+           streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings,
+           comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the
+           city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about
+           L15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned
+           district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever.
+
+  1778. _Charleston_ (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of L100,000.
+
+  1796.       "      300 houses were burned.
+
+  1838.       "      One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
+                       buildings destroyed. Loss, L600,000.
+
+  1802. _Portsmouth_ (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.
+
+  1813.      "               397 buildings destroyed.
+
+  1820. _Savannah_, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, L800,000.
+
+  1835. _New York_. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
+                      Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in
+                      the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
+                      firms lost their places of business. The area
+                      burned over was 52 acres. The loss was L3,000,000.
+
+  1845.     "       A fire in the business part of the city, July 20,
+                      destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was L1,500,000.
+                      35 persons were killed.
+
+  1845. _Pittsburg_. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20
+                    squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, L2,000,000.
+
+  1846. _Nantucket_ was almost destroyed.
+
+  1848. _Albany_. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37
+           acres, one-third of the city. Loss, L600,000.
+
+  1849. _St Louis_. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part
+                      of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss,
+                      L600,000.
+
+  1851.     "       More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
+                      May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, L2,200,000.
+
+  1851.     "       500 buildings burned. Loss, L600,000.
+
+  1850. _Philadelphia_. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost.
+                          Loss, L200,000.
+
+  1865.      "          50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
+                          killed. Loss, L100,000.
+
+  1851. _Washington_. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the
+           Congressional Library were burned.
+
+  1851. _San Francisco_. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
+           A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
+           destroyed. Loss, upwards of L2,000,000. In June another fire
+           burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at L600,000.
+
+  1857. _Chicago_. A fire destroyed over L100,000. 14 lives lost.
+
+  1859.     "      Property destroyed worth L100,000, Sept. 15.
+
+  1866.     "      Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss,
+                     L100,000 each.
+
+  1871.     "      The greatest fire of modern times.
+          It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
+            raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or
+            3-1/3 sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
+            lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings
+            were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and
+            one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the
+            end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The
+            loss was estimated at L39,000,000.
+
+  1862. _Troy_ (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.
+
+  1866. _Portland_ (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city
+           was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown
+           up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, L2,000,000 to
+           L2,250,000.
+
+  1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
+          15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
+          estimated at L600,000.
+
+
+  BRITISH NORTH AMERICA
+
+  1815. _Quebec_ was injured to the extent of L260,000.
+
+  1845.     "    1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the
+                   population made homeless. Loss from L400,000 to
+                   L750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
+                   dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
+                   streets destroyed. Insurance losses, L60,770.
+
+  1866.     "    2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.
+
+  1825. _New Brunswick_. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in
+           length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons
+           killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss,
+           about L60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown
+           destroyed.
+
+  1837. _St John_ (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and
+           nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+  1877. _St. John._ Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200
+           acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed;
+           10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss,
+           L2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.
+
+  1846. _St John's_ (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two
+           whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at
+           L1,000,000.
+
+  1850. _Montreal_. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
+                      June 7. 200 houses were burned.
+
+  1852.      "      A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
+                      The space burned was 1 m. in length by 1/2 m. in
+                      width, including 1200 houses. Loss, L1,000,000.
+
+
+  SOUTH AMERICA
+
+  1536. _Cuzco_ was nearly consumed.
+
+  1861. _Mendoza_. A great fire followed an earthquake which had
+           destroyed 10,000 people.
+
+  1862. _Valparaiso_ was devastated by fire.
+
+  1863. _Santiago_. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly
+           women and children, perished.
+
+
+  WEST INDIES
+
+  1752. _Pierre_ (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.
+
+  1782. _Kingston_ (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, L500,000.
+
+  1795. _Montego Bay_ (Jamaica). Loss by fire of L400,000.
+
+  1805. _St Thomas._ 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, L6,000,000.
+
+  1808. _Spanish Town_ (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated
+           at L1,500,000.
+
+  1828. _Havana_ lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.
+
+  1843. _Port Republicain_ (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
+           burned.
+
+Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires,
+more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago,
+Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking
+generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated
+the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general
+negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the
+development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better
+organization of the fire-fighting establishments.
+
+It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire,
+and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:--
+
+  Port of Spain (Trinidad)              March  4, 1895
+  New Westminster (British Columbia)    Sept. 10, 1898
+  Toronto (Ontario)                     Jan. 6, 10, and
+                                        March  3, 1895
+  Windsor (Nova Scotia)                 Oct.  17, 1897
+  St John's (Newfoundland)              July   8, 1892
+  London--Charterhouse Square           Dec.  25, 1889
+    "     St Mary Axe                   July  18, 1893
+    "     Old Bailey and Fleet Street   Nov.  15, 1893
+    "     Tabernacle Street, Finsbury   June  21, 1894
+    "     Bermondsey Leather Market     Sept. 13, 1894
+    "         "        "       "        May   17, 1895
+    "     Minories                      Nov.  10, 1894
+    "     South-West India Docks        Feb.   8, 1895
+    "     Charlotte and Leonard
+            Streets, Finsbury           June  10, 1896
+    "     Cripplegate                   Nov.  19, 1897
+  Nottingham                            Nov.  17, 1894
+  Sheffield                             Dec.  21, 1893
+  Bradford                              Nov.  30, 1896
+  Sunderland                            July  18, 1898
+  Dublin                                May    4, 1894
+  Glasgow--Anderston Quay               Jan.  16, 1897
+    "      Dunlop Street                April 25, 1898
+
+As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary
+number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public
+entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention.
+Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in
+this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire
+prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in
+1897 (_Fires at Public Entertainments_), and the results of these fires
+analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350
+souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in
+other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list
+extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk
+of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has
+occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago.
+
+The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far
+greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and
+property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the
+fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual
+fire wastage of the world still averages quite L50,000,000 sterling. It
+is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss,
+insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the
+annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say
+1897), was about L17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially
+reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about L12,000,000 sterling. This
+extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,--in spite
+of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of
+property in buildings--is in the main owing to the fire-preventive
+measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great
+improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of
+intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the
+public.
+
+Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more
+particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England
+since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl's
+Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to
+have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization
+and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made
+by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the
+fire-preventive side of fire protection.
+
+_Fire Protection._--The term "Fire Protection" is often misunderstood.
+Fire-extinguishing--in other words, fire brigade work--is what the
+majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well
+protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine
+establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor role
+in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe
+their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive
+legislation, based on the practical experience and research of
+architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal
+officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire
+combating and fire research.
+
+Under the heading of "Fire Prevention" should be classed all preventive
+measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading
+"Fire Combating" should be classed both self-help and outside help.
+
+Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a
+rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in
+Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey
+regulations--supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the
+treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the
+manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of
+the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and
+continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious
+arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire
+reports.
+
+  Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
+  There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, had
+  some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school _Standard
+  Reader_ replaced by more instructive ones, which warn children not to
+  play with matches, and teach them to run for help in case of an
+  emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been arranged in place
+  of the meaningless sentences so often used in elementary schools.
+  There are a number of municipalities where regular warnings are issued
+  every December as to the dangerous Christmas-tree. In such places
+  every inhabitant has at least an opportunity of learning how to throw
+  a bucket of water properly, and how to trip up a burning woman and
+  roll her up without fanning the flames. The householder is officially
+  informed where the nearest fire-call point is, and how long he must
+  expect to wait till the first engine can reach his house. If he is a
+  newspaper reader, he will also have ample opportunity of knowing the
+  resources of his town, and the local reporter's fire report will give
+  him much useful information based on facts or hints supplied by the
+  authorities.
+
+Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the heading of
+"Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with the protection of large
+risks, such as factories, stores and public places of amusement, which
+lend themselves to regulation. The requirements of the fire survey code
+may allow for hydrants or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for
+their regular inspection, and the means for self-help may thus be given.
+These means will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some
+of the employes engaged on the risk are instructed as to their purpose,
+and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. The possibility
+of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be encouraged by enforcing
+regular drills for the employes, and regular inspections to test their
+efficiency. There are towns where great reliance is placed on the
+efforts of such amateur firemen. In some cities they even receive extra
+pay and are formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and
+retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.
+
+Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder can scarcely
+be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned for the education of
+the public, if properly utilized, would assure intelligent behaviour on
+the part of a large percentage of the community. There are places where,
+without any regulation being attempted, and thanks entirely to the
+influence referred to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a
+bucket, and a crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the
+household. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly
+encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference with
+personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, with
+the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple of scaling
+ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given to householders to
+learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box of this kind be put in
+a fire-station, and certain afternoons in the year be reserved on which
+this elementary instruction will be given, and the students afterwards
+shown over the fire-station or treated to a "turn-out," a considerable
+number will be found to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter
+whether curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will
+be attained.
+
+Under "outside" help should be understood what is organized, and not
+simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or by a neighbour.
+The link between self-help and outside help is the fire-call.
+
+_The Fire-Call._--The efficiency of the fire-call depends not only on
+the instrument employed and its position, but also on its conspicuous
+appearance, and the indications by which its situation may be
+discovered. These indications are quite as important as the instruments
+themselves. The conspicuousness of the instrument alone does not
+suffice. Of the official notifications given in the press, those in
+regard to the position of the call-points are among the most useful. An
+indication at every street corner as to the direction to take to reach
+the point--or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the
+nearest call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front
+door--may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize
+the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It is
+immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by bell outside
+a fire-station, by a messenger from some special messenger service, by a
+call through a telephone, or by an electric or automatic appliance. Any
+instrument will do that ensures the call being transmitted with maximum
+speed and certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the
+locality.
+
+_Outside Help._--Organized outside help may not be limited simply to the
+attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements can be made for the
+attendance of the local police force, a public or private salvage corps,
+an ambulance, or, in some cases, a military guard. Then in some
+instances arrangements are made for the attendance of the water and gas
+companies' servants, and even officials from the public works office,
+insurance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage
+corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire brigade,
+and others where the police are generally on the spot in good force five
+minutes after the arrival of the first engines. There are several cities
+where the ambulance wagon and the steamers arrive together, and another
+city where the military authorities always send a fire piquet which can
+be turned out in a few minutes.
+
+If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank of the
+individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire brigade, even if
+he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank, should have control, and
+his authority be fully recognized. Unfortunately, there are not many
+countries where this is the case. The efficiency of outside help depends
+in the first instance on the clear definition of the duties and powers
+of all concerned--on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the
+organization, the theoretically as well as practically correct
+executive; and, last but by no means least, on the prestige, the social
+standing, the education of commanders and their ability to handle men.
+Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,
+smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry;
+showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for public applause, will be
+dangerous.
+
+_Research._--Under the heading "Fire Research" should be included
+theoretical and experimental investigation as to materials and
+construction, combined with the chronicling of practical experience in
+fires, then the careful investigation and chronicling of the causes of
+fires, assisted where necessary by a power for holding fire inquests in
+interesting, suspicious or fatal cases. Experimental investigation as to
+natural and accidental causes as distinct from criminal causes can be
+included. Research in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire
+inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, by the
+senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by immediate
+government investigations held on the same lines as inquiries into
+explosions and railway accidents.[1] As to general research work, there
+are several cities which contribute substantially towards the costs of
+fire tests at independent testing stations. Some towns also have special
+commissions of experts who visit all big fires occurring within easy
+travelling distance, take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as
+to how the materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics
+as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places such
+tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with oil lamps, their
+burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.
+
+  _The British Fire Prevention Committee._--The British Fire Prevention
+  Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
+  Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February 1899.
+  It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The members include
+  civil engineers, public officials holding government appointments,
+  fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst the
+  subscribers in the main include the great public departments, such as
+  the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the
+  important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
+  government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
+  together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand has
+  formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. The
+  ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council and an
+  executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription of
+  members and subscribers. The services of the members of council and
+  executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket expenses of any
+  kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals mainly with
+  questions of regulations, rules and publications of general technical
+  interest, the tests are probably what have brought the committee into
+  prominence and given it an international reputation. They are not only
+  the recognized fire tests of Great Britain, but they rank as universal
+  standard tests for the whole of the civilized world, and Americans,
+  just as much as Danes, Germans or Austrians, pride themselves when
+  some product of their country has passed the official procedure of a
+  test by the committee. The reports of the tests, which state facts
+  only without giving criticisms or recommendations, are much
+  appreciated by all who have the control of public works or the
+  specification of appliances. The committee does not limit itself
+  solely to testing proprietary forms of construction or appliances, but
+  has a number of tests--quite equal to the proprietary tests--of
+  articles in general use. The ordinary concrete floor or the ordinary
+  wooden joist floor protected by asbestos boards or slag wool receives
+  as much attention as a patent floor; and similarly the ordinary
+  everyday hydrant receives equal attention with the patent hydrant, or
+  ordinary bucket of water with the special fire extinguisher. The door
+  tests of the committee, which cover some thirty different types of
+  doors, deal with no less than twenty ordinary wooden doors that can be
+  made by any ordinary builder or cabinet-maker. These so-called
+  non-proprietary tests are made at the expense of the general funds of
+  the committee, whilst for the proprietary tests the owners have to pay
+  about two-thirds of the expenses incurred in the form of a testing
+  fee. The expenses incurred in a test, of course, not only comprise the
+  actual testing operation of testing, but also the expense of producing
+  the report, which is always a very highly finished publication with
+  excellent blocks. The expense incurred also includes the establishment
+  expenses of the testing station at Regent's Park.
+
+  The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
+  Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in both
+  of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National Fire
+  Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. It
+  from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent of
+  Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official
+  reports, well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and
+  methods of the countries visited, and serving as most useful reference
+  publications.
+
+  Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both in
+  respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been most
+  beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless of the
+  fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount of
+  property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage
+  annually is about L5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
+  obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
+  Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about L23,000, of which
+  more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
+  contributions or subscriptions.
+
+  There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
+  several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
+  notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several
+  insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
+  Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside Great
+  Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare with the
+  systematic series of inquiries conducted without any substantial state
+  aid in London.
+
+_Distribution of Losses._--Property destroyed by fire is practically an
+absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the owner, or it may
+be distributed among a number of people, who are taxed for it in the
+form of a contribution to their national or local fire fund, a share in
+some mutual insurance "ring," or the more usual insurance companies'
+premium. In the first two cases some expenses have also to be met in
+connexion with the management of the fund, "tariff" organization, or
+"ring." In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to be
+covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance enterprise
+as such, and then a further amount for division amongst those who share
+the risk of the venture--namely, the insurance company's shareholders.
+
+  It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. The
+  sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss with a
+  minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly managed company
+  paying large dividends will cover a loss, but with an unnecessarily
+  large extra outlay. In every case the loss remains; and as property
+  may always be considered part of the community, the province or
+  nation, as the case may be, suffers. It is always in the interest of a
+  nation to minimize its national losses, no matter whether they fall on
+  one individual's shoulders or on many, and whether such losses are
+  good for certain trades or not. With a suitable system of fire
+  protection it is possible to bring these losses to a minimum, but this
+  minimum would probably only be reached by an extra expense, which
+  would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets in the form of municipal
+  rates than the higher premium for the greater risk. A practical
+  minimum is all that can be attempted, and that practical minimum
+  varies according to circumstances.
+
+  Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, and the
+  actual extra cost of this protection should be something less than the
+  saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a smaller dead
+  loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure for his
+  combined contributions toward the losses, the management of his
+  insurance, and the protective measures. Where there is mutual
+  insurance or municipal insurance in its best sense, the losses by fire
+  and the costs of the protection are often booked in one account, and
+  the better protection up to a certain point should mean a smaller
+  individual annual share. Where there is company insurance the
+  municipal rates are increased to cover the cost of extra protection,
+  while a proportionate decrease is expected in the insurance premiums.
+  Competition and public opinion generally impose this decrease of the
+  insurance rates as soon as there is a greater immunity from fire.
+  Where the insurance companies are well managed and the shareholders
+  are satisfied with reasonable dividends, practical protection can be
+  said to find favour with all concerned, but if the protection is
+  arranged for and the companies do not moderate their charges
+  accordingly, the reverse is the case.
+
+  The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
+  maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
+  considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
+  municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the
+  effect that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good
+  fire service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
+  managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
+  means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has to pay
+  for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal rate, or in
+  the form of an increased premium raised to meet the contribution
+  levied, this is simply juggling with figures.
+
+_Cost._--As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, better
+and safer building from the fire point of view means better and more
+valuable structures of longer life from the economic aspect. Such better
+and safer constructional work pays for itself and cannot be considered
+in the light of an extra tax on the building owner. The compilation and
+administration of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be
+attended to by the same executive authorities as would in any case
+superintend general structural matters, and the additional work would at
+the most require some increased clerical aid. If the execution of the
+fire survey regulations were delegated to the same authority there would
+again simply be some extra clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of
+perhaps a few extra surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly
+efficient, it has been found advisable in several instances to form
+parties of three for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be
+a fire brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep,
+who would have to receive a special retaining fee.
+
+The cost of the public training referred to would be small, as the
+elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster's work, and
+the Press matters could be easily managed in the fire brigade office.
+Payments would have only to be made for advertisements, such as the
+official warnings, lists for fire-call points, &c., and perhaps for the
+publication of semi-official hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and
+drills for amateurs are concerned would be under the control of the fire
+brigade. There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase and
+maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.
+
+The most expensive items in the system of fire protection undoubtedly
+come under the headings "Fire-Call" and "Fire Brigade." As to the
+former, there are a number of cities where the cost is modified by
+having the whole of the electrical service for the police force, the
+ambulance and fire brigade, managed by a separate department. The same
+wires call up each of these services, and, as the same staff attend to
+their maintenance, the fire protection of a city need only be debited
+with perhaps a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed
+independently. The combined system has also the great advantage of
+facilitating the mutual working of the different services in case of an
+emergency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an outlay;
+but here again, if the three services work together, the expenses on the
+count of fire protection can be lessened. The money rewards given in
+some cities to the individuals who first call the fire-engines may
+become a heavy item. Their utility is doubtful, and they have formed an
+inducement for arson.
+
+As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong active force
+should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. The latter should
+be as inexpensive as possible, but should at least constitute a
+part-paid and disciplined body which could be easily called in for
+emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot allow for an active force being
+ready for such coincidences as an unusual number of large fires starting
+simultaneously, but they must allow for an ample strength always being
+forthcoming for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due
+consideration for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire
+brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the property
+owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of the force. The
+budget must also allow for an attractive rate of pay, as the profession
+is one which requires men who have a maximum of the sterling qualities
+which we look for in the pick of a nation. It must also not be
+forgotten that the fire service is one of the few where a system of
+pensions is the only fair way of recognizing the risks of limb and
+health, and at the same time securing that stability in which practical
+experience from long service is so essential a factor. The budget must
+allow for an ample reserve of appliances.
+
+Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit of its
+having a separate section for salvage corps purposes depends on
+circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is required, and should be
+part and parcel of the municipal brigade and organized on the same lines
+with a reserve, no matter whether the insurance of the locality be
+managed by the authorities or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it
+matters little whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.
+
+Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are items for
+fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, due confidence
+being placed in the opinions of the fire officers and surveyors, there
+is no reason why the outlay should be great. The statistical work would
+only require some clerical aid. Where special coroners are retained for
+criminal cases some extra money will of course be required; but even
+here the costs need not be excessive, as there are many retired fire
+brigade officers and fire surveyors who are well suited for the work,
+and would be satisfied with a small emolument.
+
+As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places where
+special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests of fire
+protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the heading "Fire
+Protection" have simply to cover the maintenance of hydrants and
+tablets, or at the most the cost of the water actually used for
+fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the cost of hydrants is shared
+with the scavenging department or the commission of sewers, which also
+have the use of them. Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to
+a private water company, the property owners will be paying their share
+for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.
+
+The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving and
+for the protection of property. It should be remembered that a good
+staircase and a ladder are often as useful for the manoeuvring of the
+firemen as for life-saving purposes, and that they are practically as
+essential for the saving of property as for saving life. No distinction
+need be made between the two risks when speaking of fire protection in
+general; but as the safety of the most valueless life is generally
+classed higher than that of the most valuable property, it may be well
+to give life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.
+
+Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective system is
+defective. With good construction and a fire survey, the quick arrival
+of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks of detection are as a
+rule far too great to encourage its growth.
+
+_Saving of Life._--Under "Fire Prevention" special requirements in the
+Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life by requiring
+practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. The risks in
+theatres and assembly halls require separate legislation. In ordinary
+structures no inmate of a building should be more than sixty feet away
+from a staircase, and preferably there should be two staircases at his
+disposal in the event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only
+given to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that
+their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater danger
+than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of
+opening a window has saved many a life.
+
+_Safety of Property._--As far as the protection of property is
+concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful
+construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of
+buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of
+skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention
+of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by
+the materials used in construction.
+
+The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one house
+from spreading to another, and a stranger's property, so to say, from
+being endangered. This is quite possible, given good party walls
+carried well over the roof to a height regulated by the nature of the
+risk, the provision of the shutters to windows where necessary, and the
+use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a thoroughly good roof--or still
+better, a fire-resisting attic floor--can do much. If the locality has a
+fire brigade and the force is efficiently handled, "spreads" from one
+house to another should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts
+are, however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to
+localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible for
+street improvements.
+
+The division of a building or large "risk" into a number of minor ones
+is only possible to a certain extent. There is no need to spend enormous
+sums to make each of the minor "risks" impregnable. The desire should be
+simply to try to retard the spread for a certain limited time after the
+flames have really taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most
+fires will have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient
+fire-extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can be
+on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration from
+becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an ordinary well-built house,
+for example, if the joists are strong and the boards grooved, if some
+light pugging be used and the plastering properly done, if the doors are
+made well-fitting and fairly strong, a very considerable amount of
+furniture and fittings can remain well alight for half an hour before
+there is a spread. In a warehouse or factory "risk" the same holds good.
+With well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps
+run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary
+double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with sheet
+iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned for a
+considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent" flooring are
+exceedingly useful for the division of "risks," and with their aid a
+fire can be limited to an individual storey of a building, but it should
+not be forgotten that even the best of flooring is useless if carried by
+unprotected iron girders supported, say, by some light framing or weak
+partition. The general mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete
+construction is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,
+shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that the
+protection of the supports and girder-work requires most careful
+attention.
+
+Of the various systems of "patent" flooring, as a rule the simpler forms
+are the more satisfactory. It should, however, always be remembered that
+any specific form of flooring alone does not prevent a fire breaking
+from one "risk" to another. They should go hand in hand with general
+good construction, and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the
+modern fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their
+introduction for fire protection alone. In considering their
+introduction, the general advantages which they afford as to spans,
+thickness, general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A
+practical installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first,
+not increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly should
+add to the general value of the structure by giving it a more
+substantial character.
+
+The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should not be
+forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well armed with
+shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting glass, and the lifts
+not only vertical doors, but also horizontal flaps, cutting up the well
+into sections. The question of light partitions must also not be
+neglected.
+
+Division of "risks," common-sense construction, and proper staircase
+accommodation are really all that fire protection requires, and where
+the special Building Act clauses have been kept within the lines
+indicated, there has been little friction and discontent. It is only as
+a rule when the authorities are eccentric in their demands that the
+building owner considers himself harassed by protective measures.
+
+Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the actual
+outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey can also
+increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen the possibility
+of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes or ladders, and a
+regular inspection of their efficiency, will do much. The examination of
+a rusty door-catch may save a building. The actual preventive work of
+the surveyor will, however, mostly consist in warning property owners
+against temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty
+chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas brackets fixed in
+risky positions. Self-help will be greatly facilitated by the judicious
+arrangement of fire-extinguishing gear, and a like inspection of its
+efficiency. Hydrants and cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so
+stiff that the water cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand
+pumps and pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest
+errors generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of the
+fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his efforts are
+unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not, perhaps, use the
+gear at all.
+
+With regard to regulations governing "special risks," so far as the
+safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls is concerned,
+attention should be chiefly given to the exits. Spread of fire, and even
+its outbreak, are secondary considerations. A panic caused by the
+suspicion of a fire can be quite as fatal as that caused by the actual
+start of a conflagration. In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct
+communication should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the
+main staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and
+burners should be prohibited.
+
+_Fire-resisting Materials._--One of the greatest misnomers in connexion
+with fire prevention was originally the description of certain materials
+and systems of construction as being "fire-proof." This has seriously
+affected the development of the movement towards fire prevention, for,
+having regard to the fact that nothing described as "fire-proof" could
+be fire-proof in the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so
+described, and in fact everything described as "fire-proof" came to be
+looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion and obtain
+a better understanding on the subject, the International Fire Prevention
+Congress of London in 1903, at which some 800 representatives of
+government departments and municipalities were present, discussed this
+matter at considerable length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in
+consideration of their importance in affecting the whole development of
+fire-resisting construction, are published below. It is the
+classification of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that
+has been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire, and in
+numerous other countries, since that date.
+
+The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations
+contained in the following statement issued by the British Fire
+Prevention Committee:--
+
+  The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having given
+  their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term
+  "fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably applied
+  to many building materials and systems of building construction in use
+  in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that the avoidance of
+  this term in general business, technical, and legislative vocabulary
+  is essential.
+
+  The executive consider the term "fire-resisting" more applicable for
+  general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying
+  qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended
+  to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or
+  low temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general
+  adoption of this term in place of "fire-proof."
+
+  Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the
+  fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,
+  consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise the
+  authorities controlling building operations, should clearly
+  discriminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,
+  requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city
+  warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight
+  requires very different protection from the tenement house of the
+  suburbs.
+
+  The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting
+  materials and systems of construction affording _temporary_
+  protection, _partial_ protection, and _full_ protection against fire,
+  and to classify all building materials and systems of construction
+  under these three headings. The exact and definite limit of these
+  three classes is based on the experience obtained from numerous
+  investigations and tests, combined with the experience obtained from
+  actual fires, and after due consideration of the limitations of
+  building practice and the question of cost.
+
+  The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for building
+  materials or systems of construction will be seen from the standard
+  tables appended for--
+
+  I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,
+  II. Fire-resisting partitions,
+  III. Fire-resisting doors,
+
+  but they could be popularly summarized as follows:--
+
+  (a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire for at
+  least three-quarters of an hour.
+
+  (b) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+  for at least one hour and a half.
+
+  (c) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
+  for at least two hours and a half.
+
+  The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the actual
+  minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and the
+  application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables by all
+  technically interested, but for the popular discrimination---which the
+  executive are desirous of encouraging--the time standard alone should
+  suffice.
+
+  It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards in
+  this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that the
+  same standardization may in future be common to all countries, and the
+  preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization are
+  already in hand.
+
+_Fire Combating._--As to self-help, complication must always be avoided.
+The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest lines. One thing
+which must be instilled into him is not to waste water--a sure sign of
+lack of training. Of course the drills must be on the same lines as
+those of the local brigade, and on no account should other gear be used
+for self-help than is generally customary in that force. When
+volunteers and regulars work together, the former should always remember
+that the paid force are experts, though the regulars must never have
+that contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers are
+often men who are probably experts in some other vocation outside
+fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which a professional
+fire-fighter has had.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |                |   Load per     |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |    Minimum     |  Superficial   |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |  Classification    |Sub-Class.| of Test.|  Temperature.  |      Foot      |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |                |  Distributed   |  under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |                |(per Sq. Metre).|               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|   1500 deg. F. |   Optional     | 100 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5 deg. C.)|                |(9.290 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|   1500 deg. F. |   Optional     | 200 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5 deg. C.)|                |(18.580 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |     112 lb.    |  100 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|  (546.852 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)|            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |     168 lb.    |  200 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|  (820.278 kg.) |(18.580 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |     224 lb.    |  100 sq. ft.  |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)| (1093.706 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)|            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |     280 lb.    |  200 sq. ft.  |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)| (1367.130 kg.) |(18.258 sq. m.)|            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+
+  kg. = kilogramme.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |                |                   |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |    Minimum     |   Thickness of    |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |   Classification   |Sub-Class.|of Test. |  Temperature.  |     material.     |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |                |                   |  Under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |                |                   |               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|   1500 deg. F. |  2 in. and under  |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5 deg. C.)|     (.051 m.)     |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|   1500 deg. F. |      Optional     |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (815.5 deg. C.)|                   |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |2-1/2 in. and under|  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|     (.063 m.)     |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |      Optional     |  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|                   |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |2-1/2 in. and under|  80 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|     (.063 m.)     |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|   1800 deg. F. |      Optional     |  80 sq. ft.   |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         | (982.2 deg. C.)|                   |(7.432 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  kg. = kilogramme.
+
+
+  _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without
+  Frames._
+
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    |          |         |                |                   |    Minimum    |  Minimum   |
+  |                    |          |Duration |    Minimum     |   Thickness of    |  Superficial  |  Time for  |
+  |   Classification   |Sub-Class.| of Test.|  Temperature.  |     material.     |     Area      |Application |
+  |                    |          |At Least |                |                   |  Under Test.  |  of Water  |
+  |                    |          |         |                |                   |               |under Press.|
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 45 mins.|  1500 deg. F.  | 2 in. and under   |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(815.5 deg. C.) |     (.051 m.)     |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  | 60 mins.|  1500 deg. F.  |     Optional      |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(815.5 deg. C.) |                   |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  | 90 mins.|  1800 deg. F.  |2-1/2 in. and under|  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2 deg. C.) |     (.063 m.)     |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Partial Protection  +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |120 mins.|  1800 deg. F.  |     Optional      |  20 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2 deg. C.) |                   |(1.858 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class A  |150 mins.|  1800 deg. F.  | 1/2 in. and under |  25 sq. ft.   |  2 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2 deg. C.) |     (.018 m.)     |(2.322 sq. m.) |            |
+  |Full Protection     +----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+  |                    | Class B  |240 mins.|  1800 deg. F.  |      Optional     |  25 sq. ft.   |  5 mins.   |
+  |                    |          |         |(982.2 deg. C.) |                   |(2.322 sq. m.) |            |
+  +--------------------+----------+---------+----------------+-------------------+---------------+------------+
+
+_Transmission of Fire-Calls._--There are several methods of transmitting
+the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of course, to run direct to
+the nearest fire-station; but this is only possible where the distance
+is short. In one or two cities, however, the number of fire-stations is
+so great that they are very close to one another, and hence "direct"
+calls are generally recorded.
+
+Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is reported at
+some public office, police-station or guard-room, where there are always
+runners ready to start off to the nearest fire-station. The special
+runner is here practically a makeshift for the more modern telegraph or
+telephone line, and it is believed that the only city in which this
+system is employed is one where the unsettled political atmosphere has
+compelled the authorities to prohibit the construction of any telegraph
+lines other than those for the use of the general postal service.
+Similar messenger services have, however, also been introduced in
+connexion with the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises
+known as "general messenger" or "call-boy" services, which are organized
+for business purposes, have the advantage of including the fire-call and
+the police-call. In the same way that a cab can be signalled, a call may
+come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready runner makes off to the
+fire-station instead of to the cab rank. As a rule, these messenger
+offices are near the fire-station. The combination is rather a curious
+one, as it embraces the most advanced notions of giving every "risk" its
+own fire-call, and the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.
+
+Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely on the
+public telephone system, the terms of subscription to which may compel
+holders to forward fire messages if required to do so. This system
+allows for such development as the payment of retaining fees to porters
+in public and other buildings which have a night service, on condition
+that the fire-call shall be promptly despatched. The telephones are,
+perhaps, even provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should
+be remembered that the service always goes through a general telephone
+exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.
+
+In the special telephone line system special wires are laid from
+buildings which are practically open all the year round direct to their
+nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again made for prompt
+attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes the place of the telephone, but
+this requires the porter or attendant to be specially trained to the
+work. To simplify matters, the buildings are sometimes provided with
+automatic fire-calls instead of telephones; but the principle of the
+system remains the same. In districts where there are few public
+offices, the list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has
+been frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops,
+where night service is not unusual.
+
+What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next. Automatic
+fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles are under lock
+and key, and the keys are distributed only among policemen, watchmen or
+householders, and the messages can, therefore, only be given by persons
+known to the authorities.
+
+The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next to the
+direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones can be laid
+on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an instance where an
+attempt was made to give every householder a private fire-call. This
+system is, however, unfortunately too extreme for the municipal purse.
+If in connexion with some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the
+messenger services referred to, it would be a different matter, though
+it should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call points
+means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire, and a risk of
+too many sections of the fire brigade being on the road to it.
+
+Besides these forms of "call," there is also the private alarm.
+Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones,
+alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which a call
+can be given direct from the "risk" involved.
+
+Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most frequented
+positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front of a church would
+be the best; in others, the front of a public-house. It should always be
+remembered that every facility should be given to enable as many people
+as possible to know the whereabouts of the call points without any
+distinct effort on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar
+conspicuous by day, and a coloured lamp by night.
+
+As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box stating
+the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the best
+methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most in use in a
+modern city, and hence the plate is read by many. In an oriental town
+the public fountain would, however, take the place of the letter-box.
+Plates put up inside every front door are somewhat extreme measures. In
+one city red darts are painted on the glass of every street lamp,
+indicating the direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign,
+however, has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its
+meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.
+
+Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a sovereign.
+In some places every call is rewarded--even those to chimney fires--and
+this often results in an abuse of the privilege. Rogues light fires on
+the top of a chimney and then run to call the engines. If a reward be
+given, a limitation should be made. In one town no relation or employe
+of the owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given for
+calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.
+
+No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by mistake. The
+possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is a bona fide reason
+for a call which should not be discouraged. Malicious alarms should,
+however, be treated with the utmost rigour, as the absence of firemen
+from their stations always means an extra risk to life and property.
+Combined "lynch law" and imprisonment has generally been adopted with
+good effect. The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of
+the engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that
+handed to the police.
+
+The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to
+facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the
+headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed or the
+telephone is used no special arrangements are required, but where the
+telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced, the apparatus
+must be adapted for this contingency. At some automatic fire-call points
+a few signals can be given, at others, a telegraphic or telephonic
+transmitter can be applied. Much valuable time may be saved in this way
+when more assistance is required.
+
+_Fire Brigades._--The organization of fire brigades varies greatly.
+There are brigades where officers and men are practically constantly
+ready to attend a fire, and others where they are ready on alternate
+days, two days out of every three, or three days out of every four, and
+the off day is entirely their own, or at the most, only partially used
+by the authorities for some light work. The men off duty are only
+expected to attend a fire if there is a great emergency, the brigade
+being strong enough without them for ordinary eventualities. Both
+systems can be worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service,
+which would be only called out for great calamities. They could be
+organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the reserve men
+might be attached to sections of the regulars and mixed with them when
+the occasion arises. The reserves can consist either of retired firemen
+who have a few regular drills, or of amateurs who go through a special
+course of training, and have some series of drills at intervals, with
+preferably a short spell of service every year with the regulars. For
+the regulars, forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has
+given the most satisfactory results.
+
+The division of the active force may be on a system of a number of small
+parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong bodies. Another
+system allows for subdivision into sections of equal strength, ranging
+from parties of, say, five men with a non-commissioned officer to thirty
+non-commissioned officers and men with an officer. The force can, of
+course, also simply be divided up into parties or sections of different
+strengths not governed by a system of military units. The sections
+either can work independently, as units, simply governed by one central
+authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor or major
+bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole individually
+responsible to headquarters.
+
+The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may be "officers
+and gentlemen" in the military sense, or have only temporarily done work
+with the rank and file when in training. There could also be a
+combination of these two systems. Only the captain and deputy-captain
+might be officers in the military sense, the sections or divisions being
+officered by "non-coms." Some cities have an officer to every thirty
+"non-coms" and men, whilst others put a division of as many as two
+hundred under a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection
+is treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have
+really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military
+sense have been found essential. They have also been found advantageous
+where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing. The prestige of the
+fire service has been raised everywhere where the officers, besides
+being fire experts, are educated men of social standing. There are
+cities where the officers of the fire brigade are in every way
+recognized as equal to army or navy men, their social position is the
+same, and their mess fulfils the same functions as a regimental mess.
+The fire brigade officer is recognized at court, and there is no
+ceremonial without him. On the other hand, there are also cities with
+brigades several hundred strong where the captain's social standing is
+beneath that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary
+training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally had some
+experience in another profession, such as the army, the navy, or the
+architectural and engineering professions, previous to their entering
+the fire service. Some brigades recruit from army officers only, and
+preferably from the engineers or artillery regiments; others recruit
+from among architects and engineers, subject to their having at least
+had some military experience in the reserve forces or the volunteers.
+Some cities only take engineers or architects, and make a point of it
+that they should have no previous military experience. Some previous
+experience in the handling of men is essential.
+
+As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are taken as
+firemen; others where the engines are manned by sailors. In some towns
+the building trades supply the recruits; in others, all trades are
+either discriminately or indiscriminately represented. A combination
+from the army or navy on the one side and the building trades on the
+other is most satisfactory. The knowledge of building construction in
+the ranks stands the force in good stead, and has often saved both lives
+and property. Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important
+trade, much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing their
+own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from sedentary trades
+should not be excessive. Where there are only men of one trade or
+calling, there is often too great a tendency to one-sidedness, and a
+great amount of prejudice.
+
+Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for both
+officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry men are very
+useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary, also a good
+memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in a brigade, and should be
+transferred to some other service if the fatness be developed during
+their engagement with a brigade. Many brigades take only single men,
+"non-coms" and officers only being allowed to marry. There are many
+brigades where twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the
+privates, fifty for the "non-coms," and sixty for the officers.
+
+As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their sections or
+units provided with practically the same gear; others where each unit
+has a double or treble set, one of which is used according to
+circumstances. The section may have a manual engine, a steamer and a
+ladder truck at its disposal, and may turn out with either. There are
+towns where the units are differently equipped, and steamer or manual
+sections called out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where
+the sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of engines
+and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete with (say) a
+chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape. The contrast to this
+will be found in the small parties of twos or threes, whose turn-out
+would only consist of a small hose trolley or an escape. Of course,
+there are all kinds of combinations, the most important of which allows
+a section to have one or more independent subsections. Though
+practically belonging to the "unit," the subsections work independently
+in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long ladder, or
+a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The subsections may act as
+outposts or simply as specialist parties, which are only called out for
+particular work.
+
+As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street stations are
+provided for the small parties referred to. In a few cases two small
+parties are housed under the same roof. The large bodies that back them
+are generally quartered together in extensive barracks, from which any
+number of engines and men can be turned out according to the nature of
+the call. Then there are cities where every section has its own
+well-built station; others where one or two sections are housed
+together, according to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a
+dozen located at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of
+the group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the
+other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be the central
+station of a district at the same time. The actual working of the
+district headquarters would, however, then be kept separate from the
+working of the headquarters staff. The latter would, perhaps, have some
+sections ready to send anywhere besides the trucks, &c., necessary for
+the officers, the general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is
+usual to combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the
+headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district
+centres.
+
+In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts, &c.,
+various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory results have
+been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not simply a hose-car or
+escape-party) can reach any building in the city within six minutes from
+the time of the call reaching the station, the six minutes including
+both turn-out and run. Where there are exceptionally large or dangerous
+risks, this time has had to be shortened to four minutes, and the
+possibility of an attendance from a second station assured within six
+minutes. In dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have
+been obtained where every house can be reached from the district centre
+within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters would naturally have
+a central position in the city. In one or two instances the headquarters
+offices are located in a separate building, which in no way serves as a
+fire-station, but simply as a centre through which all orders and
+business pass.
+
+The different stations must be in connexion with each other. The special
+runner or rider is practically disappearing. The telegraph and
+telephone have taken his place. Some cities favour Morse telegraphy,
+which certainly had great advantages over the telephone at one time, as
+messages could be easily transmitted to several stations with the same
+effort, but telephone distributors have now been successfully
+introduced. Errors are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and
+there is always a record of every message. The most modern forms of
+telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the fire service
+than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in direct communication with
+every station, but every station should be able to communicate with its
+neighbour directly, as well as through the headquarters office, and
+there should be a direct wire to its district station if it has one.
+There should be three routes of communication, so that two should be
+always ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters
+or the district centres would be in touch with the various auxiliaries
+referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and the telephone
+exchange.
+
+As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one unit to
+answer the first call if they have no particulars, others always turn
+out two or three sections, and there are several cities where the
+district centre would at least send an officer and a few men as well. In
+one brigade, headquarters is always represented by either the chief or
+the second officer in the case of a call of this kind. The idea is that
+it is always better to have too strong a force quickly in attendance
+than too small a number of men, and that it is most important that the
+first arrival should be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a
+call and one breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being
+too great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,
+not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other fires
+are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines, on account of
+a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a call reaches the
+firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn out, and if more help is
+required other sections will be called up individually. In others the
+reinforcements are not called up separately, but the fires are divided
+into three classes--small, medium and large; and on the message arriving
+of a more extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section
+already know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls to
+certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may always
+be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the same message will
+then simultaneously turn out the stronger body without any further
+detailed instructions being necessary. In some towns the fire-call
+automata are so arranged that the messenger can at once call for the
+different classes of fire. This, however, is not to be recommended, as a
+messenger will probably consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic
+blaze, and will bring out too many engines.
+
+_Equipment._--The following are characteristic features in the equipment
+of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure water supply, some
+brigades simply attend with hose-cars, life-saving gear and ladders; or,
+instead of the hose-cars, take their manuals, which they practically
+never use and which serve only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others
+take, and make a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with
+them ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time is
+thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug; and in case of
+a hydrant being out of order, there is always sufficient water at hand
+until the second hydrant has been found. Many cities have introduced
+chemical engines to take the place of this combination of water barrel
+and manual engine. A supply of water is carried on the chemical engine.
+Some cities always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,
+only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at once
+used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently of the
+pressure there is in the water service. Where there is no good water
+service, manuals or steamers have, of course, to be sent out, and are
+supplied either from the low-pressure service or from the natural
+waterways or wells. There are still a large number of cities where the
+suburbs have no proper water service, and the water barrel is then very
+handy for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the chemical
+treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire, with the view of
+increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals instead of water. In
+certain localities fire appliances are still run out to fires by hand,
+especially where there is a high pressure water system and hose carts
+only are required. Generally the appliances are horsed. Motor traction
+is, however, now rapidly superseding horse traction for reasons of
+economy and the wider and more rapid range of efficiency.
+
+As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely almost
+entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend on scaling
+ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence is placed in the
+jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are much used; and there are a few
+where wonderful work is done with life-lines. To indicate the diversity
+with which any one appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the
+fire service, it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different
+ways in which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material of
+the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape--whether
+round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means of holding it, the
+way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at what distance from the
+endangered building the sheet is to be held. Last, but not least, come
+the words of command.
+
+_Working of Brigades._--In some forces all possible attention is given
+to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others the speed at
+which engines run to the fire is considered to be of primary importance.
+Other brigades, again, give equal attention to both. There are brigades
+which work entirely on military lines, each man having certain duties
+marked out for him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are
+others where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there are
+combinations in the same way as regards command. Some chief officers
+arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies, and control
+the working of the brigade from a position of vantage at a distance.
+Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire, perhaps at the branch
+itself, or on some gallant life-saving exploit where they no doubt do
+good work as a fireman, but in no way fulfil the office of commanders.
+Officers must remember that they are officers, and not rank and file;
+and this is generally very difficult to those who have advanced from the
+ranks. Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to
+their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must always be
+in a good position where they can superintend everything pertaining to
+the outbreak in question. Some brigades seem to make a point of working
+quietly, and shouting is absolutely forbidden, all commands being given
+by shrill whistles. In some brigades all commands are given by word of
+mouth, and there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being
+bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes trying. As a
+rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.
+
+Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others are
+satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a distance. Some
+attack the fire direct, others only try to protect what surrounds the
+seat of the flames. Several brigades are ordered always to try to attack
+by the natural routes of the front door and the staircases. In others,
+the men always have to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the
+aid of ladders--through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully
+extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades boast of never
+having damaged property unnecessarily. They have, for instance, had the
+patience to suffocate a cellar fire, instead of putting the whole cellar
+under water. In certain classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the
+hand-pump have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction
+than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which to
+judge the training and handling of a fire brigade--to see what damage
+they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and windows, when there
+is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided, where every man in the
+force feels that his first duty is to prevent damage and loss and his
+second to extinguish the fire.
+
+Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally stationed
+at headquarters; where this division is split up into sections, there
+would also be a distribution among the district centres; the salvage men
+are simply part of the force, told off on special duty. Where there are
+private salvage corps, their stations are generally near the
+headquarters or district centres of the brigade, from which they receive
+notice of the fire. In some cities the salvage corps work quite
+independently; in others, they work under the chief of the brigade
+directly they arrive at the fire.
+
+As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with the fire
+service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room to work in is
+now fully recognized, and the police are at once called out and often
+brought on to the scene in an incredibly short time. The value of these
+measures should not be under-rated, especially in cities where rowdyism
+exists. In many cities the ambulance service is also turned out to
+fires. Where no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen
+should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and gasmen are
+also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many garrison towns the
+military turn out to assist the fire brigade.
+
+  _National Fire Brigades' Union._--The National Fire Brigades' Union,
+  which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great Britain,
+  originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire brigades held
+  at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee on the 30th of
+  May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were present. Next
+  day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall, Oxford, and
+  it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades Union.
+  Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade, was
+  appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed first
+  president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through ill-health he
+  was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the union offered to
+  provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers for his regiment the
+  duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped corps were sent out to
+  the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein, South Africa, under
+  Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned the services rendered by the
+  firemen in his despatches.
+
+  The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own
+  council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the
+  central council. The districts are:--Eastern, Midlands, South Coast,
+  South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South
+  Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North Wales,
+  Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in 1902). There
+  are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents in America,
+  Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
+  Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, India and the
+  Federated Malay Straits. The total strength of the union is 667 fire
+  brigades and members with nearly 12,000 firemen. Every member of the
+  union gives his time and services for the benefit of the country; all
+  appointments are honorary, with the exception that a small allowance
+  is made for clerical assistance. A drill book is issued by the union,
+  and the fourth edition was published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these
+  books have been issued to brigades all over the world.
+
+  The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers. All
+  members have to come up for re-examination every three years, else
+  they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination is
+  more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association.
+  This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial fire
+  brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance work. A
+  very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the union
+  entitled _First Aid in the Fire Service_, by Chief Officer William
+  Ettles, M.D.
+
+  The union organized and took part in the International Fire
+  Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and 1896,
+  and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses at
+  Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It has also
+  held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal Palace, and
+  before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.
+
+
+_Fire Brigade Organization._
+
+Below are given examples of the organization of different fire brigades.
+The brigades so described have been selected not so much on account of
+their intrinsic importance, as because they represent classes or types
+of brigades and fire brigade organization which it may be useful to
+refer to. In respect of the London fire brigade, however, historical
+data are also presented, as it is only with the aid of these that the
+extraordinary development of that force can be properly realized.
+
+With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire brigade, the
+resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903 are reprinted below.
+As they indicate, the general feeling amongst all interested in fire
+protection from an economic point of view is that fire brigades should
+not be merely fire extinguishing organizations but should utilize their
+influence in a much wider sense.
+
+The Congress considered:--
+
+  1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers to
+  take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire projection,
+  inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers' experience in
+  actual fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work
+  of architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful
+  for the organization and development of precautionary measures.
+
+  2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should
+  encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study of
+  questions of fire prevention.
+
+  3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and
+  that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a
+  government department.
+
+  4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That on
+  the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immediately
+  made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain the
+  cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the result of
+  such investigation to a public department for tabulation and
+  publication.
+
+  5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be
+  charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred, as
+  may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.
+
+  6. That the press should from time to time publish technical reports
+  on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge and
+  experience gained.
+
+_London._--In the early part of the 19th century the methods in vogue
+for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis were of the
+most crude and disjointed character, in striking contrast with the
+highly elaborated system now put into practice by the London County
+Council through its fire brigade; and it was not until the second half
+of the 19th century was well advanced that anything approaching an
+adequate and satisfactory organization was brought into existence. Until
+the passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only acts
+relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London were the
+Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90), and "an act (14
+Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better Regulation of Buildings and
+Party Walls, and for the more effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire
+within the Cities of London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof,
+and other the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of
+Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras, and St
+Luke's at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex." The clauses in the
+latter act relating to protection against fire remained in force till
+the passing of the act of 1865. They provided that every parish should
+keep "one large engine and one small, called a hand engine, a leathern
+pipe, and a certain number of ladders." The Lighting and Watching Act
+contained a clause which extended to England and Wales and so covered
+the area "without the bills of mortality," enabling the inspectors
+appointed under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines; and
+certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without the bills
+of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.
+
+The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in 1862,
+reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act of George
+III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered practically of
+importance, but that, at the time of the report, the arrangements
+generally made by the parishes under the act were not only entirely
+useless, but in many cases produced injurious results, as the system
+under the act frequently conferred a reward for the first useless
+parochial engine, whereas the efficient engine which might be on the
+spot a few minutes later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were,
+however, exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a
+"very efficient" fire brigade was maintained at an expense of about L500
+a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the rating of the parish.
+The select committee were unable to ascertain with any accuracy the
+total amount paid by the metropolitan parishes for the maintenance,
+"however inefficient," of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be
+about L10,000.
+
+For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance offices in
+London kept fire brigades at their individual expense; to these
+brigades were attached a considerable number of men usually occupied as
+Thames watermen, retained in the service of the different Fire Offices,
+who received payment only on the occurrence of fires, and who wore the
+livery and badge of the respective companies. These fire brigades were,
+to quote the report of the select committee of 1862, considered as
+giving notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a
+considerable rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of
+good as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.
+
+The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced an attempt to
+be made, which was effectually carried out in the year 1832, by R. Bell
+Forde, a leading director of the Sun Fire Office, to form one brigade
+for the purpose of promoting economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus
+the first organized fire brigade for London began its operations under
+the united sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the
+leading insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known as
+the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense was at first
+L8000, the number of stations 19, the number of men employed 80. By 1862
+the annual cost had grown to L25,000, the number of stations had become
+20, and the number of men 127.
+
+It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire Engine
+Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in substitution for which
+the new Cannon-Street station has been built. The following is a list of
+the other stations of the establishment:--
+
+  School House-lane, Shadwell   Crown Street, Soho
+  Wellclose Square              Wells Street
+  Jeffrey's Square              Baker Street
+  Whitecross Street             King Street, Golden Square
+  Farringdon Street             Horseferry Road
+  Holborn                       Waterloo Road
+  Chandos Street                Southwark Bridge Road
+  Tooley Street                 Southwark Bridge (floating)
+  Lucas Street, Rotherhithe     Rotherhithe (floating)
+
+The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner as far as
+its limited equipment and strength would permit, but it was universally
+admitted that the staff, engines and stations were totally inadequate
+for the general protection of London from fire. The directors of the
+insurance offices themselves admitted this, but they considered their
+brigade sufficient for the protection of that part of London in which
+the largest amount of insured property was located, and contended that
+it was not their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying
+districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve their
+offices in serious loss.
+
+From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire offices was
+supplemented by the "Society for the Protection of Life from Fire." This
+society was managed by a committee of which the lord mayor was
+president. It was supported entirely by voluntary contributions, and, at
+a cost of about L7000 a year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90
+stations in different parts of the most central districts in London. Its
+most outlying station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it
+maintained no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham,
+Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its equipment
+was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the metropolis.
+
+In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire Engine
+Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, and the
+attention of the government was consequently directed to the inadequacy
+of the existing conditions for fire extinction. It was suggested, at the
+time, that the parochial engines should be placed under the inspection
+of the commissioners of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and
+the existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another thirty
+years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a fire brigade
+should be created under the superintendence of the commissioners of
+police, and should form part of the general establishment of the
+metropolitan police. In 1865, however, the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act
+was passed, under which the responsibility for the provision and
+maintenance of an efficient fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan
+Board of Works. Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the
+staff, stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment; the
+engines maintained by the various parochial authorities, and the men in
+charge of them were also absorbed by the new organization, as were the
+fire-escapes and staff of the Society for the Protection of Life from
+Fire.
+
+The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the maintenance of the
+brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny rate on all the rateable
+property in London; (2) contributions by the fire insurance companies at
+the rate of L35 per million of the gross amount insured by them in
+respect of property in London; and (3) a contribution of L10,000 a year
+by the government. Although the revenue allotted increased year by year,
+its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls from all
+parts of London for protection from fire. Some temporary financial
+relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board of Works (Loans) Act 1869,
+which (1) authorized the interest on borrowed money to be paid, and the
+principal to be redeemed out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan
+Consolidated rate, apart from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade
+purposes; and (2) provided that the amount to be raised for the annual
+working expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be
+produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value of
+property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One result of
+the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by which the London County
+Council was constituted), under which a county rate for all purposes is
+levied, was virtually to repeal the limitation of the amount which might
+be raised from the ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time
+the expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other
+departments of the council's service, been determined solely by what the
+council has judged to be the requirements of the case.
+
+When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire brigade was
+admittedly not large enough properly to protect the whole of London, the
+provision in various suburban districts being notoriously inadequate to
+the requirements. A plan for enlarging and improving old stations, and
+for carrying out a scheme of additional protection laid down after
+careful consideration of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on
+the 8th of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided
+for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for the
+establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with horsed
+escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-escape and
+hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.
+
+  Since it came into existence the London County Council has established
+  additional fire stations at Dulwich, New Cross, Kingsland,
+  Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd's Bush, West Hampstead, East
+  Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant's Wharf
+  (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road
+  (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea), Herne Hill, Lee Green
+  and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vauxhall, Kilburn, Bayswater,
+  Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and North End stations are
+  sub-stations. New stations have been erected, in substitution for
+  small and inconvenient buildings, at Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham,
+  Brompton, Islington, Paddington, Redcross Street (City), Euston Road,
+  Clapham, Mile End, Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington,
+  Westminster, Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing
+  stations at Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead,
+  Battersea, Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been
+  considerably enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been
+  established in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively. A
+  building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation of the
+  staff of the Cherry-garden river station; and another building has
+  been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff of a
+  river station which has been established there.
+
+  In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in
+  course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional
+  sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise. The
+  Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and enlarged. The
+  council had also determined to erect new stations in substitution for
+  existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway, Waterloo Road, Shooter's
+  Hill and North End, Fulham; and to build additional sub-stations at
+  Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton Hill, Camberwell New Road,
+  Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and Earlsfield.
+
+
+_Budapest._--There is a combination of a professional force and a
+volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary service of
+factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade possesses a central
+station and eight sub-stations, two minor stations, and permanent
+theatre-watchrooms at the royal theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the
+professional brigade consisted of a chief officer, an inspector, a
+senior adjutant and two junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23
+warrant officers, 3 engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen
+with 62 horses. There have been some slight increases since. The
+apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22 manual
+engines, 27 small manual engines, 11 water carts, 13 traps, 4 tenders,
+26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders, 9 ordinary extension
+ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets and 22,000 metres of hose.
+The various stations are connected with the central station by private
+telephone lines. There are 149 telephonic fire alarms distributed
+throughout the city. They are on radial lines connected up with their
+respective nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from
+three to seventeen call-points.
+
+The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and comprises some
+eighty members. Its equipment is housed with that of the professional
+brigade, and is bought and maintained by the municipality. This
+volunteer brigade is a comparatively wealthy institution, having a
+capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst receiving a special subsidy annually
+from the municipality. Though legally an entirely independent
+institution, the brigade voluntarily puts itself under the command of
+the chief officer of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at
+the disposal of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every
+night and "turn out" when called upon to render service. This volunteer
+brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer brigades, and
+it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that the educational
+classes referred to above are held and facilities accorded to the
+officers undergoing instruction to gain experience at the Budapest
+fires.
+
+  The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the
+  volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with
+  the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest
+  factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory
+  fire brigades. These brigades--forty-four in number--are essentially
+  private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to
+  which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual
+  understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory
+  immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory
+  brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with 1
+  steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have a
+  very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke helmets.
+
+_Cologne._--The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong (1906),
+with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional officers, a
+warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16 foremen. The brigade
+has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are used for ambulance purposes. The
+brigade has three large stations and a minor station, and has a
+permanent fire-watch at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for
+duty as coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of
+duty to twenty-four hours of rest.
+
+A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary retained fire
+brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent, 2 deputy
+superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses, who are retained
+men housed in municipal buildings (tenements), and available as an
+immediate reserve force. The first section of the reserve force are
+housed centrally.
+
+There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades manned by
+volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and horsed from the
+municipal stables or municipal tramways. Three of these volunteer
+brigades, which have large suburban districts, comprise each a
+superintendent, 2 senior foremen and 3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen
+and 3 coachmen. The minor outlying suburbs have several such brigades,
+each having one senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2
+coachmen. The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295,
+all ranks.
+
+  The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of professional
+  brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of suburban
+  volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is still an
+  old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the extra
+  sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building. The
+  brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed matter,
+  in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally well
+  prepared. The brigade does permanent "fire-watch" duty at the
+  municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It provides
+  additional watches during performances at all other theatres and
+  public entertainments. Such duties are provided in part by an
+  auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade. A number of
+  the professional brigade are always utilized for doing general work in
+  the workshops of the brigade. The first or central section of the
+  auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and is additionally
+  turned out eleven times per annum (without drill). Men newly attached
+  to the auxiliary force have to go through a four weeks' recruit drill.
+
+_Nuremberg._--The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most economically
+organized efficient fire service in Central Europe, and its form of
+organization is peculiar and exceptional. In 1902 the entire
+fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (L6300). The total of
+inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small amount of money the city
+gets a highly-trained retained fire brigade of 156 men (1907), and two
+volunteer fire brigades of 130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has
+an auxiliary of eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and
+two private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands
+under a professional chief officer and professional second officer.
+There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen attached to the
+retained brigade. The service has been in existence for fifty years. It
+has gradually developed and has worked remarkably well, and may, in
+fact, be taken as a model institution for municipal economy, with due
+regard to up-to-dateness and efficiency. The retained fire brigade
+comprises entirely municipal employes, regularly engaged in the
+municipal workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal
+workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There is a
+headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer brigade in
+the centre of the town, a modern district station in the western
+district, and a third district station is in course of erection for the
+eastern district, which is at present only served by a small branch
+station.
+
+  At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14 firemen
+  (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade. Nine men of
+  the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at night, together
+  with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west district
+  station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day, and the
+  same number at night.
+
+  The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units of the
+  following strength, namely:--
+
+  First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder.
+
+  Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long
+  ladder.
+
+  Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.
+
+  Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose- and coal-tender trap.
+
+  From the west district station three units can be turned out in
+  rotation, namely:---
+
+  First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.
+
+  Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.
+
+  Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender
+  trap.
+
+  The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises a
+  turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.
+
+  The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession, these
+  horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further has a
+  reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.
+
+  The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal 25
+  manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of the
+  hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet
+  pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening "fire watch"
+  at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get modest extra pay
+  for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather to cover
+  disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages. The brigade
+  uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in proximity to
+  the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on duty for fire
+  brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical purposes
+  the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which the men do
+  municipal work in the municipal workshops, and elsewhere, i.e. in
+  training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up to the best
+  professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well drilled and
+  includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do duty at night by
+  rotation. The brigade's responsibilities are clearly defined, and the
+  position of the professional chief and second officer clearly laid
+  down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During the fifty
+  years' existence of the service, 85 firemen received the twenty-five
+  years' long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the suburban
+  volunteer brigades.
+
+_Venice._--The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force of "Vigili"
+or municipal watchmen, which body does general duty in preserving order
+and rendering assistance to the community. In other words, this force
+performs the duties of the civil police (rather than governmental or
+criminal police), fire, patrol watch service, and public control in a
+general sense. The force, which in all its sections made a most
+excellent impression, has a commandant, under whom the two primary
+sections work, namely (a) the civil police section and the (b) fire
+brigade section; each section in turn having its own principal officers.
+The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire brigade
+section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant of the whole force
+is a retired military officer, and the chief of the fire service section
+is a civil engineer, and these two officers, together with the chief of
+the civil police section, are the three superior officers of the force.
+The police section serve as auxiliaries to the fire brigade section in
+case of any great fire, and, of course, generally work very much hand in
+hand on all occasions. The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6
+foremen, 6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well
+equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large modern
+petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old type
+steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small petrol
+motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-engines, ladders,
+&c., which are in considerable number, are carried in a large fleet of
+swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is done with Roman ladders, which are
+usually planted on two gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the
+depth of the canal permits, the lower length is buried in the canal
+bottom. Hook ladders are also used.
+
+  Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the
+  headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a strength
+  of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite the
+  station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire station
+  of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the Doge's
+  palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground floor
+  facing St Mark's Square have been adapted for fire station purposes in
+  a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of the brigade has
+  been used to form emblems, &c.
+
+_Vienna._--In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted on modern
+lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality having been greatly
+extended. The professional brigade was somewhat strengthened and
+entirely re-equipped, and the various existing volunteer brigades of the
+outlying districts were transformed into suburban volunteer fire
+brigades, equipped and controlled by the municipality and standing under
+the general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle
+involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force around
+Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal brigade, a
+principle of great economic advantage, as the professional brigade would
+otherwise have had to be materially strengthened, probably trebled.
+These suburban volunteer fire brigades number no fewer than 34, and have
+1200 firemen of all ranks. They are practically independent institutions
+as far as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but
+their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided by the
+municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional firemen
+detached from headquarters are attached to their stations as telegraph
+clerks and drill-instructors.
+
+The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their own
+districts, and further, assist in other districts when so ordered by
+headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great fires in the city
+proper. Headquarters, of course, renders assistance at large suburban
+fires. These suburban volunteer fire brigades are very perfectly
+equipped with appliances, generally of the same type as those used in
+the central professional brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped
+with combined chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached.
+They have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern. The
+men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, i.e. do not take pay
+of any description or make any charges for attendance at fires or
+refreshments at fires.
+
+The Vienna "professional brigade," as it is generally called, has a
+personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475 men. Of
+stations there is the headquarters, a district station, 4 branch
+stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations, and 2
+"watches" in public buildings. The officers of the brigade consist of
+the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors. The officers, of
+whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered at headquarters. There
+are three telegraph superintendents. The rank and file is composed of 8
+drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two
+classes), 22 engineers and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four
+telegraph clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban
+volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.
+
+  The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus and
+  service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to "turn out":--2 open
+  and 2 officers' service carriages (at headquarters), 6 "traps" for the
+  first "turn-out" (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district fire
+  station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men, and
+  equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder and jumping
+  sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-boxes, a jack,
+  tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump and a hose-reel
+  attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters and 1 at the
+  district station), each manned by seven firemen and equipped like the
+  "traps" with the exception that, instead of the life-saving chute, the
+  carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two petroleum torches each, an
+  extension ladder (15 metres long) and some spare coal for the steam
+  fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension ladders each 25 metres long, and 3
+  extension turn-table ladders each 25 metres long (at headquarters and
+  at two of the sub-stations); each of the pneumatic ladders has three
+  men, and each turn-table ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at
+  headquarters and 1 each in the other stations), each having five men
+  with 3 hook-ladders, a jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel,
+  a hand-engine, a smoke helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a
+  tool box, torches, &c.; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and
+  one each in the district fire station and the 4 steam-engine
+  stations), each with an engineer and stoker.
+
+  The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large
+  chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs).
+  The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68, and
+  there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The total number
+  of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two
+  electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire
+  telegraphic and telephonic installation, including the lines in the
+  volunteer brigades' districts kept up by the professional brigade,
+  comprises 47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with
+  altogether 161 Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points.
+
+_Zurich._--Zurich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of which are
+built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the buildings being
+subject to the local building regulations and the State Insurance
+Association's rules, in which they are compulsorily insured. The brigade
+is a compulsory militia brigade, placed under the control of the head of
+the department of police under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer
+is head of a special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the
+safety of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is
+known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade. His
+office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a small
+permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence. Every male
+inhabitant of Zurich is compelled to do some service for the prevention
+of, or protection against, fire, from the age of twenty to fifty years.
+The duty may be fulfilled (1) by active service, or (2) in the case of
+an able-bodied citizen, who for some reason is not found suited to be a
+member of the brigade, or has been dismissed from the brigade, by the
+payment of a tax, which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain
+citizens, however, are _ipso facto_ exempt from active service, namely
+members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic school, of
+the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice, and of the Town
+Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters, the officials of railways,
+tramway and steamboat companies, of the post-office and telephone
+department, students of the Polytechnic school and other educational
+institutions and municipal officials, with whose duties fire brigade
+service is incompatible. Exemption from active service can also be
+accorded on a testimonial of a medical board. Exemption from active
+service, however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which
+amounts to between L4000 and L5000. In making the selection of men for
+active service only, men particularly fitted for the work are taken,
+namely, men who are personally keen, who have a good physique, and who
+are preferably of the building or allied trades. The officers of the
+brigade are appointed by the municipal committee. The men's drills are
+by the chief officer, and the men are liable to fines and to
+imprisonment (up to four days) for not attending their drills. The whole
+of the brigade is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss
+Fire Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition
+provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty. There
+is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the municipality, which
+also accords a scale of compensation.
+
+  The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen
+  companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections, namely,
+  a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police section,
+  the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending to
+  salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal with
+  the fire in its own district without calling upon the company of an
+  adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious fire
+  that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a system of
+  decentralization and independence of companies in this brigade not
+  often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc for each drill of
+  two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours, and fifty centimes per
+  hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided. Any telephone can be used
+  free by law for an alarm. The brigade has at its disposal an extension
+  telephone service, but the men are not all connected up with the
+  telephone of their respective districts, and thus the alarm is given
+  mainly with horns sounded by men who are on the telephone. No section
+  of the brigade has less than ten men on the telephone.
+
+  The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances in
+  the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks, and each
+  section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly housed in
+  small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter doors, to
+  which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty of these hydrant
+  houses distributed round the city, the larger appliances being at
+  headquarters and at some depots.
+
+  Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for
+  the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company might
+  be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief officer and
+  staff, and independent organization, the organization of the
+  companies, however, being identical. A company comprises 1 chief
+  officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6 orderlies,
+  a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively 1
+  lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service
+  section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the
+  life-saving section, and 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 20 men
+  for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there
+  some slight variation in the organization, namely, 1 and 2 sections
+  have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior
+  officer. At Zurich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an
+  extraordinary uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and
+  instructions in all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268
+  in all ranks. There were about 70 fires in that year. (E. O. S.)
+
+
+_United States._
+
+Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a scale that
+in 1902 it was estimated by P.G. Hubert ("Fire Fighting To-Day and
+To-Morrow," _Scribner's Magazine_, 1902, 32, pp 448 sqq.) that in
+proportion to population the fire force of America was nearly four times
+that of Germany or France and about three times that of England. The
+many fires consequent on wooden construction even in the large cities;
+the bad effect of sudden climatic changes--drying, parching heat being
+followed by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less
+safe character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements, the
+more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the reasons
+assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-fighting service in
+the United States is in no way connected with the military as it is on
+the continent of Europe; the association of volunteer with paid firemen
+is uncommon except in the suburban parts of the large cities, and in the
+smaller cities and towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term
+are, during that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.
+
+_New York._--The fire department of New York City is the result of
+gradual development. The first record of municipal action in regard to
+fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250 leather buckets and a supply
+of fire-ladders and hooks were purchased, and a tax of one guilder for
+fire apparatus was imposed on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were
+ordered to be dug; in 1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was
+required to provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and
+bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets respectively; in
+1689 "brent-masters" or fire-marshals were appointed; in 1695 every
+dwelling-house had to provide one fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two
+Richard Newsham hand-engines were ordered from England, and soon
+afterwards a superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small
+salary; in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad
+Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the
+appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable or militia
+duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire companies increased
+rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially political; and success
+in a fire company was a sure path to success in politics, the best-known
+case being that of Richard Croker, a member of "Americus 6," commonly
+called "Big Six," of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman.
+Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (predecessors of
+the present "ward leader's outing") under the auspices of the volunteer
+organizations, annual balls after 1829, water-throwing contests, often
+over liberty poles, and bitter fights between different companies
+(sometimes settled by fist duels between selected champions), improved
+the organization of these companies as political factors if not as
+fire-fighters. So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in
+1836, when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from
+office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when the
+volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their work, and
+they began again only when Gulick assured them that the news was false;
+almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick was reinstated. The type of
+the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer fire hero was made famous in
+1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau's playing of the part Mose in Benjamin
+Baker's play, _A Glance at New York_. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York
+were raised entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.
+
+In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted of 163
+companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder) manned by 3521 men
+(engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts about 25, and hook and
+ladder companies about 40); the chief engineer, elected with assistants
+for terms of five or three years by ballots of the firemen, received a
+salary of $3000 a year; and three bell-ringers in each of eight district
+watch-towers, who watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a
+year. The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire District
+and established therein a Fire Department, headed by four commissioners,
+who with the mayor and comptroller constituted a board of estimate.
+
+This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when the Greater
+New York was chartered and the present system was introduced. At its
+head is a commissioner who receives $7500 a year. The more immediate
+head of the firemen is a chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member
+of the force not appointed on the basis of a civil service examination;
+the chief has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond
+boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each receiving an annual
+salary of $5000.
+
+  In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Manhattan,
+  Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens); 59 chiefs of
+  battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 28 in Brooklyn and
+  Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in Manhattan, Bronx and
+  Richmond, and 111 in Brooklyn and Queens), 365 assistant foremen (221
+  in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond; and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 431
+  engineers of steamers (247 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184
+  in Brooklyn and Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and
+  Richmond, and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens); and the total uniformed
+  force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine
+  companies--at East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River),
+  West 35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan and
+  the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in Brooklyn and
+  Queens there were 70 engine companies, including two fire-boat
+  companies--at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The appropriations for the
+  year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and
+  $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens; and the department expenses were
+  $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for
+  Brooklyn and Queens.
+
+  The first high-pressure main system in the city was installed at Coney
+  Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically driven
+  centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area, 1360 acres)
+  and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in 1908, and where
+  the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the City Hall to 25th
+  St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue and East Broadway, being
+  the "Dry Goods District"; water is pumped either from city mains or
+  from the river, and the change may be made instantaneously. The fire
+  watch-tower system was abolished in 1869; the present system is that
+  of red box electric telegraph alarms, which register at headquarters
+  (East 67th St.), where an operator sends out the alarm to that
+  engine-house nearest to the fire which is ready to respond, and a
+  chart informing him of the absence from the engine-house of apparatus.
+  There are volunteer forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond
+  boroughs and in other outlying districts.
+
+  _Boston._--The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great
+  fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000), a
+  chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior
+  deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent
+  and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent
+  and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the force
+  numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam
+  fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination
+  chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3
+  fire-boats (built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29
+  ladder-trucks and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main
+  service was established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the
+  application of the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made
+  in Boston in 1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer,
+  then a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric
+  telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent of the
+  Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.[2]
+
+  _Chicago._--The Chicago organization practically dates from the fire
+  of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858. Its
+  principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary
+  $8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen
+  battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and
+  assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants,
+  engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908 was
+  1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale, Norwood
+  Park, Hansen Park and Ashburn Park. In the business part of the city
+  there is a patrol of seven companies employed by the Board of Fire
+  Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed force (except the
+  chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In 1908 the equipment
+  included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and ladder companies, including
+  one water-tower, 15 chemical engines and one hose company; and there
+  were 5 fire-boats (4 active and 1 reserve). The first fire-boat was
+  built in 1883. The initial installation of high-pressure mains was
+  completed in 1902, and was greatly enlarged in 1908.
+
+
+_Fire Appliances._
+
+_Fire-Alarms._--Most large cities possess a system of electrical
+fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals along
+the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either opens the
+door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window with which it is
+fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus causing the particular
+number allocated to the box, which of course indicates its position, to
+be electrically telegraphed to the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as
+thought advisable. Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box.
+Automatic fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric
+circuit is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain
+temperature. The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or
+to give warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for
+closing it are of the most varied kinds--the expansion of mercury in a
+thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended between
+horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass in a curved
+strip of brass and steel welded together, &c.
+
+_Fire-Engines._--The earliest method of applying water to the extinction
+of fires was by means of buckets, and these long remained the chief
+instruments employed for the purpose, though Hero of Alexandria about
+150 B.C. described a fire-engine with two cylinders and pistons worked
+by a reciprocating lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in
+Rome. In the 16th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire
+squirts or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same
+century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by a screw
+handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time of the Great Fire
+were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2-1/2 or 3 in. in diameter, and three men were
+required to manipulate them. The next stage of development was to mount
+a cistern or reservoir on wheels so that it was portable, and to provide
+it with pumps which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed
+delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important advance was
+made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der Heyde, senior and junior,
+made flexible hose by sewing together the edges of a strip of leather,
+and applied it for both suction and delivery, so that the engines could
+be continuously supplied with water and the stream could be more readily
+directed on the seat of the fire. For many years manual engines were the
+only ones employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as
+many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are superseded by
+power-driven engines, at least for all important services. The first
+practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braithwaite about 1829, but
+though it proved useful in various fires in London for several years
+after that date, it was objected to by the men of the fire brigade and
+its use was abandoned. A generation later, however, steam fire-engines
+began to come into vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to
+the scene of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be
+geared to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not
+till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines were
+employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity have all been
+used. Such engines have the advantage that they can reach a fire much
+more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle, especially in hilly districts,
+and they can if necessary be made of greater power, since their size
+need not be limited by considerations of the weight that can be drawn by
+horses. Petrol-propelled engines can be started off from a station
+within a few seconds of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are
+ready to work immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines
+possess the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under
+steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol engines,
+which cost nothing for maintenance except while they are actually
+working. Motor engines are made with a capacity to deliver 1000 gallons
+of water a minute or even more, but the sizes than can deal with 400 or
+500 gallons a minute are probably those most commonly used.
+
+In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are often provided
+for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks and along the waterside.
+The capacity of these may rise to 6000 gallons a minute. Steam is the
+power most commonly used in them, both for propulsion and for pumping,
+but in one built for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in
+1909, an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam
+engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with oil-fuel, and
+steam could be raised in a few minutes while the boat was on its way to
+a fire. The pumps could throw a 1-1/2-in. jet to a height of nearly 200
+ft. In some places, as at Boston, Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for
+service at some distance from the water. Fire-mains laid through the
+streets terminate in deep water at points accessible to the boats, the
+pumps of which can be connected to them and made to fill them with water
+at high pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply
+system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure water
+can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar devices, to draw
+a much larger quantity from the ordinary mains and force it in jets to
+considerable heights and distances, without the intervention of any
+engine.
+
+The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-pipes, which
+are made either of leather fastened with brass or copper rivets, or of
+canvas (woven from flax) which has the merit of lightness but is liable
+to rot, or of rubber jacketed with canvas (or in America with cotton).
+For directing the water on the fire, nozzles of various forms are
+employed, some throwing a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and
+others again combining jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive
+away smoke and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to
+enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached. A line
+of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the extensions of which
+are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests on the wall of the
+building at the required height. Water-towers enable the jet to be
+delivered at a considerable height independently of any support from the
+building. A light, stiff, lattice steel frame is mounted on a truck, on
+which it lies horizontally while being drawn to a fire, but when it has
+to be used it is turned to an upright position, often by the aid of
+compressed gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still
+greater height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be
+controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the nozzle to be
+moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe up the tower may be of
+large diameter, so that it can carry a huge volume of water, and at the
+bottom it may terminate in a reservoir into which several fire-engines
+may pump simultaneously.
+
+Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable sizes as
+fire-extinguishers or "extincteurs," and in the larger ones as "chemical
+engines," throw a jet of water charged with gas, commonly carbon
+dioxide, which does not support combustion. Essentially they consist of
+a closed metal tank, filled with a solution of some carbonate and also
+containing a small vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the
+acid is kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to be
+used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger
+projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the bottle
+of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus breaks the
+bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker which pierces the
+metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the acid comes into contact
+with the carbonate solution carbon dioxide is formed, and a stream of
+gas and liquid mixed issues under considerable pressure from the
+attached nozzle or hosepipe. Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few
+gallons, are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings,
+&c., and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act
+when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire,
+because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear; but it
+is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid they emit is much
+more efficacious than plain water, and too much importance can easily be
+attached to spectacular displays of their power to extinguish artificial
+blazes of wood soused with petrol, which have been burning only a few
+seconds. Chemical engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by
+fire brigades as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or
+motor vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose, and
+other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with pumps for throwing
+powerful jets of ordinary water. Large buildings, such as hotels and
+warehouses, where a competent watchman is assumed to be always on duty,
+may be protected by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and
+connected by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the
+various floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when
+pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and
+carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a stream is
+available at the hydrants.
+
+_Automatic Sprinklers._--Factories, warehouses and other buildings in
+which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted with automatic
+sprinklers which discharge water from the ceiling of a room as soon as
+the temperature rises to a certain point. Lines of pipes containing
+water under pressure are carried through the building near the ceilings
+at distances of 8 or 10 ft. apart, and to these pipes are attached
+sprinkler heads at intervals such that the water from them is
+distributed all over the room. The valves of the sprinklers are normally
+kept closed by a device the essential feature of which is a piece of
+fusible metal; this as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about
+160 deg. F.) by the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases
+the water, which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a
+shower. In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling
+pipes are filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 lb. per sq. in.
+When the sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a
+fire, the compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of pressure in
+the pipes is arranged to operate a system of levers that opens the
+water-valve of the main-feed pipe. The idea of automatic sprinklers is
+an old one, and a system was patented by Sir William Congreve in 1812;
+but in their present development they are specially associated with the
+name of Frederick Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.
+
+_Fire-Escapes._--The best kind of fire-escape, because it is always in
+place, and always ready for use, is an external iron staircase, reaching
+from the top of a building to the ground, and connected with balconies
+accessible from the windows on each floor. In many towns the building
+by-laws require such staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a
+certain height and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of
+non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper room to
+reach the ground through the window, numberless forms have been
+invented, from simple knotted ropes and folding ladders to slings and
+baskets suspended by a rope over sheaves fixed permanently outside the
+windows, and provided with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the
+speed of his descent, and to "chutes" or canvas tubes down which he
+slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders, mounted on a
+wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb; sometimes the persons
+rescued are sent down a chute attached to the apparatus, but many fire
+brigades think it preferable to rely on carrying down those who are
+unable to descend the ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a
+number of men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape
+is by jumping from an upper window.     (X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In the United States a special officer called a "fire-marshal"
+    has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in
+    1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in
+    Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut
+    (1901), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been
+    passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question
+    has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred,
+    should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in
+    recent years in the City of London no regular system exists.
+
+  [2] See Thomas C. Martin, _Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police
+    Patrol Systems_ (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the
+    Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was
+    installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in
+    1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860.
+
+
+
+
+FIREBACK, the name given to the ornamented slab of cast iron protecting
+the back of a fireplace. The date at which firebacks became common
+probably synchronizes with the removal of the fire from the centre to
+the side or end of a room. They never became universal, since the
+proximity of deposits of iron ore was essential to their use. In England
+they were confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey,
+and appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties was
+exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other parts of the
+country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there was a certain
+commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed an interesting and even
+artistic form. The earlier examples were commonly rectangular, but a
+shaped or gabled top eventually became common. English firebacks may
+roughly be separated into four chronological divisions--those moulded
+from more than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical,
+mythological and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies
+of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Netherlandish. The
+fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of detached ornament were
+much used before attempts were made to elaborate a homogeneous design,
+but by the middle of the 17th century firebacks of a very elaborate type
+were being produced. Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion,
+the death of Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of
+serpents. Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being
+used extensively--many existing firebacks bear the arms of the Stuarts.
+About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private families began to be
+used, the earliest instances remaining bearing those of the Sackvilles,
+who were lords of a large portion of the forest of Anderida, which
+furnished the charcoal for the smelting operations in our ancient
+iron-fields. To the armorial shields the date was often added, together
+with the initials of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to
+cut the design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face
+downwards upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into the
+impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands and in parts
+of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and Metz there are several
+private collections, and there are also many examples in public museums.
+The museum of the Porte de Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest
+examples in existence with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles
+V., accompanied by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first destroyed
+in France the possession of a _plaque de cheminee_ bearing heraldic
+insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection to the republic, and on
+the 13th of October 1793 the National Convention issued a decree giving
+the owners and tenants of houses a month in which to turn such firebacks
+with their face to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron
+foundries of a sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct
+of equality. Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to
+this day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs
+outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not infrequently
+made, and the old examples are much prized and collected.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE BRAT, a small insect (_Thermobia_ or _Thermophila furnorum_)
+related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses, where it feeds upon
+bread and flour.
+
+
+
+
+FIREBRICK.--Under this term are included all bricks, blocks and slabs
+used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &c., where the brickwork
+has to withstand high temperature (see BRICK).
+
+The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary very
+greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain, corrosive
+action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace charge, chemical
+action of furnace charge and products of combustion, &c., and in order
+to meet these different conditions many varieties of firebricks are
+manufactured.
+
+Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, i.e. from clays which
+withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive shrinkage or
+warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although the term "fireclay"
+is generally restricted in use to certain shales from the Coal Measures,
+which contain only a small percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are
+consequently highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of
+refractoriness for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a
+fireclay which has a fusion point below 1600 deg. C.
+
+  Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but generally the
+  percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high, and the
+  percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash (taken
+  together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &c., are
+  also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical or
+  other properties are necessary.
+
+  The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various
+  fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon its
+  refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a
+  certain proportion of ground firebrick, ganister, sand or some similar
+  refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking
+  generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing is
+  continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or
+  other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas
+  firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected to
+  rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained and
+  consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken to
+  obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and
+  mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose to
+  which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often
+  contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron
+  disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules
+  are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is
+  used.
+
+  A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather
+  open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping,
+  strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be subjected
+  when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the full
+  contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these
+  requirements, and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground
+  firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up.
+  The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between
+  rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to
+  ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay and
+  other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry state,
+  water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks made up
+  from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.
+
+  The proportion of ground firebrick, &c., used depends on the nature of
+  the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but
+  generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage
+  of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to
+  produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking,
+  warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing a
+  sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings and
+  coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes special
+  mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain fireclay
+  goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay for the
+  manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &c., where the temperature
+  is very variable but never very high, a certain percentage of sawdust
+  is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out on firing and
+  ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material is much less
+  liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a closer
+  texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work, where
+  strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For the
+  construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &c., the firebrick used must be
+  sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing strain of the
+  superimposed brickwork, &c., at the highest temperature to which they
+  are subjected.
+
+  The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces,
+  &c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the
+  brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The
+  firebrick may waste by crumbling--due to excessive porosity or
+  openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence
+  of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &c.; it may gradually wear away
+  by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the solid
+  particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases themselves;
+  it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface through
+  contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is subjected to very
+  high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract and so split
+  and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized fact that
+  successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion point, or
+  long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually produce
+  vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close texture,
+  and entirely alters the properties of the brick.
+
+  Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is
+  necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the
+  chemical composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the
+  formation of fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the
+  furnace charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be
+  basic or aluminous and not siliceous, i.e. it should be made from a
+  fireclay containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to
+  which a high percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has
+  been added. For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials
+  containing little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and
+  uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their
+  carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite, clay
+  and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &c.
+
+  In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the
+  manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or
+  ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the
+  material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of the
+  south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these
+  siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork does
+  not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &c., of
+  many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick can
+  be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should endeavour to
+  make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &., to meet
+  certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials at his
+  disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making
+  firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a
+  thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of
+  which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary mortar,
+  and the joints should be as close as possible, only just sufficient of
+  the paste being used to enable the bricks to bed on one another.
+
+  It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of
+  firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory
+  material--such as kaolin--in order to protect the firebricks from the
+  direct action of the flue gases, &c., and quite recently a thin paste
+  of carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has been
+  more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carborundum
+  bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of
+  carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to
+  have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that
+  the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin
+  coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious
+  and highly-refractory facing.     (J. B.*; W. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIREFLY, a term popularly used for certain tropical American
+click-beetles (_Pyrophorus_), on account of their power of emitting
+light. The insects belong to the family _Elateridae_, whose characters
+are described under COLEOPTERA (q.v.). The genus _Pyrophorus_ contains
+about ninety species, and is entirely confined to America and the West
+Indies, ranging from the southern United States to Argentina and Chile.
+Its species are locally known as _cucujos_. Except for a few species in
+the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous _Elateridae_ are
+unknown in the eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of
+conspicuous smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area beneath
+the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these regions are
+situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of cells which may be
+regarded as a specialized portion of the fat-body. Both the male and
+female fireflies emit light, as well as their larvae and eggs, the egg
+being luminous even while still in the ovary. The inhabitants of
+tropical America sometimes keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of
+illumination, or make use of the insects for personal adornment.
+
+The name "firefly" is often applied also to luminous beetles of the
+family _Lampyridae_, to which the well-known glow-worm belongs.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE-IRONS, the implements for tending a fire. Usually they consist of
+poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most frequently of iron, steel, or
+brass, or partly of one and partly of another. The more elegant brass
+examples of the early part of the 19th century are much sought after for
+use with the brass fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from
+an ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are smaller
+in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.
+
+
+
+
+FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO (1493-c. 1545), Italian poet and litterateur, was
+born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493. The family name was
+taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated at the foot of the
+Apennines, its original home. The grandfather of Agnolo had obtained the
+citizenship of Florence and transmitted it to his family. Agnolo was
+destined for the profession of the law, and pursued his studies first at
+Siena and afterwards at Perugia. There he became the associate of the
+notorious Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the
+model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola practised for
+a time the profession of an advocate, but with little success. It is
+asserted by all his biographers that while still a young man he assumed
+the monastic dress at Vallombrosa, and that he afterwards held
+successively two abbacies. Tiraboschi alone ventures to doubt this
+account, partly on the ground of Firenzuola's licentiousness, and partly
+on the ground of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to
+be conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope Clement
+VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled at Prato as
+abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a collected edition was
+published in 1548, are partly in prose and partly in verse, and belong
+to the lighter classes of literature. Among the prose works
+are--_Discorsi degli animali_, imitations of Oriental and Aesopian
+fables, of which there are two French translations; _Dialogo delle
+bellezze delle donne_, also translated into French; _Ragionamenti
+amorosi_, a series of short tales in the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling
+him in elegance and in licentiousness; _Discacciamento delle nuove
+lettere_, a controversial piece against Trissino's proposal to introduce
+new letters into the Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of
+_The Golden Ass_ of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed
+through many editions; and two comedies, _I Lucidi_, an imitation of the
+_Menaechmi_ of Plautus, and _La Trinuzia_, which in some points
+resembles the _Calandria_ of Cardinal Bibbiena. His poems are chiefly
+satirical and burlesque. All his works are esteemed as models of
+literary excellence, and are cited as authorities in the vocabulary of
+the Accademia della Crusca. The date of Firenzuola's death is only
+approximately ascertained. He had been dead several years when the first
+edition of his writings appeared (1548).
+
+  His works have been very frequently republished, separately and in
+  collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued at
+  Florence in 2 vols. in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+FIRESHIP, a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down on an enemy to
+set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity, and in the middle
+ages. The highly successful employment of one by the defenders of
+Antwerp when besieged by the prince of Parma in 1585 brought them into
+prominent notice, and they were used to drive the Armada from its
+anchorage at Gravelines in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes
+with great effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century.
+Thus in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald)
+were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque Roads;
+and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of the Greek
+fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the consequent demoralization of
+the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely contributed to secure for
+the insurgents the command of the sea. In general, however, it was found
+that fireships hampered the movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an
+enemy's fire, or towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion
+was frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position. They
+were made by building "a fire chamber" between the decks from the
+forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the mainmast. This space was
+filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar, together with gunpowder in
+iron vessels. The gunpowder and combustibles were connected by trains of
+powder, and by bundles of brushwood called "bavins." When a fireship was
+to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy, and when
+close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat which was towed
+astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous a reward of L100, or in
+lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be worn as a mark of honour, was
+granted in the British navy to the successful captain of a fireship. A
+rank of _capitaine de brulot_ existed in the French navy of Louis XIV.,
+and was next to the full captain--or _capitaine de vaisseau_.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE-WALKING, a religious ceremony common to many races. The origin and
+meaning of the custom is very obscure, but it is shown to have been
+widespread in all ages. It still survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji
+Islands, Tahiti, India, the Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is
+said Japan. The details of its ritual and its objects vary in different
+lands, but the essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests,
+fakirs, and devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is
+always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with the spring
+festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful harvest. Such was the
+Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the time of Kublai Khan the Taoist
+Buddhists held great festivals to the "High Emperor of the Sombre
+Heavens" and walked through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their
+priests bearing images of their gods in their arms. Though they were
+severely burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed if
+they had faith. J.G. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, vol. iii. p. 307) describes
+the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien. The chief performers
+are labourers who must fast for three days and observe chastity for a
+week. During this time they are taught in the temple how they are to
+perform their task. On the eve of the festival a huge brazier of
+charcoal, often twenty feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of
+the great god. At sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A
+Taoist priest throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two
+exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse the fire
+again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The trained performers
+then pass through with the image of the god. Frazer suggests that, as
+the essential feature of the rite is the carrying of the deity through
+the flames, the whole thing is sympathetic magic designed to give to the
+coming spring sunshine (the supposed divine emanation), that degree of
+heat which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks,
+notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and Chota
+Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three months in the
+year, the priest walks over a narrow trench filled with smouldering wood
+ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal
+hero Bir by a like performance, and they declare that the walker who is
+really "possessed" by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as
+observed in the Madras presidency see _Indian Antiquary_, vii. (1878) p.
+126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the ceremony is
+called _vilavilarevo_, and according to an eyewitness a number of
+natives walk unharmed across and among white-hot stones which form the
+pavement of a huge native oven. In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In
+April 1899 an Englishman saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see _The Field_, May
+20th, 1899). The fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in
+honour of a mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called
+_Nistinares_ and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in
+the fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine.
+Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the
+_Nistinares_ (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot embers
+and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the muddy ground
+where libations of water have been poured.
+
+The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity of the
+performers from burns. On this point authorities and eyewitnesses differ
+greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief was thrown on to the stones
+when the first man leapt into the oven, and what remained of it snatched
+up as the last left the stones. Every fold that touched the stone was
+charred! In some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but
+this is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an
+impression that there is something still to be explained in the escape
+of the performers from shocking injuries. S.P. Langley, who witnessed a
+fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the whole rite as there
+practised is a mere symbolic farce (_Nature_ for August 22nd, 1901).
+
+  For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses' reports
+  _in extenso_, see A. Lang, _Magic and Religion_ (1901). See also Dr
+  Gustav Oppert, _Original Inhabitants of India_, p. 480; W. Crooke,
+  _Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, p. 10
+  (1896); _Folklore Journal_ for September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv.
+  P. 87.
+
+
+
+
+FIREWORKS. In modern times this term is principally associated with the
+art of "pyrotechny" (Gr. [Greek: pur], fire, and [Greek: techne], art),
+and confined to the production of pleasing scenic effects by means of
+fire and inflammable and explosive substances. But the history of the
+evolution of such displays is bound up with that of the use of such
+substances not only for scenic display but for exciting fear and for
+military purposes; and it is consequently complicated by our lack of
+exact knowledge as to the materials at the disposal of the ancients
+prior to the invention of gunpowder (see also the article GREEK FIRE).
+For the following historical account the term "fireworks" is therefore
+used in a rather general sense.
+
+_History._--It is usually stated that from very ancient times fireworks
+were known in China; it is, however, difficult to assign dates or quote
+trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic displays were certainly given in
+the Roman circus. While a passage in Manilius,[1] who lived in the days
+of Augustus, seems to bear this interpretation, there is the definite
+evidence of Vopiscus[2] that fireworks were performed for the emperor
+Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,[3] writing
+in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set piece, where
+whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire were displayed upon the
+_pegma_, a species of movable framework employed in the various
+spectacles presented in the circus. After the fall of the Western empire
+no mention of fireworks can be traced until the Crusaders carried back
+with them to Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East,
+and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio,[4] writing in 1540,
+says that at an anterior period it had been customary at Florence and
+Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast of St John or at the
+Assumption, and that on these occasions stage properties, including
+effigies with wooden bodies and plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty
+pedestals, and that these figures gave forth flames, whilst round about
+tubes or pipes were erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but
+he adds that these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome
+when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy, fire
+festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England and
+France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen Elizabeth,[5]
+while De Frezier,[6] writing in 1707, says it was commonly adhered to in
+his time, and that on one occasion the king of France himself set a
+light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals of these curious rites have
+been noted quite recently in Scotland and Ireland.[7] Early use also of
+fireworks was made in plays and pageants. Hell or hell's mouth was
+represented by a gigantic head out of which flames were made to
+issue:[8] in the river procession on the occasion of the marriage of
+Henry VII. and Elizabeth (1487) the "Bachelors' Barge" carried a dragon
+spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne Boleyn
+(1538) "there went before the lord mayor's barge a foyst or wafter full
+of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great red dragon that spouted
+out wild fyre and round about were terrible monstrous and wild men
+casting fire and making a hideous noise."[9] These individuals were
+known as "green men." Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic
+masks, and carried "fire clubs." They were sometimes employed to clear
+the way at processions.[10]
+
+Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and fireworker came
+into existence; at first they were not soldiers, but civilians who
+sometimes exercised military functions, and part of their duties was
+intimately connected with the preparation of fireworks both for peace
+and war. The emperor Charles V. brought his fireworks under definite
+regulations in 1535,[11] and eventually other countries did the same.
+The _ignes triumphales_ were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold
+poles were erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around
+them were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they
+presented the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched
+dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp welcomed
+the archduke of Austria in 1550.[12] Then the "fire combat" came into
+fashion. Helmets from which flames would issue were provided for the
+performers; there were also swords and clubs that would give out sparks
+at every stroke, lances with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck
+gave forth a detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons
+such as these will be found in Hanzelet's _Recueil de machines
+militaires_ (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be somewhat of a
+scenic artist who could devise a romantic background and fill it with
+shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to make his castle, his
+cave or his rocky ravine, and people his stage with distressed damsel,
+errant knight or devouring dragon. Furthermore he had to give motion to
+the inanimate persons of the drama; thus his dragon would run down an
+incline on hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a
+rocket.[13] In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the
+daughter of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the
+king's gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a giant, a
+dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted castle, jumbled
+up together after the approved fashion of the Spenserian legends.[14] As
+time went on a more refined taste rejected the bizarre features of the
+old displays, artistic merit began to creep into the designs, and an
+effort was made to introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus
+Clarmer of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture
+of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend, where
+Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion, the monster
+Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquering Louis XIII.[15] In
+the first half of the 17th century many books[16] on fireworks appeared,
+which avoided the old grotesque ideas and advocated skill and finesse.
+"It is a rare thing," says Nye (1648), "to represent a tree or fountain
+in the air." The most celebrated work of them all was the _Great Art of
+Artillery_ by Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be
+translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly eighty
+years after it had appeared.[17] The classic facade now came into
+fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic figures, and disposed
+around were groups of rockets, Roman candles, &c., musket barrels for
+projecting stars, and mortars from which were fired shells called
+balloons, which were full of combustibles. The figures were carved out
+of wood which was soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mache so
+that a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts, removed
+from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled with fireworks.
+
+National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appearance, and
+for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over Europe in the
+public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph. Representations and
+sometimes accounts will be found in the British Museum[18] of the more
+important English displays, from the coronation of James II. down to the
+peace rejoicings of 1856, during which period national fireworks were
+provided by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of
+Ranelagh and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private
+enterprise, and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs
+Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without an official
+rival.     (J. R. J. J.)
+
+_Modern Fireworks._--In modern times the art of pyrotechny has been
+gradually improved by the work of specialists, who have had the
+advantage of being guided by the progress of scientific chemistry and
+mechanics. As in all such cases, however, science is useless without the
+aid of practical experience and acquired manual dexterity.
+
+Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with oxygen, and will
+do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically as to render the
+products of the combination (which may be solid matter or gas) intensely
+hot and luminous. This is the general cause of the phenomenon known as
+fire. Its special character depends chiefly on the nature of the
+substances burned and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to
+them. As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted with
+about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this oxygen which
+supports the combustion of our coal and candles. But it is not often
+that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon atmospheric oxygen for his
+purposes; for the phenomena of combustion in it are too familiar, and
+too little capable of variation, to strike with wonder. Two cases,
+however, where he does so may be instanced, viz. the burning of
+magnesium powder and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the
+imitation of lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort
+much to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may be
+produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled with the
+gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in anything like its
+present form had not certain solid substances become known which,
+containing oxygen in combination with other elements, are capable of
+being made to evolve large volumes of it at the moment it is required.
+The best examples of these solid _oxidizing agents_ are potassium
+nitrate (nitre or saltpetre) and chlorate; and these are of the first
+importance in the manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these
+salts be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity of some
+suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder, the resulting mixture
+is capable of burning with more or less energy without any aid from
+atmospheric oxygen, since each small piece of fuel is in close
+juxtaposition to an available and sufficient store of the gas. All that
+is required is that the liberation of the oxygen from the solid
+particles which contain it shall be started by the application of heat
+from without, and the action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the
+fundamental fact of pyrotechny--that, with proper attention to the
+chemical nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures
+(_compositions_ or _fuses_) may be prepared which contain within
+themselves all that is essential for the production of fire.
+
+If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric and chloric
+acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped together as oxidizing
+agents, most of the other materials used in making firework compositions
+may be classed as _oxidizable substances_. Every composition must
+contain at least one sample of each class: usually there are present
+more than one oxidizable substance, and very often more than one
+oxidizing agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the
+ingredients of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much
+importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of combustion.
+The most important oxidizable substances employed are charcoal and
+sulphur. These two, it is well known, when properly mixed in certain
+proportions with the oxidizing agent nitre, constitute gunpowder; and
+gunpowder plays an important part in the construction of most fireworks.
+It is sometimes employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but
+more commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients and
+with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur, the following
+oxidizable substances are more or less employed:--many compounds of
+carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c.; certain metallic compounds
+of sulphur, such as the sulphides of arsenic and antimony; a few of the
+metals themselves, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of
+these metals iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the
+others. They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings.
+They do not contribute much to the burning power of the composition; but
+when it is ignited they become intensely heated and are discharged into
+the air, where they oxidize more or less completely and cause brilliant
+sparks and scintillations.
+
+Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances, which
+neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes employed as
+ingredients of the compositions in order to influence the character of
+the fire. This may be modified in many ways. Thus the rate of combustion
+may be altered so as to give anything from an instantaneous explosion to
+a slow fire lasting many minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or
+charged with glowing sparks. But the most important characteristic of a
+fire--one to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists--is its
+_colour_, which may be varied through the different shades and
+combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours are imparted
+to the flame by the presence in it of the heated vapours of certain
+metals, of which the following are the most important:--sodium, which
+gives a yellow colour; calcium, red; strontium, crimson; barium, green;
+copper, green or blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of
+these metals are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are
+decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion. Very often
+the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they serve the double
+purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting colour to the flame.
+
+The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great, for the
+requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost each size of each
+variety, are different. Moreover, every pyrotechnist has his own taste in
+the matter of compositions. They are capable, however, of being
+classified according to the nature of the work to which they are suited.
+Thus there are rocket-fuses, gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions,
+&c.; and, in addition, there are a few which are essential in the
+construction of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be.
+Such are the _starting-powder_, which first catches the fire, the
+_bursting-powder_, which causes the final explosion, and the
+_quick-match_ (cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of
+gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more
+complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another. Of the
+general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the following two
+examples, which are selected at hazard from among the numerous recipes
+for making, respectively, tourbillion fire and green stars:--
+
+        _Tourbillion_.                     _Green Stars_.
+  Meal gunpowder      24 parts.     Potassium chlorate  16 parts.
+  Nitre               10   "        Barium nitrate      48   "
+  Sulphur              7   "        Sulphur             12   "
+  Charcoal             4   "        Charcoal             1   "
+  Steel filings        8   "        Shellac              5   "
+                                    Calomel              8   "
+                                    Copper sulphide      2   "
+
+Although the making of compositions is of the first importance, it is
+not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do; for the
+construction of the _cases_ in which they are to be packed, and the
+actual processes of packing and finishing, require much care and
+dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard, and are
+generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary greatly, according
+to the effect which it is desired to produce. The relations of length to
+thickness, of internal to external diameter, and of these to the size of
+the openings for discharge, are matters of extreme importance, and must
+always be attended to with almost mathematical exactness and considered
+in connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be used.
+
+There is one very important property of fireworks that is due more to
+the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner in which they are
+filled than to the precise chemical character of the composition, i.e.
+their power of _motion_. Some are so constructed that the piece is kept
+at rest and the only motion possible is that of the flame and sparks
+which escape during combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also
+fixed, contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary
+compositions, balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some kind
+of varnish; and these _stars_, as they are called, shot into the air,
+one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there with striking
+effect. But in many instances motion is imparted to the firework as a
+whole--to the case as well as to its contents. This motion, various as
+it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two kinds--_rotatory_ motion
+round a fixed point, which may be in the centre of gravity of a single
+piece or that of a whole system of pieces, and _free ascending_ motion
+through the air. In all cases the cause of motion is the same, viz. that
+large quantities of gaseous matter are formed by the combustion, that
+these can escape only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure
+is necessarily exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large gun
+is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may be regarded
+as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and in them the recoil is
+therefore so much greater as to be the most noticeable feature of the
+discharge; and it only requires proper contrivances to make the piece
+fly through the air like a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis
+like a Catherine wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in
+pyrotechny than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour.
+
+The following is a brief description of some of the forms of firework
+most employed:--
+
+  _Fixed Fires._--_Theatre fires_ consist of a slow composition which
+  may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at
+  the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured--green,
+  red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating
+  buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case,
+  the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous
+  fumes. _Bengal lights_ are very similar, but are piled in saucers,
+  covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match.
+  _Marroons_ are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind cord
+  and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud
+  report. They are generally used in _batteries_, or in combination with
+  some other form of firework. _Squibs_ are straight cylindrical cases
+  about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a
+  strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little
+  bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that the
+  fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of
+  course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. _Crackers_ are
+  characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards
+  several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine. One
+  end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a hissing
+  noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a bend. If
+  the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at each
+  report; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the fixed
+  fireworks. _Roman candles_ are straight cylindrical cases filled with
+  layers of composition and _stars_ alternately. These stars are simply
+  balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic
+  filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required
+  size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are discharged
+  like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a
+  beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of
+  differently coloured fire in one case. _Gerbes_ are choked cases, not
+  unlike Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire
+  spreads like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously
+  coloured stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. _Lances_ are small
+  straight cases charged with compositions like those used for making
+  stars. They are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they
+  are fixed with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by
+  _leaders_, i.e. by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they
+  can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in
+  detachments, as may be desired. The devices and "set pieces"
+  constructed in this way are often of an extremely elaborate character;
+  and they include all the varieties of _lettered designs_, of _fixed
+  suns_, _fountains_, _palm-trees_, _waterfalls_, _mosaic work_,
+  _Highland tartan_, _portraits_, _ships_, &c.
+
+  _Rotating Fireworks._--_Pin_ or _Catherine wheels_ are long paper
+  cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-wire
+  and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by a pin,
+  sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the outer primed
+  end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil causes the
+  wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with considerable
+  velocity. _Pastiles_ are very similar in principle and construction.
+  Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and made to revolve round
+  its own centre point, it may be used as the engine to drive a wheel or
+  other form of framework round in a circle. Many varied effects are
+  thus produced, of which the _fire-wheel_ is the simplest. Straight
+  cases, filled with some fire-composition, are attached to the end of
+  the spokes of a wheel or other mechanism capable of being rotated.
+  They are all pointed in the same direction at an angle to the spokes,
+  and they are connected together by leaders, so that each, as it burns
+  out, fires the one next it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant
+  effects of changing colour are produced; or various fire-wheels of
+  different colours may be combined, revolving in different planes and
+  different directions--some fast and some slowly. _Bisecting wheels_,
+  _plural wheels_, _caprice wheels_, _spiral wheels_, are all more or
+  less complicated forms; and it is possible to produce, by mechanism of
+  this nature, a model in fire of the solar system.
+
+  _Ascending Fireworks._--_Tourbillions_ are fireworks so constructed as
+  to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful
+  spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the
+  centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the
+  composition occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by
+  six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the
+  end, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right
+  and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory
+  motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is
+  the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the
+  ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward motion to
+  the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion; and the
+  quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that combustion begins at
+  the two ends simultaneously and does not reach the holes of ascension
+  till after the rotation is fairly begun. The _sky-rocket_ is generally
+  considered the most beautiful of all fireworks; and it certainly is
+  the one that requires most skill and science in its construction. It
+  consists essentially of two parts,--the body and the head. The body is
+  a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and is choked at the lower
+  end, so as to present only a narrow opening for the escape of the
+  fire. The composition does not fill up the case entirely, for a
+  central hollow conical bore extends from the choked mouth up the body
+  for three-quarters of its length. This is an essential feature of the
+  rocket. It allows of nearly the whole composition being fired at once;
+  the result of which is that an enormous quantity of heated gases
+  collects in the hollow bore, and the gases, forcing their way
+  downwards through the narrow opening, urge the rocket up through the
+  air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-of-Paris plug. A hole
+  passes through this and is filled with a fuse, which serves to
+  communicate the fire to the head after the body is burned out. This
+  head, which is made separately and fastened on after the body is
+  packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber with a conical
+  top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way through the air and
+  of holding the _garniture_ of stars, sparks, crackers, serpents, gold
+  and silver rain, &c., which are scattered by bursting fire as soon as
+  the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A great variety of
+  beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of ingenuity in the
+  choice and construction of this garniture. Many of the best results
+  have been obtained by unpublished methods which must be regarded as
+  the secrets of the trade. The _stick_ of the sky-rocket serves the
+  purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight; and its size must
+  be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case. In _winged_
+  rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act like the
+  feathers of an arrow. A _girandole_ is the simultaneous discharge of a
+  large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two hundred), which
+  either spread like a peacock's tail or pierce the sky in all
+  directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the final feat
+  of a great pyrotechnic display.
+
+  See Chertier, _Sur les feux d'artifice_ (Paris, 1841; 2nd ed., 1854);
+  Mortimer, _Manual of Pyrotechny_ (London, 1856); Tessier, _Chimie
+  pyrotechnique, ou traite pratique des feux colores_ (Paris, 1858);
+  Richardson and Watts, _Chemical Technology_, s.v. "Pyrotechny"
+  (London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, _The Pyrotechnist's Treasury_
+  (London, 1878); Websky, _Luftfeuerwerkkunst_ (Leipzig, 1878).
+       (O. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Manilius, _Astronomica_, lib. v., 438-443.
+
+  [2] Vopiscus, _Carus, Numerianus et Carinus_, ch. xix.
+
+  [3] Claudianus, _De consulatu Manlii Theodori_, 325-330.
+
+  [4] Vanuzzio Biringuccio, _Pyrotechnia_.
+
+  [5] Strutts, _Sports and Pastimes of the English People_.
+
+  [6] De Frezier, _Traite des feux d'artifice_ (1707 and 1747).
+
+  [7] _Notes and Queries_, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8,
+    vol. ii. pp. 145 and 254.
+
+  [8] J.B. Nichols & Sons, _London Pageants_.
+
+  [9] Hall's _Chronicles_.
+
+  [10] J. Bate, _Mysteries of Nature and Art_ (1635). This contains a
+    picture of a green man.
+
+  [11] _Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen_ (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
+    pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.
+
+  [12] See "Fairholts' Collection" bequeathed to the Royal Society of
+    Antiquaries.
+
+  [13] _Journal_ of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11.
+
+  [14] Somers' _Tracts_, vol. iii.
+
+  [15] De Frezier.
+
+  [16] Diego Ufano, _Artillery_, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner
+    Norton, _The Gunner_ and _The Gunner's Dialogue_ (1628); F. de Malthe
+    (Malthus), _Artificial Fireworks_, in French and English (1628);
+    "Hanzelet," _Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux
+    artificiels pour la guerre et recreation_ (1620 and 1630);
+    Furttenback, master gunner of Bavaria, _Halinitro Pyrobolio_, in
+    German (1627); (John Babington Matross, _Pyrotechnia_, 1635); Nye,
+    master gunner of Worcester, _Art of Gunnery_ (Worcester, 1648);
+    Casimir Siemienowitz, lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of
+    Poland, _The Great Art of Artillery_, in French (1650).
+
+  [17] Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the
+    surveyor-general of the Ordnance.
+
+  [18] "Crace Collection" in the print-room; the King's Prints and
+    Drawings in the library. See also "The Connection of the Ordnance
+    Department with National and Royal Fireworks," _R. A. Journal_, vol.
+    xxii. No. 11.
+
+
+
+
+FIRM, an adjective originally indicating a dense or close consistency,
+hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This word, in M. Eng.
+_ferme_, is derived through the French, from Lat. _firmus_. The medieval
+Latin substantive _firma_ meant a fixed payment, either in the way of
+rent, composition for periodic payments, &c.; and this word, often
+represented by "firm" in translations of medieval documents, has
+produced the English "farm" (q.v.). From a late Latin use of _firmare_,
+to confirm by signature, _firma_ occurs in many Romanic languages for a
+signature, and the English "firm" was thus used till the 18th century.
+From a transferred use came the meaning of a business house. In the
+Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered into partnership with one
+another are called collectively a firm, and the name under which their
+business is carried on is called the firm-name.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the word _firmamentum_,
+which means in classical Latin a strengthening or support (_firmare_, to
+make firm or strong) was used as the equivalent of [Greek: stereoma]
+([Greek: stereoein], to make firm or solid) in the LXX., which
+translates the Heb. raqiya'. The Hebrew probably signifies literally
+"expanse," and is thus used of the expanse or vault of the sky, the verb
+from which it is derived meaning "to beat out." In Syriac the verb means
+"to make firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. [Greek: stereoma]
+and the Lat. _firmamentum_. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
+eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven spheres
+of the planets.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. _ferman_, a mandate or patent, cognate
+with the Sanskrit _pramana_, a measure, authority), an edict of an
+oriental sovereign, used specially to designate decrees, grants,
+passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey and signed by one of his
+ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's sign-manual and drawn up with
+special formalities is termed a _hatti-sherif_, Arabic words meaning a
+line, writing or command, and lofty, noble. A written decree of an
+Ottoman sultan is also termed an _irade_, the word being taken from the
+Arab. _irada_, will, volition, order.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in the reign of
+Constantine and his successors. About the year 346 he composed a work
+entitled _De erroribus profanarum religionum_, which he inscribed to
+Constantius and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still
+extant. In the first part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of
+worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he
+discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries.
+The whole tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
+argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the eight books
+on astronomy (Libri VIII. _Matheseos_) bearing the same author's name,
+that the two works have usually been attributed to different writers.
+Mommsen (_Hermes_ vol. 29, pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the
+astronomy--a work interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit--was
+composed about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add to
+this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a connexion
+with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming the same author
+for the two books, though it shows that in the 4th century acceptance of
+Christianity did not always mean an advance in ethical standpoint.
+
+  The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
+  library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
+  reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
+  of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions are
+  those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his
+  _Minucius Felix_ (_Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat._ ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The
+  Neoplatonist work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has
+  often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, _Gesch. der
+  chr. lat. Litt._, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_,
+  ed. 1901, p. 354.
+
+
+
+
+FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of Loire, 8 m. S.W.
+of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778. It has important coal mines
+known since the 14th century and extensive manufactures of iron and
+steel goods, including railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy
+woollen hosiery is also manufactured.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north and
+Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on Christmas or New
+Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be brought the house by
+First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is regarded with dread. In
+Lancashire a light-haired man is as unlucky as a woman, and it became a
+custom for dark-haired males to hire themselves out to "take the New
+Year in." In Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first
+carol-singer who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
+it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his fairness is
+no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always more elaborate than
+in England, involving a subsequent entertainment.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF THE. By this name we call the great naval
+victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of Admiral
+Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place name can be given to
+it, because the battle was fought 429 m. to the west of Ushant.
+
+The French people were suffering much distress from the bad harvest of
+the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant ships laden with corn
+was expected from America. Admiral Vanstabel of the French navy had been
+sent to escort it with two ships of the line in December of 1793. He
+sailed with his charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On
+the previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
+Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept the
+convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel fleet. He
+sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail of the line and 15
+smaller vessels, having under his charge nearly a hundred merchant ships
+which were to be seen clear of the Channel. On the 4th, when off the
+Lizard, the convoy was sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle
+ships and 6 or 7 frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to
+accompany them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
+Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to cruise on
+the look-out for the French convoy between Cape Ortegal and Belle Isle.
+These detachments reduced the force under Lord Howe's immediate command
+to 26 of the line and 7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant,
+and sent frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
+him that the main French fleet, which was under the command of
+Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at anchor in
+the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which the convoy was
+likely to be met with, knowing that if the French admiral came out it
+would be to meet the ships with the food and cover them from attack. To
+seek the convoy was therefore the most sure way of forcing
+Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the 18th the British fleet continued
+cruising in the Bay of Biscay. On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant
+and again reconnoitred Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had
+gone to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had
+passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog. On the
+19th the French admiral was informed by the "Patriote" (74) that Nielly
+had fallen in with, and had captured, the British frigate "Castor" (32),
+under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together with a convoy from
+Newfoundland. On the same day Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch
+convoy of 53 sail from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral
+Montagu joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured
+part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that Nielly was to join
+Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined force would be 9 sail of the
+line. Montagu himself had steered to cruise on the route of the convoy
+between the 45th and 47th degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to
+meet his subordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the
+main French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch ships
+taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that on the 19th the
+French fleet had been in latitude 47 deg. 46' N. and in longitude 11
+deg. 22' N. and was steering westward. Judging that Montagu was too far
+to the south to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse, and considering him
+strong enough to perform the duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe
+decided to pursue the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the
+weather hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 A.M. that the
+British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47 deg. 34' N. and 13 deg.
+39' W.
+
+The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to windward.
+Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m. from the British, and
+then hauled to the wind on the port tack. It was difficult for the
+British fleet to force an action from leeward if the French were
+unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached a light squadron of four ships,
+the "Bellerophon" (74), "Russel" (74), "Marlborough" (74), and
+"Thunderer" (74) under Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of
+the French line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
+windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's ships
+began to come up with the last of the French line, the "Revolutionnaire"
+(110). A partial action took place which went on till after dark; other
+British vessels joined. The "Revolutionnaire" was so damaged that she
+was compelled to leave her fleet, and the British "Audacious" (74) was
+also crippled and compelled to return to port. The "Revolutionnaire" was
+accompanied by another liner. During the night the two fleets continued
+on the same course, and next day Howe renewed his attempts to force an
+action from leeward. He tacked his fleet in succession--his first ship
+tacking first and the rest in order--in the hope that he would be able
+to cut through the French rear and gain the weather-gage.
+Villaret-Joyeuse then turned all his ships together and again headed in
+the same direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer the
+British fleet, and another partial action took place between the van of
+each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not disposed to charge
+home, Howe at noon once more ordered his fleet to tack in succession.
+His signal was poorly obeyed by the van, and his object, which was to
+cut through the French line, was not at once achieved. But the admiral
+himself finally set an example by tacking his flagship, the "Queen
+Charlotte" (100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
+of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
+seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together
+to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable confusion by
+these movements, but the British had gained the weather-gage.
+Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships cut off, but he had
+fallen to leeward and the power to force on a battle had passed to Lord
+Howe. During the 30th the fleets lost sight of one another for a time.
+The French, who had four ships crippled, had been joined by four others,
+and were again 26 in number, including the "Patriote."
+
+The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick weather,
+but by the evening the British were close to windward of the French. As
+Howe, who had not full confidence in all his captains, did not wish for
+a night battle, he waited till the following morning, keeping the French
+under observation by frigates. On the 1st of June they were in the same
+relative positions, and at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on
+the French, throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end,
+with orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to place
+the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a very bold
+departure from the then established methods of fighting, and most
+honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had been trained in the old
+school. Its essential merit was that it produced a close _melee_, in
+which the better average gunnery and seamanship of the British fleet
+would tell. Lord Howe's orders were not fully obeyed by all his
+captains, but a signal victory was won,--six of the French line of
+battle ships were taken, and one, the "Vengeur," sunk. The convoy
+escaped capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
+20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at Brest on
+the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console the French for
+their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten in England in the
+pleasure given by the victory.
+
+  See James's _Naval History_, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, _Batailles
+  navales de la France_ (1867).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857-   ), British historian, was born at
+Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated at Clifton College
+and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university he took the Stanhope
+prize for an essay on the marquess Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at
+Pembroke College in 1887, and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He
+was Ford's lecturer in English history in 1900, and became regius
+professor of modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
+1904. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to English
+history during the time of the Great Civil War and the Commonwealth; and
+although he is somewhat overshadowed by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the
+same field, his books are of great value to students of this period. The
+chief of them are: _Life of the Duke of Newcastle_ (1886); _Scotland and
+the Commonwealth_ (1895); _Scotland and the Protectorate_ (1899);
+_Narrative of General Venables_ (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_ (1900);
+_Cromwell's Army_ (1902); and the standard edition of _Ludlow's Memoirs_
+(1894). He also edited the _Clarke Papers_ (1891-1901), and Mrs
+Hutchinson's _Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson_ (1885), and wrote an
+introduction to the _Stuart Tracts_ (1903), besides contributions to the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_. In 1909 he published _The Last Years
+of the Protectorate_.
+
+
+
+
+FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and philanthropist,
+was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819, the son of a steel
+smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his brother, left school to
+join their father in the foundry where he was employed, and ten years
+later the three together started a six-hole furnace of their own. The
+venture proved successful, and besides an extensive home business, they
+soon established a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works
+were erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
+acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels near
+Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance was the principal
+feature of their business, and they produced also shot and heavy
+forgings. They also installed a plant for the production of steel cores
+for heavy guns, and for some time they supplied nearly all the metal
+used for gun making by the British government and a large proportion of
+that used by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
+became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed "Mark Firth's
+Almshouses" at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in 1875, when mayor, he
+presented to his native place a freehold park of thirty-six acres. He
+founded and endowed Firth College, for lectures and classes in connexion
+with the extension of university education, which was opened in 1879. He
+died on the 28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral.
+
+
+
+
+FIRUZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m. S. of
+Shiraz, in 28 deg. 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated in a fertile
+plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by the river Khoja which
+flows through it from north to south. The town is surrounded by a mud
+wall and ditch. Three or four miles north-west of the town are the ruins
+of the ancient city and of a large building popularly known as the
+fire-temple of Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the
+gorge through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
+bas-reliefs.
+
+The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern end, and
+according to Persian history it was there that Alexander the Great, when
+unable to capture the ancient city, built a dike across the gorge, thus
+damming up the water of the river and turning the plain into a lake and
+submerging the city and villages. The lake remained until the beginning
+of the 3rd century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
+it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gur, and made
+it the capital of one of the five great provinces or divisions of Fars.
+Firuz (or Peroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's successors, called the
+district after his name Firuzabad ("the abode of Firuz"), but the name
+of the city remained Gur until Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982)
+changed it to its present name. He did this because he frequently
+resided at Gur, and the name meaning also "a grave" gave rise to
+unpleasant allusions, for instance, "People who go to Gur (grave) never
+return alive; our king goes to Gur (the town) several times a year and
+is not dead yet."
+
+The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat and rice. It is
+said that the rice of Firuzabad bears sixty-fold.     (A. H.-S.)
+
+
+
+
+FIRUZKUH, a small province of Persia, with a population of about 5000,
+paying a yearly revenue of about L500. Its chief place is a village of
+the same name picturesquely situated in a valley of the Elburz, about 90
+m. east of Teheran, at an elevation of 6700 ft. and in 35 deg. 46' N.
+and 52 deg. 48' E. It has post and telegraph offices and a population of
+2500. A precipitous cliff on the eastern side of the valley is
+surmounted by the ruins of an ancient fort popularly ascribed to
+Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591), German satirist and publicist, was
+born, probably at Strassburg (but according to some accounts at Mainz),
+in or about the year 1545, and was educated at Worms in the house of
+Kaspar Scheid, whom in the preface to his _Eulenspiegel_ he mentions as
+his "cousin and preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the
+Netherlands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the
+degree of _doctor juris_ at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which
+period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was probably
+associated in the business of, his sister's husband, Bernhard Jobin, a
+printer at Strassburg, who published many of his books. In 1581 Fischart
+was attached, as advocate to the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of
+appeal) at Spires, and in 1583, when he married, was appointed _Amtmann_
+(magistrate) at Forbach near Saarbrucken. Here he died in the winter of
+1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names, such as Mentzer,
+Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros, Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold
+Alkofribas Wustblutus, Ulrich Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen
+Gilt's Mischen; and it is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt
+whether some of the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50
+satirical works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
+among which are--_Nachtrab oder Nebelkrah_ (1570), a satire against one
+Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the Roman Catholic Church; _Von
+St Dominici des Predigermonchs und St Francisci Barfussers artlichem
+Leben_ (1571), a poem with the expressive motto "Sie haben Nasen und
+riechen's nit" (Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the
+Protestants against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that
+Luther held communion with the devil; _Eulenspiegel Reimensweis_
+(written 1571, published 1572); _Aller Praktik Grossmutter_ (1572),
+after Rabelais's _Prognostication Pantagrueline_; _Floh Haz, Weiber
+Traz_ (1573), in which he describes a battle between fleas and women;
+_Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift vom Leben, Rhaten
+und Thaten der ... Helden und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und
+Pantagruel_, also after Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified
+title, _Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung_, 1577); _Neue kunstliche
+Figuren biblischer Historien_ (1576); _Anmahnung zur christlichen
+Kinderzucht_ (1576); _Das gluckhafft Schiff von Zurich_ (1576,
+republished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland), a
+poem commemorating the adventure of a company of Zurich arquebusiers,
+who sailed from their native town to Strassburg in one day, and brought,
+as a proof of this feat, a kettleful of _Hirsebrei_ (millet), which had
+been cooked in Zurich, still warm into Strassburg, and intended to
+illustrate the proverb "perseverance overcomes all difficulties";
+_Podagrammisch Trostbuchlein_ (1577); _Philosophisch Ehzuchtbuchlein_
+(1578); the celebrated _Bienenkorb des heiligen romischen
+Immenschwarms_, &c., a modification of the Dutch _De roomsche
+Byen-Korf_, by Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and
+reprinted in 1847; _Der heilig Brotkorb_ (1580), after Calvin's _Traite
+des reliques_; _Das vierhornige Jesuiterhutlein_, a rhymed satire
+against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems. To Fischart
+also have been attributed some "Psalmen und geistliche Lieder" which
+appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book of 1576.
+
+Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also those of
+Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He was a lawyer, a
+theologian, a satirist and the most powerful Protestant publicist of the
+counter-reformation period; in politics he was a republican. Above all,
+he is a master of language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His
+satire was levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and
+private life of his time--at astrological superstition, scholastic
+pedantry, ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
+lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the wildest
+witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all this he did with a
+serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized by the eloquence and
+picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical language he employed.
+Thirty years after Fischart's death his writings, once so popular, were
+almost entirely forgotten. Recalled to the public attention by Johann
+Jakob Bodmer and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his
+works have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position in
+German literature to be fully understood.
+
+  Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart's works
+  has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin, deals
+  in his _Fischartstudien_ (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist.
+  Fischart's poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three
+  volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke (Leipzig,
+  1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_
+  (Stuttgart, 1893); _Die Geschichtklitterung_ and some minor writings
+  appeared in Scheible's _Kloster_, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart,
+  1847-1848). _Das gluckhafft Schiff_ has been frequently reprinted,
+  critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical
+  details, Erich Schmidt in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol.
+  7; A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_; W.
+  Wackernagel, _Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm_
+  (2nd ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, _Etude sur Jean Fischart_ (Paris,
+  1889); and A. Hauffen, "Fischart-Studien" (in _Euphorion_, 1896-1909).
+
+
+
+
+FISCHER, EMIL (1852-   ), German chemist, was born at Euskirchen, in
+Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852, his father being a merchant
+and manufacturer. After studying chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to
+Strassburg, where he graduated as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as
+assistant to Adolf von Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he
+was appointed to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882)
+and Wurzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann as professor
+of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted himself entirely to organic
+chemistry, and his investigations are characterized by an originality of
+idea and readiness of resource which make him the master of this branch
+of experimental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too complex
+to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more intricate and
+involved the subjects of his investigations the more strongly shown is
+the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were, atom from atom, until the
+molecule stood revealed, and, this accomplished, the same skill combined
+atom with atom until the molecule was regenerated. His _forte_ was to
+enter fields where others had done little except break the ground; and
+his researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in hand,
+and where the solution was not entire, his methods and results almost
+always contained the key to the situation.
+
+  In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer, he
+  published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound
+  of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (q.v.). He
+  investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing
+  their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the readiness
+  with which they entered into combination with other substances, giving
+  origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds. Of such condensation
+  products undoubtedly the most important are the hydrazones, which
+  result from the interaction with aldehydes and ketones. His
+  observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones, by treatment
+  with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded derivatives of indol,
+  the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent substance of indigo,
+  were a valuable confirmation of the views advanced by his master, von
+  Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and the many substances related to
+  it. Of greater moment was his discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted
+  with the sugars to form substances which he named osazones, and
+  which, being highly crystalline and readily formed, served to identify
+  such carbohydrates more definitely than had been previously possible.
+  He next turned to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H.
+  Perkin), and in collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852),
+  then at Munich and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since
+  identified himself mainly with the compounds of this and related
+  groups, he published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably
+  established that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl
+  methane. Fischer's next research was concerned with compounds related
+  to uric acid. Here the ground had been broken more especially by von
+  Baeyer, but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group
+  (the word _purin_ appears to have been suggested by the phrase _purum
+  uricum_) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
+  established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
+  and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work in this
+  field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great series of
+  papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all referred to a
+  nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was obtained, but only
+  after much difficulty; and an immense series of derivatives were
+  prepared, some of which were patented in view of possible
+  therapeutical applications.[1] These researches were published in a
+  collected form in 1907 with the title _Untersuchungen in der
+  Puringruppe_ (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
+  successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here the
+  pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be regarded
+  as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may be taken
+  as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled in importance
+  in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical complexity of these
+  carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which they could be got into a
+  manageable form--they generally appeared as syrups--occasioned much
+  experimental difficulty; but these troubles were little in comparison
+  with the complications due to stereochemical relations. However,
+  Fischer synthesized fructose, glucose and a great number of other
+  sugars, and having showed how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of
+  the 16 stereoisomeric glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides,
+  thereby completing a most brilliant experimental research, and
+  simultaneously confirming the van't Hoff theory of the asymmetric
+  carbon atom (see STEREO-ISOMERISM). The study of the sugars brought in
+  its train the necessity for examining the nature, properties and
+  reactions of substances which bring about the decomposition known as
+  fermentation (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by
+  ferments and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this
+  complex subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important
+  discovery, viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical
+  constitution of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it
+  down. The magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by
+  his collected papers, _Untersuchungen uber Kohlenhydrate und Fermente_
+  (1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909).
+
+  From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject of
+  the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with life
+  processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a subject
+  which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework, presents difficulties
+  which are probably without equal in the whole field of chemistry,
+  partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity of the
+  substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar manner in which
+  chemical reactions are brought about in the living organism. But by
+  the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded in breaking down
+  the complex albuminoid substances into amino acids and other
+  nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions of most of which have been
+  solved; and by bringing about the recombination of these units,
+  appropriately chosen, he prepared synthetic peptides which approximate
+  to the natural products. His methods led to the preparation of an
+  octadeca-peptide of the molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any
+  other synthetic compound; but even this compound falls far short of
+  the simplest natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from
+  2000 to 3000. He considers, however, that the synthesis of more
+  complex products is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches
+  made from 1899 to 1906 have been published with the title
+  _Untersuchungen uber Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine_ (Berlin,
+  1907). The extraordinary merit of his many researches has been
+  recognized by all the important scientific societies in the world, and
+  he was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his
+  control the laboratory at Berlin became one of the most important in
+  existence, and has attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant
+  pupils, many of whom are to be associated with much of the
+  experimental work indissolubly connected with Fischer.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see
+    F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, _The Chemical Basis of
+    Pharmacology_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German philosopher, was born
+at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of July 1824. After studying
+philosophy at Leipzig and Halle, he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg
+in 1850. The Baden government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching
+owing to his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse
+considerable sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a
+professorship at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the
+dignity of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller's removal to
+Berlin, Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history
+of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on the 4th of
+July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian and commentator,
+for which he was especially qualified by his remarkable clearness of
+exposition; his point of view is in the main Hegelian. His _Geschichte
+der neuern Philosophie_ (1852-1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most
+accredited modern book of its kind, and he made valuable contributions
+to the study of Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing,
+Schiller and Schopenhauer.
+
+  Some of his numerous works have been translated into English: _Francis
+  Bacon of Verulam_, by J. Oxenford (1857); _The Life and Character of
+  Benedict Spinoza_, by Frida Schmidt (1882); _A Commentary on Kant's
+  Kritik of Pure Reason_, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866); _Descartes and his
+  School_, by J.P. Gordy (1887); _A Critique of Kant_, by W.S. Hough
+  (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, _Kuno Fischer und die
+  litterar-historische Methode_ (1892); and bibliography in J.M.
+  Baldwin's _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was born in New York
+City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father, Nicholas Fish (1758-1833),
+served in the American army during the War of American Independence,
+rising to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia
+College in 1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only
+a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in Congress. He
+was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor of New York in 1846, and
+was defeated by Addison Gardner (Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was
+appointed a judge of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected
+(November 1847) to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor
+of New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States senator in
+1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the last part of his term.
+In 1861-1862 he was associated with John A. Dix, William M. Evarts,
+William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York
+men, on the Union Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to
+April 30, 1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising
+and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million dollars for
+the relief of New York volunteers and their families. Fish was secretary
+of state during President Grant's two administrations (1869-1877). He
+conducted the negotiations with Great Britain which resulted in the
+treaty of the 8th of May 1871, under which (Article 1) the "Alabama
+claims" were referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article
+34) was made of the "San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning the Oregon
+boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace Conference at
+Washington between Spain and the allied republics of Peru, Chile,
+Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the formulation (April 12) of a
+general truce between those countries, to last indefinitely and not to
+be broken by any one of them without three years' notice given through
+the United States; and it was chiefly due to his restraint and
+moderation that a satisfactory settlement of the "Virginius Affair" was
+reached by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was
+vice-president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to
+1854, and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in
+Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.
+
+His son, NICHOLAS FISH (1846-1902), was appointed second secretary of
+legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was _charge
+d'affaires_ at Berne in 1877-1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882-1886,
+after which he engaged in banking in New York City.
+
+
+
+
+FISH (O. Eng. _fisc_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch
+_visch_, Ger. _Fisch_, Goth. _fisks_, cognate with the Lat. _piscis_),
+the common name of that class of vertebrate animals which lives
+exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and whose limbs take the
+form of fins (see ICHTHYOLOGY). The article FISHERIES deals with the
+subject from the economic and commercial point of view, and ANGLING with
+the catching of fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the
+zodiac known as "the fishes" is treated under PISCES.
+
+The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval
+Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters of the
+names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. [Greek: Iesous Christos, Theou
+Huios, Soter], Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which together spell
+the Greek word for "fish," [Greek: ichthys]. The fish is also said to be
+represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at both ends, and formed
+by the intersection of two circles. This figure, also known as the
+_vesica piscis_, is common in ecclesiastical seals and as a glory or
+aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding figures of the Trinity,
+saints, &c. The figure is, however, sometimes referred to the almond, as
+typifying virginity; the French name for the symbol is _Amande
+mystique_.
+
+The word "fish" is used in many technical senses. Thus it is used of the
+purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor to the bill-board; of a
+piece of wood or metal used to strengthen a sprung mast or yard; and of
+a plate of metal used, as in railway construction, for the strengthening
+of the meeting-place of two rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but
+it is probably an adaptation of the Fr. _fiche_, that which "fixes," a
+peg. This word also appears in the English form "fish," in the metal,
+pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used for
+scoring points, &c., in many games.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, ALVAN (1792-1863), American portrait-painter, was born at
+Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792. At the age of
+eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and subsequently was employed
+by the village house painter, but at the age of twenty-two he began to
+paint portrait heads, alternating with rural scenes and animals, for
+which he found patrons at modest prices. In ten years he had saved
+enough to go to Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the
+galleries of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized
+group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty, Harding
+and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his work in
+Boston--perhaps the first joint display by painters ever held in that
+city. Though he had considerable talent for landscape, a lack of
+patronage for such work caused him to confine himself to portraiture, in
+which he was moderately successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the
+16th of February 1863.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian, was born at
+Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August 1827. He graduated at
+Brown University in 1847, and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1851, spent three years in study in Germany, was college preacher and
+professor of divinity at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street
+professor of ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in
+1861-1901, when he was made professor _emeritus_. He was president of
+the American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have
+given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history. They
+include _Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity_ (1865);
+_History of the Reformation_ (1873), republished in several revisions;
+_The Beginnings of Christianity_ (1877); _Discussions in History and
+Theology_ (1880); _Outlines of Universal History_ (1886); _History of
+the Christian Church_ (1887); _The Nature and Method of Revelation_
+(1890); _Manual of Natural Theology_ (1893); _A History of Christian
+Doctrine_, in the "International Theological Library" (1896); and _A
+Brief History of Nations_ (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of Rochester,
+born at Beverly, received his first education at the collegiate church
+there. In 1484 he went to Michael House, Cambridge, where he took his
+degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491, and, after filling several offices in
+the university, became master of his college in 1499. He took orders;
+and his reputation for learning and piety attracted the notice of
+Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and
+chaplain. In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when
+chancellor, he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the
+beneficent schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and
+Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek and
+Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his own benefactions
+took the form of scholarships, fellowships and lectures. In 1503 he was
+the first Margaret professor at Cambridge; and the following year was
+raised to the see of Rochester, to which he remained faithful, although
+the richer sees of Ely and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated
+as one of the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did
+not attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at the
+legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence of the
+brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of display;
+and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the cardinal's demand
+for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A great friend of Erasmus, whom
+he invited to Cambridge, whilst earnestly working for a reformation of
+abuses, he had no sympathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he
+preached at Paul's Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther's
+books. Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther, he
+joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply to the
+scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained the esteem of the
+king until the divorce proceedings began in 1527; and then he set
+himself sternly in favour of the validity of the marriage. He was Queen
+Catherine's confessor and her only champion and advocate. He appeared on
+her behalf before the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise
+against the divorce that was widely read.
+
+Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform brought
+forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only moral force that
+could withstand the royal will, he energetically opposed the reformation
+of abuses, which doubtless under other circumstances he would have been
+the first to accept. In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed
+(11th of February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the
+clergy "to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic Church";
+and it was his influence that brought in the saving clause, _quantum per
+legem Dei licet_. By listening to the revelations of the "Holy Maid of
+Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton (q.v.), he was charged with misprision
+of treason, and was condemned to the loss of his goods and to
+imprisonment at the king's will, penalties he was allowed to compound by
+a fine of L300 (25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April)
+to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he was ready
+to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the offspring of
+Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith, trust and
+obedience to any foreign authority or potentate. Refusing to take the
+oath, he was committed (15th of April) to the Tower, where he suffered
+greatly from the rigours of a long confinement. On the passing of the
+Act of Supremacy (November 1534), in which the saving clause of
+convocation was omitted, he was attainted and deprived of his see. The
+council, with Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of
+May 1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of the
+church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher, while
+driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the
+whole Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most
+learned and pious bishops of the time. Paul III., who had begun his
+pontificate with the intention of purifying the curia, was unaware of
+the grave danger in which Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the
+king with the bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of
+St Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate. Henry,
+in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there should be
+no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at Westminster (17th
+of June 1535) on the charge that he did "openly declare in English that
+the king, our sovereign lord, is not supreme head on earth of the Church
+of England," and was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a
+sentence afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd
+of June 1535, after saying the _Te Deum_ and the psalm _In te Domine
+speravi_. His body was buried first at All Hallows, Barking, and then
+removed to St. Peter's _ad vincula_ in the Tower, where it lies beside
+that of Sir Thomas More. His head was exposed on London Bridge and then
+thrown into the river. As a champion of the rights of conscience, and
+as the only one of the English bishops that dared to resist the king's
+will, Fisher commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was
+beatified by Pope Leo XIII.
+
+  Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the _Opera J. Fisheri quae
+  hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia_ (Wurzburg, 1595), and some of his
+  published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra
+  series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the
+  P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the main
+  sources for his biography are _The Life and Death of that renowned
+  John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London, 1655), by an anonymous
+  writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893);
+  Bridgett's _Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London,
+  1880 and 1890); and Thureau, _Le bienheureux Jean Fisher_ (Paris,
+  1907).     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON (1841-   ), British admiral,
+was born on the 25th of January 1841, and entered the navy in June 1854.
+He served in the Baltic during the Crimean War, and was engaged as
+midshipman on the "Highflyer," "Chesapeake" and "Furious," in the
+Chinese War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,
+and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on the 25th of
+January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November of the same year.
+The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars at sea in which the
+British navy had to take a part, after 1860, allowed few officers to
+gain distinction by actual services against the enemy. But they were
+provided with other ways of proving their ability by the sweeping
+revolution which transformed the construction, the armament, and the
+methods of propulsion of all the navies of the world, and with them the
+once accepted methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a
+commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French
+"Gloire" had set going the long duel in construction between guns and
+armour. He early made his mark as a student of gunnery, and was promoted
+commander on the 2nd of August 1869, and post-captain on the 30th of
+October 1874. In this rank he was chosen to serve as president of the
+committee appointed to revise "The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet." It was
+his already established reputation which pointed Captain Fisher out for
+the command of H.M.S. "Inflexible," a vessel which, as the
+representative of a type, had supplied matter for much discussion. As
+captain of the "Inflexible" he took part in the bombardment of
+Alexandria (11th July 1882). The engagement was not arduous in itself,
+having been carried out against forts of inferior construction,
+indifferently armed, and worse garrisoned, but it supplied an
+opportunity for a display of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the
+midst of a long naval peace. The "Inflexible" took a prominent part in
+the action, and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed
+in Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded it in
+various skirmishes with the enemy. After the Egyptian campaign, he was,
+in succession, director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October
+1886 to May 1891); A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd
+August 1890, at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral
+superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord
+commissioner of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and
+vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the North American
+and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he acted as naval expert at the
+Hague Peace Conference, and on the 1st of July 1899 was appointed
+commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command,
+Admiral Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902,
+and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st of August 1903,
+from which post he passed to that of first sea lord. Besides holding the
+foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and
+G.C.B. in 1902. As first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John
+Fisher had a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures
+of naval development and internal reform; and he was also one of the
+committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed in 1904 to report
+on the measures necessary to be taken to put the administration and
+organization of the British army on a sound footing. The changes in
+naval administration made under him were hotly canvassed among critics,
+who charged him with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue
+subservience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever the
+efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact was undeniable
+that for the first time for very many years the navy suffered, as a
+service, from the party-spirit which was aroused. It was notorious that
+Admiral Lord Charles Beresford in particular was acutely hostile to Sir
+John Fisher's administration; and on his retirement in the spring of
+1909 from the position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he
+put his charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry was
+held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its report,
+published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty, though it
+encouraged the belief that some important suggestions as to the
+organization of a naval "general staff" would take effect. On the 9th of
+November Sir John Fisher was created a peer as Baron Fisher of
+Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired from the Admiralty in January 1910.
+
+
+
+
+FISHERIES,[1] a general term for the various operations engaged in for
+the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man. From time
+immemorial fish have been captured by various forms of spears, nets,
+hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a historical description of the
+methods and appliances that have been used would comprise a considerable
+portion of a treatise on the history of man. For the most part the
+operations of fishing have been comparable with those of primitive
+hunting rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible
+account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality has
+been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing pressure
+on every source of food, and the enormous improvements in the catching
+power of the engines involved, has made some kind of regulation and
+control inevitable, with the result that in practically every civilized
+country there exists some authority for the investigation and regulation
+of fisheries.
+
+The annexed table shows the department of state and the approximate
+expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries of the world.
+The figures are only approximate and are based on the expenditure for
+1907. In the case of England and Wales the expenditure is not complete,
+as under the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast
+of England and Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees
+with power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number
+of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with this
+addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that undertaken
+by most of the countries of northern Europe, although British fisheries
+are much more valuable than those of all the rest of Europe together.
+
+
+  _Administration of Fisheries._
+
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  |                                |    Norway.    |   Sweden.  |  Denmark.  |   Germany.   |  Holland.  |  Belgium.     |
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  |Department of State             |Trade and      |Agriculture.|Agriculture.|Imperial De-  |Agriculture.|Agriculture and|
+  |                                |  Industry and |            |            |  partment of |            |  Woods and    |
+  |                                |  Agriculture. |            |            |  Interior.   |            |  Forests.     |
+  |Approximate Annual Expenditure--|               |            |            |              |            |               |
+  |  1. Administration             |    L15,000    |   L5,500   |  L10,200   |Conducted by  |  L12,500   |     ..        |
+  |                                |               |            |            |  Maritime    |            |               |
+  |                                |               |            |            |  States      |            |               |
+  |  2. Scientific Fishery Research|      5,000    |    4,500   |    6,300   |   L27,750    |    2,500   |    L1,000     |
+  +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |                                |   Canada.  |   U.S. America.   |  England and  |   Scotland.   |    Ireland.    |
+  |                                |            |                   |     Wales.    |               |                |
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+  |Department of State             |Marine and  |Bureau of Fisheries|Agriculture and|Fishery Board. |Agriculture and |
+  |                                |  Fisheries.|  under Commerce   |  Fisheries.   |               |  Technical     |
+  |                                |            |  and Labour.      |               |               |  Instruction.  |
+  |Approximate Annual Expenditure--|            |                   |               |               |
+  |  1. Administration             | L159,000   |Conducted by       |     L8,000    |    L13,000    |    L10,000     |
+  |                                |            |  Costal States    |               |               |                |
+  |  2. Scientific Fishery Research|   48,000   |    L141,000       |     14,000    |        800    |       ..       |
+  |                                |            |                   |               |  (expended    |                |               |
+  |                                |            |                   |               |through agents)|                |               |
+  +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great expansion of
+the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The herring fishery has been
+revolutionized partly by the successful introduction of steam drifters,
+which have markedly increased the aggregate catching power, and partly
+by the prosecution of the fishery on one part or other of the British
+coasts during the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish
+vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries in
+alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost entirely
+to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad fleets around all the
+coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian drifters carry on their
+operations at different seasons of the year from Shetland in the north
+(for herrings) to Newlyn in the west (for mackerel). In Scotland the
+value of the nets employed on steam drifters has increased from L3000 in
+1899 to L61,000 in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has
+increased from about four to about five million cwts. during the past
+ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings, which reached a
+total of two million cwts. for the first time in 1899, has exceeded
+three millions in each year from 1902 to 1905.
+
+In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In 1906 Messrs
+Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling fleet of 50 vessels for
+working the North Sea grounds, and the delivery of new steam trawlers at
+Grimsby was greater than at any previous period, these vessels being
+designed more especially to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the
+range of which has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About
+100 vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve
+months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length and over 20
+ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage, the accommodation both
+for fish and crews being considerably in excess of that provided in
+vessels of this class hitherto.
+
+Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief European
+countries show the expanse of this industry, and the enormous
+preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as follows:--
+
+  Belgium               23
+  Denmark                5
+  France               224
+  Germany              239
+  Netherlands           81
+  Norway                20
+  Portugal              13
+  Spain                 12-18
+  Sweden                11
+  Scotland             292
+  Ireland                6
+  England and Wales   1317
+
+A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been manifested in
+other maritime countries of Europe, particularly in Germany and Holland,
+but the total number of steam trawlers belonging to those countries in
+1905 scarcely exceeded the mere additions to the British fishing fleet
+in 1906.
+
+The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be gauged by a
+comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries of other European
+countries. The following table is based upon official returns and mainly
+derived from the _Bulletin Statistique_ of the International Council for
+the Study of the Sea. It represents in pounds sterling the value of the
+produce of the various national fisheries during the year 1904, except
+in the case of France, for which country the latest available figures
+are those for 1902.
+
+  _Values in Thousands of L._
+
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+  |               |Herring.| Cod.  |Plaice.| Other |   Total.  |
+  |               |        |       |       | Fish. |           |
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+  | British Isles | 1870   |1015   |1100   |5496   | 9,481,000 |
+  | Norway        |  352   | 834   |  ..   | 443   | 1,629,000 |
+  | Denmark       |  117   |  60   | 171   | 223   |   571,000 |
+  | Germany       |  220   |  64[2]|  40[2]| 512[2]|   836,000 |
+  | Holland       |  575   |  53   |  58   | 311   |   997,000 |
+  | France (1902) |  635   | 851[3]|  ..   |3562   | 5,048,000 |
+  +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+
+
+The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions of
+the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the official returns,
+was as follows:
+
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |    Fish landed in      |  Excluding  |  Including  |
+  |                        |  Shellfish. |  Shellfish. |
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | England and Wales      | L7,200,644  | L7,502,768  |
+  | Scotland               |  2,649,148  |  2,719,810  |
+  | Ireland                |    360,577  |    414,364  |
+  |                        +-------------+-------------+
+  |            Total       |L10,210,369  |L10,636,942  |
+  +------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+These figures show an increase of L1,000,000 as compared with the total
+value in 1900, and of more than L3,000,000 as compared with 1895 (cf.
+Table I. at end).
+
+In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock, and flat fish
+yielded about three-quarters of the total, and the drift fisheries for
+herring and mackerel nearly the whole of the remaining quarter. The line
+fisheries in England and Wales are now relatively insignificant and
+yield only about one-fortieth of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).
+
+In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference in the
+relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905 herrings and
+other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half of the total,
+the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and the line fisheries
+one-eighth (cf. Table X.).
+
+  +-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+----------+
+  |                         |   Trawl and Line.   |Drift and Stake-nets.|Shellfish.|
+  |         Fishery.        +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |                         |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |
+  |                         |  of cwt. |   of L.  |  of cwt. |   of L.  |   of L.  |
+  +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |England and Wales, 1905--|          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  East Coast             |   6017   |   4713   |   3042   |   1145   |   202    |
+  |  South Coast            |    303   |    245   |    728   |    268   |    64    |
+  |  West Coast             |   1002   |    720   |    219   |    111   |    36    |
+  |Scotland, 1906--         |          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  East Coast             |   2296   |   1202   |   2709   |    819   |    25    |
+  |  Orkney and Shetland    |    114   |     42   |   1735   |    642   |    10    |
+  |  West Coast             |    148   |     62   |    591   |    210   |    38    |
+  |Ireland, 1905--          |          |          |          |          |          |
+  |  North Coast            |      9   |      5   |    177   |     70   |     7    |
+  |  East Coast             |     79   |     70   |    110   |     32   |    18    |
+  |  South and West Coast   |     46   |     35   |    577   |    148   |    28    |
+  +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly
+three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief item
+in the south and west, and the herring on the north and east coasts.
+The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the trawl fisheries, the
+headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth and Balbriggan on the east,
+and at Galway and Dingle on the west coast.
+
+The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the Scottish
+fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly L4,120,000. Upon a moderate
+estimate, the total value of the boats and gear employed in the
+fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot be less than L12,000,000.
+
+The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the separate
+coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of landings from
+the latest data available.
+
+From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of the east
+coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate enormously over
+those of the western coasts, whether attention be paid to the drift-net
+fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries for bottom fish with
+trawls and lines.
+
+The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary
+tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British fishing
+industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity. The community at
+large has benefited by the more plentiful supply, and the merchant by
+the general lowering of prices at the ports of landing (see Tables
+I.-IV. at end). But it is to be noted that this wave of prosperity, as
+on previous occasions, has been attained by the application of increased
+and more powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new
+fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase, natural or
+artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,--unless perhaps the
+abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to the destruction of their
+enemies by trawling. British fisheries are still pursued as a form of
+hunting rather than of husbandry. In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay
+trawling banks were discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich
+plaice grounds in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a
+quarter of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England
+were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.
+
+_Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by
+Steam Trawlers on the East Coast of England from Fishing Grounds within
+and beyond the North Sea respectively._
+
+  +-----+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
+  |     |      Within the North Sea.     |      Beyond the North Sea.     |
+  |Year.+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+  |     |Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.|Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.|
+  +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+  | 1903| 729|  2301  |  812  |   4776   | 470|   389  |  114  |   1189   |
+  | 1904| 637|  2032  |  658  |   4228   | 447|   429  |  284  |   1389   |
+  | 1905| 640|  1560  |  621  |   3739   | 603|   518  |  244  |   1682   |
+  +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+
+
+The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have
+distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within and beyond the
+North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers and liners. Neglecting the
+catch of the liners as relatively insignificant, and of the sailing
+trawlers as relatively small and practically constant during the three
+years in question, we see from the board's figures (see table above)
+that the total catch of English steam trawlers within the North Sea
+during 1904 and 1905 was in each year 500,000 cwt. less than in the year
+before, amounting to a gross decrease of more than 25% in 1905 as
+compared with 1903, and, in relation to the catching power employed, to
+an average decrease of 2-1/2 cwt. per boat per diem. This decrease may
+be largely explained by the occurrence in 1903 of one of those periodic
+"floods" of small cod and haddock which take place in the North Sea from
+time to time; but the steady decline in the number of North Sea voyages
+by English steam trawlers--from 29,300 in 1903 to 26,700 in
+1905--affords a clear indication of the fact that many of our trawling
+skippers are deserting the North Sea for more profitable fishing
+grounds. The number of Scottish steam trawlers "employed" at Scottish
+North Sea ports has also declined during the same period from 240 in
+1903 to 228 in 1905.
+
+The following table shows the number of British and foreign steam
+trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English vessels the
+number of fishing voyages made within and beyond the North Sea
+respectively:--
+
+  +-----+-----------+-----------------------+---------+-----------+
+  |     |           |English Steam Trawlers.|         |           |
+  |     |           |       Voyages.[4]     |         |  German,  |
+  |Year.|  Boats    +-----------+-----------+Scottish.| Dutch and |
+  |     |Registered.|   Within  |   Beyond  |Employed.|  Belgian. |
+  |     |           | North Sea.| North Sea.|         |Registered.|
+  +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+
+  | 1903|   1060    |  29,328   |    1822   |   240   |    181    |
+  | 1904|   1049    |  28,589   |    2120   |   233   |    199    |
+  | 1905|   1064    |  26,670   |    2671   |   228   |    228    |
+  +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+
+
+Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal of
+British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled year after
+year by increasing numbers of continental fishing boats. The number of
+fishing steamers (practically all trawlers) registered at North Sea
+ports in Germany and Holland was 159 in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905,
+and 330 in 1907.
+
+It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased
+attention which has been paid in recent years to the acquisition of more
+exact knowledge upon the actual state of the fisheries and upon the
+biological and other factors which influence the supply.
+
+A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations, both
+scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the course of 1902
+under the International Council for the Study of the Sea (see below).
+The Fishery Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association for
+England were commissioned to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great
+Britain, and the English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards
+with the means for collecting more adequate statistics.
+
+Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of fish eggs
+have located important spawning grounds of cod, haddock, plaice, sole,
+eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod, plaice and eel have thrown much
+light upon the migrations of these fishes; and the rate of growth of
+plaice, cod and herring has been elucidated in different localities. The
+percentage of marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has
+been found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a
+significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions.
+It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock of plaice on the
+central grounds of the North Sea is mainly attributable to the excessive
+rate of capture of plaice during their annual off-shore migrations from
+the coast. On the other hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of
+plaice on the Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or
+six-fold in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are
+reared,--facts which open up the possibility of increasing the permanent
+supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption of some plan of
+commercial transplantation (see PISCICULTURE).
+
+_History._--A brief review may now be given of the history of the
+administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of the steps
+which have been taken for the attainment of scientific and statistical
+information in relation thereto.
+
+In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley, Mr
+(afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord
+Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition of the British
+sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise of existing methods of
+fishing, and the necessity or otherwise of the existing legislation. The
+important report of this commission, issued in 1866, embodied the
+following main conclusions and recommendations:--(1) the total supply of
+fish obtained upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of
+further augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a
+wastefully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament which
+profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued in the open
+sea should be repealed and "unrestricted freedom of fishing be
+permitted hereafter"; (4) all fishing boats should be lettered and
+numbered as a condition of registration and licence.
+
+In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by the passing of
+the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the registration of fishing boats
+were issued by order in council in the following year. (New regulations
+were introduced in 1902.)
+
+In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland and Walpole to inquire
+into the alleged destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,
+especially by the use of the beam-trawl and ground seine. Their report
+is an excellent summary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the
+time, and shows how little was then known with regard to the eggs and
+spawning habits of our marine food fishes.
+
+In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved and the
+Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter being empowered to
+take such measures for the improvement of the fisheries as the funds
+under their administration might admit of. Arrangements were made in the
+following year with Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the
+latter to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of
+studies on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed
+greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning the
+reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act
+of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay against
+trawlers as an experiment for the purpose of ascertaining the result of
+such prohibition on the supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The
+treasury also, by a further grant of L3000, enabled the board to
+purchase the steam-yacht "Garland" as a means of carrying out regular
+experimental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the
+results of these experiments have been annually published, and were
+summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's report for
+1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that "no very marked change took place
+in the abundance of food-fishes generally, either in the closed or open
+waters of the Firth of Forth or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the
+prohibition of trawling. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and
+lemon soles, which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in
+numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open, while
+dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if not quite
+universal, increase.
+
+The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the
+presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have now
+exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of eggs and fry
+for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable; and (2) that
+protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to check the
+impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore. (For critical
+examinations of Dr Fulton's account see M'Intosh, _Resources of the
+Sea_, London, 1889; Garstang, "The Impoverishment of the Sea," _Journ.
+Mar. Biol. Ass._ vol. vi., 1900; and Archer, _Report of Ichthyological
+Committee_, Cd. 1312, 1902.)
+
+A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established by the
+board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen in 1900.
+
+In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the late earl of
+Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints against the practice
+of beam-trawling on the part of line and drift-net fishermen. A small
+sum of money (L200) was granted to the commission for the purpose of
+scientific trawling experiments, which were carried out by Professor
+M'Intosh.
+
+The report of this commission was an important one, and its
+recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics for
+England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).
+
+In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom was
+founded for the scientific study of marine zoology and botany,
+especially as bearing upon the food, habits and life-conditions of
+British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs. Professor Huxley was its
+first president, and Professor Ray Lankester, who initiated the
+movement, succeeded him. A large and well-equipped laboratory was
+erected at Plymouth, and formally opened for work in 1888. The work of
+the association has been maintained by annual grants of L400 from the
+Fishmongers' Company and L1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the
+subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a half-yearly
+journal recording the results of its investigations.
+
+In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was organized under
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of that year. The department
+publishes annually a return of statistics of sea-fish landed, a report
+on salmon fisheries (transferred from the home office), and a report on
+sea fisheries. It consists of several inspectors under an assistant
+secretary of the board; it has no power to make scientific
+investigations or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries.
+In 1894 the administration of the acts relating to the registration of
+fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department.
+
+In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the constitution
+(by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local fisheries
+committees having, within defined limits, powers for the regulation of
+coast fisheries in England and Wales. The powers of district committees
+were extended under Part II. of the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under
+the Fisheries (Shell Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts
+have now been created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.
+Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been prohibited in
+nearly all the territorial waters of England and Wales, and trawling by
+smaller boats has been placed under a variety of restrictions. Local
+scientific investigations have been initiated under several of the
+committees, especially in Lancashire by Professor Herdman of Liverpool
+and his assistants.
+
+In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the west coast of
+Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin Society, with assistance from
+the government, and in the hands of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the
+acquisition of much valuable information concerning the spawning habits
+of fishes and the distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.
+
+In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act of
+1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole of the Moray
+Firth--including a large tract of extra-territorial waters--against
+trawling, in order to test experimentally the effect of protecting
+certain spawning grounds in the outer parts of the firth. The closure
+has given rise to a succession of protests from the leaders of the
+trawling industry in Aberdeen and England. It seems that the difficulty
+of policing so large an area, as well as the absence of any power to
+enforce the restriction on foreign vessels, have defeated the original
+intention; and the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in
+deference to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of
+whose industry--from economic causes which have been alluded to
+above--is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The controversy
+has had the effect of causing the transference of a number of English
+trawlers to foreign flags, especially the Norwegian.
+
+  _Statistics._--The following tables summarize the official statistics
+  of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and
+  Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of
+  fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.
+
+
+  TABLE I.--_Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and exported
+  for the United Kingdom._
+
+  +------+-------------------------+-----------+-------------+
+  | Year.|      Fish landed        |    Net    | Exports of  |
+  |      | (excluding Shell-fish). | Imports.  |British Fish.|
+  |------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
+  |      |     Cwt.   |            |           |             |
+  | 1890 | 12,774,010 | L6,361,487 |L2,315,572 |  L1,795,267 |
+  | 1895 | 14,068,641 |  7,168,025 | 2,453,676 |   2,282,406 |
+  | 1900 | 14,671,070 |  9,242,491 | 2,937,486 |   3,000,852 |
+  | 1905 | 20,164,276 | 10,210,369 | 2,250,259 |   4,164,869 |
+  +------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+
+
+  _Note._--Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly of
+  salted or cured fish to the value of over L900,000 in 1905) are not
+  included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports
+  consist mainly of herrings.
+
+
+  TABLE II.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes landed
+  on the Coasts of England and Wales (all caught with Trawl-nets, except
+  Halibut in part)._
+
+  +-----+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
+  |     |             Quantity                |      Average Price (per Cwt.).      |
+  |Year.|      (in Thousands of Cwt.).        |                                     |
+  |     +-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+  |     |Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.|Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.|
+  +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+  |     |     |       |      |       |        |L s. | L s.  | L s. |  L s. |  L s.  |
+  | 1890| 72.1| 51.9  | 15.4 |  623  |   95   |6  7 | 3 13  | 2  8 |  0 19 |  1 10  |
+  | 1895| 82.8| 77.9  | 19.0 |  789  |  114   |6 16 | 3 17  | 2 11 |  1  1 |  1 15  |
+  | 1900| 75.3| 60.7  | 20.7 |  752  |  136   |7 11 | 4  3  | 2 14 |  1  4 |  1 14  |
+  | 1905| 80.1| 89.5  | 22.4 | 1074  |  120   |5 18 | 3 11  | 2 11 |  0 19 |  1 17  |
+  +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE III.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes,
+  caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England and
+  Wales._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+  |     |            Quantity               |       Average Price (per Cwt.).      |
+  |Year.|      (in Thousands of Cwt.).      |                                      |
+  |     +----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+  |     |Cod.|Haddock.|Hake.|Ling.|Sundries.| Cod.|Haddock.| Hake.| Ling.|Sundries.|
+  +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+  |     |    |        |     |     |         |s. d.|  s. d. | s. d.| s. d.| s. d.   |
+  | 1890| 363|  1585  | ..  |  96 |  1151   |13 10|  9  7  |  ..  | 14  3| 14  0   |
+  | 1895| 496|  2433  | 132 | 114 |  1013   |12  5|  9  9  | 16  2| 11  8| 13  7   |
+  | 1900| 589|  2487  | 233 | 100 |  1190   |14  8| 13  8  | 15 10| 12 10| 14 10   |
+  | 1905|1423|  2148  | 484 | 165 |  1425   |12  4| 12  5  | 13  4| 11  3|  9  8   |
+  +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+
+
+
+  TABLE IV.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes
+  landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (caught with Drift-, Seine-,
+  and Stow-nets)._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+  |     |              Quantity             |      Average Price (per Cwt.).    |
+  |Year.|       (in Thousands of Cwt.).     |                                   |
+  |     +---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+  |     |Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.|Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.|
+  +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+  |     |         |        |         |      |  s. d.  |  s. d. |   s. d. | s. d.|
+  | 1890|   509   |  1332  |   61    |  99  |  15  5  |  7  2  |   5 10  | 3  0 |
+  | 1895|   375   |  1437  |   65    |  91  |  16  3  |  5 10  |   5  3  | 3  1 |
+  | 1900|   321   |  2425  |  106    |  73  |  15  9  |  7  8  |   4  6  | 4 11 |
+  | 1905|   682   |  3062  |  169    |  75  |   8 11  |  7  7  |   5  0  | 3  6 |
+  +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+
+
+
+  TABLE V.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed on
+  the Coasts of England and Wales._
+
+  +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
+  |     |              Number.              |          Average Price.           |
+  |     +----------------+--------+---------+-------------------------+---------+
+  |Year.|   Thousands.   | Mills. |Thousands|       Per Hundred.      | Per Cwt.|
+  |     |                |        | of Cwt. |                         |         |
+  |     +----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+  |     |Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.|
+  +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+  |     |      |         |        |         | L. s.|  L. s.  |  s. d. |  s. d.  |
+  |1890 | 4808 |   922   |  47.6  |   505   | 1  4 |  4  18  |  6  1  |  5   0  |
+  |1895 | 4501 |   677   |  25.3  |   590   | 1  4 |  4   8  |  6  2  |  4  11  |
+  |1900 | 5177 |   654   |  37.8  |   539   | 1  2 |  4   7  |  7  0  |  5   8  |
+  |1905 | 5106 |   503   |  35.4  |   423   | 1  3 |  4  15  |  5  9  |  5   6  |
+  +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+
+
+
+  TABLE VI.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish
+  landed in Scotland._
+
+  +-----+----------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+
+  |     |                       In Thousands of Cwt.                           |  Cwt.  |         Number          |
+  |     |                                                                      |        |       (Thousands).      |
+  |Year.+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+  |     |        |     | Flounder,|        |    |     |        |        |      |        |      |         |        |
+  |     |Herring.|Lemon|  Plaice, |Halibut.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Skate.|Mussels.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|
+  |     |        |Sole.|and Brill.|        |    |     |        |        |      |        |      |         |        |
+  +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+  | 1890|  3980  | 17  |    81    |   20   | 449| 170 |  754   |   75   |  54  |  181   | 2882 |   643   |  350   |
+  | 1895|  4077  | 19  |    80    |   29   | 459| 165 | 1001   |   43   |  59  |  194   | 2548 |   610   |  239   |
+  | 1900|  3520  | 21  |   102    |   26   | 434| 157 |  761   |   75   |  72  |  143   | 3128 |   680   |  796   |
+  | 1905|  5343  | 31  |   561    |   36   | 677| 151 |  932   |  184   | 100  |  103   | 1990 |   760   |  218   |
+  +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE VII.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and
+  Shell-fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts._
+
+  +-----+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+
+  |     |                      In Thousands of Cwt.                         |   Number (Thousands).   |
+  |Year.+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+  |     |Mackerel.|Herring.|Sole.|Turbot.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Hake.|Oysters.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|
+  +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+  | 1890|   502   |   85   | 4.5 |  1.4  |39.6| 14.8|  16.4  |  13.5  | 25.3|  576   |  228 |   238   |
+  | 1895|   339   |  171   | 1.8 |  1.0  |43.6| 29.7|  30.9  |  11.9  | 18.7|  563   |  240 |   276   |
+  | 1900|   278   |  284   | 3.1 |  1.5  |33.6| 11.9|  12.4  |  11.9  | 16.3|  236   |  202 |   286   |
+  | 1905|   505   |  354   | 3.5 |  0.8  |18.6|  9.1|  11.3  |  18.3  |  7.1|  348   |  175 |   236   |
+  +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+
+
+  _Note._--The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing
+  to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for
+  collecting statistics over large sections of the coast.
+
+
+  TABLE VIII.--_Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register
+  for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or
+  Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed._
+
+  +----------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
+  |          |    England and Wales.   |        Scotland.        |        Ireland.         |
+  | Mode of  +---------+---------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------+
+  | Fishing. |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |Steamers.|    Sailing.   |
+  |          | 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.|
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+  |Trawling  |  1173   |  904  |  586  |   244   |  ..   |   68  |   10    |  142  |  283  |
+  |Drift-nets|   263   |  562  |  539  |    ..   |  ..   |  ..   |   ..    |   ..  |   ..  |
+  |Lines     |    56   |   29  |  685  |   209   | 3403  | 2910  |   ..    |  229  | 2776  |
+  |Various   |    21   |  215  | 2277  |    ..   |  ..   |  ..   |   ..    |   ..  |   ..  |
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+  |  Total   |  1513   | 1710  | 4087  |   453   | 3403  | 2978  |   10    |  371  | 3059  |
+  +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+
+
+  _Note._--1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and
+  other boats of at least 15 tons registered tonnage (in Scotland
+  exceeding 30 ft. keel). 2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from
+  18 to 30 ft. keel.
+
+
+  TABLE IX.--_Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed and (B) of
+  other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing._
+
+  +-----+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+  |     |  England and  |    Scotland.    |    Ireland.     |     United      |
+  |Year.|     Wales.    |                 |                 |    Kingdom.     |
+  |     +--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  |     |   A.   |  B.  |   A.   |   B.   |   A.   |   B.   |   A.   |   B.   |
+  +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+  | 1890| 32,503 | 9312 | 34,319 | 20,829 | 10,121 | 13,981 | 78,450 | 46,337 |
+  | 1895| 32,229 | 8995 | 31,044 | 12,329 |  8,692 | 18,218 | 73,090 | 41,230 |
+  | 1900| 31,589 | 7994 | 27,288 | 10,288 |  8,677 | 18,982 | 68,708 | 37,814 |
+  | 1905| 34,318 | 8132 | 29,064 | 10,487 |  8,744 | 17,079 | 73,293 | 36,131 |
+  +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+
+
+  TABLE X.--_Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed in
+  Scotland._
+
+  +------+----------------------+----------------------+
+  | Year.|  Line-caught Fish.   |     Trawled Fish.    |
+  +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+  |      |    Cwt.   |          |    Cwt.   |          |
+  | 1890 | 1,577,299 | L591,059 |   291,812 | L203,620 |
+  | 1895 | 1,479,654 |  548,629 |   531,695 |  291,165 |
+  | 1900 |   757,416 |  371,173 | 1,077,082 |  703,427 |
+  | 1905 |   735,654 |  348,610 | 1,745,431 |  948,117 |
+  +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+
+In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took evidence as to
+the expediency of adopting measures for the preservation of the
+sea-fisheries in the seas around the British Islands, with especial
+reference to the alleged wasteful destruction of under-sized fish. They
+recommended the adoption of a size-limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice,
+and 10 in. for turbot and brill, below which the sale of these fishes
+should be prohibited, on the ground that these limits would approximate
+to those already adopted by foreign countries.
+
+In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act
+transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish fisheries
+to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland.
+The department is provided with a steam cruiser, the "Helga," 375 tons,
+fully equipped for fishery research, as well as with a floating marine
+laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly of the Marine Biological Association, was
+appointed to take charge of the scientific work.
+
+In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons was appointed
+to consider and take evidence on the proposals of the Sea Fisheries
+Bill, which had been framed in accordance with the recommendations of
+the select committee of 1893, but had failed to pass in several sessions
+of parliament. Owing to marked divergencies of opinion on the question
+whether the low size-limits proposed would be effectual in keeping the
+trawlers from working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the
+committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate equipment
+of the government departments with means for undertaking the necessary
+scientific investigations.
+
+In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all the
+countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at Christiania to
+revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm in 1899 for a
+scientific exploration of these waters in the interest of the fisheries,
+to be undertaken concurrently by all the participating countries. The
+British government was represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M
+G., with Professor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.
+Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were subsequently
+accepted, with some restrictions, and an international council of
+management was appointed by the participating governments. The Fishery
+Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association from England
+were commissioned in 1902 to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great
+Britain, and a special grant of L5500 per annum was made to each body by
+the Treasury for this purpose. Two steamers, the "Huxley" and the
+"Goldseeker," were chartered for the investigations and began work in
+1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the
+work of the first five years were published in 1909.
+
+In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the Committee on
+Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report as to the best means by
+which scientific fishery research could be organized and assisted in
+relation to the state or local authorities. The committee consisted of
+Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P. (chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald
+Crawford, Rev. W.S. Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham,
+Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert Maxwell
+resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn up (September
+1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. The committee
+recommended the provision of more complete statistics; the provision and
+maintenance of five special steamers (where not already existing) to
+work in connexion with as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of
+the three coasts of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and
+Ireland; the provision of three biological assistants at each
+laboratory; the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries
+committees to expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a
+fishery council for England and Wales, and of a conference of
+representatives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and
+Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade was
+transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer, chief inspector
+of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of the new Board of
+Agriculture and Fisheries.
+
+In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed to inquire into
+the scientific and statistical investigations carried on in relation to
+the fishing industry of the United Kingdom. The committee consisted of
+Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman), Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald
+MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms, M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers
+Mitchell, F.R.S., Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H.
+Rew and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that had already
+been done and urged its continuation and extension under the direction
+of a central council composed of representatives of the government
+departments concerned with fishery matters in England, Scotland and
+Ireland, with a scientific chairman and director, and further insisted
+on the need of international co-operation in the investigations.
+
+_United States Fisheries._--The administration of the fisheries of the
+United States of America is under the control of the several coastal
+states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, which reports to the
+secretary of commerce and labour, conducts a vast amount of scientific
+fishery investigation, issues admirable statistical and biological
+reports, and conducts on a very large scale work on the replenishment of
+the fishing stations by artificial means (see PISCICULTURE). Although in
+recent years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support to
+the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an amount
+actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great Britain, the
+fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds that of Canada.
+A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American ships from the
+Newfoundland coasts and from those of other British provinces, is landed
+at American ports, but as the following recent table shows, it is much
+less than that taken from American waters.
+
+
+_Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston and
+Gloucester, Mass., in 1905._
+
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+  |                                          |  Quantities. |  Value.  |
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+  |(a) From fishing grounds off U.S.         |              |          |
+  |     coasts                               | 152,241,139  | L669,640 |
+  |(b) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland |  17,165,083  |  103,145 |
+  |(c) From fishing grounds off other        |              |          |
+  |     British provinces                    |  32,608,343  |  192,517 |
+  +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+
+
+The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase from year
+to year. There has been a decline in some important branches owing to
+indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects of civilization on
+certain kinds of animal life and in certain restricted areas. Such
+diminution has been more than compensated for by growth resulting from
+the invasion of new fishing grounds made possible by increase in the
+sea-going capacity of the vessels employed, by improvement in the
+preservation and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization
+of products which until comparatively recently were disregarded or
+considered without economic value. The annual value of the water
+products taken and sold by the United States fishermen now amounts to
+over L11,000,000, and this sum does not include the very large
+quantities taken by the fishermen for home consumption or captured by
+sportsmen and amateurs. Between two and three hundred thousand persons
+make a livelihood by the industry, and the capital involved exceeds
+L16,000,000.
+
+The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output of the
+United States industry exceeds the combined output of all other
+countries in the world. The most notable feature of this fishery is that
+nearly half the total yield now comes from cultivated grounds, so that
+the business is being placed on a secure basis. Virginia has now taken
+the first rank as an oyster-producing state, oyster farming being now
+highly developed with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.
+
+The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,
+herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity, the
+annual value being between one and two million pounds. The lobster
+fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the diminution having been
+progressive since about 1890, and being attributed to over-fishing and
+violation of the restrictive regulations. At present a large part of the
+lobsters consumed in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there
+is evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural
+operations now being carried out.
+
+The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry of the
+country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific and Arctic
+oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain and often
+unremunerative. The annual value of the take is now under L200,000.
+
+The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon, shad,
+alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the rivers from the
+ocean) has continued to provide an increasing source of income to
+fishermen, the combined value of the catch on the Atlantic and Pacific
+seaboards now amounting to over L3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of
+the Great Lakes yield about L600,000 annually.     (W. Ga.; P. C. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For fisheries in the cases of CORAL, OYSTER, PEARL, SALMON,
+    SPONGES and WHALE, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see
+    ANGLING.
+
+  [2] Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.
+
+  [3] Including the Newfoundland fishery.
+
+  [4] Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply
+    London by means of carriers.
+
+
+
+
+FISHERY (LAW OF). This subject has (1) its international aspect; (2) its
+municipal aspect. On the high seas outside territorial waters the right
+of fishery is now recognized as common to all nations. Claims were made
+in former times by single nations to the exclusive right of fishing in
+tracts of open sea; such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the
+North Sea, as lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland,
+against England in the 17th century, and against England and Holland in
+the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing within 15
+German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland. This claim,
+however, was always effectively resisted on the ground stated in Queen
+Elizabeth's remonstrance to Denmark on the subject in 1602, that "the
+law of nations alloweth of fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas
+where a nation hath propertie of command." The enunciation of this
+principle is to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court
+which decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in
+1894. (See BERING SEA ARBITRATION; ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.) The
+right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be restrained or
+regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain has entered into
+conventions with other nations with regard to fishing in certain parts
+of the sea. The provisions of such conventions are made binding on
+British subjects by statutes.
+
+  Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between Great
+  Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern
+  coasts of British North America and the United States within certain
+  limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the
+  treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France in
+  1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these
+  countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of
+  the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the Newfoundland
+  fisheries (see NEWFOUNDLAND); the convention of 1882 between Belgium,
+  Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and Holland, regarding the
+  North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between the same parties concerning
+  the liquor traffic in the North Sea; and the declaration regarding the
+  same waters made between Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement
+  of differences between their fishermen subjects in such
+  extra-territorial waters. At the instance of the Swedish government
+  the British parliament also passed an act in 1875 to establish a close
+  time for the seal fishery in the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts
+  of Greenland.
+
+Cases have come before British courts with regard to the whale fishery
+in northern and southern seas; and the customs proved to exist among the
+whaling ships of the nations engaged in a particular trade have been
+upheld if known to the parties to the action. In territorial waters, on
+the other hand, fishery is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects
+of the country owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there
+except by convention.
+
+(a) _Tidal Waters._--In British territorial waters, it may be stated,
+as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental to the soil
+covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.
+
+  The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows, and
+  of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown; and
+  therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale's words, "the right of the
+  fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally
+  lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged
+  in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of
+  fishing belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland
+  river." "But," he continues, "though the king is the owner of this
+  great waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary
+  right of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the
+  common people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein
+  as a public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their
+  right be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable
+  rivers where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a
+  propriety exclusive of that common liberty." (_De Jure Maris_, ch.
+  iv.).
+
+This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the
+seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when taken in
+territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee, though caught by
+another person. These are whales, sturgeons and porpoises; and grampuses
+are also sometimes added (whales, porpoises and grampuses being "fishes"
+only in a legal sense). In Scotland only whales which are of large size
+can be so claimed; but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in
+public and private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing,
+except in private rivers, are _inter regalia_, and are only enjoyable by
+the crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was
+formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the mussel and
+oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the shore, the opinion
+was held at one time that angling for salmon was a public right, but the
+later decisions have established that the right of salmon fishing by
+whatever means is a _jus regale_ in Scotland. In England the crown in
+early times made frequent grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal
+waters, and instances of such fisheries belonging to persons and
+corporations are very common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the
+crown declared that "no rivers shall be defended from henceforth, but
+such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our grandfather, by
+the same places and the same bounds as they were wont to be in his
+time"; and thus bound itself not to create a private fishery in any
+navigable tidal river. Judicial decision and commentators having
+interpreted this statute according to the spirit and not the letter, at
+the present day the right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs
+to the public, and they can only be excluded by a particular person or
+corporation on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in
+its origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to
+prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant's
+predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or
+prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant may be
+presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either a franchise
+derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of ownership of the soil
+covered by the waters.
+
+  In Lord Hale's words: "Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily, viz.
+  fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the soil,
+  or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the soil
+  or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing
+  that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil,--such are
+  _gurgites_, wears, fishing-places, _borachiae_, _stachiae_, which are
+  the very soil itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such
+  as these a subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many
+  religious houses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors,
+  as both corporations and others have had; and this not only in
+  navigable rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and
+  havens, yea, and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to
+  the shore. And these kinds of fishings are not only for small
+  sea-fish, such as herrings, &c., but for great fish, as salmons, and
+  not only for them but for royal fish.... Most of the precedents
+  touching such rights of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks
+  thereof belonging by usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the
+  propriety of the very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some
+  of them even within parts of the seas" (_De Jure Maris_, ch. v.)
+
+An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the old case
+of _Royal Fishery of the River Bann_ (temp. James I., Davis 655), and
+the modern one of _Wilson_ v. _Crossfield_, 1885, 1 T.L.R. 601, where a
+right of fishery in gross was established; but the latter kind, as Hale
+says, is much more common, and the presumption is always in its favour;
+_a fortiori_ where the fishing is proved to have been carried on by
+means of engines or structures fixed in the soil. In England the public
+have not at common law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal
+waters, the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes
+incidental to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them,
+landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so by
+proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed); but statutes
+relating to particular parts of the realm, such as Cornwall for the
+pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In Scotland a right of salmon
+fishing separate from land implies the right of access to and use of the
+banks, foreshores or beach for the purposes of the fishing; and so does
+white fishing by statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, e.g.
+in a public river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to
+Irish fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There
+is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first taker;
+and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken or not, e.g. in
+the whale fishery the question whether a fish is "loose" or not has come
+before English courts.
+
+(b) _Fresh Waters._---In non-tidal waters in England and Ireland, for
+the reason given above, the presumption is in favour of the fishery in
+such waters belonging to the owners of the adjacent lands; "fresh waters
+of what kind soever do of common right belong to the owners of the soil
+adjacent, so that the owners of the one side have of common right the
+property of the soil, and consequently the right of fishing _usque ad
+filum aquae_, and the owners of the other side the right of soil or
+ownership and fishing unto the _filum aquae_ on their side; and if a man
+be owner of the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of
+the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the extent
+of his land in length" (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar presumption
+that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive right of fishery
+there, and this is so even though he does not own the banks; but these
+presumptions may be displaced by proof of a different state of things,
+e.g. where the banks of a stream are separately owned the owner of one
+bank may show by acts of ownership exercised over the whole stream that
+he has the fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never
+it seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a
+subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a subject,
+nor has it any right _de jure_ to the soil or fisheries of an inland
+lake such as Lough Neagh (_Bristow_ v. _Cormican_, 1878, 3 App. Cas.
+641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish in fresh waters by
+prescription or otherwise although they are navigable; such a right is
+unknown to law, because a profit _a prendre in alieno solo_ is neither
+to be acquired by custom nor by prescription under the Prescription Act.
+It has been decided that the "dwellers" in a parish cannot acquire such
+a right, being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may
+have it by custom; and the "free inhabitants of ancient tenements" in a
+borough have been held capable of acquiring a right to dredge for
+oysters in a fishery belonging to the corporation of the borough on
+certain days in each year by giving proof of uninterrupted enjoyment of
+it from time immemorial, on the presumption that this was a condition to
+which the grant made to the corporation was subject.
+
+In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout in private
+streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and owners of opposite
+banks may fish _usque ad medium filum aquae_; and where two owners own
+land round a private loch, both have a common of fishing over it. The
+public cannot prescribe for it, for a written title either to adjacent
+lands or to the fishery is necessary. A right of way along the bank of a
+river or loch does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be
+on or at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing
+carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in
+the same way.
+
+In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided into (a)
+several (_separalis_), (b) free (_libera_), (c) common of piscary
+(_communis_), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction
+between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain.
+Blackstone's opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in right
+of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined to a public
+river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil. He is supported by
+later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson. On the other hand, the
+opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed to this view. "A man may prescribe
+to have a several fishery in such a water, and the owner shall not fish
+there; but if he claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the
+owner of the soil shall fish there" (Co Littl. 122 A); "one man may have
+the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the river
+and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in that river"
+(_De Jure Maris_, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one instance he
+distinguished them, in a later case thought that they were "all one."
+Later decisions have established the latter view, and it is now settled
+that although the owner of the several fishery is prima facie owner of
+the soil of the waters, this presumption may be displaced by showing
+that the terms of the grant only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and
+that the words "sole and exclusive fishery" give a several fishery _in
+alieno solo_. In the words of Mr Justice Willes, "the only substantial
+distinction is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called
+'several,' and sometimes 'free,' as in 'free warren,' and a right in
+common with others, usually called 'common of fishery,' and sometimes
+'free,' as in 'free port.' A several fishery means an exclusive right to
+fish in a given place, either with or without the property in the soil"
+(_Malcolmson_ v. _O'Dea_, 1863, 10 H.L.). A common of piscary, or "a
+right to fish in common with certain other persons in a particular
+stream," is usually found in manors, the commoners of which may have the
+right to enjoy it to an extent sufficient for the sustenance of their
+tenements; but they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription,
+exclude the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the
+soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of "fishery" will
+prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered by water
+or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery therein; a
+several fishery will not merge on being resumed by the crown; and a
+fishery situate within a manor is presumed to belong to the owners of
+adjacent land, and not to the lord. A several fishery, as already seen,
+being an incorporeal hereditament, can only be transferred by deed, and
+therefore cannot be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on
+proof that the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the
+right of fishing in the _locus in quo_ to the knowledge of and without
+interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish a title
+to a several fishery, a "paper title," i.e. one founded on documentary
+evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be supported by evidence of
+acts of ownership in recent times, for otherwise it will be presumed
+that a person other than the alleged owner is the real owner. If the
+waters of a tidal river leave their old channel and flow into another,
+the owner of a several fishery in the old channel cannot claim to have
+it in the new one; but, on the other hand, the owner of a several
+fishery can take advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon
+and into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are
+ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal or
+fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and may do
+so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that in navigable
+waters he does not interfere with the right of navigation, and that in
+navigable and other waters he does not interfere with the fishing rights
+of his neighbours or infringe the provisions made by old or modern
+statutes as to the methods of taking the fish, e.g. by weirs. These were
+forbidden in rivers by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the
+seashore by a statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh
+waters traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful, for
+the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable waters. It
+seems, however, that at common law any fixed structures put up by the
+owner of a fishery in his part of a river, which at all prevent the free
+passage of fish to the waters above or below, give the owners of
+fisheries therein a right of action against him. So the grantee of an
+exclusive fishery with rod and line in an unnavigable river can prevent
+any person from polluting the river higher up and so damaging the
+fishery. At common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their
+natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they are
+caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of salmon by
+statute.
+
+Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in territorial
+or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England, the Board of
+Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it took it over from the
+Board of Trade) power by order to create sea fisheries districts,
+comprising any part of the sea within which British subjects have, by
+international law, the exclusive right of fishing, and to provide for
+the constitution of a local fisheries committee to regulate the sea
+fisheries in such district, which can make by-laws for that purpose. It
+appoints fishery officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for
+sea fish (which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act),
+has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea coast or at
+sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of summary jurisdiction,
+can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or regulate, protect and develop
+fisheries for all or any kind of shell fish. Special provision is also
+made by statute for the oyster fishery and herring fishery (applicable
+also to Scotland), and that of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs
+(applicable to all the United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board
+can constitute sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to
+those in England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea
+fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring, mussel
+and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of money intended
+to relieve local distress and taxation towards the encouragement of sea
+fisheries, and marine superintendence and enforcement of Scottish sea
+fisheries laws. In Ireland the sea fisheries are under the direction of
+the inspectors of Irish fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery
+commissioners and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special
+statutes, besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom,
+deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is also
+appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical instruction.
+In all three component parts of the United Kingdom there are also
+special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater fish: for England,
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1861-1907, and the Freshwater
+Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those
+of 1862-1868, and for trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for
+Ireland, the Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is
+adopted in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are
+set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish by
+fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection and
+the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of summary
+jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case are--for England the
+Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for Scotland the Fishery Board, and
+for Ireland the inspectors of fisheries, and in England a certain
+official number of conservators on such boards are appointed by the
+county councils. The Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the
+Board of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders for
+the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries within any
+area on the application of any board of conservators, or of a county
+council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value of private fisheries.
+There are also special acts dealing with the fishing in certain rivers,
+such as the Thames, Medway, Severn, Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907
+applies, however, to the Esk, but not otherwise to Scotland nor to
+Ireland.) Throughout the United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other
+explosive substance to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is
+prohibited, as it is also in England in any private waters subject to
+the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also
+forbidden to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish.
+Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to kill
+fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant it. There
+are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the protection of
+fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the acts already
+mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.
+
+Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts 1894-1906 for
+sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the colonies), relating to
+their registration, carrying official papers, carrying boats in
+proportion to their tonnage, the punishment of offences on board, the
+wages of their crews, and keeping record of all casualties, punishments
+and the like on board. As regards trawlers, especially in the case of
+those of 25 tons and upwards, a statutory form of agreement with the
+crew is prescribed, as well as accounts of wages and discharges; and
+skippers and second hands must have certificates of competency, which
+are granted under similar conditions to those required in the case of
+sea-going ships and are registered with the Board of Trade. Scottish
+fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886 (except as
+regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits, dealt with by the
+above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868, which applies to all
+British fishing boats. Particular lights must be carried by fishing
+boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The Cran Measures Act) legalized
+the use of cran measures in connexion with trading in fresh herrings in
+England and Wales, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries being
+empowered to make regulations under the act.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Green, _Encyclopaedia of Scots Law_ (Edinburgh, 1896);
+  Stewart, _Law of Fishing in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1869); Woolrych,
+  _Waters_ (London, 1851); Paterson, _Fishery Laws of the United
+  Kingdom_ (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore, _Foreshore_
+  (London, 1888); Phillimore, _International Law_ (3rd ed., London,
+  1879); Martens, _Causes celebres du droit des gens_ (Leipzig, 1827);
+  Selwyn, _Nisi Prius_, _Fishery_ (London, 1869).     (G. G. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+FISHGUARD (_Abergwaun_), a market town, urban district, contributory
+parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembrokeshire, Wales, near the
+mouth of the river Gwaun, which here flows into Fishguard Bay of St
+George's Channel. Pop. (1901) 2002. Its railway station, which is the
+chief terminus of the South Wales system of the Great Western railway,
+is at the hamlet of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the
+south-west. Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save
+those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has long been
+recognized. After many years of labour and at a great expenditure of
+money the Great Western railway has constructed a fine breakwater and
+railway pier at Goodwick across the lower end of the bay, and an
+important passenger and goods traffic with Rosslare on the opposite
+Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.
+
+The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and the
+excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure. The chief
+historical interest of the town centres round the so-called "Fishguard
+Invasion" of 1797, in which year on the 22nd of February three French
+men-of-war with troops on board, under the command of General Tate, an
+Irish-American adventurer, appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the
+adjoining parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a
+body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated,
+practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the local
+militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and John Campbell,
+Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile sailing away towards Ireland.
+For many years the castles and prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke
+were filled to overflowing with French prisoners of war. Close to the
+banks of the Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years
+the residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated antiquary
+and historian of Pembrokeshire.
+
+
+
+
+FISHKILL LANDING, or FISHKILL-ON-THE-HUDSON, a village of Fishkill
+township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A., about 58 m. N. of New York
+City, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890)
+3617; (1900) 3673, of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910)
+3902, of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905) 13,183;
+(1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages of Matteawan
+(q.v.), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing is served by the New York
+Central & Hudson River and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways;
+by railway ferry and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the
+West Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway to
+Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is the village of
+Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579. In this village are
+two notable old churches, Trinity (1769), and the First Dutch Reformed
+(1731), in which the New York Provincial Congress met in August and
+September 1776. At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the
+Society of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manufactures
+of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss) and other
+machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile. The village of
+Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The first settlement in the
+township was made about 1690. The township of Fishkill was, like
+Newburgh, an important military post during the War of Independence, and
+was a supply depot for the northern Continental Army.
+
+
+
+
+FISK, JAMES (1834-1872), American financier, was born at Bennington,
+Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief period in school he ran
+away and joined a circus. Later he became a hotel waiter, and finally
+adopted the business of his father, a pedlar. He then became a salesman
+for a Boston dry goods firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning
+for him a share in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts
+during the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling,
+he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in
+speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York and was
+employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew in his war against
+Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway, and as a result of the
+compromise that was reached he and Jay Gould became members of the Erie
+directorate. The association with Gould thus began continued until his
+death. Subsequently by a well-planned "raid," Fisk and Gould obtained
+control of the road. They carried financial "buccaneering" to extremes,
+their programme including open alliance with the Tweed "ring," the
+wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges. Their
+attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the fateful Black Friday
+of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was shot and killed in New York City
+by E.S. Stokes, a former business associate, on the 6th of January 1872.
+
+
+
+
+FISK, WILBUR (1792-1839), American educationist, was born in
+Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 1792. He studied at the
+university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then entered Brown University,
+where he graduated in 1815. He studied law, and in 1817 came under the
+influence of a religious revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the
+following year he was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to
+the New England conference. His influence with the conference turned
+that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral in tendency
+to the establishment of secondary schools and colleges. Upon the removal
+in 1824 of the conference's academy at New Market, New Hampshire, to
+Wilbraham, Massachusetts, Fisk became one of its agents and trustees,
+and in 1826 its principal. He drafted the report of the committee on
+education to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined
+the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president of
+Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in 1831 until his
+death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middletown, Connecticut. His
+successful administration of the Wesleyan Academy at Wilbraham and of
+Wesleyan University were remarkable. He was an able controversialist,
+and in the interests of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism
+and Unitarianism; he published in 1837 _The Calvinistic Controversy_. He
+also wrote _Travels on the Continent of Europe_ (1838).
+
+  See _Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk_ (New York, 1842), edited by
+  Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston, 1890),
+  in the _American Religious Leaders Series_; also a sketch in _Memoirs
+  of Teachers and Educators_ (New, York, 1861), edited by Henry Barnard.
+
+
+
+
+FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical and
+scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 30th of
+March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July
+1901. His name was originally Edmund Fiske Green, but in 1855 he took the
+name of a great-grandfather, John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a
+grandmother in Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college
+he had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed most
+boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had studied several
+modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in 1863, continuing to study
+languages and philosophy with zeal; spent two years in the Harvard law
+school, and opened an office in Boston; but soon devoted the greater
+portion of his time to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one
+year, he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his
+graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures at
+Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was history tutor; in
+1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the Doctrine of Evolution,
+afterwards revised and expanded as _Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy_
+(1874); and between 1872 and 1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that
+time he devoted himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly
+all of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures
+or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general title, such
+as _Myths and Myth-Makers_ (1872), _Darwinism and Other Essays_ (1879),
+_Excursions of an Evolutionist_ (1883), and _A Century of Science_
+(1899). He did much, by the thoroughness of his learning and the lucidity
+of his style, to spread a knowledge of Darwin and Spencer in America. His
+_Outlines of Cosmic_ _Philosophy_, while Setting forth the Spencerian
+system, made psychological and sociological additions of original matter,
+in some respects anticipating Spencer's later conclusions. Of one part of
+the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of one of his later
+books (_Through Nature to God_, 1899): "The detection of the part played
+by the lengthening of infancy in the genesis of the human race is my own
+especial contribution to the Doctrine of Evolution." In _The Idea of God
+as affected by Modern Knowledge_ (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic
+problem, and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an
+illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great immanent
+cause includes and controls both physical and moral forces. More
+original, perhaps, is the argument in the immediately preceding work,
+_The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his Origin_ (1884), which is,
+in substance, that physical evolution is a demonstrated fact; that
+intellectual force is a later, higher and more potent thing than bodily
+strength; and that, finally, in most men and some "lower animals" there
+is developed a new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line
+of thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical that
+it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards, and may
+or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.
+
+It is principally, however, through his work as a historian that Fiske's
+reputation will live. His historical writings, with the exception of a
+small volume on _American Political Ideas_ (1885), an account of the
+system of _Civil Government in the United States_ (1890), _The
+Mississippi Valley in the Civil War_ (1900), a school history of the
+United States, and an elementary story of the American Revolution, are
+devoted to studies, in a unified general manner, of separate yet related
+episodes in American history. The volumes have not appeared in
+chronological order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial
+history, as follows: _The Discovery of America, with some Account of
+Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest_ (1892, 2 vols.); _Old
+Virginia and her Neighbours_ (1897, 2 vols.); _The Beginnings of New
+England_; or, _The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and
+Religious Liberty_ (1889); _Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America_
+(1899); _The American Revolution_ (1891, 2 vols.); and _The Critical
+Period of American History_, 1783-1789 (1888). Of these the most
+original and valuable is the _Critical Period_ volume, a history of the
+consolidation of the states into a government, and of the formation of
+the constitution.     (C. F. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN (1865-   ), American actress, was born in New
+Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As a child she played, under her
+mother's name of Maddern, with several well-known actors. In 1882 she
+first appeared as a "star," but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske
+and was absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared
+in _Hester Crewe_, a play written by her husband, and afterwards acted a
+number of Ibsen's heroines, and in _Becky Sharp_, a dramatization of
+Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_. In 1901 she opened, in opposition to the
+American theatrical "trust," an independent theatre in New York, the
+Manhattan. She won a considerable reputation in the United States as an
+emotional actress.
+
+
+
+
+FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to designate
+an abnormal communication leading either from the surface of the body to
+a normal cavity or canal, or from one normal cavity or canal to another.
+These communications are the result of disease or injury. They receive
+different names according to their situation: _lachrymal fistula_ is the
+small opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of
+the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; _salivary fistula_ is an
+opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; _anal fistula_, or _fistula
+in ano_, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the bowel; _urethral
+fistula_ is the result of a giving way of the tissues behind a
+stricture. These are examples of the variety of the first kind of
+fistula; while _recto-vesical fistula_, a communication between the
+rectum and bladder, and _vesico-vaginal fistula_, a communication
+between the bladder and vagina, are examples of the second. The abnormal
+passage may be straight or tortuous, of considerable diameter or of
+narrow calibre. Fistulae may be caused by an obstruction of the normal
+channel, the result of disease or injury, which prevents, for example,
+the tears, saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their
+retention gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an
+exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which bursts, for
+example, into the gut or through the skin; the cavity does not close,
+and a fistula is the result. The fistulous channel remains open as long
+as the contents of the cavity or canal with which it is connected can
+pass through it. To obliterate the fistula one must remove the
+obstruction and encourage the flow along the natural channel; for
+example, one must open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to
+reach the nasal cavity, and the _lachrymal fistula_ will close; and so
+also in the _salivary_ and _urethral_ fistulae. Sometimes it may be
+necessary to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy
+material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from its
+deepest part, as in _anal fistula_; in other cases it may be necessary
+to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch them together.
+     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+FIT, a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division of a poem,
+a canto, in this sense often spelled "fytte." (2) A sudden but temporary
+seizure or attack of illness, particularly one with convulsive paroxysms
+accompanied by unconsciousness, especially an attack of apoplexy or
+epilepsy, but also applied to a transitory attack of gout, of coughing,
+fainting, &c., also of an outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper.
+In a transferred sense, the word is also used of any temporary or
+irregular periods of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions
+as "by fits and starts." (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper,
+becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications for a
+specific purpose, "a fit and proper person"; and also as prepared for,
+or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The verb "to fit" is thus
+used intransitively and transitively, to be adapted for, to suit,
+particularly to be of the right measurement or shape, of a dress, of
+parts of a mechanism, &c., and to make or render a thing in such a
+condition. Hence the word is used as a substantive.
+
+The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one in origin,
+or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and spelling but with
+different origin in each different meaning. In Skeat's _Etymological
+Dictionary_ (ed. 1898) (1) and (2) are connected and derived from the
+root of "foot," which appears in Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. The evolution of
+the word is: step, a part of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word
+of Scandinavian origin, with the idea of "knitted together" (cf. Ice.
+_fitja_, to knit together, Goth, _fetjan_, to adorn); the ultimate
+origin is a Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. "fetch"). The _New
+English Dictionary_ suggests that this last root may be the origin of
+all the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting; the
+early use of "fit" (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed out that
+the meanings of "fit," suitable, proper, have been modified by "feat,"
+which comes through Fr. _fait_, from Lat. _factum_, _facere_, to do,
+make.
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, JOHN (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam navigation, was born
+at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January 1743. He was the son of
+a farmer, and received the usual common school education. At the age of
+seventeen he went to sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a
+few voyages and became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a
+silversmith. During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the
+American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum of money,
+with which he bought land in Virginia. He was appointed deputy-surveyor
+for Kentucky in 1780, and when returning to Philadelphia in the
+following year he was captured by the Indians, but shortly afterwards
+regained his liberty. About this time he began an exploration of the
+north-western regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district;
+and while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to him
+that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured by the sale of his
+map to find money for the carrying out of his projects, but was
+unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance to the legislatures of
+different states, but though each reported in favourable terms of his
+invention, none of them would agree to grant him any pecuniary
+assistance. He was successful, however, in 1786, in forming a company
+for the prosecution of his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a
+steam-packet of his invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to
+be the inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey of
+Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-navigation in New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar privilege was granted
+to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and New York. A steam-boat built by
+Fitch conveyed passengers for hire on the Delaware in the summer of
+1790, but the undertaking was a losing one, and led to the dissolution
+of the company. In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into
+France, but met with no success. On his return to America he found his
+property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention nothing
+but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide at Bardstown,
+Kentucky, on the 2nd of July 1798.
+
+  He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes,
+  "inscribed to his children and future posterity"; and from this a
+  biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia, 1857.)
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING (1824-1903), English educationist, second son
+of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was born in Southwark, London,
+in 1824. His parents were poor but intellectually inclined, and at an
+early age Fitch started work as an assistant master in the British and
+Foreign School Society's elementary school in the Borough Road, founded
+by Thomas Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous
+reading and attending classes at University College; he was made
+headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850 he took his B.A.
+degree at London University, proceeding MA. two years later. In 1852 he
+was appointed by the British and Foreign School Society to a tutorship
+at their Training College in the Borough Road, soon becoming
+vice-principal and in 1856 principal. He had previously done some
+occasional teaching there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the
+Lancasterian system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of
+schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which he
+was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-1867) on the
+Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commissioner (1869), and as an
+assistant commissioner under the Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was
+transferred in 1877 to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief
+inspector, to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief
+inspector of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894.
+In the course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique
+acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a recognized
+authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures and books
+having a great influence on the development of education in England. He
+was a strong advocate and supporter of the movement for the higher
+education of women, and he was constantly looked to for counsel and
+direction on every sort of educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe
+judgment and amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional
+value, and after he retired from official life his services were in
+active request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896 he was
+knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinctions as the LL.D.
+degree from St Andrews University, he was made a chevalier of the French
+Legion of Honour in 1889. He was a constant contributor to the leading
+reviews; he published an important series of _Lectures on Teaching_
+(1881), _Educational Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and
+Colleges_ (1887), and an authoritative criticism of _Thomas and Matthew
+Arnold, and their Influence on English Education_ (see also the article
+on ARNOLD, MATTHEW) in 1901; and he wrote the article on EDUCATION in
+the supplementary volumes (10th edition) of this encyclopaedia (1902).
+He died on the 14th of July 1903 in London. A civil list pension was
+given to his widow, whom, as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.
+
+  See also _Sir Joshua Fitch_, by the Rev. A.L. Lilley (1906),
+
+
+
+
+FITCH, RALPH (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of the earliest
+English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and
+Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China. In January 1583 he embarked
+in the "Tiger" for Tripoli and Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare,
+_Macbeth_, Act I. sc. 3), together with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two
+other merchants or employees of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he
+reached the Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed
+southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris to Basra
+(May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to trade, while Fitch and
+the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf to Ormuz, where they were arrested
+as spies (at Venetian instigation, as they believed) and sent prisoners
+to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the
+sureties procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly of
+New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have reached India by
+the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends regained their liberty,
+and escaping from Goa (April 1584) travelled through the heart of India
+to the court of the Great Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In
+September 1585 Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore
+(he disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while Fitch
+descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares, Patna, Kuch Behar,
+Hugli, Chittagong, &c. (1585-1586), and pushed on by sea to Pegu and
+Burma. Here he visited the Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some
+distance, acquired a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even
+penetrated to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588 he
+visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his homeward
+travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast, touching at
+Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian Gulf to Basra and up the
+Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates,
+Aleppo and Tripoli, to the Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the
+29th of April 1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of
+the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian affairs
+(e.g. 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 31st of December 1606).
+
+  See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599), vol. ii. part i. pp.
+  245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, _Voyages_ (_Itineraris_), part i.
+  ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &c., Hakluyt Soc. edition); Stevens
+  and Birdwood, _Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603_
+  (1886), esp. pp. 26, 123; _State Papers, East Indies_, &c.,
+  _1513-1616_ (1862), No. 36; Pinkerton, _Voyages and Travels_
+  (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.
+
+
+
+
+FITCHBURG, a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying from about 433
+ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester and about 45 m. W.N.W.
+of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429; (1890) 22,037; (1900) 31,531, of whom
+10,917 were foreign-born, including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English
+Canadians, 2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg is
+traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served by the
+Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by
+three interurban electric lines. The city area (27.7 sq.m.) is well
+watered, and is very uneven, with hill spurs running in all directions,
+affording picturesque scenery. The court house and the post office (in a
+park presented by the citizens) are the principal public buildings.
+Fitchburg is the seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and
+training schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace
+library and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home for
+old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which is a fine
+fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg has large mercantile and
+financial interests, but manufacturing is the principal industry. The
+principal manufactures are paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen
+goods, yarn and silk, machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and
+firearms (the Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In
+1905 the city's total factory product was valued at $15,390,507, of
+which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp product,
+$2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and $1,202,421 was the
+value of the foundry and machine shop products. The municipality owns
+and operates its (gravity) water works system. Fitchburg was included in
+Lunenburg until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was
+named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure
+incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872.
+
+  See W.A. Emerson, _Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present_
+  (Fitchburg, 1887).
+
+
+
+
+FITTIG, RUDOLF (1835-   ), German chemist, was born at Hamburg on the
+6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry at Gottingen, graduating as
+Ph.D. with a dissertation on acetone in 1858. He subsequently held
+several appointments at Gottingen, being privat docent (1860), and
+extraordinary professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at
+Tubingen, and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were
+erected from his designs. Fittig's researches are entirely in organic
+chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The aldehydes and
+ketones provided material for his earlier work. He observed that
+aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in neutral, alkaline, and
+sometimes acid solution to secondary and tertiary glycols, substances
+which he named pinacones; and also that certain pinacones when distilled
+with dilute sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines.
+The unsaturated acids, also received much attention, and he discovered
+the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones. In 1863 he
+introduced the reaction known by his name. In 1855 Adolph Wurtz had
+shown that when sodium acted upon alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues
+combined to form more complex hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method
+by showing that a mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar
+treatment, yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin's
+reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be
+more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of much
+difficulty, and the exact course of the reaction appears to await
+solution. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of
+coumarin, the odoriferous principle of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's
+observation that phenyl isocrotonic acid readily yielded
+[alpha]-naphthol by loss of water was of much importance, since it
+afforded valuable evidence as to the constitution of naphthalene. They
+also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling
+point fraction of the coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of
+phenanthrene. We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine
+to Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its
+constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used text-books;
+he edited several editions of Wohler's _Grundriss der organischen
+Chemie_ (11th ed., 1887) and wrote an _Unorganische Chemie_ (1st ed.,
+1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been recognized by many scientific
+societies and institutions, the Royal Society awarding him the Davy
+medal in 1906.
+
+
+
+
+FITTON, MARY (c. 1578-1647), identified by some writers with the "dark
+lady" of Shakespeare's sonnets, was the daughter of Sir Edward Fitton of
+Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized on the 24th of June 1578. Her
+elder sister, Anne, married John Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth
+year. About 1595 Mary Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth.
+Her father recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys,
+comptroller of the queen's household, who promised to defend the
+"innocent lamb" from the "wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the
+tame beasts of this place." Sir William was fifty and already married,
+but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the speedy death of
+the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have received considerable
+encouragement. There is no hint in her authenticated biography that she
+was acquainted with Shakespeare. William Kemp, who was a clown in
+Shakespeare's company, dedicated his _Nine Daies Wonder_ to Mistress
+Anne (perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, "Maid of Honour to Elizabeth";
+and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous volume, _A
+Woman's Woorth defended against all the Men in the World_ (1599). In
+1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivities at which William
+Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known to have been present; and
+shortly afterwards she became his mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke
+was sent to the Fleet in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton,
+whose child died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been
+dismissed from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister,
+Lady Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on Mary
+Fitton by George Ormerod, author of _History of Cheshire_, in a MS.
+quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (_Academy_, 27th Sept. 1884). Ormerod asserted,
+on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter Leycester, that she had two
+illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard Leveson, the friend and
+correspondent of her sister Anne. He also gives the name of her first
+husband as Captain Logher, and her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom
+she had a son and daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three
+years after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order of Mary
+Fitton's husbands, for her second husband, Logher, died in 1636. Her own
+will, which was proved in 1647, gives her name as "Mary Lougher." In
+Gawsworth church there is a painted monument of the Fittons, in which
+Anne and Mary are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated
+that from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman, which is
+of course essential to her identification with the lady of the sonnets,
+but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady Newdigate-Newdegate in
+her _Gossip from a Muniment Room_ (1897) she has brown hair and grey
+eyes.
+
+  The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was challenged by
+  Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their remarks see an
+  appendix by C.G.O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition of Lady
+  Newdigate-Newdegate's book.
+
+  The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false
+  mistress of Shakespeare's sonnets rests on a very thin chain of
+  reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory
+  that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of
+  course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William Archer
+  (_Fortnightly Review_, December 1897) found some support for Mary
+  Fitton's identification with the "dark lady" in the fact that Sir
+  William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three "Wills"
+  among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpretation, whether
+  right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:--
+
+    "Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy 'Will,'
+     And 'Will' to boot, and 'Will' in overplus."
+
+  Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle will
+  be found in Mr Thomas Tyler's _Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1890, pp.
+  73-92), and in the same writer's _Herbert-Fitton Theory of
+  Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1780-1861), British geologist was born in Dublin
+in January 1780. Educated at Trinity College, in that city, he gained
+the senior scholarship in 1798, and graduated in the following year. At
+this time he began to take interest in geology and to form a collection
+of fossils. Having adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808
+to Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and
+thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in geology
+steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809, where he further
+studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he brought before the Geological
+Society of London a description of the geological structure of the
+vicinity of Dublin, with an account of some rare minerals found in
+Ireland. He took a medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some
+years the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted
+M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of means, he
+settled in London, and devoted himself to the science of geology with
+such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon became a leading authority,
+and in the end, as Murchison said, "one of the British worthies who have
+raised modern geology to its present advanced position." His
+"Observations on some of the Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford
+Oolite, in the South-east of England" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol.
+iv.) embodied a series of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and
+form the classic memoir familiarly known as Fitton's "Strata below the
+Chalk." In this great work he established the true succession and
+relations of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and
+Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure. He had been
+elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the Geological Society
+of London 1827-1829. His house then became a meeting place for
+scientific workers, and during his presidency he held a conversazione
+open on Sunday evenings to all fellows of the Geological Society. From
+1817 to 1841 he contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_ many admirable
+essays on the progress of geological science; he also wrote "Notes on
+the Progress of Geology in England" for the _Philosophical Magazine_
+(1832-1833). His only independent publication was _A Geological Sketch
+of the Vicinity of Hastings_ (1833). He was awarded the Wollaston medal
+by the Geological Society in 1852. He died in London on the 13th of May
+1861.
+
+  Obituary by R.I. Murchison in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xviii.,
+  1862, p. xxx.
+
+
+
+
+FITZBALL, EDWARD (1792-1873), English dramatist, whose real patronymic
+was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, in 1792. His father was a
+well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball, after receiving his schooling at
+Newmarket, was apprenticed to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced
+some dramatic pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked
+success of his _Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber_
+(1820), together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at
+the Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in London.
+During the next twenty-five years he produced a great number of plays,
+most of which were highly successful. He had a special talent for
+nautical drama. His _Floating Beacon_ (Surrey theatre, 19th of April
+1824) ran for 140 nights, and his _Pilot_ (Adelphi, 1825) for 200
+nights. His greatest triumph in melodrama was perhaps _Jonathan
+Bradford, or the Murder at the Roadside Inn_ (Surrey theatre, 12th of
+June 1833). He was at one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at
+Covent Garden, and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable
+reputation as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years
+of his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on the
+27th of October 1873.
+
+  His autobiography, _Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author's Life_ (2
+  vol., 1859), is a naive record of his career. Numbers of his plays are
+  printed in _Cumberland's Minor British Theatre, Dick's Standard Plays_
+  and _Lacy's Acting Edition of Plays_.
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, the name of an historic Irish house, which descends from
+Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the Domesday Survey (1086) was
+castellan of Windsor and a tenant-in-chief in five counties. From his
+eldest son William, known as "de Windsor," descended the Windsors of
+Stanwell, of whom Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a
+Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which barony is now
+vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant in the female line. Of
+Walter's younger sons, Robert was given by Henry I. the barony of Little
+Easton, Essex; Maurice obtained the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of the
+great Suffolk abbey of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry
+I.'s queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a _dapifer_) became the ancestor
+of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that Arnulf
+de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened his position in
+Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince of South Wales, who
+bore to him famous children, "by whom the southern coast of Wales was
+saved for the English and the bulwarks of Ireland stormed." Of these
+sons William, the eldest, was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as
+"de Carew," from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke
+peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh. The
+descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford, Berks, and
+some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the wild claims of Sir Peter
+Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast Irish estates, including half of
+"the kingdom of Cork," were based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de
+Carew's brothers, Reimund "Fitz William" (known as "Le Gros") and
+Griffin "Fitz William," took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.
+
+Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David "Fitz Gerald" became
+bishop of St David's (1147-1176), and their daughter Angharat mother of
+Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, q.v.), the well-known historian
+and the eulogist of his mother's family. A third son, Maurice, obtained
+from his brother the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of St David's, c. 1174,
+and having landed in Ireland in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod,
+founded the fortunes of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford,
+where he died and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however,
+was the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which
+Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were forced to
+give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded him as baron of the
+Naas and steward of St David's, but William's granddaughter carried the
+Naas to the Butlers and so to the Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of
+Maurice, who obtained lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice "Fitz
+Gerald," who held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to
+1245. In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal,
+Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king against the
+Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257. He held Maynooth
+Castle, the seat of his descendants.
+
+Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the justiciar
+leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son Gerald) and a younger
+son Maurice, of whom the latter was justiciar for a year in 1272, while
+the former, as heir male and head of the race, inherited the Ophaley
+lands, which he is said to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John
+"Fitz Thomas," whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle
+and town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the heirs
+male of his body (May 14th, 1316), Dying shortly after, he was succeeded
+by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard (de Burgh) the "red earl" of
+Ulster, who received the hereditary shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and
+was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar of Ireland for a year. His younger son
+Maurice "Fitz Thomas," 4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed
+justiciar, and was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl
+(1427-1477), who between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the
+government of Ireland as "deputy," and who founded the "brotherhood of
+St George" for the defence of the English Pale. He was also made lord
+chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the 8th earl (1477-1513),
+called "More" (the Great), was deputy governor of Ireland from 1481 for
+most of the rest of his life, though imprisoned in the Tower two years
+(1494-1496) on suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while
+fighting the Irish as "deputy." Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1534),
+followed in his father's steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till the
+enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his house,
+brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of temporary restorations
+he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.
+
+In his anger at his rival's successes the 9th earl had been led, it was
+suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in England his son
+Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, "Silken Thomas," broke out into open revolt
+(1534), and declared war on the government; his followers slew the
+archbishop of Dublin and laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made
+overtures to the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the
+Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege to his
+castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by a long struggle
+in the field, the earl, deserted by O'Conor, had eventually to surrender
+himself to the king's deputy. He was sent to the Tower, where he was
+subsequently joined by his five uncles, arrested as his accomplices.
+They were all six executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of
+attainder completed the ruin of the family.
+
+But the earl's half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth was the earl
+of Surrey's "fair Geraldine"), a mere boy, had been carried off, and,
+after many adventures at home and abroad, returned to England after
+Henry VIII.'s death, and to propitiate the Irish was restored to his
+estates by Edward VI. (1552). Having served Mary in Wyat's rebellion, he
+was created by her earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May
+1554, but the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained
+under attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion under
+Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their Spanish
+allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of treason in 1583.
+But the acts attainting his family had been repealed in 1569, and the
+old earldom was thus regained. In 1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry
+("of the Battleaxes"), who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone
+rebels in 1597. On the death of his brother in 1599 the earldom passed
+to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by
+Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the ancestral castle
+of Geashill with its territory and was recognized in 1620 as Lady
+Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-1660), had his castle of
+Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics in 1642, and after its
+subsequent occupation by them in 1646 it was finally abandoned by the
+family.
+
+The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful, save for
+the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth became the seat
+of the family, until James the 20th earl (1722-1773), who obtained a
+viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built Leinster House in Dublin, and
+formed a powerful party in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made
+lord deputy; in 1760 he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery;
+and in 1766 he received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only
+Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His wealth and
+connexions secured him a commanding position. Of his younger children
+one son was created Lord Lecale; another was the well-known rebel, Lord
+Edward Fitzgerald; another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a
+daughter was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke
+(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received nearly
+L30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1883 the family was
+still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but, after a tenure of
+nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to sell them to the tenants
+under the recent Land Purchase Acts. In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b.
+1887) succeeded his father Gerald, the 5th duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke
+of Leinster.
+
+The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond, who
+were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent from Maurice, the
+founder of the family in Ireland, through a younger son Thomas. It would
+seem that Maurice, grandson of Thomas, was father of Thomas "Fitz
+Maurice" _Nappagh_ ("of the ape"), justice of Ireland in 1295, who
+obtained a grant of the territory of "Decies and Desmond" in 1292, and
+died in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting vast
+estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marrying a
+daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created earl of
+Desmond (i.e. south Munster) on the 22nd of August 1329, and Kerry was
+made a palatine liberty for him. The greatest Irish noble of his day, he
+led the Anglo-Irish party against the English representatives of the
+king, and was attacked as the king's enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He
+surrendered in England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually
+regained favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died,
+however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in turn, Gerald,
+the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar (i.e. viceroy) in
+1367, despite his adopting his father's policy which the crown still
+wished to thwart. But he was superseded two years later, and defeated
+and captured by the native king of Thomond shortly after. Yet his
+sympathies were distinctly Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the
+south-west of Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native
+lines, and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422. His
+son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland as deputy from
+1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English rule by stubborn
+conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who superseded him, procured his
+attainder with that of the earl of Kildare, on the charge of alliance
+with the Irish, and he was beheaded on the 14th of February 1468, his
+followers in Munster avenging his death by invading the Pale. His
+younger son Maurice, earl from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck's
+Irish supporters, and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James
+(1520-1529) was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the
+French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession reverted
+to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man, at whose death there
+was a contest between his younger brother Sir John "of Desmond" and his
+grandson James, a court page of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured
+possession till his death (1536), when his son James succeeded _de
+facto_, and _de jure_ on the rightful earl being murdered by the
+usurper's younger brother in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains
+had by this time classed the earls among them, but although this James
+looked to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent a
+part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary foes
+of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and kept Munster
+quiet and in order for the English till his death in 1558. His four
+marriages produced a disputed succession and a break-up of the family.
+His eldest son Thomas "Roe" (the Red) was disinherited, and failed to
+obtain the earldom, which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother
+Gerald "the rebel earl" (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in his
+uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially, the famous
+James "Fitz Maurice" Fitz Gerald. Gerald's turbulence and his strife
+with the Butlers led to his detention in England (1562-1564) and again
+in 1565-1566. In 1567 Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence,
+with his brother, Sir John "of Desmond," he was sent to England and the
+Tower, and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the
+above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas "Roe," had usurped his
+position in his absence and induced the natives to choose him as
+"captain" or chieftain of Desmond. He formed a strong Irish Catholic
+party and broke into revolt in 1569. Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled
+again, till crushed by Perrot in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return
+would not join James in revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But
+Gerald himself, after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574),
+though he soon submitted to the queen's forces. On the continent James
+Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France and to
+Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII. With the papal
+nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in Kerry (June 1579) and
+called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond to join him, but the latter
+assured the English government of his loyalty, and James was killed in a
+skirmish. Yet Desmond was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by
+being proclaimed as a traitor (Nov. 1st, 1579), into a miserable
+rebellion. His castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a
+fugitive, till surprised and beheaded on the 11th of November 1583,
+after long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His ruin
+is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled policy.
+The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres, were
+forfeited by act of parliament.
+
+But the influence of his mighty house was still great among the Irish.
+The disinherited Thomas "Roe" left a son James "Fitz Thomas," who,
+succeeding him in 1595 and finding that the territory of the earls would
+never be restored, assumed the earldom and joined O'Neill's rebellion in
+1598, at the head of 8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the
+fidelity of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his
+kinsman the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he had
+married, and sent to the Tower. The "sugan" (sham) earl lingered there
+obscurely as "James M'Thomas" till his death. In consequence of his
+rebellion and the devotion of the Irish to his race, James, son of
+Gerald "the rebel earl," who had remained in the Tower since his
+father's death (1583), was restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to
+Munster in 1600, but he, known as "the queen's earl," could, as a
+Protestant, do nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The "sugan"
+earl's brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into
+Spain, and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title and
+was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the service of the
+emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin of the earls of Desmond and
+of Kildare had never been forgotten, and intermarriage had cemented the
+bond. Just before his death the exile wrote as "Desmond _alias_ Gerratt
+Fitz Gerald" to his "Most Noble Cosen" the earl of Kildare, that "wee
+must not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably
+observed betweene our antenates and elders."
+
+There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also of this
+stock, although their actual origin, in the 12th century, is doubtful.
+From a very early date they were feudal lords of Kerry, and their
+dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry VII. in 1489. The isolated
+position of their territory ("Clanmaurice") threw them even more among
+the Irish than the earls of Desmond, and they often adopted the native
+form of their name, "MacMorrish." Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry
+narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct of Thomas
+in the rebellion of James "Fitz Maurice" was suspicious, and his sons
+joined in that of the earl of Desmond, while he himself was a rebel in
+1582. Patrick, his successor (1590-1600), was captured in rebellion
+(1587), and when free, joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and
+heir Thomas, who continued in the field till he obtained pardon and
+restoration in 1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson
+withdrew to France with James II., but the next peer became a supporter
+of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir William Petty,
+and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From him descend the family of
+Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the marquessate of Lansdowne (q.v.) in
+1818, and still hold among their titles the feudal barony of Kerry
+together with vast estates in that county.
+
+From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of Desmond's
+ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights, Knights of Glin and
+Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities having, it is said, been
+bestowed upon them by their father, as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin
+Castle, county Limerick, is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of
+Glin. Valencia Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who
+received a baronetcy in 1880.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Calendars of Irish documents and state papers and Carew
+  papers; Gilbert's _Viceroys of Ireland_; Lord Kildare's _Earls of
+  Kildare_; G.E. C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_; Haymond Graves,
+  _Unpublished Geraldine Documents_; _Annals of the Four Masters_;
+  Calendar of the duke of Leinster's MSS. in 9th _Report on Historical
+  MSS._, part ii.; Ware's _Annals_; J.H. Round's "Origin of the
+  Fitzgeralds" and "Origin of the Carews" in the _Ancestor_; his
+  "Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley" in _Genealogist_, ix., and
+  "Barons of the Naas" in _Genealogist_, xv.; and his "Decies and
+  Desmond" in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xviii.     (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883), English writer, the poet of Omar
+Khayyam, was born as EDWARD PURCELL, at Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on
+the 31st of March 1809. His father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss
+FitzGerald, assumed in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family. From
+1816 to 1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in
+the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds. In 1826 he
+proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where, some two years later, he
+became acquainted with Thackeray and W.H. Thompson. With Tennyson, "a
+sort of Hyperion," his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to
+live in Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of
+Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly stationary and
+rustic life, presently moving into his native county of Suffolk, and
+never again leaving it for more than a week or two. Until 1835 the
+FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; from that year until 1853 the poet
+resided at Boulge, near Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until
+1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own
+house hard by, called Little Grange.
+
+During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost without
+interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature. He allowed
+friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to push on far before him,
+and long showed no disposition to emulate their activity. In 1851 he
+published his first book, _Euphranor_, a Platonic dialogue, born of
+memories of the old happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared
+_Polonius_, a collection of "saws and modern instances," some of them
+his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics.
+FitzGerald began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with
+Professor E.B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford in 1853.
+In the latter year he issued _Six Dramas of Calderon_, freely
+translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in 1856 he
+anonymously published a version of the _Salaman and Absal_ of Jami in
+Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with which he has been so closely
+identified first occurs in FitzGerald's correspondence--"Hafiz and _Omar
+Khayyam_ ring like true metal." On the 15th of January 1859 a little
+anonymous pamphlet was published as _The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_. In
+the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular
+friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The
+publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even (as he
+afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls. But in 1860
+Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord Houghton quickly
+followed. The _Rubaiyat_ became slowly famous, but it was not until 1868
+that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second and greatly revised
+edition. Meanwhile he had produced in 1865 a version of the _Agamemnon_,
+and two more plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately
+translations of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was
+_Readings in Crabbe_, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar's
+_Mantic-Uttair_ under the title of _The Bird Parliament_.
+
+From 1861 onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had centred in the sea.
+In June 1863 he bought a yacht, "The Scandal," and in 1867 he became
+part-owner of a herring-lugger, the "Meum and Tuum." For some years,
+till 1871, he spent the months from June to October mainly in "knocking
+about somewhere outside of Lowestoft." In this way, and among his books
+and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. On the 14th of June
+1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep. He was "an idle fellow, but
+one whose friendships were more like loves." In 1885 a stimulus was
+given to the steady advance of his fame by the fact that Tennyson
+dedicated his _Tiresias_ to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching
+reminiscent verses to "Old Fitz." This was but the signal for that
+universal appreciation of Omar Khayyam in his English dress, which has
+been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years. The melody
+of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts he rearranges and
+strings together are so profound, and the general atmosphere of poetry
+in which he steeps his version is so pure, that no surprise need be
+expressed at the universal favour which the poem has met with among
+critical readers. But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it
+is now probably better known to the general public than any single poem
+of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers have almost
+transcended common sense in the extravagance of their laudation.
+FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the daughter of Bernard
+Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald as a man practically nothing was
+known until, in 1889, Mr W. Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and
+literary executor, published his _Letters and Literary Remains_ in three
+volumes. This was followed in 1895 by the _Letters to Fanny Kemble_.
+These letters constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they
+discovered that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic
+letter-writer. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived,
+FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary
+individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English
+_belles-lettres_, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and
+1900.
+
+  _The Works of Edward FitzGerald_ appeared in 1887. See also a
+  chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899);
+  notes for a bibliography by Col. W.F. Prideaux, in _Notes and Queries_
+  (9th series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901; _Letters and
+  Literary Remains_ (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903); and the _Life of
+  Edward FitzGerald_, by Thomas Wright (1904), which contains a
+  bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of sources (vol. i. pp.
+  xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the "English Men of Letters"
+  series is by A.C. Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was celebrated in
+  March 1909. See the _Centenary Celebrations Souvenir_ (Ipswich, 1909)
+  and _The Times_ for March 25, 1909.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1798), Irish conspirator, fifth son of
+James, 1st duke of Leinster, by his wife Emilia Mary, daughter of
+Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond, was born at Carton House, near
+Dublin, on the 15th of October 1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died,
+and his widow soon afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended
+Lord Edward's early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord Edward
+served with credit in America on the staff of Lord Rawdon (afterwards
+marquess of Hastings), and at the battle of Eutaw Springs (8th of
+September 1781) he was severely wounded, his life being saved by a negro
+named Tony, whom Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his
+life. In 1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the
+duke of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament as
+member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small Opposition group
+led by Grattan (q.v.), but took no prominent part in debate. After
+spending a short time at Woolwich to complete his military education, he
+made a tour through Spain in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love
+for his cousin Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for
+New Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major. The
+love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young Irishman found
+congenial soil in the wild surroundings of unexplored Canadian forests,
+and the enthusiasm thus engendered for the "natural" life of savagery
+may have been already fortified by study of Rousseau's writings, for
+which at a later period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In
+February 1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically
+unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling in with
+Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in a subsequent
+expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit by the Bear tribe of
+Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his way down the Mississippi to
+New Orleans, whence he returned to England.
+
+Finding that his brother had procured his election for the county of
+Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independence, Lord Edward
+refused the command of an expedition against Cadiz offered him by Pitt,
+and devoted himself for the next few years to the pleasures of society
+and his parliamentary duties. He was on terms of intimacy with his
+relative C.J. Fox, with R.B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According
+to Thomas Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous
+suitors of Sheridan's first wife whose attentions were received with
+favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been its limits, a
+warm mutual affection subsisted between the two. His Whig connexions
+combined with his transatlantic experiences to predispose Lord Edward to
+sympathize with the doctrines of the French Revolution, which he
+embraced with ardour when he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged
+with Thomas Paine, and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a
+convivial gathering on the 18th of November he supported a toast to "the
+speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions," and
+gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own title--a
+performance for which he was dismissed from the army. While in Paris
+Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl whom he chanced to see at
+the theatre, and who is said to have had a striking likeness to Mrs
+Sheridan. Procuring an introduction he discovered her to be a _protegee_
+of Madame de Sillery, comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl,
+whose name was Pamela (?1776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is
+some evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela was
+born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims, the common
+belief that she was the daughter of Madame de Genlis herself by Philippe
+(Egalite), duke of Orleans, was probably well founded. On the 27th of
+December 1792 Fitzgerald and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the
+witnesses being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in
+January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.
+
+Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous, and was
+finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen, and in the
+Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few years previously,
+chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare, to watch the interests of
+the Catholics. French revolutionary doctrines had become ominously
+popular, and no one sympathized with them more warmly than Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald, who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris,
+returned to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively
+into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he denounced
+in the House of Commons a government proclamation, which Grattan had
+approved, in language so violent that he was ordered into custody and
+required to apologize at the bar of the House. As early as 1794 the
+government had information that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but
+it was not till 1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after
+the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establishment of
+an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald Wolfe Tone was in
+Paris endeavouring to obtain French assistance for an insurrection in
+Ireland. In the same month Fitzgerald and his friend Arthur O'Connor
+proceeded to Hamburg, where they opened negotiations with the Directory
+through Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke of
+York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way through London with
+her husband, had told her that "all was known" about his plans, and
+advised her to persuade him not to go abroad. The proceedings of the
+conspirators at Hamburg were made known to the government in London by
+an informer, Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband's
+secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and she
+appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her, though
+there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled prudence. The
+result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche's abortive expedition to
+Bantry Bay in December 1796. In September 1797 the government learnt
+from the informer MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing
+the conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly maturing.
+He was specially concerned with the military organization, in which he
+held the post of colonel of the Kildare regiment and head of the
+military committee. He had papers showing that 280,000 men were ready to
+rise. They possessed some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the
+leaders were hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency
+and to give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving
+dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided in
+opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without waiting for
+foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates of the bolder course.
+His opinions and his proposals for action were alike violent. He was on
+intimate terms with apologists for assassination; there is some evidence
+that he favoured a project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in
+procession to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May
+1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that converted Thomas
+Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer; at all events, by him and
+several others the authorities were kept posted in what was going on,
+though lack of evidence producible in court delayed the arrest of the
+ringleaders. But on the 12th of March 1798 Reynolds' information led to
+the seizure of a number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond.
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them. The
+government were anxious to save him from the consequences of his own
+folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family, "for God's sake
+get this young man out of the country; the ports shall be thrown open,
+and no hindrance whatever offered." Fitzgerald with chivalrous
+recklessness refused to desert others who could not escape, and whom he
+had himself led into danger. On the 30th of March a proclamation
+establishing martial law and authorizing the military to act without
+orders from the civil magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting
+cruelty in several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.
+
+The government had now no choice but to secure if possible the person of
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position more than his abilities
+made him the most important factor in the conspiracy. On the 11th of May
+a reward of L1000 was offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was
+the date fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond's,
+Fitzgerald had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a
+feather dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in
+disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and generally
+observed less caution than his situation required. The conspiracy was
+honeycombed with treachery, and it was long a matter of dispute to whose
+information the government were indebted for Fitzgerald's arrest; but it
+is no longer open to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was
+disclosed by a Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated
+reward was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer. On
+the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to Murphy's house
+with Major H.C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord Edward was discovered in
+bed. A desperate scuffle took place, Ryan being mortally wounded by
+Fitzgerald with a dagger, while Lord Edward himself was only secured
+after Sirr had disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He
+was conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare he was
+visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his wound on the
+4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed in 1819) was passed,
+confiscating his property; and his wife--against whom the government
+probably possessed sufficient evidence to secure a conviction for
+treason--was compelled to leave the country before her husband had
+actually expired.
+
+Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward himself, and
+whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression on Robert Southey,
+repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she married J. Pitcairn, the American
+consul. Since her marriage with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved
+and esteemed by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her
+second marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient
+evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct as open
+to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately devoted to the
+memory of her first husband; and she died in Paris in November 1831. A
+portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre. She had three children by Lord
+Edward Fitzgerald: Edward Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of
+General Sir Guy Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon,
+R.N.
+
+Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome features. His
+character and career have been made the subject of eulogies much beyond
+their merits. He had, indeed, a winning personality, and a warm,
+affectionate and generous nature, which made him greatly beloved by his
+family and friends; he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic,
+adventurous. But he was entirely without the weightier qualities
+requisite for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs.
+Hotheaded and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as conspicuously
+deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratorical genius of
+such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of his associates in
+conspiracy described him as "weak and not fit to command a sergeant's
+guard, but very zealous." Reinhard, who considered Arthur O'Connor "a
+far abler man," accurately read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald
+as that of a young man "incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank,
+energetic, and likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no
+experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be chief of a
+great party or leader in a difficult enterprise."
+
+  See Thomas Moore, _Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled _The Memoirs of Lord
+  Edward Fitzgerald_, edited with supplementary particulars by Martin
+  MacDermott (London, 1897); R.R. Madden, _The United Irishmen_ (7
+  vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C.H. Teeling, _Personal Narrative of the
+  Irish Rebellion of 1798_ (Belfast, 1832); W.J. Fitzpatrick, _The Sham
+  Squire, The Rebellion of Ireland and the Informers of 1798_ (Dublin,
+  1866), and _Secret Service under Pitt_ (London, 1892); J.A. Froude,
+  _The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London,
+  1872-1874); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth
+  Century_, vols. vii. and viii. (London, 1896); Thomas Reynolds the
+  younger, _The Life of Thomas Reynolds_ (London, 1839); _The Life and
+  Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox_, edited by the countess of Ilchester and
+  Lord Stavordale (London, 1901); Ida A. Taylor, _The Life of Lord
+  Edward Fitzgerald_ (London, 1903), which gives a prejudiced and
+  distorted picture of Pamela. For particulars of Pamela, and especially
+  as to the question of her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, _Edward and
+  Pamela Fitzgerald_ (London, 1904); _Memoirs of Madame de Genlis_
+  (London, 1825); Georgette Ducrest, _Chroniques populaires_ (Paris,
+  1855); Thomas Moore, _Memoirs of the Life of R.B. Sheridan_ (London,
+  1825).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or REDMOND (d. ca. 1182), surnamed Le Gros, was the
+son of William Fitzgerald and brother of Odo de Carew. He was sent by
+Strongbow to Ireland in 1170, and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford,
+where he was besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and
+Ostmen, whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow's second in command, and had
+the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the successful
+assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to hand over Strongbow's
+conquests to Henry II., but was back in Dublin in July 1171, when he led
+one of the sallies from the town. Strongbow offended him later by
+refusing him the marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de
+Quenci, constable of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and
+Hervey de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak of
+a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned with his
+uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of marriage with
+Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a series of successes, and
+with the fall of Limerick in October 1175 order was restored.
+Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained Raymond's recall on the ground that his
+power threatened the royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a
+fresh outbreak at Limerick, the earl's troops refusing to march without
+him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until the arrival
+of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over the royal fortresses. He
+was deprived of his estates near Dublin and Wexford, but the Geraldines
+secured the recall of Fitz Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their
+power and influence. In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen,
+who was besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to be
+1182, is not known.
+
+
+
+
+FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (10th earl of Kildare), (1513-1537), the eldest
+son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of Kildare, was born in London in
+1513. He spent much of his youth in England, but in 1534 when his father
+was for the third time summoned to England to answer for his
+maladministration as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held
+at Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the Ormond
+faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been executed in
+the Tower, and that his son's life was to be attempted. Inflamed with
+rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode at the head of his
+retainers[1] into Dublin, and before the council for Ireland (the 11th
+of June 1534) formally renounced his allegiance to the king and
+proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies, including Archbishop John Allen (of
+Dublin), who had been set by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took
+refuge in Dublin Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was
+taken by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by
+Fitzgerald's servants in his presence, but whether actually by his
+orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for absolution, but
+was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish Church. Leaving part of his
+army (with the consent of the citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle,
+Fitzgerald himself went against Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and
+succeeded at first in making a truce with him. But the citizens of
+Dublin now rose against him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of
+an English army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the
+English army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but
+taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir William
+Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth ravaged Kildare
+and Meath throughout the winter. He had now succeeded to the earldom of
+Kildare, his father having died in the Tower on the 13th of December
+1534, but he does not seem to have been known by that title. In March
+Skeffington stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which
+was defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese,
+Fitzgerald's foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535, and most
+of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved the final blow to the
+rebellion. The news of what is known as the "pardon of Maynooth" reached
+Fitzgerald as he was returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his
+men fell away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail
+for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months in raids
+against the English and their allies, but his party gradually deserting
+him, on the 18th of August 1535 he surrendered himself to Lord Leonard
+Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he made some conditions, but what
+they were is very uncertain. He was taken to England and placed in the
+Tower. In February 1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with
+great injustice, seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were
+hanged at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder against
+them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the Irish and English
+parliaments; but the family estates were restored by Edward VI. to
+Gerald, 11th earl of Kildare (stepbrother of Thomas), and the attainder
+was repealed by Queen Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances,
+youngest daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richard Stanihurst, _Chronicles of Ireland_ (vol. ii.
+  of _Holinshed's Chronicles_); Sir James Ware, _Rerum Hibernicarum
+  annales_ (Dublin, 1664); _The Earls of Kildare_, by C.W. Fitzgerald,
+  duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the
+  Tudors_ (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); _Calendar State Papers, Hen.
+  VIII., Irish_; G. E. C.'s _Peerage_; John Lodge, _Peerage of Ireland_,
+  ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of "Silken Thomas," either
+    from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished
+    manners.
+
+
+
+
+FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY (1470-1538), English jurist, was born at
+Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford, he was called to the
+English bar, and in 1523 became justice of the Court of Common Pleas,
+the duties of which office he continued to discharge till within a short
+time of his death in 1538. As a judge he left behind him a high
+reputation for fairness and integrity, and his legal learning is
+sufficiently attested by his published works.
+
+  He is the author of _La Graunde Abridgement_, a digest of important
+  legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; _The Office
+  and Authority of Justices of the Peace_, first printed in 1538 (last
+  ed. 1794); the _New Natura Brevium_ (1534, last ed. 1794), with a
+  commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are sometimes
+  attributed the _Book of Husbandry_ (1523), the first published work on
+  agriculture in the English language, and the _Book of Surveying and
+  Improvements_ (1523) (see AGRICULTURE).
+
+
+
+
+FITZHERBERT, THOMAS (1552-1640), English Jesuit, was the eldest son and
+heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton in Staffordshire, and grandson
+of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, judge of the common pleas. He was educated
+at Oxford, where, at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy.
+On his release he went to London, where he was a member of the
+association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits Edmund
+Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew to the continent, where
+he was active in the cause of Mary, queen of Scots. He married in this
+year Dorothy, daughter of Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire.
+After the death of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the
+recommendation of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king.
+He continued his intrigues against the English government, and in 1598
+he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen Elizabeth.
+After this he was for a short while in the service of the duke of Feria
+at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was ordained priest (1601-1602)
+and became agent for the English clergy. He was unpopular with them,
+however, owing to his subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the
+agency in 1607 owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest
+George Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was
+appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616, and in
+1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held this post to within
+a year of his death, which occurred at Rome on the 7th of August (O.S.)
+1640.
+
+  Father Fitzherbert, who is described as "a person of excellent parts,
+  a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous spirit,"
+  wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in the
+  article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the _Dictionary of National
+  Biography_, together with authorities for his life.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ NEAL or (FITZ NIGEL), RICHARD (d. 1198), treasurer of Henry II. and
+Richard I. of England, and bishop of London, belonged to a great
+administrative family whose fortunes were closely linked with those of
+Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I. The founder of the family was Roger,
+bishop of Salisbury, the great minister of Henry I. Before the death of
+that sovereign (1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his
+nephew, Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the
+whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a partisan of
+the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession of her son, Henry
+II., who made him at first chancellor and then treasurer. Nigel's son,
+Richard, who was born before his father's elevation to the episcopate
+(1133), succeeded to the office of treasurer in 1158, and held it
+continuously for forty years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant
+justices for 1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which
+he exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln, and
+was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among three select
+candidates for the vacant see. The king passed him over in favour of
+Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this occasion to make a disinterested
+appointment. Richard I., however, rewarded the treasurer's services with
+the see of London (1189).
+
+Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked the broad
+statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided any connexion
+with political parties; he is only once mentioned as taking part in a
+debate of the Great Council (1193), and then spoke, in his character as
+a bishop, to support a royal demand for a special aid. But his work _De
+necessariis observantiis Scaccarii dialogus_, commonly called the
+_Dialogus de Scaccario_, is of unique interest to the historian. It is
+an account, in two books, of the procedure followed by the exchequer in
+the author's time. Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm
+because, as he explains, the "course" of the exchequer was largely the
+creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the Pipe Rolls
+the _Dialogus_ furnishes a most faithful and detailed picture of English
+fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The speakers in the dialogue are
+Richard himself and an anonymous pupil. The latter puts leading
+questions which Richard answers in elaborate fashion. The date of the
+conversation is given in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks
+the date at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178
+or 1179. Soon after the author's death we find it already recognized as
+the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was frequently
+transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians of every period.
+Hence it is the more necessary to insist that the historical statements
+which the treatise contains are sometimes demonstrably erroneous; the
+author appears to have relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as
+the work is only known to us through transcripts, it is possible that
+some of the blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected
+zeal of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years a
+register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three
+parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the time when
+he wrote the _Dialogus_, but has since disappeared. Stubbs' conjectural
+identification of this _Liber tricolumnis_ with the first part of the
+_Gesta Henrici_ (formerly attributed to Benedictus Abbas) is now
+abandoned as untenable.
+
+  See Madox's edition in his _History of the Exchequer_ (1769); and that
+  of A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902). F.
+  Liebermann's _Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario_ (Gottingen,
+  1875) contains the fullest account of the author.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom of Hereford and
+the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in 1071. He did not keep on
+good terms with William the Conqueror, and in 1075, disregarding the
+king's prohibition, married his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of
+Norfolk, at the famous bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two
+earls rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west to
+join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the
+Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought into the
+field against him. On the collapse of his confederate's rising, Roger
+was tried before the Great Council, deprived of his lands and earldom,
+and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; but he was released, with other
+political prisoners, at the death of William I. in 1087.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM, Earl of Hereford (d. 1071), was an intimate friend
+of William the Conqueror, and the principal agent in preparing for the
+invasion of England. He received the earldom of Hereford with the
+special duty of pushing into Wales. During William's absence in 1067,
+Fitz-Osbern was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from
+the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also acted as
+William's lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069. In 1070 William sent
+him to assist Queen Matilda in the government of Normandy. But Richilde,
+widow of Baldwin VI. of Flanders, having offered to marry him if he
+would protect her son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern
+accepted the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed,
+fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071.
+
+  See Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vols. iii. and iv.; Sir James Ramsay,
+  _Foundations of England_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM (d. 1196), was a Londoner of good position who had
+served in the Third Crusade, and on his return took up the cause of the
+poorer citizens against the magnates who monopolized the government of
+London and assessed the taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It
+is affirmed that he entered on this course of action through a quarrel
+with his elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears to be
+mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives Fitz Osbert a high
+character, and he was implicitly trusted by the poorer citizens. He
+attempted to procure redress for them from the king; but the city
+magistrates persuaded the justiciar Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and
+his followers meditated plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were
+sent to seize the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St
+Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily dragged to
+execution at Tyburn.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief justiciar of
+England, began his official career in the later years of Henry II., whom
+he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and a justice of the forest.
+During Richard's absence on Crusade he was one of the five justices of
+the king's court who stood next in authority to the regent, Longchamp.
+It was at this time (1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of
+Essex, in the right of his wife, who was descended from the famous
+Geoffrey de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights
+over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Longchamp, and
+revenged himself by taking an active part in the baronial agitation
+through which the regent was expelled from his office. The king,
+however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share in these proceedings; and,
+though refusing to give him formal investiture of the Essex earldom,
+appointed him justiciar in succession to Hubert Walter (1198). In this
+capacity Fitz Peter continued his predecessor's policy of encouraging
+foreign trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter
+received, during his administration, charters of self-government. He was
+continued in his office by John, who found him a useful instrument and
+described him in an official letter as "indispensable to the king and
+kingdom." He proved himself an able instrument of extortion, and
+profited to no small extent by the spoliation of church lands in the
+period of the interdict. But he was too closely connected with the
+baronage to be altogether trusted by the king. The contemporary
+_Histoire des ducs_ describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of
+disgrace and confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured
+to act as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his
+mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I. (at the
+council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz Peter died a few weeks
+later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed to Peter des Roches, one of
+the unpopular foreign favourites. Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted
+nor a disinterested statesman; but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert
+Walter, and maintained the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the
+first and second Henries had founded.
+
+  See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I.
+  and John. Also Miss K. Norgate's _Angevin England_, vol. ii. (1887),
+  and _John Lackland_ (1902); A. Ballard in _English Historical Review_,
+  xiv. p. 93; H.W.C. Davis' _England under the Normans and Angevins_
+  (1905).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZROY, ROBERT (1805-1865), English, vice-admiral, distinguished as a
+hydrographer and meteorologist, was born at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the
+5th of July 1805, being a grandson, on the father's side, of the third
+duke of Grafton, and on the mother's, of the first marquis of
+Londonderry. He entered the navy from the Royal Naval College, then a
+school for cadets, on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of
+September 1824 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in
+the "Thetis" frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South
+America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain Bingham,
+he was in August 1828 appointed to the "Ganges," as flag-lieutenant to
+Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the commander-in-chief on the South
+American station; and on the death of Commander Stokes of the "Beagle,"
+on the 13th of November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The
+"Beagle," a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had been for the
+two previous years, employed on the survey of the coasts of Patagonia
+and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of Commander King in the
+"Adventure," and, together with the "Adventure," returned to England in
+the autumn of 1830. Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one
+of whom died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the
+others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a rudimentary
+knowledge of religion and of some useful handicrafts; and, as he had
+pledged himself to restore them to their native country, he was making
+preparations in the summer of the following year to carry them back in a
+merchant ship bound to Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to
+the "Beagle," to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The
+"Beagle" sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying as
+a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous naturalist. After
+an absence of nearly five years, and having, in addition to the survey
+of the Straits of Magellan and a great part of the coast of South
+America, run a chronometric line round the world, thus fixing the
+longitude of many secondary meridians with sufficient exactness for all
+the purposes of ordinary navigation, the "Beagle" anchored at Falmouth
+on the 2nd of October 1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the
+rank of captain and was now for the next few years principally employed
+in reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he was
+awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; and in 1839 he
+published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative of the voyage of the
+"Adventure" and "Beagle," 1826-1830, and of the "Beagle," 1831-1836,
+with a third volume by Darwin--a book familiarly known as a record of
+scientific travel. Of Fitzroy's work as a surveyor, carried on under
+circumstances of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit
+that was semi-officially denounced as "shabby," Sir Francis Beaufort,
+the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the House of
+Commons, 10th of February 1848, that "from the equator to Cape Horn, and
+from thence round to the river Plata on the eastern side of America, all
+that is _immediately_ wanted has been already achieved by the splendid
+survey of Captain Robert Fitzroy." This was written before steamships
+made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The survey that
+was sufficient then became afterwards very far from sufficient.
+
+In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of Ipswich, and in
+the following year was returned to parliament as member for Durham.
+About the same time he accepted the post of conservator of the Mersey,
+and in his double capacity obtained leave to bring in a bill for
+improving the condition and efficiency of officers in the mercantile
+marine. This was not proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the
+"voluntary certificate" instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and
+furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act of 1850.
+
+Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of
+New Zealand, then recently established as a colony. He arrived in his
+government in December, whilst the excitement about the Wairau massacre
+was still fresh, and the questions relating to the purchase of land from
+the natives were in a very unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were
+greedy and unscrupulous; Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret
+of his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant elements
+agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the governor; the
+governor did not conciliate the settlers, who denounced his policy as
+adverse to their interests, as unjust and illegal; colonial feeling
+against him ran very high; petition after petition for his recall was
+sent home, and the government was compelled to yield to the pressure
+brought to bear on it. Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in
+November 1845.
+
+In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent of the
+dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the command of the
+"Arrogant," one of the early screw frigates which had been fitted out
+under his supervision, and with which it was desired to carry out a
+series of experiments and trials. When these were finished he applied to
+be superseded, on account at once of his health and of his private
+affairs. In February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor did
+he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by seniority to the
+ranks of rear-and vice-admiral on the retired list (1857, 1863). In 1851
+he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1854, after serving
+for a few months as private secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then
+commander-in-chief of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological
+department of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the
+peculiar title of "Meteorological Statist."
+
+From the date of his joining the "Beagle" in 1828 he had paid very great
+attention to the different phenomena foreboding or accompanying change
+of weather, and his narratives of the voyages of the "Adventure" and
+"Beagle" are full of interesting and valuable details concerning these.
+Accordingly, when in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal
+Society, was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its
+newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without hesitation,
+nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became from that time
+identified with the progress of practical meteorology. His _Weather
+Book_, published in 1863, embodies in broad outline his views, far in
+advance of those then generally held; and in spite of the rapid march of
+modern science, it is still worthy of careful attention and exact study.
+His storm warnings, in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of
+empiricism, were gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and
+gave a high percentage of correct results. They were continued for
+eighteen months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and
+though stopped when the department was transferred to the management of
+a committee of the Royal Society, they were resumed a few months
+afterwards; and under the successive direction of Dr R.H. Scott and Dr
+W.N. Shaw, have been developed into what we now know them. But though it
+is perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy's name has been most
+generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of gratitude, not
+only for his labours in reducing to a more practical form the somewhat
+complicated wind charts of Captain Maury, but also for his great
+exertions in connexion with the life-boat association. Into this work,
+in its many ramifications, he threw himself with the energy of an
+excitable temperament, already strained by his long and anxious service
+in the Straits of Magellan. His last years were fully and to an
+excessive degree occupied by it; his health, both of body and mind,
+threatened to give way; but he refused to take the rest that was
+prescribed. In a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence
+on the 30th of April 1865.
+
+  Besides his works already named mention may be made of _Remarks on New
+  Zealand_ (1846); _Sailing Directions for South America_ (1848); his
+  official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865); and occasional
+  papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
+  Royal United Service Institution.     (J. K. L.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZROY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 2 m. by rail N.E.
+of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 31,610. It is a prosperous
+manufacturing town, well served with tramways and containing many fine
+residences.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh princess and
+former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable of Cardigan, whom
+Robert succeeded in that office, took service with Dermot of Leinster
+when that king visited England (1167), In 1169 Robert led the vanguard
+of Dermot's Anglo-Welsh auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford,
+which he was then allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald.
+Taken prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to Henry
+II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of Ireland, Hugh de
+Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the troubles of 1173, and was
+rewarded by receiving, jointly with Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177).
+He had difficulty in maintaining his position and was nearly
+overwhelmed by a rising of Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is
+uncertain.
+
+
+
+
+FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM (d. c. 1190), biographer of Thomas Becket and
+royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered Becket's service at
+some date between 1154 and 1162. The chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in
+legal work, made him sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a
+confidant. Fitz Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of
+Northampton (1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to
+the world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined Becket's
+household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the tragedy in
+Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most valuable among the
+extant biographies of his patron. Though he writes as a partisan he
+gives a precise account of the differences between Becket and the king.
+This biography contains a description of London which is our chief
+authority for the social life of the city in the 12th century. Despite
+his connexion with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial
+preferment from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171 to
+1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-1190.
+
+  See his "Vita S. Thomae" in J.C. Robertson's _Materials for the
+  History of Thomas Becket_, vol. iii. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T.D.
+  Hardy, in his _Catalogue of Materials_, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865),
+  discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W.H.
+  Hutton, _St Thomas of Canterbury_, pp. 272-274 (1889), gives an
+  account of the author.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD (d. 1274), London chronicler and merchant, was born
+in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both his parents were of German
+extraction. The family of his mother migrated to England from Cologne in
+the reign of Henry II.; his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of
+Bremen who had been attracted to London by the privileges which the
+Plantagenets conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in time
+to his father's wealth and position. He held an honourable position
+among the Hanse traders, and became their "alderman." He was also, as he
+tells us himself, alderman of a London ward and an active partisan in
+municipal politics. In the Barons' War he took the royal side against
+the populace and the mayor Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party
+planned, in 1265, to try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he
+was saved by the news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very
+day appointed for the trial. Even after the king's triumph Arnold
+suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that he should be
+unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon the city. He appealed
+for help to Henry III., and again to Edward I., with the result that his
+liability was diminished. In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to
+whose keeping the muniments of the city were entrusted. To this
+circumstance we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. _Chronica
+Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, which begins at the year 1188 and is continued
+to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of curious information.
+Though municipal in its outlook, it is valuable for the general history
+of the kingdom, owing to the important part which London played in the
+agitation against the misrule of Henry III. We have the king's word for
+the fact that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent
+from the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means blind to
+the faults of Henry's government, but preferred an autocracy to the
+mob-rule which Simon de Montfort countenanced in London. Arnold died in
+1274; the last fact recorded of him is that, in this year, he joined in
+a successful appeal to the king against the illegal grants which had
+been made by the mayor, Walter Hervey.
+
+  The _Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, with the other contents of
+  Arnold's common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society by T.
+  Stapleton (1846), under the title _Liber de Antiquis Legibus_. Our
+  knowledge of Arnold's life comes from the _Chronica_ and his own
+  biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited in G.H.
+  Pertz's _Mon. Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, vol. xxviii. See also
+  J.M. Lappenberg's _Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu
+  London_ (Hamburg, 1851).     (H. W. C. D)
+
+
+
+
+FITZWALTER, ROBERT (d. 1235), leader of the baronial opposition against
+King John of England, belonged to the official aristocracy created by
+Henry I. and Henry II. He served John in the Norman wars, and was taken
+prisoner by Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was
+implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his own
+statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest daughter; but
+Robert's account of his grievances varied from time to time. The truth
+seems to be that he was irritated by the suspicion with which John
+regarded the new baronage. Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to
+France. He was outlawed, but returned under a special amnesty after
+John's reconciliation with the pope. He continued, however, to take the
+lead in the baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak
+of hostilities was elected "marshal of the army of God and Holy Church"
+(1215). To his influence in London it was due that his party obtained
+the support of the city and used it as their base of operations. The
+famous clause of Magna Carta (S 39) prohibiting sentences of exile,
+except as the result of a lawful trial, refers more particularly to his
+case. He was one of the twenty-five appointed to enforce the promises of
+Magna Carta; and his aggressive attitude was one of the causes which
+contributed to the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent
+leadership made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of
+France. He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and was
+the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered London.
+Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his natural lord, he
+served Louis with fidelity until captured at the battle of Lincoln (May
+1217). Released on the conclusion of peace he joined the Damietta
+crusade of 1219, but returned at an early date to make his peace with
+the regency. The remainder of his career was uneventful; he died
+peacefully in 1235.
+
+  See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The _Histoire des
+  ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre_ (ed. F. Michel, Paris,
+  1840) gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K.
+  Norgate's _John Lackland_ (1902), W. McKechnie's _Magna Carta_ (1905),
+  and Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897), should
+  also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM (1526-1599), lord deputy of Ireland, was the
+eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576) of Milton,
+Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson of another Sir William
+Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and sheriff of London, who was also
+treasurer and chamberlain to Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton
+in 1506. On his mother's side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell,
+1st earl of Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to
+Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a member of
+the Irish House of Commons; and between this date and 1571 he was
+(during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, and of his
+successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times lord justice of Ireland. In 1571
+Fitzwilliam himself was appointed lord deputy, but like Elizabeth's
+other servants he received little or no money, and his period of
+government was marked by continuous penury and its attendant evils,
+inefficiency, mutiny and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy
+quarrelled with the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton
+(1527-1579), but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He
+disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he had a
+further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness he was allowed
+to resign his office. Returning to England in 1575 he was governor of
+Fotheringhay Castle at the time of Mary Stuart's execution. In 1588
+Fitzwilliam was again in Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and
+ill he displayed great activity in leading expeditions, and found time
+to quarrel with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of
+Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later he died
+at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne, daughter of Sir
+William Sidney, were descended the barons and earls Fitzwilliam.
+
+  See R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol. ii. (1885).
+
+
+
+
+FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM, 2ND EARL (1748-1833),
+English statesman, was the son of the 1st earl (peerage of the United
+Kingdom), who died in 1756. The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed
+descent from a natural son of William the Conqueror, and among its
+earlier members were a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of
+London, who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in
+Northamptonshire, and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see above).
+The latter's grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620; and in later
+generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam
+(1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton (1742) and Viscount Milton
+and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were added. These were all in the English
+house of the Fitzwilliams of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the
+Irish Fitzwilliams of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English
+family who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the 12th
+century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam died out
+with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these was Richard, 7th
+viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam library and a fund for
+creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to Cambridge University.
+
+The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in
+Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the marquess of
+Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth estates in Yorkshire, and
+thus became one of the wealthiest noblemen of the day. He had been at
+Eton with C.J. Fox, and became an active supporter of the Whig party;
+and in 1794, with the duke of Portland, Windham and other "old Whigs" he
+joined Pitt's cabinet, becoming president of the council. At the end of
+the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy. Fitzwilliam,
+however, had set his face against the jobbery of the Protestant leaders,
+and threw himself warmly into Grattan's scheme for admitting the
+Catholics to political power; and in March 1795 he was recalled, his
+action being disavowed by Pitt, the result of a series of
+misunderstandings which appeared to Fitzwilliam to give him just cause
+of complaint. The quarrel was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam
+was appointed lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He
+continued to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president
+of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in opposition. He
+died in February 1833, his son, Charles William Wentworth, the 3rd earl
+(1786-1857), and later earls, being notable figures in the politics and
+social life of the north of England.
+
+
+
+
+FIUME (Slav. _Rjeka_, _Rieka_ or _Reka_, Ger. _St Veit am Flaum_), a
+royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern extremity
+of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and on a small stream
+called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m. by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop.
+(1900) 38,955; including 17,354 Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs
+and Slovenes), 2482 Hungarians and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume
+belongs to Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7
+sq. m., became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque old
+town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst; while the modern
+town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric light and electric trams,
+is crowded into the amphitheatre left between the hills and the shore.
+On the north-west there is a fine public garden. The most interesting
+buildings are the cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377,
+and completed with a modern facade copied from that of the Pantheon in
+Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria della Salute in
+Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with offerings from shipwrecked
+sailors, and approached by a stairway of 400 steps. In the old town is a
+Roman triumphal arch, said to have been erected during the 3rd century
+A.D. in honour of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a
+theatre and a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian
+emperor; a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of
+commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an industrial home
+for boys; and several large schools, including the marine academy (1856)
+and the school of seamanship (1903). Municipal affairs are principally
+managed by the Italians, who sympathize with the Hungarians against the
+Slavs.
+
+Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country it was
+connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through Karlstadt. It has
+two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch of the southern railway from
+Vienna to Trieste, the other of the Hungarian state railway from
+Karlstadt. There are several harbours, including the _Porto Canale_, for
+coasting vessels; the _Porto Baross_, for timber; and the _Porto
+Grande_, sheltered by the _Maria Theresia_ mole and breakwater, besides
+four lesser moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators.
+The development of the _Porto Grande_, originally named the _Porto
+Nuovo_, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals as trade
+increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the construction of a new
+mole and an enlargement of the quays and breakwater; these works to be
+completed within 5 years, at a cost of L420,000. The exports, worth
+L6,460,000 in 1902, chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and
+horses; the imports, worth L3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine,
+rice, fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large
+share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-Croat
+and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized by the state. A
+steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian emigrants, officially numbered
+in 1902 at 7500, passes through Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of
+1,963,000 tons, entered at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000,
+cleared. Foremost among the industrial establishments are Whitehead's
+torpedo factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie's paper-mill, the royal tobacco
+factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries and rope
+manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard was closed. The soil
+of the surrounding country is stony, but the climate is warm, and wine
+is extensively produced. The Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply
+of fish, and the tunny trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable
+importance. Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort
+of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of Veglia and
+Cherso.
+
+Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian town
+_Tersatica_; later it received the name of _Vitopolis_, and eventually
+that of _Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen_, from which its present name is
+derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne in 799, from which time it
+probably long remained under the dominion of the Franks. It was held in
+feudal tenure from the patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and
+afterwards, in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the
+end of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts of
+Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor Frederick
+III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the house of Austria.
+From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by imperial governors. In 1723
+it was declared a free port by Charles VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by
+the empress Maria Theresa, and in 1779 declared a _corpus separatum_ of
+the Hungarian crown. In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it
+was retaken by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the
+following year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the
+revolution of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under
+the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian control
+in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+FIVES, a ball-game played by two or four players in a court enclosed on
+three or four sides, the ball being struck with the hand, usually
+protected by a glove, whence the game is known in America as "handball."
+The origin of the game is probably the French _jeu de paume_, tennis
+played with the hand, the hand in that case being eventually superseded
+by the racquet. Fives and racquets are probably both descended from the
+_jeu de paume_, of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may
+be derived from _la longue paume_, in which five on a side played, or
+from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be made
+by the winners (in modern times the game consists of fifteen points).
+Fives is played in Great Britain principally at the schools and
+universities, although its encouragement is included in the functions of
+the Tennis Racquets and Fives Association, founded in 1908. In America
+it is much affected for training purposes by professional athletes and
+boxers. There are two forms of fives--the Eton game and the Rugby
+game--which require separate notice, though the main features of the two
+games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the service, the
+necessity of hitting the ball before the second bounce, and of hitting
+it above a line and within the limits of the court.
+
+_Eton Fives._--The peculiar features of the Eton court arose from the
+fact that in early times the game was played against the chapel-wall, so
+that buttresses formed side walls and the balustrade of the chapel-steps
+projected into the court, while a step divided the court latitudinally.
+These were reproduced in the regular courts, the buttress being known as
+the "pepper-box" and the space between it and the step as the "hole."
+The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved;
+there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as the
+"line," 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted; 3 ft.
+8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play, two against
+two; one of each pair plays in the forward court, the other in the back
+court. The server stands on the left of the forward court, his partner
+in the right-hand corner of the back court; the taker of the service by
+the right wall of the forward court, his partner at the left-hand corner
+of the back court. The forward court is known as "on-wall," the other as
+"off-wall." The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall,
+above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls on
+the "off-wall," but the server's object is not, as at tennis and
+racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At fives he must
+send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed hand-out can refuse
+to take any service that he does not like, and if he fails to return the
+ball above the line no stroke is counted. After the service has been
+returned either of the opponents returns the ball if he can, and so on,
+each side and either member of it returning the ball above the line
+alternately till one side or the other hits it below the line or out of
+court. Only hand-in can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores
+a point; if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner
+becomes server, unless he has already served in this round, in which
+case the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points. If the
+score is "13 all," the out side may "set" the game to 5 or 3; i.e. the
+game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at "14 all" it may be set to three.
+The game and its terminology being somewhat intricate, can best be
+learnt in the court. No apparatus is required except padded gloves and
+fives-balls, which are covered with white leather tightly stretched over
+a hard foundation of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls
+are 1-3/4 in. in diameter and weigh about 1-1/4 oz. apiece.
+
+_Rugby Fives_ is much less complicated owing to the simpler form of the
+court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &c., are the same as
+in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The courts are larger,
+measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may be roofed or open. The
+side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft. Some courts have a dwarf back
+wall, some have none. The back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in.
+in height. In some courts the side walls are plain; in others, where
+there is no back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right
+angles to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the
+_tambour_ of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall
+about 10 ft. from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court.
+The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its upper
+edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.
+
+_Handball_, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played in the
+United States, is practically identical with fives, though there are
+minor differences. The usual American court is about 60 ft. long, 24-1/2
+ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to 33 ft. at the back
+wall. The front wall is of brick faced with marble, the sides of cement
+and the floor of white pine laid on beams 10 in. apart. These are the
+dimensions of the Brooklyn court of the former American champion, Phil
+Casey (d. 1904), which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces
+constitute a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball is
+a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a "red ace"
+when made of solid red rubber, and "black ace" when made of black
+rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his prime about 1855, was the
+most celebrated Irish handball player. In his day nearly every village
+tavern in Ireland had a court. Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish
+championship in 1885, were his most prominent successors. In America
+Phil Casey and Michael Egan are the best-known names.
+
+  See A. Tait's _Fives_ in the All England Series: "Fives" in the
+  _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; and _Official Handball Guide_ in Spalding's
+  Athletic Library.
+
+
+
+
+FIX, THEODORE (1800-1846), French journalist and economist, was born at
+Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His father was a French physician whose
+ancestors had been expatriated by the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
+At first a land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the _Bulletin
+universal des sciences_, to which he contributed most of the
+geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the _Revue mensuelle
+d'economie politique_, which he edited during the three years of its
+existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work, till his essay
+on _L'Association des douanes allemandes_ won him a prize from the
+Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1840, and also procured
+him work on the report on the progress of sciences since the Revolution,
+which the Institute was preparing. A few months before his death he
+published _Observations sur les classes ouvrieres_, in which he argued
+against all attempts to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and
+attributed the condition of the working classes to their own
+thriftlessness and intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st
+of July 1846.
+
+
+
+
+FIXTURES (Lat. _figere_, to fix), in law, chattels which have been so
+fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law, "so
+annexed to the freehold"), as to become, in contemplation of law, a part
+of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction for certain
+purposes, between immovables and movables, between real and personal
+property, between land and all other things. In the case of fixtures the
+question arises under which set of rights they are to fall--under those
+of real or of personal property. The general rule of English law is that
+everything attached to the land goes with the land--_quicquid plantatur
+solo, solo cedit_. This, like many other rules of English law, is all in
+favour of the freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large
+number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the courts as
+occasion arose.
+
+In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree of annexation
+to the land, or to a building which forms part of it. Thus it has been
+held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but not fixed to the ground
+itself, is not a fixture; and the onus of showing that articles not
+otherwise attached to the land than by their own weight have ceased to
+be chattels, rests with those who assert the fact. On the other hand, an
+article, even slightly affixed to the land, is to be considered part of
+it, unless the circumstances show that it was intended to remain a
+chattel. The question is one of fact in each case--depending mainly on
+the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possibility of
+the removal of the article without injury to itself or the freehold. In
+certain cases the courts have recognized a constructive annexation, when
+the articles, though not fixed to the soil, pass with the freehold as if
+they were, e.g. the keys of a house, the stones of a dry wall, and the
+detached or duplicate portions of machines.
+
+Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise--(1) between
+landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor, (3) between executor
+and remainder-man or reversioner, (4) between seller and buyer.
+
+  1. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the freehold
+  during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the permission of
+  his landlord. But an exception was established in favour of _trade
+  fixtures_. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that a soap-boiler
+  might, _during his term_, remove the vats he had set up for trade
+  purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom, but "by the
+  common law in favour of trade, and to encourage industry," and it may
+  be stated as a general rule that things which a tenant has fixed to
+  the freehold for the purpose of trade or manufacture may be taken away
+  by him, whenever the removal is not contrary to any prevailing
+  practice, or the particular terms of the contract of tenancy, and can
+  be effected without causing material injury to the estate or
+  destroying the essential character of the articles themselves
+  (_Lambourn_ v. _M^cLellan_, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agricultural tenants are
+  not entitled, at common law, to remove trade fixtures. But the
+  Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such a right of removal in the
+  case of buildings or machinery erected by a tenant at his own
+  expense, and with his landlord's consent in writing, provided that the
+  freehold was not injured or that any injury was made good, and that
+  before removal a month's written notice was given to the landlord, who
+  had an option of purchase. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883
+  the tenant might, under similar conditions, remove fixtures, although
+  the landlord had not consented to their erection. The Agricultural
+  Holdings Act 1900 extended this provision to fixtures or buildings
+  acquired, although not annexed or erected, by the tenant. Similar
+  rights were created by the Allotments Compensation Act 1887, and by
+  the Market Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were
+  re-enacted by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.
+
+  Again, _ornamental_ fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and
+  convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry,
+  iron-backs to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble
+  chimney-pieces, are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable
+  without the landlord's consent. Here again the extent of the privilege
+  has been a matter of some uncertainty.
+
+  In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term. If
+  the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing the
+  fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a gift of
+  them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could not be
+  rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His right to
+  the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry of the
+  term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once left the
+  premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In one case where
+  the fixtures had actually been severed from the freehold after the end
+  of the term, it was held that the tenant had no right to recover them.
+
+  2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question of
+  fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person owning
+  land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures, set up for
+  the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental objects, the
+  rule _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_ was in early times somewhat
+  relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701, it was held
+  that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the executor;
+  and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently cut down,
+  it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming the
+  executor's right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for life
+  to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment as
+  chattels (_Leigh_ v. _Taylor_, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same has
+  been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in the
+  grounds of a mansion house.
+
+  3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures
+  arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to
+  the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man is
+  not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to
+  fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the
+  preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor's
+  fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor's fixtures
+  against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to be
+  that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life
+  would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures
+  are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.
+
+  4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes a
+  purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties is
+  of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases, e.g.
+  as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged the
+  fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in the
+  conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the subject
+  of a hire purchase agreement (_Reynolds_ v. _Ashby_, 1903, 1 K.B. 87).
+  Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises. Bills of
+  sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mortgages, the
+  possession remaining with the person selling them. To make them valid
+  they must be registered, and so the question has arisen whether deeds
+  conveying fixtures ought not to have been registered as bills of sale.
+  Unless it was the intention of the parties to make the fixtures a
+  distinct security, it seems that a deed of mortgage embracing them
+  does not require to be registered as a bill of sale. The question of
+  what is or is not a fixture must also often be considered in questions
+  of rating or assessment.
+
+  The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England. The
+  Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900 (as
+  to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal. The law
+  of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation sketched in
+  the article LANDLORD AND TENANT. The French Code Civil recognizes the
+  right of the usufructuary to remove articles attached by him to the
+  subject of his estate on the expiry of his term, on making good the
+  place from which they were taken (Art. 599); and there are similar
+  provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art. 495), Spain (Arts. 487,
+  489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany (Arts. 1037, 1049).
+
+  The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical
+  with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexation
+  is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law rule
+  _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_) as regards trade fixtures, and
+  ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.
+
+  In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without
+  modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St Lucia
+  (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in
+  substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
+  right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and Tenant
+  Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
+  settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act 1851
+  is in force.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--English law: Amos and Ferard, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd
+  ed., London, 1883); Brown, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd ed., London, 1875);
+  Ryde, on _Rating_ (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law: Hunter,
+  _Landlord and Tenant_; Erskine's _Principles_ (20th ed., Edin., 1903).
+  American Law: Bronson, _Law of Fixtures_ (St Paul, 1904); Reeves,
+  _Real Property_ (Boston, 1904); _Ruling Cases_ (London and Boston,
+  1894-1901), Tit. "Fixtures" (American Notes).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS (1819-1896), French physicist, was born
+at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819. His earliest work was concerned
+with improvements in photographic processes; and then, in association
+with J.B.L. Foucault, he engaged in a series of investigations on the
+interference of light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results
+obtained by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
+(see LIGHT), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity of
+electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser as a
+means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil. Subsequently
+he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and applied the phenomena of
+interference of light to the measurement of the dilatations of crystals.
+He died at Venteuil on the 18th of September 1896. He became a member of
+the French Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+FJORD, or FIORD, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long narrow arm of
+the sea running far inland, with more or less precipitous cliffs on each
+side. These "sea-lochs," as they are sometimes called, present many
+peculiar features. They differ entirely from an estuary in the fact that
+they are bounded seawards by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and
+they deepen inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up
+to the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water. It
+is pointed out by Dr H.R. Mill that Loch Morar on the west coast of
+Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep, with its surface 30 ft.
+above sea-level, which is connected with the sea by a short river, is
+exactly similar in configuration to Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled
+with sea-water which pours over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the
+retreating tide; that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill
+8 fathoms below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
+more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum depth of 700
+fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch Morar would become a fjord
+if the seaward portion sank below sea-level. The origin of these rock
+basins has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon
+somewhat similar basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering
+of surface rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where
+material is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
+in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations in
+such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the Yosemite Valley, where there
+is frequently a "reversed grade" similar to that near the seaward end of
+rock basins and fjords, seem to show, in some cases at least, that such
+a formation may be due to the "gouging" effect of a glacier coming down
+the valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and the
+supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several causes,
+but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys. The mass of
+sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected by the seasonal
+changes in surface temperature, which in Norway penetrate no deeper than
+200 fathoms, or else, as in Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water
+responds quickly to seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer
+penetrates so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
+to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found that
+where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the temperature
+may be as much as 45 deg. F. at a few fathoms from the surface. When the
+surface is warmest, on the other hand, the depths are coldest.
+
+
+
+
+FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the most
+illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that the family
+came from Tusculum, where some were still living in the middle of the
+1st century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacci the most important were the
+following:
+
+QUINTUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, son of the first of the family, Marcus, who was
+consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264. He especially distinguished
+himself during the second Punic War. He was consul four times (237, 224,
+212, 209), censor (231) pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215).
+During his first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians,
+Gauls and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum, and with
+his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege of Capua. The
+capture of this place was considered so important that their imperium
+was prolonged, but on condition that they should not leave Capua until
+it had been taken. Hannibal's unexpected diversion against Rome
+interfered with the operations for the moment, but his equally
+unexpected retirement enabled Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to
+protect the city, to return, and bring the siege to a successful
+conclusion. He punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in
+excuse that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He was
+nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which he was
+himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command of the army in
+Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further attempts at
+rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The chief authority for his
+life is the part of Livy dealing with the period (see PUNIC WARS).
+
+His brother GNAEUS was convicted of gross cowardice against Hannibal
+near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile at Tarquinii. His
+son, QUINTUS, waged war with signal success against the Celtiberians in
+182-181, and the Ligurians in 179. Having vowed to build a temple to
+Fortuna Equestris, he dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium
+of its marble slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to
+restore them, though they were never put back in their places.
+Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.
+
+MARCUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, grandnephew of the first Quintus, lived in the
+times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong supporter. After the death
+of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.) he was appointed in his place one of the
+commission of three for the distribution of the land. He was suspected
+of having had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129),
+but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul in 125, he
+proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the allies, and to allow
+even those who had not acquired it the right of appeal to the popular
+assembly against penal judgments. This proposal, though for the time
+successfully opposed by the senate, eventually led to the Social War.
+The attack made upon the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the
+Salluvii (Salyes) afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out
+of Rome. After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this
+time with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not
+remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates and the
+party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities, during which Flaccus
+was killed, together with Gracchus and a number of his supporters. It is
+generally agreed that Flaccus was perfectly honest in his support of the
+Gracchan reforms, but his hot-headedness did more harm than good to the
+cause. Cicero (_Brutus_, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate
+powers, but a diligent student.
+
+  See Livy, _Epit._ 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6; Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 10. 13; also
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (1904), and authorities quoted under
+  GRACCHUS.
+
+
+
+
+FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846-   ), French jurist and historian, was born
+at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February 1846, of a family known
+at least as early as the 16th century, when Sigismond Flach was the
+first professor of law at Strassburg University. G.J. Flach studied
+classics and law at Strassburg, and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of
+law. In his theses as well as in his early writings--such as _De la
+subrogation reelle, La Bonorum possessio_, and _Sur la duree des effets
+de la minorite_ (1870)--he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws
+by means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time. The
+Franco-German War engaged Flach's activities in other directions, and he
+spent two years (described in his _Strasbourg apres le bombardement_,
+1873) at work on the rebuilding of the library and the museum, which had
+been destroyed by Prussian shells. When the time came for him to choose
+between Germany and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he
+completed his scientific training at the Ecole des Chartes and the Ecole
+des Hautes Etudes. Having acted for some time as secretary to Jules
+Senard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he published an
+original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as possible resumed
+the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant to the jurist Edouard
+Laboulaye at the College de France, and succeeded him in 1884 in the
+chair of comparative legislation. Since 1877 he had been professor of
+comparative law at the free school of the political sciences. To qualify
+himself for these two positions he had to study the most diverse
+civilizations, including those of the East and Far East (e.g. Hungary,
+Russia and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other
+Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published,
+particularly those concerning Ireland: _Histoire du regime agraire de
+l'Irlande_ (1883); _Considerations sur l'histoire politique de
+l'Irlande_ (1885); and _Jonathan Swift, son action politique en Irlande_
+(1886).
+
+His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history of ancient
+French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded by his friend and
+compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his interest by reviving the
+question of the origin of the feudal laws, and gradually led him to
+study the formation of those laws and the early growth of the feudal
+system. His great work, _Les Origines de l'ancienne France_, was
+produced slowly. In the first volume, _Le Regime seigneurial_ (1886), he
+depicts the triumph of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after
+Charlemagne's great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle
+of sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the various
+functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity disappeared;
+and how the only living organisms were vassalage and clientship. The
+second volume, _Les Origines communales, la feodalite et la chevalerie_
+(1893), deals with the reconstruction of society on new bases which took
+place in the 10th and 11th centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman
+_villa_ gave place to the village, with its fortified castle, the
+residence of the lord; how new towns were formed by the side of old,
+some of which disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations;
+and how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument of
+cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism from the
+germs of the Gallo-Roman personal _comitatus_; and shows how the bond
+that united the different parties was the contract of the fief; and how,
+after a slow growth of three centuries, feudalism was definitely
+organized in the 12th century. In 1904 appeared the third volume, _La
+Renaissance de l'etat_, in which the author describes the efforts of the
+Capetian kings to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the
+whole of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the
+imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords of the
+kingdom (the "princes," as Flach calls them), whether as allies or foes,
+pursued the same end; and how, before the close of the 12th century, the
+Capetian kings were in possession of the organs and the means of action
+which were to render them so powerful and bring about the early downfall
+of feudalism.
+
+In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals, the author's
+theories are not always in complete harmony, nor are they always
+presented in a very luminous or coherent manner, but they are marked by
+originality and vigour. Flach gave them a solid basis by the wide range
+of his researches, utilizing charters and cartularies (published and
+unpublished), chronicles, lives of saints, and even those dangerous
+guides, the _chansons de geste_. He owed little to the historians of
+feudalism who knew what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He
+pursued the same method in his _L'Origine de l'habitation et des lieux
+habites en France_ (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories
+circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubainville ville
+in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F.C. von Savigny,
+Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle ages and the
+Renaissance, and produced _Cujas, les glossateurs et les Bartolistes_
+(1883), and _Etudes critiques sur l'histoire du droit romain au moyen
+age, avec textes inedits_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+FLACIUS (Ger. _Flach_; Slav. _Vlakich_), MATTHIAS (1520-1575), surnamed
+ILLYRICUS, Lutheran reformer, was born at Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd
+of March 1520. Losing his father in childhood, he was in early years
+self-educated, and made himself able to profit by the instructions of
+the humanist, Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he
+decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His
+intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, provincial of the
+Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation, who induced him to enter
+on a university career, from 1539, at Basel, Tubingen and Wittenberg.
+Here he was welcomed (1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from
+Tubingen, and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In
+1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He married in
+the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the festivities. He took his
+master's degree on the 24th of February 1546, ranking first among the
+graduates. Soon he was prominent in the theological discussions of the
+time, opposing strenuously the "Augsburg Interim," and the compromise of
+Melanchthon known as the "Leipzig Interim" (see ADIAPHORISTS).
+Melanchthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade ("aluimus in sinu
+serpentem"), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He removed to
+Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with Melanchthon was patched
+up. On the 17th of May 1557 he was appointed professor of New Testament
+theology at Jena; but was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his
+colleague, on the synergistic question (relating to the function of the
+will in conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he
+unwittingly fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean view of
+sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in its substance,
+since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure, he left Jena (Feb.
+1562) to found an academy at Regensburg. The project was not successful,
+and in October 1566 he accepted a call from the Lutheran community at
+Antwerp. Thence he was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and
+betook himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces
+against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received by the
+superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an asylum. But here also
+his religious views stood in his way; the authorities eventually
+ordering him to leave the city by Mayday 1573. Again betaking himself to
+Frankfort, the prioress, Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White
+Ladies, harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities. He
+fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to leave by
+Mayday 1575; but death released him on the 11th of March 1575. His first
+wife, by whom he had twelve children, died in 1564; in the same year he
+remarried and had further issue. His son Matthias was professor of
+philosophy and medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the
+literary fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over; he
+stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church history,
+and--if we except, a great exception, the work of Laurentius Valla--of
+hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling motive was to prove popery to
+be built on bad history and bad exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the
+extirpation of bad history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal
+interest to all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value
+of the principles embodied in Flacius' _Catalogus testium veritatis_
+(1556; revised edition by J.C. Dietericus, 1672) and his _Clavis
+scripturae sacrae_ (1567), followed by his _Glossa compendiaria in N.
+Testamentum_ (1570). His characteristic formula, "historia est
+fundamentum doctrinae," is better understood now than in his own day.
+
+  See J.B. Ritter, _Flacius's Leben u. Tod_ (1725); M. Twesten, _M.
+  Flacius Illyricus_ (1844); W. Preger, _M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine
+  Zeit_ (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_
+  (1899).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FLACOURT, ETIENNE DE (1607-1660), French governor of Madagascar, was
+born at Orleans in 1607. He was named governor of Madagascar by the
+French East India Company in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the
+French soldiers, who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives
+he was less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in
+continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he returned
+to France. Not long after he was appointed director general of the
+company; but having again returned to Madagascar, he was drowned on his
+voyage home on the 10th of June 1660. He is the author of a _Histoire de
+la grande isle Madagascar_ (1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).
+
+  See A. Malotet, _Et. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation
+  francaise a Madagascar (1648-1661)_, (Paris, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FLAG (or "FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently
+first recorded in English), a piece of bunting or similar material,
+admitting of various shapes and colours, and waved in the wind from a
+staff or cord for use in display as a standard, ensign or signal. The
+word may simply be derived onomatopoeically, or transferred from the
+botanical "flag"; or an original meaning of "a piece of cloth" may be
+connected with the 12th-century English "flage," meaning a baby's
+garment; the verb "to flag," i.e. droop, may have originated in the idea
+of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the O. Fr.
+_flaguir_, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as soon as men
+began to collect together for common purposes some kind of conspicuous
+object was used, as the symbol of the common sentiment, for the rallying
+point of the common force. In military expeditions, where any degree of
+organization and discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be
+necessary to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep
+in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In addition, it
+cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents have often served, by
+reminding men of past resolves, past deeds and past heroes, to arouse to
+enthusiasm those sentiments of _esprit de corps_, of family pride and
+honour, of personal devotion, patriotism or religion, upon which, as
+well as upon good leadership, discipline and numerical force, success in
+warfare depends.
+
+_History._--Among the remains of the people which has left the earliest
+traces of civilization, the records of the forms of objects used as
+ensigns are frequently to be found. From their carvings and paintings,
+supplemented by ancient writers, it appears that several companies of
+the Egyptian army had their own particular standards. These were formed
+of such objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the
+minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred animals,
+boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king's name, fan and
+feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end of a staff as standards,
+and the office of bearing them was looked upon as one of peculiar
+privilege and honour (Fig. 1). Somewhat similar seem to have been the
+customs of the Assyrians and Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by
+Layard and others at Nineveh, only two different designs have been
+noticed for standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on
+a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite directions
+(Fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and peace which were
+attached to the yoke of Darius's chariot. They are borne upon and
+attached to chariots; and this method of bearing such objects was the
+custom also of the Persians, and prevailed during the middle ages. That
+the custom survived to a comparatively modern period is proved from the
+fact that the "Guns," which are the "standards" of the artillery, have
+from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours prescribed
+by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol of authority. In
+days comparatively recent there was a "flag gun," usually the heaviest
+piece, which emblemized authority and served also as the "gun of
+direction" in the few concerted movements then attempted. No
+representations of Egyptian or Assyrian naval standards have been found,
+but the sails of ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices,
+another custom which survived into the middle ages.
+
+In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the emblem is
+frequently ornamented immediately below with flag-like streamers.
+Rabbinical writers have assigned the different devices of the different
+Jewish tribes, but the authenticity of their testimony is extremely
+doubtful. Banners, standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the
+Bible. "Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard,
+with the ensign of their father's house" (Num. ii. 2). "Who is she that
+looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun,
+terrible as an army with banners?" (Cant. vi. 10. See also Num. ii. 10,
+x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, lx. 4; Cant. ii. 4; Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer.
+iv. 21).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Egyptian Standards.]
+
+The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the sun, as
+their divinity, was also represented upon their standards, which appear
+to have been formed of some kind of textile, and were guarded with the
+greatest jealousy by the bravest men of the army. The Carian soldier who
+slew Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of
+carrying a golden cock at the head of the army, it being the custom of
+the Carians to wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North
+American Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of
+eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other
+semi-savage peoples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Assyrian Standards.]
+
+The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early times;
+afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or letters chosen for
+their particular associations--the Athenians the olive and the owl, the
+Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the
+Messenians their initial M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was
+placed on the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians
+carried a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon
+was the military sign of many peoples--of the Chinese, Dacians and
+Parthians among others--and was probably first used by the Romans as the
+ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Roman Standards.]
+
+The question of the _signa militaria_ of the Romans is a wide and very
+important one, having direct bearing on the history of heraldry, and on
+the origin of national, family and personal devices. With them the
+custom was reduced to system. "Each century, or at least each maniple,"
+says Meyrick, "had its proper standard and standard-bearer." In the
+early days of the republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence
+probably came the name _manipulus_ (Lat. _manus_, a hand). The forms of
+standards in later times were very various; sometimes a cross piece of
+wood was placed at the end of a spear and surmounted by the figure of a
+hand in silver, below round or oval discs, with figures of Mars or
+Minerva, or in later times portraits of emperors or eminent generals
+(Fig. 3). Figures of animals, as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were
+borne, and it was not till a later period that the eagle became the
+special standard of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius
+who, in his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should
+only have the eagle for their standard; "for before that time the eagle
+marched foremost with four others--wolves, minotaurs, horses and
+bears--each one in its proper order. Not many years passed before the
+eagle alone began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left
+behind in the camp. But Marius rejected them altogether, and since this
+it is observed that scarcely is there a camp of a legion wintered at any
+time without having a pair of eagles."
+
+The _vexillum_, which was the cavalry flag, is described by Livy as a
+square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed crosswise to the
+end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval _gonfalon_. Examples of
+these vexilla are to be seen on various Roman coins and medals, on the
+sculptured columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus.
+The _labarum_, which was the imperial standard of later emperors,
+resembled in shape and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly
+embroidered with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum
+from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags, that is
+to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff. After
+Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ (fig. 5, A). It is
+supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval days was often
+attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop, was derived from
+the labarum of the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great. The
+Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples at
+Rome; and the reverence of this people for their ensigns was in
+proportion to their superiority to other nations in all that tends to
+success in war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to
+be cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of his
+soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps the most
+sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier swore by his ensign.
+
+Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for standards,
+and was often appended as ornament to those of other material, it was
+probably not until the middle ages that it became the special material
+of military and other ensigns; and perhaps not until the practice of
+heraldry had attained to definite nomenclature and laws does anything
+appear which is in the modern sense a flag.
+
+Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In Bede's
+description of the interview between the heathen king Aethelberht and the
+Roman missionary Augustine, the followers of the latter are said to have
+borne banners on which silver crosses were displayed. The national
+banner of England for centuries--the red cross of St George--was a
+religious one; in fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been
+sought to give sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be
+traced to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme of
+France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the legend runs that
+King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops to battle against the enemy
+in 1219, saw at a critical moment a cross in the sky. This was at once
+taken as an answer to his prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It
+was forthwith adopted as the Danish flag and called the "Dannebrog,"
+i.e. the strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag
+undoubtedly dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is
+therefore the oldest now in existence.
+
+The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin upon their
+standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally in the keeping of the
+monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the right to take this blue flag
+into battle with them was claimed by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore
+this banner against Alaric in 507, for victory was promised him by a
+verse of the Psalms which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered
+the church of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the
+battle of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At what
+precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply the banner of
+the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de St Martin as the sacred
+banner of all France is not known. Probably, however, it gradually
+became the national flag after the kings of France had transferred the
+seat of government to Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was
+held in high honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in
+the abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals of
+the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his
+quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner from
+the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having been the first
+French king to have taken the banner to war, and it appeared for the
+last time on the field of fight at Agincourt in 1415. The accounts also
+of its appearance vary considerably. Guillaume Guiart, in his
+_Chronicle_ says:--
+
+  "Oriflambe est une banniere
+     De cendal voujoiant et simple
+   Sans portraiture d'autre affaire."
+
+It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst an
+English authority states "the celestial auriflamb, so by the French
+admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner." The _Chronique
+de Flandres_ describes it as having three points with tassels of green
+silk attached. The banner of William the Conqueror was sent to him by
+the pope, and the early English kings fought under the banners of Edward
+the Confessor and St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St
+Andrew and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united
+kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron saints they
+severally were.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.]
+
+The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest of England,
+contains abundant representations of the flags of the period borne upon
+the lances of the knights of William's army. They appear small in size,
+and pointed, frequently indented into three points and bearing pales,
+crosses and roundels. One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly
+indented into four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed,
+and bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent the
+raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4). In all,
+thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights are represented
+in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight have triple points,
+whilst others have two, four or five. The devices on these pennons are
+very varied and distinctive, although the date is prior to the period in
+which heraldry became definitely established. In fact, the flags and
+their charges are probably not really significant of the people bearing
+them; for, even admitting that personal devices were used at the time,
+the figures may have been placed without studied intention, and so give
+the general figure only of such flags as happened to have come under the
+observation of the artists. The figures are probably rather ornamental
+and symbolic than strictly heraldic,--that is, personal devices, for the
+same insignia do not appear on the shields of the several bearers. The
+dragon standard which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold;
+but similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which fact
+has induced a writer in the _Journal of the Archaeological Association_
+(vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of the Saxons they
+represent only trophies torn from the shields of the Normans, and that
+they are not ensigns at all. Standards in form much resembling these
+dragons appear on the Arch of Titus and the Trajan column as the
+standards of barbarians.
+
+At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard was formed of
+the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the top and bearing three
+sacred banners, dedicated severally to St Peter, St John of Beverley and
+St Wilfrid of Ripon, the whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle.
+Representations of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on
+seals of as early date as the Norman era, and the warriors in the first
+crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the three points
+with the three roundels and cross, which so often appear on these
+banners, have some reference to the faith of the bearers in the Trinity
+and in the Crucifixion, for in contemporary representations of Christ's
+resurrection and descent into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with
+cross above. The triple indentation so common on the flags of this
+period has been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable
+ordinaries--the pile. The "pile," it may be explained, is in the form
+of a wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies the
+central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle chief. It
+may, however, issue from any other extremity of the shield, and there
+may be more than one. More secular characters were, however, not
+uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order for a "dragon to be made in
+fashion of a standard of red silk sparkling all over with fine gold, the
+tongue of which should be made to resemble burning fire and appear to be
+continually moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones."
+_The Siege of Carlaverock_, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th century,
+describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the knights at the
+siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the writer says:--
+
+  "En sa banniere trois luparte
+    De or fin estoient mis en rouge;"
+
+and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may be
+supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one of Sir
+Christopher Barker's heraldic collection, Harl. 4632) gives drawings of
+the standards of English kings from Edward III. to Henry VIII., which
+are roughly but artistically coloured.
+
+The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle ages were the
+pennon, the banner and the standard. The "guydhommes" or "guidons,"
+"banderolls," "pennoncells," "streamers" or pendants, may be considered
+as minor varieties. The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign,
+sometimes pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the
+end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart from the
+knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged with his personal
+armorial bearings so displayed that they stood in true position when he
+couched his lance for action. A MS. of the 16th century (Harl. 2358) in
+the British Museum, which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape
+and bearings of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes,
+pennoncells, &c., says "a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made
+round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner," and warns that
+"from a standard or streamer a man may flee but not from his banner or
+pennon bearing his arms."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B,
+Medieval Pennon; C. Medieval Banner; D., Standard of Henry V.]
+
+A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried by the
+esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on any special
+occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state funerals. For
+instance, we find "XII. doz. penselles" amongst the items that figured
+at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in 1554, and in the description of
+the lord mayor's procession in the following year we read of "ij goodly
+pennes (state barges) deckt with flages and stremers, and a m (1000)
+penselles." Amongst the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of
+Oliver Cromwell up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of
+thirty dozen of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a
+dozen, and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a
+dozen.
+
+The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag, though
+at a later date it is often found greater in length than in depth,
+precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of to-day. In
+some very early examples it is found considerably longer in the depth on
+the staff than in its outward projection from the staff. The banner was
+charged in a manner exactly similar to the shield of the owner, and it
+was borne by knights banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough
+guide it may be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of
+a king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount
+or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to display the
+armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the right to carry it, it is
+evident that the square form was the most convenient and akin to the
+shield of primal heraldry. In fact, flags were originally heraldic
+emblems, though in modern devices the strict laws of heraldry have often
+been departed from.
+
+The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary knights,
+and they could be created on the field of battle only. To create a
+knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief in person tore off the
+fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight, thus turning it roughly
+into the square flag or banner, and so making the knight a banneret. The
+date in which this dignity originated is uncertain, but it was probably
+about the period of Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a
+banneret by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the
+3rd of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the reign of
+Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the Scottish king, at
+the battle of Durham. In more modern times Captain John Smith, of Lord
+Bernard Stuart's troop of the King's Guards, who saved the royal banner
+from the parliamentary troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by
+Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights banneret ceased
+until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen in 1743, when the
+dignity was again conferred. It is true, however, that, when in 1763 Sir
+William Erskine presented to George III. sixteen stands of colours
+captured by his regiment [now the 15th (king's) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he
+was raised to the dignity of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was
+not performed on the field of battle, the creation was considered
+irregular, and his possession of the rank was not generally recognized.
+
+The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it also denoted
+that he who bore it was the leader of a military force, large or small
+according to his degree or estate. It was, in fact, the battle flag of
+the leader who controlled the particular force that followed it into the
+fight. Every baron who in time of war had furnished the proper number of
+men to his liege was entitled to charge with his arms the banner which
+they followed. There could indeed be at present found no better
+representative of the medieval "banner" than what we now term the "royal
+standard"; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of the
+United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other royal and
+imperial standards have now become "standards," inasmuch as they are
+to-day used for display in the same fashion, and for the same purposes
+as was the "standard" of old. The "gonfalon" or "gonfannon" was a battle
+flag differing from the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to
+the pole but hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape
+but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The gonfalon was
+in action borne close to the person of the commander-in-chief and
+denoted his position. In certain of the Italian cities chief magistrates
+had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon, and for this reason were known
+as "gonfaloniere."
+
+The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering
+towards the fly (the "fly" is that portion of the flag farther from the
+pole, the "hoist" the portion of the flag attached to the pole), the
+edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with the ends split and
+rounded off. The shape was not, however, by any means uniform during
+the middle ages nor were there any definite rules as to its charges. It
+varied in size according to the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS.
+mentioned above says of the royal standard of that time--"the Standard
+to be sett before the king's pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in
+battayle; to be in length eleven yards." A MS. of the time of Henry VII.
+gives the following dimensions for standards: "The King's had a length
+of eight yards; that of a duke, seven; a marquis, six and a half; an
+earl, six; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five; a knight
+banneret, four and a half; and a knight four yards." The standard was,
+in fact, from its size, and as its very name implies, not meant to be
+carried into action, as was the banner, but to denote the actual
+position of its possessor on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the
+tilting ground, and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his
+following when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle.
+It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner was the
+rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its uses are now
+fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the "banner" which has
+now become the "royal standard," and which floats over the palace where
+the king is in residence, is hoisted at the saluting point when he
+reviews his troops, and is broken from the mainmast of any ship in his
+navy the moment that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition
+of the standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George
+conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately contiguous to
+the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided fesse-wise by two
+or more stripes of colours exactly as the heraldic "ordinary" termed
+"fesse" crosses the shield horizontally. The colours used as stripes, as
+also those used in the fringe or bordering of the standard, were those
+which prevailed in the arms of the bearer or were those of his livery.
+The standard here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours
+white and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and in
+the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the Harleian MS.
+above mentioned: "Every standard and guidon to have in the chief the
+cross of St George, the beast or crest with his devyce and word, and to
+be slitt at the end." The motto indeed usually figured on most
+standards, though occasionally it was missing. An excellent type of the
+old standard is that of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion,
+the crescent, and the fetterlock--all badges of the family--whilst, as
+tokens of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan and
+Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were respectively
+displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto, _Esperance en Dieu_.
+No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess more than one banner, since
+it displayed his heraldic arms, which were unchangeable. A single
+individual, however, might possess two or three standards since this
+flag displayed badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto
+that he could at any time change. For example, the standards of Henry
+VII., mostly green and white--the colours of the Tudor livery--had in
+one "a red firye dragon," in another "a donne kowe," in a third "a
+silver greyhound and two red roses." The standard was always borne by an
+eminent person, and that of Henry V. at Agincourt is supposed to have
+been carried upon a car that preceded the king. At Nelson's funeral his
+banner and standard were borne in the procession, and around his coffin
+were the banderolls--square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms
+of his family lineage. Nelson's standard bore his motto, _Palmam qui
+meruit ferat_, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the union
+of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick, the medieval
+England having expanded into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
+Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke of Wellington we find amongst
+the flags his personal banner and standard, and ten banderolls of the
+duke's pedigree and descent.
+
+The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. _Guyd-homme_, was somewhat
+similar to the standard, but without the cross of St George, rounded at
+the end, less elongated and altogether less ornate. It was borne by a
+leader of horse, and according to a medieval writer "must be two and a
+half yards or three yards long, and therein shall no armes be put, but
+only the man's crest, cognisance, and devyce."
+
+The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known as the
+pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was directed
+"shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle, and therein be
+put no armes, but the man's cognisance or devyce, and may be of length
+twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and is slitt as well as a guidon
+or standard." Amongst the fittings of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl
+of Warwick, to France in the reign of Henry VII. was a "grete stremour
+for the shippe xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede." In the hoist
+was "a grete bere holding a raggid staffe," and the rest of the fly
+"powdrid full of raggid staves."
+
+NATIONAL FLAGS.--_British._ The royal standard of England was, when it
+was hoisted on the Tower on the 1st of January 1801, thus heraldically
+described:--"Quarterly; first and fourth, gules, three lions passant
+gardant, in pale, or, for England; second, or, a lion rampant, gules,
+within a double tressure flory counter flory of the last, for Scotland;
+third, azure, a harp or, stringed argent, for Ireland." The present
+standard connects in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror.
+These were two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same
+until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for leopards,
+and a third added. The next change that took place was in the reign of
+Edward III. when the royal arms were for the first time quartered;
+_fleurs-de-lis_ in the first and fourth quarters, and the three lions of
+England in the second and third. The _fleurs-de-lis_ were assumed in
+token of the monarch's claim to the throne of France. In the "coats" of
+Edward III. and the two monarchs that succeeded him, the _fleurs-de-lis_
+were powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the _fleurs-de-lis_
+were reduced in number to three, and the "coat" so devised remained the
+same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion of Scotland and the
+Irish harp were added to the flag on the accession of James I., and the
+flag then had the French and English arms quartered in the first and
+fourth quarters, the lion of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the
+second quarter, and the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the
+third quarter. With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to
+which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until the
+accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart standard a
+central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen Anne made further
+alterations; the first and fourth quarters were subdivided, the three
+lions of England being in one half, the lion of Scotland in the other.
+The _fleurs-de-lis_ were in the second quarter; the Irish harp in the
+third. Under George I. and George II. the first, second and third
+quarters remained the same, the arms of Hanover being placed in the
+fourth quarter, and this continued to be the royal standard until 1801,
+when the standard was rearranged as first described with the addition of
+the Hanoverian arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the
+accession of Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the
+flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however, that
+in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in the chapel of
+St George at Windsor, the ordinary "winged woman" form of the harp in
+the Irish third quartering is altered to a harp of the old Irish
+pattern. At King Edward's accession this banner replaced that of Queen
+Victoria which for sixty-two years had hung in this, the chapel of the
+order of the Garter.
+
+Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of the lord high
+admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly the royal standard as
+deputy of the sovereign. When royalty ceased to be, a new flag was
+devised by the council of state for the Commonwealth, which comprised
+the "arms of England and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red
+flag within a compartment." In other words, it was a red flag containing
+two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white
+ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the shields
+was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these flags is still in
+existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept in a wooden chest which
+was taken out of a Spanish galleon at Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke
+in 1704. When Cromwell became protector of the commonwealth of England,
+Scotland and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This
+had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the cross
+of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the second, and the
+Irish harp in the third. His own arms--a lion on a black shield--were
+imposed on the centre of the flag. No one but royalty has a right to fly
+the royal standard, and though it is constantly seen flying for purposes
+of decoration its use is irregular. There has, however, always been one
+exception, namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command
+of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard. For
+example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the "Ark Royal" when
+he defeated the Spanish Armada; the duke of Buckingham flew it as lord
+high admiral in the reign of Charles I., and the duke of York fought
+under it when he commanded during the Dutch Wars.
+
+The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack, in which are
+combined in union the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick. St
+George had long been a patron saint of England, and his banner, argent,
+a cross gules, its national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the
+patron saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the
+national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns James I.
+issued a proclamation ordaining that "henceforth all our subjects of
+this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and the members thereof, shall
+bear in their main-top the red cross commonly called St George's cross,
+and the white cross commonly called St Andrew's cross, joined together
+according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral
+to be published to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects
+of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont, and
+our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white cross only as
+they were accustomed." This was the first Union Jack, as it is generally
+termed, though strictly the name of the flag is the "Great Union," and
+it is only a "Jack" when flown on the jackstaff of a ship of war.
+Probably the name of the Stuart king "Jacques," which James I. always
+signed, gave the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was
+hoisted. At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being
+dissolved, the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of
+St George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became
+protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the
+Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original union flag
+was restored, and continued as described until the year 1801, when, on
+the legislative union with Ireland, the cross of St Patrick, a saltire
+gules, on a field argent, was incorporated in the union flag. To so
+combine these three crosses without losing the distinctive features of
+each was not easy; each cross must be distinct, and retain equally
+distinct its fimbriation, or bordering, which denotes the original
+ground. In the first union flag, the red cross of St George with the
+white fimbriation that represented-the original white field was simply
+imposed upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To
+place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St Andrew
+would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the red saltire have
+its proper bordering denoting its original white field; even were the
+red saltire narrowed in width the portion of the white saltire that
+would appear would not be the St Andrew saltire, but only the
+fimbriation appertaining to the saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty
+has been got over by making the white broader on one side of the red
+than the other. In fact, the continuity of direction of the arms of the
+St Patrick red saltire has been broken by its portions being removed
+from the centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew's saltire.
+Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distinguished
+from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white fimbriation.
+
+The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns, and is
+flown by representatives of the empire all the world over. It flies from
+the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy. With the Irish harp on a
+blue shield displayed in the centre, it is flown by the lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland. When flown by the governor-general of India the star and
+device of the order of the Star of India are borne in the centre.
+Colonial governors fly it with the badge of their colony displayed in
+the centre. Diplomatic representatives use it with the royal arms in the
+centre. As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and
+headquarters, and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at
+the mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the fleet.
+
+Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours, and
+flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will here be
+only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty flags.
+
+The origin of the three ensigns--the red, white, and blue--had its
+genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as prevailed in
+the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides the admiral in supreme
+command, a vice-admiral as second in command, and a rear-admiral as
+third in command, each controlling his own particular group or squadron.
+These were designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost
+invariably being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the
+van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any vessel in
+any group could distinguish its own admiral's ship, the flagships of
+centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain red, white, or blue
+flag, and so came into being those naval ranks of admiral, vice-admiral,
+and rear-admiral of the red, white, and blue which continued down to as
+late as 1864. As the admiral in supreme command flew the union at the
+main, there was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until
+November 1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy
+as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so that each
+individual ship in the squadron should be distinguishable as well as the
+flagships, each vessel carried a large red, white, or blue flag
+according as to whether she belonged to the centre, van, or rear, each
+flag having in the left-hand upper corner a canton, as it is termed, of
+white bearing the St George's cross. These flags were called ensigns,
+and it is, of course, due to the fact that the union with Scotland was
+for the time dissolved that they bore only the St George's cross. Even
+when the restoration of the Stuarts restored the _status quo_ the cross
+of St George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered
+until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland passed
+the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined the Union, the
+flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All these three ensigns
+belonged to the royal navy, and continued to do so until 1864, but as
+far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile marine were instructed to fly
+the red ensign. As ironclads replaced the wooden vessels and fleets
+became smaller the inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest,
+and in 1864 the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral,
+vice-admiral, and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use of the
+red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as its distinctive
+flag. The mercantile marine retained the red ensign which they were
+already using, whilst the blue ensign was allotted to vessels employed
+on the public service whether home or colonial.
+
+The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal navy. It
+should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion except by a ship (or
+shore establishment) of the royal navy, with but one exception. By a
+grant of William IV. dating from 1829 vessels belonging to the Royal
+Yacht Squadron, the chief of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the
+white ensign. From 1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red
+ensign, as that of highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant
+ships, they then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more
+distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when the
+privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some oversight the
+order was not conveyed to the Royal Western of Ireland, whose ships flew
+the white ensign until in 1857 the usage was stopped. Since that date
+the Royal Yacht Squadron has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any
+sort flying the white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a
+grave offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His
+Majesty's service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the
+authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or both.
+The penalty incurred is L500 fine for each offence, as laid down in the
+73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In 1883 Lord Annesley's
+yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, was detained at the
+Dardanelles in consequence of her flying the white ensign of the royal
+navy which brought her under the category of a man-of-war, and no
+foreign man-of-war is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first
+obtaining an imperial _irade_. Since then owners belonging to the
+squadron have been warned that they must either sail their ships through
+the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British owned, or
+obtain imperial permission if they wish to display the white ensign.
+
+Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer from the
+maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a pennant, is flown only
+by ships in commission; it is, in fact, the sign of command, and is
+first hoisted when a captain commissions his ship. The pennant, which
+was really the old "pennoncell," was of three colours for the whole of
+its length, and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and
+so continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however, the
+pennant is a long white streamer with the St George's cross in the inner
+portion close to the mast. Pennants have been carried by men-of-war from
+the earliest times, prior to 1653 at the yard-arm, but since that date
+at the maintopgallant masthead.
+
+The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service other than
+the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal naval reserve. It
+is flown also by certain authorized vessels of the British mercantile
+marine, the conditions governing this privilege being that the captain
+and a certain specified portion of the officers and crew shall belong to
+the ranks of the royal naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to
+British government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed
+in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow anchor
+in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade has in the fly
+the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph branch of the post-office
+shows in the fly a device representing Father Time with his hour-glass
+shattered by lightning; the ordnance department displays upon the fly a
+shield with a cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are
+also authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign.
+Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinctive
+badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular agents also
+have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing badge in their
+case being the royal arms.
+
+The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant
+service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen Anne in
+1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order of Queen Anne
+directed that merchant vessels should fly a red flag "with a Union Jack
+described in a canton at the upper corner thereof next the staff," and
+this is probably the first time that the term "Union Jack" was
+officially used. In some cases those yacht clubs which fly the red
+ensign change it slightly from that flown by the merchant service, for
+they are allowed to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial
+merchantmen usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they
+have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can use the
+ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.
+
+In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they are purely
+maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured in the breach than
+in the observance, the only flag that a private individual or a
+corporation has a right to display on shore is the national flag, the
+Union Jack, in its plain condition and without any emblazonment.
+
+There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of brief notice.
+These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the master of Trinity
+House. The admiralty flag is a plain red flag with a clear anchor in the
+centre in yellow. In a sense it is a national flag, for the sovereign
+hoists it when afloat in conjunction with the royal standard and the
+Union Jack. It would appear to have been first used by the duke of York
+as lord high admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had
+the royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of commissioners
+was appointed to execute the office of lord high admiral this was the
+flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the admiralty, minuting the navy
+board, then a subordinate department, "requiring and directing it to
+cause a fitting red silk flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be
+provided against Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this
+board." In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable
+in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It was thus
+made into a "foul anchor," the thing of all others that a sailor most
+hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord at the time, the
+earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The anchor retained its
+unseamanlike appearance, and was not "cleared" till 1815, and even to
+this day the buttons of the naval uniform bear a "foul anchor." The
+"anchor" flag is solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does
+not carry the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the
+royal standard, the union or an admiral's flag, but on two occasions it
+has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719 the earl of Berkeley,
+who at the time was not only first lord of the admiralty, but
+vice-admiral of England, obtained the special permission of George I. to
+hoist it at the main instead of the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr
+Childers, then first lord, accompanied by some members of his board,
+went on board the "Agincourt" he hoisted the admiralty flag and took
+command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons, thus
+superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who at the time
+were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly necessary to add that
+throughout the navy there was a very distinct feeling of dissatisfaction
+at the innovation. When the admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it
+is hoisted at the fore, his own standard being of course at the main,
+and the union at the mizzen.
+
+The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross of St
+George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on the waves in
+each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a precisely similar device
+and surmounted by a lion.
+
+The sign of a British admiral's command afloat is always the same. It is
+the St George's cross. Of old it was borne on the main, the fore, or the
+mizzen, according as to whether the officer to whom it pertained was
+admiral, vice-admiral, or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded
+wooden ships, and a single pole mast took the place of the old three
+masts, a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day
+the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George's cross.
+When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the white ground in
+the upper canton next to the staff; if flown by a rear-admiral there is
+a red ball in both the upper and lower cantons. As nowadays most
+battleships have two masts, the admiral's flag is hoisted at the one
+which has no masthead semaphore. The admiral's flag is always a square
+one, but that of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St
+George's cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of
+the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next to the
+staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails in most navies,
+though very often a star takes the place of the ball. In some cases,
+however, the indications of rank are differently shown. For instance,
+both in the Russian and Japanese navies the distinction is made by a
+line of colour on the upper or lower edges of the flag.
+
+The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the mother
+country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony being placed in
+the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or in the fly if it be
+the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are shown in the Plate, where
+the blue ensign illustrated is that of New Zealand, the device of the
+colony being the southern cross in the fly. Precisely the same flag,
+with a large six-pointed star, emblematic of the six states immediately
+under the union, forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of
+Australia. The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the
+device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion. As the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty, flies the
+Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy of India flies the
+same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the order of the Star of
+India, so too colonial governors or high commissioners fly the union
+flag with the arms of the colony they preside over on a white shield in
+the centre and surrounded by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the
+wreath, however, is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special
+emblem of the Dominion.
+
+_French._--To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have historical
+events caused so much change in the standards and national ensigns of a
+country as in the case of France. The oriflamme and the Chape de St
+Martin were succeeded at the end of the 16th century, when Henry III.,
+the last of the house of Valois, came to the throne, by the white
+standard powdered with _fleurs-de-lis_. This in turn gave place to the
+famous tricolour. The tricolour was introduced at the time of the
+Revolution, but the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed
+question. Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag
+the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme, and the
+white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are said to be those
+of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities assert that the flag
+is copied from the shield of the Orleans family as it appeared after
+Philippe Egalite had knocked off the _fleurs-de-lis_. The tricolour is
+divided vertically into three parts of equal width--blue, white and red,
+the red forming the fly, the white the middle, and the blue the hoist of
+the flag. During the first and second empires the tricolour became the
+imperial standard, but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the
+eagle, whilst all three stripes were richly powdered over with the
+golden bees of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of
+France.
+
+_American._--Before the Declaration of Independence the flags of those
+colonies which now form the United States of America were very various.
+In the early days of New England the Puritans objected to the red cross
+of St George, not from any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a
+conscientious objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the
+year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish their
+vessels from those of England and of each other. In the early stages of
+the revolution each state adopted a flag of its own; thus, that of
+Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South Carolina displayed a rattlesnake,
+New York had a white flag with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white
+flag with a blue anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of
+Independence, and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter
+underwent many changes in the manner of their arrangement before taking
+the position at present established. In 1775 a committee was appointed
+to consider the question of a single flag for the thirteen states. It
+recommended that the union be retained in the upper corner next to the
+staff, the remainder of the field of the flag to be of thirteen
+horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white. This flag,
+curiously enough, was precisely the same as the flag of the old
+Honourable East India Company. On the 14th of June 1777 congress
+resolved "that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes,
+alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a
+blue field, representing a new constellation." This was the origin of
+the national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were
+unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven white and
+six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six white, and it was
+not for some considerable time that it was authoritatively laid down
+that the latter arrangement was the one to be adopted. It has also been
+held that the stars and stripes of the American national flag, as well
+as the eagle, were suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington
+family. The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a
+raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two horizontal red
+bars, and above these a row of three red stars. This might, by a stretch
+of imagination, be supposed to have inspired the original idea of the
+flag which was that each state in the Union should be represented in the
+national flag by a star and stripe. Naturally other states coming into
+the Union expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and
+Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes were
+changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other states
+joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars and stripes.
+It was, however, found objectionable to be constantly altering the
+national flag, and in the year 1818 it was determined to go back to the
+original thirteen stripes, but to place a star for each state in the
+blue union canton in the top corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the
+stars always show the exact number of states that are in the Union,
+whilst the stripes denote the original number of the states that formed
+the union.[1] The presidential flag of the president of the United
+States is an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield
+displaying stripes, and above the national motto _E pluribus unum_, and
+a design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union.
+
+_Other Countries._--The most general and important of the various
+national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line representing
+Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the Union Jack (the national
+flag), the white ensign of the royal navy, the blue ensign of government
+service, and the red ensign of the commercial marine, colonial flags
+being shown in the case of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese
+flags shown are the man-of-war ensign--a rising sun, generally known as
+the sun-burst--and the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red
+ball is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white
+field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum on a red
+field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should invariably have
+sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler character than that of
+Europe, and is practically limited to the employment of "Mon," which
+correspond very nearly to the "crests" of European heraldry. The great
+families of Japan possess at least one, and in many cases even three,
+"Mon." The imperial family use two, the one _Kiku no go Mon_ (the august
+chrysanthemum crest) and _Kiri no go Mon_ (the august Kiri crest). The
+first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum, and, although the
+use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge is not necessarily confined
+to the imperial family, they alone have the right to use the
+sixteen-petalled form. If used by any other family, or society or
+corporation, it must be with a number of petals less or more than
+sixteen. The second imperial "Mon" is composed of three leaves and three
+flower spikes of the Kiri (_Paulownia imperialis_). This, however, is
+not displayed as an official emblem, that being reserved for the
+chrysanthemum. The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example,
+the chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri "Mon"
+adorns the harness of the emperor's horses. It is very probable that the
+chrysanthemum crest did not originally represent the chrysanthemum
+flower at all but the sun with sixteen rays, and it will be noticed that
+in the "sun-burst" flag the sun's rays are sixteen in number. The use of
+the number sixteen is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.
+
+  The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next
+  depicted. The "iron cross" in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic
+  Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five
+  centuries black and white have been the Hohenzollern colours, and the
+  first verse of the German war song, _Ich bin ein Preusse_, runs:--
+
+    "I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner?
+       Before me floats my flag of black and white!
+     My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
+       So say these colours floating in your sight."
+
+  The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is emblematic
+  of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with the red and
+  white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League. This flag came
+  into being when the North German Confederacy was established (November
+  25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-Prussian War.
+
+  The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white border
+  displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four
+  quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the
+  cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown,
+  and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the
+  four arms of the crown are the legend _Gott mit uns_ 1870. The United
+  States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt
+  with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-war
+  and ships of the mercantile marine.
+
+  The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile marine
+  flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the introduction
+  of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the Austrian red,
+  white and red with the Hungarian red, white and green. The shields
+  with which the flag is charged contain respectively the arms of
+  Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is borne on the
+  man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of the ancient
+  dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191. The Austrian
+  imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black double-headed
+  eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed shields bearing
+  the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag is bordered all
+  round, the border being composed of equal-sided triangles with their
+  apices alternately inwards and outwards, those with their apices
+  pointing inwards being alternately yellow and white, the others
+  alternately scarlet and black.
+
+  The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805, when
+  Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted again in
+  1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the king of
+  Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it became the
+  flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely similar to
+  that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of the former
+  the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal standard is a
+  blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and displaying on
+  its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded by the collar of
+  the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all European orders.
+  In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.
+
+  For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are
+  parti-coloured. It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the
+  arms of Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same
+  both in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal
+  standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the
+  royal arms, as shown in the national flag.
+
+  In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours, and
+  here again the arrangement differs from that generally used. The navy
+  flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below. To be
+  correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each of
+  the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central yellow
+  stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing the arms
+  of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown. In the
+  mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon, and is
+  one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds being
+  divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above in the
+  upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal standards
+  that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarterings of
+  the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as much an
+  anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day to be
+  quartered with the _fleur-de-lis_. In all, the quarterings displayed
+  are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy,
+  Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The flag is usually
+  depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We believe, however,
+  that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre of which the
+  quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted by a crown and
+  encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden Fleece.
+
+  The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour of
+  white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white and
+  red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by Peter
+  the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the flag then
+  stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to make it more
+  distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places, leaving the
+  tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian navy is the
+  blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew is the patron
+  saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial standard is of a
+  character akin to that of Austria; the ground is yellow, and the
+  centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a badge that dates back
+  to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a niece of Constantine
+  Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek empire. On the breast of
+  the eagle is an escutcheon charged with the emblem of St George and
+  the Dragon on a red ground, and this is surrounded by the collar of
+  the order of St Andrew. On the splayed wings of the eagle are small
+  shields bearing the arms of the various provinces of the empire.
+
+  The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes
+  vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a
+  horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the
+  lower white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the
+  royal arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro
+  is a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the
+  lowermost white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white,
+  green and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war
+  ensign there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is
+  a golden lion on a red ground.
+
+  The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat similar
+  in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already alluded
+  to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish navy.
+  The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangular
+  instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cross on
+  a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as in the
+  Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but pointed,
+  thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the mercantile
+  marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated from Denmark in
+  1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it, and the arms of
+  Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this was found to
+  resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross with a white border
+  was substituted for the white cross. This, it will be seen, is the
+  Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the white one. For a
+  man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of Sweden in shape;
+  that is to say, converted from the rectangular into the three-pointed
+  design. While Sweden and Norway remained united the flag of each
+  remained distinct, but each bore in the top canton of the hoist a
+  union device, being the combination of the Norwegian and Swedish
+  national colours and crosses. In each of the three above nationalities
+  the flag used for a royal standard is the man-of-war flag with the
+  royal arms imposed on the centre of the cross.
+
+  The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the
+  hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the
+  Netherlands is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre
+  and blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy
+  and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard
+  the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black, yellow
+  and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of Brabant,
+  and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded. The original
+  Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its independence were
+  orange, white and blue, the colours of the house of Orange, and when
+  and how the orange became red is not quite clear, though it was
+  certainly prior to 1643.
+
+  The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag shown in
+  our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria, and were
+  adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected to the throne
+  of Greece. The stripes are nine in number--five blue and four
+  white--with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton bearing a
+  white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy is similar
+  to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception that it has
+  the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross. The royal
+  standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre of which the
+  royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar to that in the
+  Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are not of equal
+  length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.
+
+  The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for it
+  was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably
+  considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss
+  confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each case
+  the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance,
+  is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red,
+  black and white, &c., &c.
+
+  The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by Mahomet
+  II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally they were the
+  symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and were adopted by the
+  Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always been the special emblem of
+  Constantinople, and even now in Moscow and elsewhere the crescent
+  emblem and the cross may be seen combined in Russian churches, the
+  crescent badge, of course, indicating the Byzantine origin of the
+  Russian church. The symbol originated at the time of the siege of
+  Constantinople by Philip the father of Alexander the Great, when a
+  night attempt of the besiegers to undermine the walls was betrayed by
+  the light of a crescent moon, and in acknowledgment of their escape
+  the Byzantines raised a statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol
+  of the city. Both the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the
+  same, but the imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in
+  its centre the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known
+  as the "Tughra," and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of
+  khan, and the epithet _al-Muzaffar Daima_, which means "the ever
+  victorious." The origin of the "Tughra" is that the sultan Murad I.,
+  who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open
+  hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and
+  third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth
+  finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the scribes
+  wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above quoted.
+  The "Tughra" dates from the latter part of the 14th century. The
+  smaller characters in the "Tughra" change, of course, on the accession
+  of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the device always
+  remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left denoting the
+  thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little finger made
+  impression, and three upright lines indicating the other fingers.
+
+  The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the crescent
+  and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where they use an
+  ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate having
+  the British union in the centre of the red field.
+
+  The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge of
+  the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge.
+  On the white ground are the lion and sun.
+
+  The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of Korea,
+  a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue, the
+  colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely as if
+  two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue, were
+  united to form a complete circle.
+
+  The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the
+  dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag, but
+  an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with
+  the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red
+  with a yellow ball in the centre.
+
+  Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar
+  inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto.
+
+  Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in the
+  case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe with
+  the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war ensign.
+
+  The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when used
+  by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central white
+  stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.
+
+  The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the
+  mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of the
+  state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner near
+  the hoist, as in the naval flag.
+
+  The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and vessels
+  in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of the
+  president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the centre of
+  the flag.
+
+  The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the
+  mercantile marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged
+  on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our
+  illustration. In fact, in nearly every case with the South American
+  republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the war
+  navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is used
+  in the same way as a presidential flag.
+
+  In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics are
+  tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no means
+  such combinations as would meet with the approval of European heralds.
+  All flag devising should be in accordance with heraldic laws, and one
+  of the most important of these is that colour should not be placed on
+  colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry being the equivalent of
+  gold and white of silver. Hence, properly devised tricolours are such
+  as, for example, those of France, where the red and blue are divided
+  by white, or Belgium, where the black and red are divided by yellow.
+  On the other hand, the yellow, blue, red of Venezuela is heraldically
+  an abomination.
+
+_Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses._--Flags, the manufacture, of which
+is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made from bunting, a
+very light, tough and durable woollen material. The regulation bunting
+as used in the navy is made in 9 in. widths, and the flag classes in
+size according to the number of breadths of bunting of which it is
+composed. The great centre of the manufacture of flags, as far as the
+royal navy is concerned, is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks
+are made in different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by
+16-1/2 ft. in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft.
+wide.
+
+The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be either square
+or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this latter dimension that
+is used in the navy and generally.
+
+Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see SIGNAL), and here it will
+only be necessary to make brief allusion to some international customs
+with regard to the use of flags to indicate certain purposes. For long a
+blood-red flag has always been used as a symbol of mutiny or of
+revolution. The black flag was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate;
+to-day, in the only case in which it survives, it is flown after an
+execution to indicate that the requirements of the law have been duly
+carried out. All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of
+infectious illness. A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on
+board suffering from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious
+malady, and it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This
+flag is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is
+universally used as a flag of truce.
+
+At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the flag of one
+country is placed over that of another the victory of the former is
+denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an insult to hoist the flag
+of one friendly nation above that of another. If such were done by
+mistake, say in "dressing ship" for instance, an apology would have to
+be made. This custom of hoisting the flag of the vanquished beneath that
+of the victor is of comparatively modern date, as up to about a century
+ago the sign of victory was to trail the enemy's flag over the taffrail
+in the water. Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff,
+and this is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are
+in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour and respect
+a flag is "dipped." Ships at sea salute each other by "dipping" the
+flag, that is to say, by running it smartly down from the masthead, and
+then as quickly replacing it. When troops parade before the sovereign
+the regimental flags are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying
+half-mast high is the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to
+make the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national
+ensign reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to
+accentuate the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag
+into a "weft," that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of
+showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval works
+written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the "weft"
+mentioned as a method of showing distress.
+
+We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting
+nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many other
+purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held on board any
+ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court is sitting, its
+hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun. In a fleet in company
+the ship that has the guard for the day flies it. With a white border it
+forms the signal for a pilot, and in this case is known as a Pilot Jack.
+In all combinations of signalling flags which denote a ship's name the
+Union Jack forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor
+or soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours at his
+funeral.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _Flags: Some Account of their History and Uses_, by
+  A. MacGeorge (1881); _National Banners: Their History and
+  Construction_, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic Tracts,
+  1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this pamphlet gives the
+  design of the national banners of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick,
+  and illustrates and tells the story of the composition of the three
+  flags into the great union flag, commonly known as the Union Jack);
+  _Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions_, by Rear-Admiral S.
+  Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise, historical and
+  narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; _A History of the
+  Flag of the United States_ (Boston, 1872), by G.H. Preble; _Flags of
+  the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations_, by Edward Hulme,
+  F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete monograph on the subject,
+  illustrated with a very complete series of plates; _Admiralty Book of
+  Flags of all Nations_, printed for H.M. Stationery office, 1889, kept
+  up to date by the publication periodically of Errata, officially
+  issued under an admiralty covering letter; _Flags of Maritime
+  Nations_, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of the navy,
+  printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two works have no
+  letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale, delineations of all
+  the flags at present used officially by all nations. Between the two
+  there are no discrepancies, and the delineation of a flag taken from
+  either may be assumed as absolutely correct. Both are respectively the
+  guides for flag construction in the royal navy and the United States
+  navy.     (H. L. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of
+    stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus: 8, 7,
+    8, 7, 8, 8 = 46.
+
+
+
+
+FLAGELLANTS (from Lat. _flagellare_, to whip), in religion, the name
+given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged, by way of
+discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a form of exalted
+devotion, occurs in almost all religions. According to Herodotus (ii.
+40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient Egyptians to beat themselves
+during the annual festival in honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta
+children were flogged before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood
+flowed (Plutarch, _Instit. Laced._ 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese,
+women were flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The
+priests of Cybele, or _archigalli_, submitted to the discipline in the
+temple of the goddess (Plutarch, _Adv. Colot._ p. 1127; Apul., _Metam._
+viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were flogged by the celebrants
+to avert sterility or as a purificatory ceremony (W. Mannhardt, _Mythol.
+Forsch._, Strassburg, 1884, p. 72 seq.).
+
+Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according to Buxtorf
+(_Synagoga judaica_, Basel, 1603), was one of the ceremonies of the day
+of the Great Pardon. In the Christian church flagellation was originally
+a punishment, and was practised not only by parents and schoolmasters,
+but also by bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St
+Augustine, _Ep. 159 ad Marcell._; cf. _Conc. Agd._ 506, can. ii.).
+Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the _libri
+poenitentiales_ as a very efficacious means of penance. In the 11th
+century this new form of devotion was extolled by some of the most
+ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west, such as Abbot Popon
+of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so called from his practice of
+wearing next his skin an iron _lorica_, or cuirass of thongs), and
+especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani. Damiani advocated the substitution
+of flagellation for the recitation of the penitential psalms, and drew
+up a scale according to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten
+psalms, and 15,000 to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers
+exemplified their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained
+great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six days. The
+custom of collective flagellation was introduced into the monastic
+houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday after confession.
+
+The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with characteristic rigour,
+and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan, St Anthony of
+Padua, preaching the praises of this means of penance. It is incorrect,
+however, to suppose that St Anthony took any part in the creation of the
+flagellant fraternities, which were the result of spontaneous popular
+movements, and later than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri,
+a monk of Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities
+has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant brotherhood
+in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were distributed over the
+greater part of northern Italy. The contagion spread very rapidly,
+extending as far as the Rhine provinces, and, across Germany, into
+Bohemia. Day and night, long processions of all classes and ages, headed
+by priests carrying crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in
+double file, reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies
+with leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns, and
+especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled the flagellants with
+threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders of the 14th
+century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and the Black Death, which
+had spread over the greater part of Europe, produced a condition of
+ferment and mystic fever which was very favourable to a recrudescence of
+morbid forms of devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state
+of religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between the
+papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the spring of 1349
+bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary, began their propaganda in
+the south of Germany. Each band was under the command of a leader, who
+was assisted by two lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was
+enjoined upon every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants
+paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed to accept
+board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted 33-1/2 days, during
+which they flogged themselves with thongs fitted with four iron points.
+They read letters which they said had fallen from heaven, and which
+threatened the earth with terrible punishments if men refused to adopt
+the mode of penance taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they
+incited the populations of the towns through which they passed against
+the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propaganda. Many
+towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite of discouragement, they
+spread from Poland to the Rhine, and penetrated as far as Holland and
+Flanders. Finally, a band of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the
+court of Pope Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by
+several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a menace to
+the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement published a bull
+commanding the bishops and inquisitors to stamp out the growing heresy,
+and in pursuance of the pope's orders numbers of the sectaries perished
+at the stake or in the cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal
+justices. In 1389 the leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the
+_bianchi_ was burned by order of the pope, and his following dispersed.
+In 1417, however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded the
+cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council of Constance,
+and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson (_Epistola ad
+Vincentium_), who declared that the flagellants were showing a tendency
+to slight the sacramental confession and penance, were refusing to
+perform the _cultus_ of the martyrs venerated by the church, and were
+even alleging their own superiority to the martyrs.
+
+The justice of Gerson's protest was borne out by events. In Germany, in
+1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic of flagellation, which
+then became a clearly-formulated heresy. A certain Conrad Schmidt placed
+himself at the head of a community of Thuringian flagellants, who took
+the name of Brethren of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the
+incarnation of Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church
+of Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph of
+flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of Beghards joined
+the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects were confounded in the
+rigorous persecution conducted in Germany by the inquisitor Eylard
+Schoneveld, who almost annihilated the flagellants. This mode of
+devotion, however, held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic
+piety. In the 16th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern
+France. Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to
+acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into various
+orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The king and his
+courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of penitents, and
+scourged themselves with ostentation. The king's encouragement seemed at
+first to point to a successful revival of flagellation; but the practice
+disappeared along with the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at
+the time of the league, and Henry III.'s successor suppressed the Paris
+brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a means of
+salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the 18th century, and
+also, towards the end of the 18th century, by a little Jansenist sect
+known as the Fareinists, founded by the brothers Bonjour, _cures_ of
+Fareins, near Trevoux (Ain). In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared
+during a procession at Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season
+of great festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents
+flagellating themselves before the assembled faithful.
+
+  For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, _Cultes,
+  mythes et religions_ (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a
+  bibliography of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in
+  medieval times, see M. Rohricht, "Bibliographische Beitrage zur Gesch.
+  der Geissler" in _Briegers Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_, i. 313.
+       (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAGELLATA, the name given to the Protozoa whose dominant phase is a
+"flagellula," or cell-body provided with one, few or rarely many long
+actively vibratile, cytoplasmic processes. Nutrition is variable:--(1)
+"Holozoic"; food taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either
+unspecialized or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an
+aperture (mouth); (2) "Saprophytic"; food taken in in solution through
+the general surface of the body; (3) "Holophytic"; food-material formed
+in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon from the medium, with
+liberation of oxygen, in presence of light, as in green plants. Fission
+in the "active" state occurs and is usually longitudinal. Multiple
+fission rarely occurs save in a sporocyst, and produces microzoospores,
+which in some cases may conjugate with others as isogametes or with
+larger forms (megagametes). "Hypnocysts" to tide over unfavourable
+conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to
+reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard shell:
+again a distinct cell-wall of chitin or cellulose may be formed:
+finally, an open cup, "theca," of firm or gelatinous material may be
+present, with or without a stalk: such a cup and stalk are often found
+in colonial species, and are subject to much the same conditions as in
+Infusoria. The nucleus is simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates
+it is connected with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate
+relation with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the
+"tropho-nucleus," the latter the "kineto-nucleus."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flagellata.
+
+  1. _Chlamydomonas pulvisculus_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_)
+  free-swimming individual.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch corpuscle.
+      d = cellulose investment.
+      e = stigma (eye-spot).
+
+  2. Resting stage of the same, with fourfold division of the
+  cell-contents. Letters as before.
+
+  3. Breaking up of the cell-contents into minute biflagellate
+  swarm-spores, which escape, and whose history is not further known.
+
+  4. _Syncrypta volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). A colony enclosed by
+  a common gelatinous test c.
+      a = stigma.
+      b = vacuole (non-contractile).
+
+  5. _Uroglena volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). Half of a large
+  colony, the flagellates embedded in a common jelly.
+
+  6. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch grain.
+      d = eye-spot.
+
+  7. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_). Copulation of
+  two liberated microgonidia.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      d = eye-spot (so-called).
+
+  8. Colony of _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_).
+
+  9. _Haematococcus palustris_, Girod (= _Chlamydococcus_, Braun,
+  _Protococcus_, Cohn), one of the _Chrysomonadidae_; ordinary
+  individual with widely separated test.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus (pyrenoid).
+
+  10. Dividing resting stage of the same, with eight fission products in
+  the common test e.
+
+  11. A microgonidium of the same.
+
+  12. _Phalansterium consociatum_, Cienk. (_Choanoflagellata_); X 325.
+  Disk-like colony.
+
+  13. _Euglena viridis_, Ehr.; X 300 (_Euglenidae_).
+      a = pigment spot (stigma).
+      b = clear space.
+      c = paramylum granules.
+      d = chromatophor (endochrome
+            plate).
+  14. _Gonium pectorale_, O. F. Muller (_Volvocineae_). Colony seen from
+  the flat side; X 300.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus.
+
+  15. _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amylon nucleus.
+      d = free colourless flagellates, probably not belonging to
+            Dinobryon.
+      e = stigma (eye-spot).
+      f = chromatophors.
+
+  16. _Peranema trichophorum_, Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping individual
+  seen from the back; X 140.
+      c = pharynx.
+      d = mouth.
+
+  17. Anterior end of _Euglena acus_, Ehr., in profile.
+      a = mouth.
+      b = vacuoles.
+      c = pharynx.
+      d = stigma (eye-spot).
+      e = paramylum-body.
+      f = chlorophyll corpuscles.
+
+  18. Part of the surface of a colony of _Volvox globator_, L.
+  (_Volvocidae_), showing the intercellular connective fibrils.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = starch granule.
+
+  19. Two microgametes (spermatozoa) of _Volvox globator_, L.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+
+  20. Ripe asexually produced daughter-individual of _Volvox minor_,
+  Stein, still enclosed in the cyst of the partheno-gonidium.
+      a = young, partheno-gonidia.
+
+  21. 22. _Trypanosoma sanguinis_, Gruby (_Haematoflagellates_), from
+  the blood of _Rana esculenta_.
+      a = nucleus; X 500.
+
+  23-26. Reproduction of _Bodo caudatus_, Duj. (_Bodonidae_), after
+  Dallinger and Drysdale:--23, fusion of several individuals
+  (plasmodium);
+
+  24, encysted fusion-product dividing into four; 25, later into eight;
+  26, cyst filled with swarm-spores.
+
+  27. _Distigma proteus_, Ehbg., O.F. Muller (_Euglenidae_); X 440.
+  Individual with the two flagella, and strongly contracting hinder
+  region of the body.
+
+  28. The same devoid of flagella.
+      c, c = the two dark pigment spots (so-called eyes) near the mouth.
+
+  29. _Oicomonas termo_ (_Monas termo_) Ehr. (one of the
+  _Oicomonadidae_).
+      c = food-ingesting vacuole.
+      d = food-particle; X 440.
+
+  30. The food-particle d has now been ingested by the vacuole.
+
+  31. _Oicomonas mutabilis_, Kent (_Oicomonadidae_), with adherent stalk.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = food-particle in food vacuole.
+
+  32, 33. _Cercomonas crassicauda_, Duj. (_Oicomonadidae_), showing two
+  conditions of the pseudo-podium-protruding tail.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuoles.
+      c = mouth.]
+
+As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum, leucosin
+(a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful composition), proteid
+granules. In the holophytic forms the cytoplasm contains specialized
+parts of more or less definite form, known generally as "plastids" or
+"chromatophores" impregnated with a lipochrome pigment, whether green
+(chlorophyll), yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or
+again red (chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of
+such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one anterior
+"eye-spot," of a refractive globule embedded behind in a collection of
+red pigment granules. The single anterior "flagellum tractellum" of so
+many of the larger forms acts by the bending over of its free end in
+consecutive meridians, so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex
+backwards: we may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling
+round and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to
+push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body forwards,
+the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves on (Y. Delage).
+An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may modify this axial rotation,
+and help in steering. When the animal is at rest--attached by its base
+or with its body so curved as to resist onward motion--the current
+produced by the tractellum will bring suspended particles up against the
+protoplasm at its base of insertion. As noted by E.R. Lankester, the
+posterior flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the
+spermatozoon of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind;
+he terms it a "pulsellum." Such flagellar motion is distinct from that
+of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards, with a swift
+downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane; though where the
+flagella are numerous they may behave in this way, and indeed flagella
+agree with cilia in being mere vibratory extensions of cytoplasm.
+Symmetrically placed flagella may have a symmetrical reciprocating
+motion like that of cilia.
+
+Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic); the majority
+live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in sea and fresh waters,
+but are not known to be active as agents of putrefaction. Dallinger and
+Drysdale have shown that the spores of _Bodo_ and others will survive an
+exposure to a higher temperature than do any known Schizomycetes
+(Bacteria), viz. 250 deg. to 300 deg. Fahr., for ten minutes, although
+the adults are killed at 180 deg.
+
+The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Protomastigopoda
+rarely exceeding 20 [mu] in length. The Euglenaceae contain the largest
+species, up to 130 [mu] in length, exclusive of the flagellum.
+
+Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler and Prantl,
+_Pflanzenfamilien_) and Hartog (in _Cambridge Natural History_).
+
+
+  I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA)
+
+  Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body.
+
+  Order 1.--HOLOMASTIGACEAE. Body homaxial with uniform flagella.
+  _Multicilia_ (Cienkowski); _Grassia_ (Fisch, in frog's blood and
+  gastric mucus).
+
+  Order 2.--RHIZOMASTIGACEAE. Flagellum 1, 2 or few, diverging from
+  anterior end. _Mastigamoeba_ (F.E. Schulze).
+
+
+  II. EUFLAGELLATA
+
+  Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true mouth,
+  or by absorption; or nutrition holophytic.
+
+  Order 1.--PROTOMASTIGACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple, one or more,
+  or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-spot (or 2 or
+  more), saprophytic, or parasitic.
+
+    Family 1.--OICOMONADIDAE. Flagellum 1, sometimes with a tail-like
+    posterior prominence passing into a temporary flagellum, but without
+    other cytoplasmic processes. _Oicomonas_ (Kent); _Cercomonas_
+    (Dujardin) (Fig. 1, 32, 33); _Codonoeca_ (James-Clark), with a
+    gelatinous theca.
+
+    Family 2.--BICOECIDAE. Differs from _Oicomonadidae_ in a unilateral
+    proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often thecate and
+    stalked, forming branched colonies, like Choanoflagellates in habit.
+    _Bicoeca_ (J.-Cl.), _Poteriodendron_.
+
+    Family 3.--CHOANOFLAGELLIDAE (Choanoflagellata, Kent;
+    Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but with
+    flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical rim of
+    cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive area. The cells of
+    this group have the morphology of the flagellate cells (choanocytes)
+    of sponges. They are often colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of
+    _Proterospongia_, the more internal cells (Fig. 2, 15) pass into a
+    definite "reproductive state." Many stalked forms are epizoic on
+    Entomostracan Crustacea.
+
+      (a) Naked forms often stalked: _Monosiga_ (Kent), stalked
+      solitary; _Codosiga_ (Kent) (Fig. 2, 3), stalked social;
+      _Desmarella_ (Kent), unstalked, and _Astrosiga_ (Kent), stalked,
+      form floating colonies.
+
+      (b) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: _Salpingoeca_ (J.-Cl.);
+      (Fig. 2, 1, 6, 7) recalling the habit of _Monosiga_ and _Cod
+      siga_; _Polyoeca_ forming a branched free swimming colony.
+
+      (c) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath: _Proterospongia_
+      (Kent) (Fig. 2, 15); _Phalansterium_ (Cienk.) (Fig. 1, 12), has a
+      slender cylindrical collar, and a branching tubular stalk.
+
+    Family 4.--HAEMOFLAGELLIDAE. Forms with a complex nuclear apparatus,
+    and a muscular undulating membrane with which one or two flagella
+    are connected, parasitic in Metazoa (often in the blood).
+    _Trypanosoma_ (Gruby) (Fig. 1, 21, 22), _Herpetomonas_(Kent),
+    _Treponema_ (Vuillemin)(= _Spirochaete_, auctt., nec. Ehrbg.).
+
+    Family 5.--AMPHIMONADIDAE. Flagella 2 anterior, both directed
+    forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &c., often recalling
+    Choanoflagellata, _Amphimonas_ (Kent), _Diplomitus_ (Kent);
+    _Spongomonas_ (St.), with thick branching gelatinous sheath.
+
+    Family 6.--MONADIDAE. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed
+    forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short.
+
+    _Monas_ (St.); _Anthophysa_ (Bory) (Fig. 2, 12, 13), with the stalk
+    composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder end of the
+    cells of the colony.
+
+    Family 7.--BODONIDAE. Flagella 2 (or 3) 1 anterior, the other (1 or
+    2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the end to form
+    a temporary anchor.
+
+    _Bodo_ (Ehrb.) (figs. 1, 23-26 and 2, 10). _B. lens_ is the "hooked"
+    and _B. saltans_ the "springing monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale;
+    _Dallingeria_ (Kent) with a pair of antero-lateral flagella; _Costia
+    necatrix_ (Leclerq) is also 3-flagellate; causes destructive
+    epidemics in fish-hatcheries.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flagellata.
+
+  1. _Salpingoeca fusiformis_, S. Kent (Choanoflagellata). The
+  protoplasmic body is drawn together within the goblet-shaped shell,
+  and divided into numerous spores.
+
+  2. Escape of the spores of the same as monoflagellate and
+  swarm-spores.
+
+  3. _Codosiga umbellata_, Tatem (Choanoflagellata); adult colony formed
+  by dichotomous growth.
+
+  4. A single zooid of the same.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = the characteristic "collar" of naked streaming protoplasm.
+
+  5. _Hexamita inflata_, Duj.(_Distomatidae_); normal adult.
+
+  6, 7 _Salpingoeca urceolata_, S Kent (_Choanoflagellata_)--6, with
+  collar extended; 7, with collar retracted within the stalked cup.
+
+  8 _Polytoma uvella_, Mull. sp. (_Chlamydomonadidae_).
+
+  9. _Lophomonas blattarum_, Stein (_Trichonymphidae_) from the
+  intestine of _Blatta orientalis_.
+
+  10. _Bodolens_, Mull. (_Bodonidae_), the wavy filament is a
+  tractellum, the straight one is a trailing thread.
+
+  11. _Tetramitus sulcatus_, Stein (_Tetramitidae_)
+
+  12. _Anthophysa vegetans_, O.F. Muller (_Monadidae_). A typical,
+  erect, shortly-branching colony stock with four terminal
+  monad-clusters.
+
+  13. Monad cluster of the same in optical section, showing the
+  relation of the individual monads or flagellate zooids to the stem d.
+
+  14. _Tetramitus rostratus_, Perty (_Tetramitidae_).
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+
+  15. _Proterospongia Haeckeli_, Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata); A
+  social colony of about forty flagellate zooids.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = contractile vacuole.
+      c = amoebiform cell sunk within the colonial gelatinous test
+            compared by S. Kent to a mesoderm cell of the sponges.
+      d = similar cell reproducing by transverse fission.
+      e = normal cells, with their collars contracted.
+      f = substance of test.
+      g = individual reproducing by multiple fission, producing
+            microzoospores, comparable to the spermatozoa of sponges.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.
+
+  1. _Trichonympha agilis_, Leidy, from gut of White Ant (Termite).
+
+  2. _Opalina ranarum_, Purkinje parasitic in frog rectum multinucleate
+  adult.
+
+  3, 4. Binary fissions of same, 1-nucleat individual at final stage of
+  fission.
+
+  5. Same encysted dejected from rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.
+
+  6. Young 1-nucleate individual emerged from cyst, destined to grow,
+  proliferating its nuclei to adult form.
+      a = nucleus.
+      b = food (?) particles in Fig. 1.]
+
+    Family 8.--TETRAMITIDAE. Body pyriform, the pointed end posterior;
+    flagella 4 anterior.
+
+    _Tetramitus_ (Perty) (_T. calycinus_ of Kent, Fig. 2, 11, 14), is
+    the "calycine monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale; _Trichomonas_,
+    Donne, possesses a longitudinal undulating membrane, and is an
+    innocuous human parasite; it is possibly related to Haemoflagellates
+    on one hand and to _Trichonymphidae_ on the other.
+
+    Family 9.--DISTOMATIDAE. Mouth-spots two, or one, with a distinct
+    construction; flagella symmetrically arranged; nucleus bilobed or
+    geminate. _Hexamitus_ (Duj.) (Fig. 2, 5), saprophytic and parasitic;
+    _Trepomonas_ (Duj.), freshwater; _Megastoma_ (Grassi) (= _Lamblia_
+    of Blanchard), with constricted mouth-spot and blepharoplast
+    (kineto-nucleus) parasitic in the small intestine of Mammals,
+    including Man.
+
+    Family 10.--TRICHONYMPHIDAE. Flagella numerous, sometimes
+    accompanied by one or more undulating membranes; cytoplasm highly
+    differentiated; contractile vacuole absent; all parasitic in insects
+    (all except _Lophomonas_ in Termites--the so-called White Ants.)
+
+    _Lophomonas_(St.) (Fig. 2, 9); parasitic in the cockroach;
+    _Dinenympha_ (Leidy), _Pyrsonympha_ (Leidy); _Trichenympha_ (Leidy)
+    (Fig. 3, 1).
+
+    Family 11.--OPALINIDAE. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform.
+    uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small,
+    numerous, uniform.
+
+    Only genus, _Opalina_ (Purkinje and Valentin) (Fig. 3, 2-6), in
+    bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an aberrant
+    ciliate, but E.R. Lankester expressed doubts as to its position in
+    the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia).
+
+  Order 2.--CHRYSOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple (in fresh-water
+  forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always present; reserves
+  fat.
+
+    Family 1.--CHRYSOMONADIDAE. Body naked, often amoeboid in active
+    state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gelatinous investment,
+    a firm cuticle, or silicified shell; reserves fat or leucosin
+    (starch in _Zooxanthella_); eye-spot present. _Chromulina_ (Cienk.)
+    often forms a golden scum on tanks; _Chrysamoeba_ (Klebs);
+    _Hydrurus_ (Agardh), theca of colony forming branching tubes,
+    simulating a yellow Conferva in mountain torrents; _Dinobryon_
+    (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 8, 15); _Stylochrysalis_ (St.); _Uroglena_ (Ehrb.);
+    _Syncrypta_ (Ehrb.), and _Synura_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 5) form floating
+    spherical colonies; _Zooxanthella_ (Brandt), symbiotic as "yellow
+    cells" in Radiolaria _Foraminifera_, _Millepora_, and many
+    Actinozoa.
+
+    Family 2.--COCCOLITHOPHORIDAE. Body invested in a spherical test
+    strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential circular plates,
+    "coccoliths," "discoliths," "cyatholiths," or radiating rods
+    "rhabdoliths." These are often found in Foraminiferal ooze and its
+    fossil condition, chalk; when coherent as in the complete test, they
+    are known as "coccospheres" and "rhabdospheres." _Coccolithophora_
+    (Lohmann), _Rhabdosphaera_ (Haeckel).
+
+  Order 3.--CRYPTOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole (in freshwater forms)
+  simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or absent; reserves
+  starch; holophytic or saprophytic. _Cryptomonas_ (Ehrb.); _Paramoeba_
+  (Greeff) has yellow plastids and shows two cycles, in the one
+  amoeboid, finally encysting to produce a brood of flagellulae; in the
+  other flagellate, and multiplying by longitudinal fission (it differs
+  from _Mastigamoeba_ in possessing no flagellum in the amoeboid state,
+  though it takes in food amoeba-fashion); _Chilomonas_ (Ehrb.).
+
+  Order 4.--CHLOROMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a complex of
+  variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids discoid
+  chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in active
+  state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior blind
+  tubular depression simulating a pharynx. _Coelomonas_ (St.),
+  _Vacuolaria_ (Cienk.).
+
+  Order 5.--EUGLENACEAE. Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or more
+  accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface by a canal
+  ("pharynx") in which are planted one or two strong flagella; pellicle
+  strong often striated; nucleus large, chromatophores green, complex or
+  absent; reserves paramylum granules of definite shape, and oil;
+  nutrition variable; body stiff or "metabolic," never amoeboid. Among
+  the true Flagellates these are the largest, few being below 40 [mu]
+  and several attaining 130 [mu] in length of cell-body (excluding
+  flagellum). Encysted condition common; the green forms sometimes
+  multiply in this state and simulate unicellular Algae.
+
+    Family 1.--EUGLENIDAE. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition
+    saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1) Chromatophore
+    large; eye-spot conspicuous. _Euglena_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 13, 17),
+    with flexible cuticle and metabolic movements (this is probably
+    Priestley's "green matter" through which he obtained oxygen gas)--a
+    very common genus; _Colacium_ (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic
+    on Copepoda, which it colours green; _Eutreptia_ (Perty),
+    biflagellate; _Ascoglena_ (St.); _Trachelomonas_ (Ehrb.), with a
+    hard brown cuticle; _Phacus_ (Nitszche), with a firm rigid pellicle,
+    often symmetrically flattened; _Cryptoglena_ (Ehbg.). (2)
+    Chromatophores absent. _Astasia_ (Duj.), body metabolic; _Menoidium_
+    (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat inflected and crescentic;
+    _Sphenomonas_ (Stein), with a short accessory trailing flagellum in
+    front peeled; _Distigma_ (Ehbg.) (Fig. 1, 27, 28), very metabolic,
+    with two unequal flagella and two dark pigment spots.
+
+    Family 2.--PERANEMIDAE. Bilaterally symmetrical, often creeping,
+    pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like skeleton, sometimes
+    protrusible; nutrition saprophytic and holozoic. _Peranema_ (Ehbg.)
+    and _Urceolus_ (Mereschowsky), uni-flagellate creeping, very
+    metabolic. _Petalomonas_ (St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep
+    ventral groove, not metabolic; _Heteronema_ (Duj.) and
+    _Tropidoscyphus_ (St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing
+    flagellum; _Anisonema_ (Duj.) and _Entosiphon_ (St.), with the
+    trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much longer.
+
+  Order 6.--VOLVOCACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple anterior; cell
+  always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous) perforated
+  by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior flagella;
+  reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present, except in
+  _Polytoma_, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutrition usually
+  holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic. Brood-division in
+  active state common, radial.
+
+    Family 1.--CHLAMYDOMONADIDAE. Cell-wall firm not gelatinous, rarely
+    forming colonies. Fore-end of the body with two or four (seldom
+    five) flagella. Almost always green in consequence of the presence
+    of a very large single chromatophore. Generally a delicate
+    shell-like envelope of membranous consistence. 1 to 2 simple
+    contractile vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one
+    eye-speck. Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may
+    produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may occur in the
+    swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more continuous fission
+    microgametes of various sizes are formed. Conjugation is frequent.
+
+  Genera.--_Chlorangium_ (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll;
+  _Chlorogonium_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 6, 7); _Polytoma_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 2, 8);
+  _Chlamydomonas_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 1, 2, 3); _Haematococcus_ (Agardh) (=
+  _Chlamydococcus_, A. Braun, Stein); _Protococcus_ (Conn, Huxley and
+  Martin); _Chlamydomonas_ (Cienkowski), causes red snow and "bloody
+  rain"; _Carteria_ (Diesing), quadri-flagellate; _Spondytomorum_
+  (Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; _Coccomonas_ (St.); _Phacotus_
+  (Perty); _Zoochlorella_ (Brandt), is the name given to undetermined
+  Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state within and in
+  symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the freshwater sponge,
+  _Ephydatia_, _Hydra viridis_, and to the Turbellarian, _Convoluta
+  viridis_ (in which last species the active form has been recognized as
+  a _Carteria_).
+
+    Family 2.--VOLVOCIDAE. Cell-wall gelatinous; always associated in
+    colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number of individuals united to
+    form a colony varies very much, as does the shape of the colony.
+    Reproduction by the continuous division of all or of only certain
+    individuals of the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter
+    colony (from each such individual). In some, probably in all, at
+    certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct sexual
+    colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation of the
+    colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female. The result
+    of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also called zygote or
+    oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a time develops itself into
+    one or more new colonies.
+
+  Genera.--_Gonium_ (O.F. Muller) (Fig. 1, 14); _Stephanosphaera_
+  (Cohn); _Pandorina_ (Bory de Vine); _Eudorina_ (Ehr.); _Volvox_
+  (Ehr.)(Fig. 1, 18, 20).
+
+  The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one of
+  the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In some
+  families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid, fuse,
+  encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop simply
+  to the parental form (Fig. 1, 23 to 26). In the _Chlamydomonadidae_ a
+  single adult individual by division produces small individuals,
+  so-called "microgametes." These conjugate with one another or with
+  similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chlorogonium, Fig.
+  1, 7); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete conjugates with
+  an ordinary individual megagamete. The result in either case is a
+  "zygote," a cell formed by fusion of two which divides in the usual
+  way to produce new individuals. The microgamete in this case is the
+  male element and equivalent to a spermatozoon; the megagamete is the
+  female and equivalent to an egg-cell. The zygote is a "fertilized
+  egg," or oosperm. In some colony-building forms we find that only
+  certain cells produce by division microgametes; and, regarding the
+  colony as a multicellular individual, we may consider these cells as
+  testis-cells and their microgametes as spermatozoa.
+
+  CYSTOFLAGELLATA(RHYNCHOFLAGELLATA of E.R. Lankester) and
+  DINOFLAGELLATA are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata; but,
+  following O. Butschli, we describe them separately; the three groups
+  being united into his MASTIGOPHORA.
+
+  _Further Remarks on the Flagellates._--Besides the work of special
+  Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Butschli, F. v. Stein, F.
+  Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &c., the Flagellates have been a favourite
+  study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite N.
+  Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W.C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P.A. Dangeard, G.
+  Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schutt; the reason for this is obvious. They
+  present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera to
+  the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex
+  colonies of _Proterospongia_ and _Volvox_. By some they are regarded
+  as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa--a position which may
+  perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa; but they seem
+  undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as
+  well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the only
+  distinction between the _Chlamydomonadidae_ and the true green Algae
+  or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting
+  condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older
+  cell-walls (_Palmella_ state), they round off and separate, while the
+  latter divide by a "party wall" so as to give rise either to a
+  cylindrical filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of
+  growth constant (_Conferva_ type), or to a plate of tissue when the
+  directions alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the
+  Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae, so that these little groups are
+  included in all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores
+  of the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae,
+  Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the _Bodonidae_. Thus in two
+  directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Probably also
+  the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the Conjugatae in the
+  widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the Diatomaceae; both groups
+  of obscure affinity, since even the reproductive bodies have no
+  special organs of locomotion. For these reasons the Volvocaceae,
+  Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae have been
+  united as Phytoflagellates; and the Euglenaceae might well be added to
+  these. It is easy to understand the relation of the saprophytic and
+  the holophytic Flagellates to true plants. The capacity to absorb
+  nutritive matter in solution (as contrasted with the ingestion of
+  solid matter) renders the encysted condition compatible with active
+  growth, and what in holozoic forms is a true hypnocyst, a state in
+  which all functions are put to sleep, is here only a rest from active
+  locomotion, nutrition being only limited by the supply of nutritive
+  matter from without, and--in the case of holophytic species--by the
+  illumination: this latter condition naturally limits the possible
+  growth in thickness in holophytes with undifferentiated tissues. The
+  same considerations apply indeed to the larger parasitic organisms
+  among Sporozoa, such as Gregarines and Myxosporidia and
+  Dolichosporidia, which are giants among Protozoa.
+
+  LITERATURE.--W.S. Kent, _Manual of the Infusoria_, vol. i. Protozoa
+  (1880-1882); O. Butschli, _Die Flagellaten_ (in Bronn's _Thierreich_,
+  vol. i. Protozoa, 1885); these two works contain full bibliographies
+  of the antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on
+  Chlamydomonads) in _Bull. Soc. Nat._ (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G.
+  Klebs, "Flagellatenstudien" in _Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool._ lv. (1892);
+  Doflein, _Protozoen als Krankheitserreger_ (1900); Senn,
+  "Flagellaten," in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, 1 Teil, Abt.
+  1a (1900); R. France, _Der Organismus der Craspedomonaden_ (1897);
+  Grassi and Sandias, "Trichonymphidae," in _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._
+  xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzenberger, "Opa inidae" in _Arch. Protist_, iii.
+  (1903); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol. i.
+  (1906).     (M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of _flute-a-bec_ with a new fingering,
+invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and in vogue in
+England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century.
+The instrument is described and illustrated by Mersenne,[1] who states
+that the most famous maker and player in his day was Le Vacher. The
+flageolet differed from the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in
+front and two thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in
+front and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived in the
+French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in small
+orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the holes was as
+follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near mouthpiece; 2 and 3,
+finger-holes stopped by the left hand; 4, finger-hole stopped by right
+hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back; 6, hole near the open end. According to
+Dr Burney (_History of Music_) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur
+Juvigny, who played it in the _Ballet comique de la Royne_, 1581. Dr
+Edward Browne,[2] writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June
+1673, relates, "We have with us here one ... and Mr Hadly upon the
+flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to invent large ones
+and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever upon any other
+instrument." About the same time was published Thomas Greeting's
+_Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet_
+(London, 1675 or 1682), a rare book of which the British Museum does not
+possess a copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the
+beginning of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and
+triple flageolets.[3] The three tubes were bored parallel through one
+piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which was common to all
+three. The lowest notes of the respective tubes were [Musical notes: D B
+G]
+
+The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval Fr.
+_flajol_, the primitive whistle-pipe.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.
+
+  [2] See Sir Thomas Browne's Works, vol. i. p. 206.
+
+  [3] See Capt. C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
+    Instruments_ (London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also _Complete
+    Instructions for the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1825); and _The
+    Preceptor, or a Key to the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1815).
+
+
+
+
+FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the symbol of
+authority of an admiral.
+
+
+
+
+FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870),
+French general and statesman, son of Alexandre Sebastien de Flahaut de
+la Billarderie, comte de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793,
+and his wife Adelaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (q.v.), was born
+in Paris on the 21st of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally
+recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talleyrand,
+with whom he was closely connected throughout his life. His mother took
+him with her into exile in 1792, and they remained abroad until 1798. He
+entered the army as a volunteer in 1800, and received his commission
+after the battle of Marengo. He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was
+wounded at the battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne
+Poniatowski, Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became intimate.
+After the battle of Friedland he received the Legion of Honour, and
+returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in 1808, and then in
+Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka had established herself in
+Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by this time entered on his liaison
+with Hortense de Beauharnais, queen of Holland. The birth of their son
+was registered in Paris on the 21st of October 1811 as Charles Auguste
+Louis Joseph Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought
+with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813 became
+general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and, after the battle
+of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 he
+submitted to the new government, but was placed on the retired list in
+September. He was assiduous in his attendance on Queen Hortense until
+the Hundred Days brought him into active service again. A mission to
+Vienna to secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was
+present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II. on the
+throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand's influence, but was
+placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected to retire to
+Germany, and thence to England, where he married Margaret, daughter of
+Admiral George Keith Elphinstone, Lord Keith, and after the latter's
+death Baroness Keith in her own right. The French ambassador opposed the
+marriage, and Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter,
+Emily Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts
+returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the count
+the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of France. He
+remained intimately associated with Talleyrand's policy, and was, for a
+short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin. He was afterwards attached to
+the household of the duke of Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador
+to Vienna, where he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and
+retired from the army. After the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 he was again
+actively employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court of
+St James's. He died on the 1st of September 1870. The comte de Flahaut
+is perhaps better remembered for his exploits in gallantry, and the
+elegant manners in which he had been carefully trained by his mother,
+than for his public services, which were not, however, so inconsiderable
+as they have sometimes been represented to be.
+
+  See A. de Haricourt, _Madame de Souza et sa famille_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+FLAIL (from Lat. _flagellum_, a whip or scourge, but used in the Vulgate
+in the sense of "flail"; the word appears in Dutch _vlegel_, Ger.
+_Flegel_, and Fr. _fleau_), a farm hand-implement formerly used for
+threshing corn. It consists of a short thick club called a "swingle" or
+"swipple" attached by a rope or leather thong to a wooden handle in such
+a manner as to enable it to swing freely. The "flail" was a weapon used
+for military purposes in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as
+a threshing-flail but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It
+also took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end
+swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was known as the
+"morning star" or "holy water sprinkler." During the panic over the
+Popish plot in England from 1678 to 1681, clubs, known as "Protestant
+flails," were carried by alarmed Protestants (see GREEN RIBBON CLUB).
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBARD, RANULF, or RALPH (d. 1128), bishop of Durham and chief
+minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman parish priest who
+belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating at an early age to England,
+the young Ranulf entered the chancery of William I. and became
+conspicuous as a courtier. He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed
+him Flambard in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he
+acquired the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played
+an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey. In that
+record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as holding land
+both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death of the old king he
+became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London, under whom he had formerly
+served in the chancery. But early in the next reign Ranulf returned to
+the royal service. He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he
+seems in that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the
+custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer; and there
+can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a fiscal character.
+His name is regularly connected by the chroniclers with the ingenious
+methods of extortion from which all classes suffered between 1087 and
+1100. He profited largely by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king
+a large proportion of the ecclesiastical preferments which were
+illegally kept vacant, and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of
+Durham (1099). His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of
+Henry I., by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry.
+A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard soon
+succeeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London. A popular
+legend represents the bishop as descending from the window of his cell
+by a rope which friends had conveyed to him in a cask of wine. He took
+refuge with Robert Curthose in Normandy and became one of the advisers
+who pressed the duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger
+brother; Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the
+administration of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai
+(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with Henry, and
+was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham he passed the
+remainder of his life. His private life was lax; he had at least two
+sons, for whom he purchased benefices before they had entered on their
+teens; and scandalous tales are told of the entertainments with which he
+enlivened his seclusion. But he distinguished himself, even among the
+bishops of that age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but
+completed the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef,
+had begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the priory of
+Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch, Hampshire. As a
+politician he ended his career with his submission to Henry, who found
+in Roger of Salisbury a financier not less able and infinitely more
+acceptable to the nation. Ranulf died on the 5th of September 1128.
+
+  See Orderic Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_, vols. iii. and iv. (ed.
+  le Prevost, Paris, 1845); the first continuation of Symeon's _Historia
+  Ecclesiae Dunelmensis_ (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury in the
+  _Gesta pontificum_ (Rolls ed., 1870); and the _Peterborough Chronicle_
+  (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E.A. Freeman in his _William
+  Rufus_ (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also T.A. Archer
+  in the _English Historical Review_, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs's
+  _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.H.
+  Round's _Feudal England_ (London, 1895).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a promontory on the Yorkshire coast of England,
+between the Filey and Bridlington bays of the North Sea. It is a lofty
+chalk headland, and the resistance it offers to the action of the waves
+may be well judged by contrast with the low coast of Holderness to the
+south. The cliffs of the Head, however, are pierced with caverns and
+fringed with rocks of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata
+is seen at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on
+the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54 deg. 7' N., 0 deg. 5' W.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMBOYANT STYLE, the term given to the phase of Gothic architecture in
+France which corresponds in period to the Perpendicular style. The word
+literally means "flowing" or "flaming," in consequence of the
+resemblance to the curved lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest
+examples of flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of
+the Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the
+enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the foliations
+resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form and hence the term
+flowing tracery. In the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley,
+dating from 1320 and 1330, are the earliest examples in England; in
+France its first employment dates from about 1460, and it is now
+generally agreed that the flamboyant style was introduced from English
+sources. One of the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in
+France is that known as "interpenetration," in which the base mouldings
+of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which the
+faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was in a sense a
+_tour de force_ of French masons, was carried to such an extent that in
+a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating the base-mould would be
+found to be those of a diagonal buttress situated 20 to 30 ft. above it.
+It was not limited, however, to internal work; in late 15th and early
+16th century ecclesiastical architecture it is found on the facades of
+some French cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in
+later times.
+
+
+
+
+FLAME (Lat. _flamma_; the root _flag_-appears in _flagrare_, to burn,
+blaze, and Gr. [Greek: phlegein]). There is no strict scientific
+definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be
+regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in consequence
+of chemical action. It is well known that the luminosity of gases can be
+induced by the electrical discharge, and with rapidly alternating
+high-tension discharges in air an oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced
+which is long and flickering, can be blown out, yields nitrogen
+peroxide, and is in fact indistinguishable from an ordinary flame except
+by its electrical mode of maintenance. The term "flame" is also applied
+to solar protuberances, which, according to the common view, consist of
+gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even with the restricted
+definition given above, difficulties present themselves. It is found,
+for example, with a hydrogen flame that the luminosity diminishes as the
+purity of the hydrogen is increased and as the air is freed from dust,
+and J.S. Stas declared that under the most favourable conditions he was
+only able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it,
+an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum of the
+flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand, there are many
+examples of chemical combination between gases where the attendant
+radiation is below the pitch of visibility, as in the case of ethylene
+and chlorine. It will be obvious from these facts that a strict
+definition of flame is hardly possible. The common distinction between
+luminous and non-luminous flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and
+only corresponds to a rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.
+
+The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may be
+liberated during combination or decomposition. A single substance like
+gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and gives gaseous products, will
+produce a bright flame of decomposition if a single piece be heated in
+an evacuated flask. Combination is the more common case, and this means
+that we have two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed _en
+masse_ before combination, the one which flows as a current into the
+other is called conventionally the "combustible," but the simple
+experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show the unreality of
+this distinction between combustible and supporter of combustion, which,
+in fact, is only one of the many partial views that are explained and
+perhaps justified by the dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.
+
+Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most interesting, it
+will be well to consider simpler flames first in order to discuss some
+fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon flames the complexity of the
+combustible, its susceptibility to change by heating, and the
+possibilities of fractional oxidation, create special difficulties. In
+the flame of hydrogen and oxygen or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have
+simpler conditions, though here, too, things may be by no means so
+simple as they seem from the equations 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O and 2CO + O2 =
+2CO2. The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well known,
+and the molecular transactions may in reality be complicated. We shall,
+however, assume for the sake of clearness that in these cases we have a
+simple reaction taking place throughout the mass of flame. There are
+various ways in which a pair of gases may be burned, and these we shall
+consider separately. Let us first suppose the two gases to have been
+mixed _en masse_ and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If
+the mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which vary for
+each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light is applied,
+and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame may be very slow in its
+progress or it may attain a velocity of the order of one or two thousand
+metres per second. Until comparatively recent times great
+misunderstanding prevailed on this subject. The slow rate of movement of
+flame in short lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity
+of explosion, but more recent researches by M.P.E. Berthelot, E.
+Mallard and H.L. le Chatelier and H.B. Dixon have shown that a
+distinction must be made between the slow _initial rate of inflammation_
+of gaseous mixtures and the _rapid rate of detonation_, or rate of the
+_explosive wave_, which in many cases is subsequently set up. We shall
+here deal only with the slow movements of flame. The development of a
+flame in such a gaseous mixture requires that a small portion of it
+should be raised to a temperature called the _temperature of ignition_.
+Here again considerable misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature
+of ignition has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical
+combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at which
+combination has reached a certain rate. The combination of hydrogen and
+oxygen begins at temperatures far below that of ignition. It may indeed
+be supposed that the combination occurs with extreme slowness even at
+ordinary temperatures, and that as the temperature is raised the
+velocity of the reaction increases in accordance with the general
+expression according to which an increase of 10 deg.C. will
+approximately double the rate. However that may be, it has been proved
+experimentally by J.H. van't Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the
+combination of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far
+below the temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be greatly
+influenced by the solid surfaces which are present; thus in a plain
+glass vessel the combination only began to be perceptible at 448 deg.,
+whilst in a silvered glass vessel it would be detected at 182 deg. C.
+
+The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances, including
+ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the application of heat to a
+combustible mixture as resulting in an increase of the rate of
+combination locally. Let us suppose that we are dealing with a stratum
+of the mixture in small contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature
+of the first section _a_ deg. C., an increased rate of combination is
+set up. The heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by
+conduction and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite
+suffice to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to _a_ deg.C. The
+combination in that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in the
+first one, and so evidently the impulse to combination will go on
+abating as we pass along the stratum. Suppose now we start again and
+heat the first section of the mixture to a temperature _c_ deg.C., such
+that the rate of combination is very rapid and the heat developed by
+combination suffices to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to a
+temperature higher than _c_ deg.C. The rate of combination will then be
+greater than in the first section, and the impulse to combination will
+be intensified in the same way from section to section along the stratum
+until a maximum temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be
+a temperature of _b_ deg.C. between _a_ deg. and _c_ deg. which will
+satisfy this condition, that the heat which results from the combination
+stimulated in the first section just suffices to raise the temperature
+of the second section to _b_ deg. This temperature _b_ deg. is the
+temperature of ignition of the mixture; so soon as it is attained by a
+portion of the mixture the combustion becomes self-sustaining and flame
+spreads through the mixture. Ignition temperature may be defined briefly
+as the temperature at which the initial loss of heat due to conduction,
+&c., is equal to the heat evolved in the same time by the chemical
+reaction (van't Hoff). From the above considerations we see that the
+temperature of ignition will vary not only when the gases are varied,
+but when the proportions of the same gases are varied, and also when the
+pressure is varied. We can see also that outside certain limiting
+proportions a mixture of gases will have no practicable ignition
+temperature, that is to say, the cooling effect of the gas which is in
+excess will carry off so much heat that no attainable initial heating
+will suffice to set up the transmission of a constant temperature. Thus
+in the case of hydrogen and air, mixtures containing less than 5 and
+more than 72% of hydrogen are not inflammable. The theory of ignition
+temperature enables us to understand why in an explosive mixture a very
+small electric spark may not suffice to induce explosion. Combination
+will indeed take place in the path of the spark, but the amount of it is
+not sufficient to meet the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It must be
+added that the theory of ignition temperatures given above does not
+explain all the observed facts. F. Emich states that the inflammability
+of gaseous mixtures is not necessarily greatest when the gases are mixed
+in the proportions theoretically required for complete combination, and
+the influence of foreign gases does not appear to follow any simple law.
+The presence of a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound
+influence on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of
+ethylene to hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a mixture of
+methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature a sensible
+interval (about 10 seconds) elapses before inflammation occurs.
+
+The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases which has
+been ignited depends on the proportions in which the gases are mixed.
+Fig. 1 (Bunte) represents this relationship for several common gases.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with
+air.]
+
+If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the production of a
+steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and ignited at the end; it
+is obvious that the velocity of efflux must be greater than the initial
+rate of inflammation of the mixture, for otherwise the mixture would
+fire back down the tube. If the velocity of efflux be considerably
+greater than the rate of inflammation, the flame will be separated from
+the end of the tube, and only appear as a flickering crown where the
+velocity and inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by
+admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux the flame
+will be blown out. J.B.A. Dumas used to show the experiment of blowing
+out a candle with electrolytic gas. A steady flame formed by burning a
+ready-made gaseous mixture at the end of a tube of circular section has
+the form shown in fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower
+limiting surface of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the
+velocity of efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation, and
+its conical form is explained by the fact that the rate of efflux of gas
+is greatest in the vertical axis of the tube where the flow is not
+retarded by friction with the walls, as well as by the further fact that
+the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards, the inflammation
+proceeding directly against it. The flame, it will be seen, is of
+considerable thickness. If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen,
+or carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious features of
+structure beyond those shown in the figure; that is to say, the shaded
+region of burning gas has the appearance of homogeneity and uniform
+colour which might be expected to accompany a uniform chemical
+condition. Some admixture of the external air will, of course, take
+place, especially in the upper parts of the flame, and detectable
+quantities of oxides of nitrogen may be found in the products of
+combustion, but this is an inconsiderable feature. The flame just
+described is essentially that of a blowpipe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of allowing one
+gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases as before, hydrogen
+or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find again that the flame is conical
+in form and uniform in colour, but in this case, if the velocity of
+efflux be not immoderate, the burning gas only extends over a
+comparatively thin shell, limited on the inside by the pure combustible
+and on the outside by a mixture of the products of combustion with
+oxygen. The combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with
+the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of gas to be
+burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned gas thus becomes
+thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a point. The external
+surface of a flame of this kind will for the same consumption of gas be
+larger than that of a flame where the ready-made mixture of gases is
+used. If a jet of one gas be sent with a sufficient velocity into
+another, turbulent admixture takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame
+of uniform colour is obtained.
+
+A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one gas, mixed
+with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient for complete
+combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the second. This is the case
+with what are generally known as atmospheric burners, of which the
+Bunsen burner is the prototype. The development of a flame of this kind
+can be well studied in the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon
+monoxide is fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the
+burner-tube being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a
+cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now the
+air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same blue
+colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered through the
+air-valve ("primary" air) has become mixed with the carbon monoxide and
+so oxidizes its quota in an internal cone, the rest of the carbon
+monoxide (diluted now, of course, with carbon dioxide and nitrogen)
+wandering into the external atmosphere to burn (with "secondary" air) in
+a second cone. The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent
+thermal effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If
+the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion can
+take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement of the inner
+cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of inflammation of the
+mixture, and the inner cone (which only maintains its stability because
+the rate of efflux of the mixture is greater than the velocity of
+inflammation) contracts, and will, as the proportion of primary air is
+increased, soon evince a tendency to enter the burner-tube. At this
+stage an interesting phenomenon is to be noticed. When we have reached
+the point of aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture
+just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the
+burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion checks the
+suction flow of air through the valve at the base of the burner, whilst
+it does not appreciably check the pressure flow of the carbon monoxide
+through the gas nozzle. The result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor
+in air, and therefore of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when
+the descending disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the
+disk returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The
+full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated.
+This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely long if
+the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant. With still
+more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires back to the burner
+nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have enough air entering to
+produce a flame of the blast blowpipe type, namely, one where the carbon
+monoxide mixed with an _excess_ of primary air burns with a single cone
+in a steady flame.
+
+By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells a two-coned
+flame of the kind described may be resolved into its components. The
+apparatus is like a half-extended telescope made of two glass tubes, and
+it is evident that the velocity of a mixture of gases flowing through it
+must be greater in the narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of
+the narrower tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at
+the end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a
+certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and attach
+itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs when the
+velocity of inflammation is just greater than the upward velocity of the
+gaseous stream in the wide tube and less than the upward velocity in the
+narrow tube. If the outer tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame
+burns at the end of the inner tube; if the outer tube be slid up again,
+it detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus has
+been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in various
+flames.
+
+_Temperature of Flames._--The term "flame-temperature" is used very
+vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by some description.
+It is least ambiguous when used in reference to flames where the
+combining gases are mixed in theoretical proportions before issuing from
+the burner. The flame in such a case has considerable thickness and
+uniformity, and, though the temperature is not constant throughout,
+flames of this type given by different combustibles admit of comparison.
+In other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop
+large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how
+temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will not, from
+the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient temperature
+for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum wire may be melted at the
+edge of the lower part of such a flame. The maximum temperature of the
+flame is therefore not in any serious sense an available temperature. It
+will suffice to point out here that in order to burn a gas so that it
+may have the highest available temperature, we must burn it with the
+smallest external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the
+combining gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner.
+Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the Bunsen type,
+and arrange matters so that a large amount of primary air is supplied.
+It is in this direction that modern improvements have been made with a
+view to obtaining hot flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern
+burner, for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where
+much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being well
+mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be produced with a
+great tendency to light back. The burner head is therefore usually
+provided with a mixing chamber and the mixture issues through a slit or
+a mesh. A great many modified Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim
+in all of them being to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness
+with the smallest attainable external surface.
+
+To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have been
+employed. The method of calculation, based on the supposition that the
+whole heat of combustion is localized in the product (or products) of
+combustion and heats it to a temperature depending on its specific heat,
+cannot be applied in a simple way. Apart from the assumption (which
+there is reason to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy
+assumes the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change
+of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation
+and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of temperature
+must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules and not to a single
+one, and therefore any influence which means delay in combination will
+result in reduction of temperature by radiation and conduction. It can
+hardly be maintained that in the present state of knowledge we have the
+requisite data for the calculation of flame temperature, though good
+approximations may be made. Many attempts have been made to determine
+flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples and by radiation
+pyrometers. The couple most employed is that known as H.L. le
+Chatelier's, consisting of two wires, one of platinum and the other an
+alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of rhodium. When all possible precautions
+are taken it is possible by means of such thermo-couples to measure
+local flame temperatures with a considerable degree of accuracy.
+Subjoined are some results obtained at different times and by different
+observers with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:--
+
+  Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896)        1770 deg. C.
+   "      "     "      "    (Berkenbusch, 1899)     1830 deg.
+   "      "     "      "    (White & Traver, 1902)  1780 deg.
+   "      "     "      "    (Fery, 1905)            1871 deg.
+
+The following are given by Fery:--
+
+  Acetylene               2548 deg. C.
+  Alcohol                 1705 deg.
+  Hydrogen (in air)       1900 deg.
+  Oxy-hydrogen            2420 deg.
+  Oxy-coal gas blowpipe   2200 deg.
+
+_Source of Light in Flames._--We may consider first those flames where
+solid particles are out of the question; for example, the flame of
+carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the luminosity was due to the
+thermal glow of the highly heated product of combustion has been
+challenged independently by a number of observers, and the view has been
+advanced that the emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a
+kind of discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules. E.
+Wiedemann proposed the name "chemi-luminescence" for radiation of this
+kind. The fact is that colourless gases cannot be made to glow by any
+purely thermal heating at present available, and products of combustion
+heated to the average temperature of the flames in which they are
+produced are non-luminous. On the other hand, it must be remembered that
+in a mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules are
+engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination, and that the
+energy liberated in such individual transactions, if localized
+momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules a unique condition
+of temperature far transcending that of the average, and the
+distribution of heat in a flame would be very different from that
+existing in the same mixture of gases heated from an external source to
+the same average temperature. The view advocated by Smithells is that in
+the chemical combination of gases the initial phase of the formation of
+the new molecule is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and
+that the damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the
+source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat. This, it
+will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.
+
+The view of Sir H. Davy that "whenever a flame is remarkably brilliant
+and dense it may always be concluded that some solid matter is produced
+in it" can be no longer entertained. The flames of phosphorus in oxygen
+and of carbon disulphide in nitric oxide contain only gaseous products,
+and Frankland showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
+became highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frankland
+was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames is
+associated with high density of the gases, and he does not draw a
+distinction in this respect between high density due to high molecular
+weight and high density due to the close packing of lighter molecules.
+The increased luminosity of a compressed flame is not difficult to
+understand from the kinetic theory of gases, but no explanation has
+appeared of the luminosity considered by Frankland to be due merely to
+high molecular weight. It is possible that the electron theory may
+ultimately afford a better understanding of these phenomena.
+
+_Structure of Flame._--The vagueness of the term structure, as applied
+to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting accounts which are
+current as to the number of differentiated parts in different flames.
+Unless this term is restricted to sharp differences in appearance, there
+is no limit to the number of parts which may be selected for mention.
+The flame of carbon monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before
+it issues from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure,
+but is a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity--a hollow cone if
+the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas not
+immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have a slit or
+two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas to spread each
+other out. Such a flame has but one single distinct feature, and this is
+not surprising, as there is no reason to suppose that there is any
+difference in the chemical process or processes that are occurring in
+different quarters of the flame. The amount of materials undergoing this
+transformation in different parts of the flame may and does vary; the
+gases become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular
+vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a variation in the
+intensity of the light in different quarters, but the differences
+induced are not sharp or in any proper sense structural. A flame of this
+kind may develop a secondary feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be
+burnt in oxygen which is mixed or combined with another element there
+may be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in
+air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a greenish
+cast, apparently associated with the combination of nitrogen with oxygen
+(H.B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being strongly heated begins to
+dissociate into carbon and carbon dioxide; if the unburnt carbon
+monoxide within a flame of that gas were so highly heated by its own
+burning walls as to reach the temperature of dissociation, we might
+expect to see a special feature of structure due to the separated
+carbon. Such a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.
+
+Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published in reference
+to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is of peculiar
+interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists of an almost crimson
+shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue. Investigations have shown
+that these two colours correspond to two steps in the progress of the
+combustion, in the first of which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized
+to carbon monoxide and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to
+carbon dioxide.
+
+The inversion of combustion may bring new features of structure into
+existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt in oxygen no solid
+carbon can be found in the flame, but when a jet of oxygen is burnt in
+cyanogen solid carbon separates on the edge of the flame.
+
+_Hydrocarbon Flames._--As already stated the flames of carbon compounds
+and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more studied than any
+other kind, as is natural from their common use and practical
+importance. The earliest investigations were made with coal gas,
+vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite and complex nature of these
+substances led to difficulties and confusion in the interpretation of
+results. One such difficulty may be illustrated by the fact, often
+overlooked, that when a mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the
+individual component gases will separate spontaneously in accordance
+with their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer
+edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.
+
+The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of course on the
+manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme cases are (i.) when the
+issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the burner with sufficient air
+for complete combustion, as in the blast blowpipe, in which case we have
+a sheet of blue undifferentiated flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to
+find all the air it requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate
+stage is when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with
+a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame is
+produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already been
+discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one kind of flame
+into the others can be effected gradually, and this is seen with
+particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene vapour admixed with
+gradually increasing quantities of air. The key to the explanation of
+the structure of an ordinary luminous flame, such as that of a candle,
+is to be found, according to Smithells, by observing the changes
+undergone by a well-aerated Bunsen flame as the "primary" air is
+gradually cut off by closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It
+is then seen that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the
+two recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst the
+appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes increasingly
+emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper part of the blue
+sheath. There are thus three recognizable features of structure in an
+ordinary luminous flame, each region being as it were a mere shell and
+the interior of the flame filled with gas which has not yet entered into
+active combustion. If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary
+luminous flame are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the
+chemistry of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What
+happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen burner? The
+air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete combustion so
+that the inner cone of the flame may be considered as air burning in an
+excess of coal gas. What will be the products of this combustion? This
+question has been answered at different times in very different ways.
+There are many conceivable answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be
+wholly oxidized and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air
+and burn as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has
+been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner cone
+whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon set free or
+oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon might be oxidized to
+carbon dioxide or monoxide and the hydrogen set free. There might of
+course be other intermediate kinds of action. Now it is important at
+this point to insist upon a distinction between what can be found by
+direct analysis as to the products of partial combustion, and what can
+be imagined or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of
+which the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We shall
+consider only in the first instance what substances are found by
+analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner in which coal gas was
+used, and the gases withdrawn directly from the flame by aspiration,
+gave no very clear results, but the introduction of the cone-separating
+apparatus and the use of single hydrocarbons led to more definite
+conclusions. The analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene
+flame gave the following numbers:--carbon dioxide = 3.6; water = 9.5;
+carbon monoxide = 15.6; hydrocarbons = 1.3; hydrogen = 9.4; nitrogen =
+60.6.
+
+It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a
+considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst practically
+all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide. As the gases have
+cooled down before analysis and as the reaction CO + H2O<-->CO2 + H2 is
+reversible, it may be objected that the inter-conal gases may have a
+composition when they are hot very different from what they show when
+cold. Experiments made to test this question have not sustained the
+objection. Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons have
+made it appear undesirable to use the expression "preferential
+combustion" or "selective combustion" in connexion with the facts just
+stated; but for the purpose of describing in brief the chemistry of a
+hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say that in the inner cone of a
+Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon monoxide are the result of the limited
+oxidation, and that the combustion of these gases with the external air
+generates the outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the
+limited oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable work
+has been carried out by W.A. Bone and his collaborators. Different
+hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated continuously through
+a vessel heated to various temperatures, beginning with that (about 250
+deg. C.) at which the rate of oxidation is easily appreciable.
+Proceeding in this way, Bone, without effecting a complete
+transformation of the hydrocarbon into partially oxidized substances,
+has isolated large quantities of such products, and concludes that the
+oxidation of a hydrocarbon involves nothing in the nature of a selective
+or preferential oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He
+maintains that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which
+oxygen enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule,
+forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are alcohols and
+aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and ethylene with an equal
+volume of oxygen would be represented as follows:--
+
+                    Stage 1.               Stage 2.
+
+  CH3.CH3  ---->   CH3.CH2OH      ---->  CH3.CH(OH)2
+   Ethane.       Ethyl alcohol.         _____/\______
+                  ____/\____           / CH3.CHO+H2O \
+                 / C2H4+H2O \           Acetaldehyde.
+                / 2C+2H2+H2O \           ____/\_____
+                                        /  CH4+CO   \
+                                       /  C+2H2+CO   \
+  CH2 : CH2 ---> CH2 : CHOH   ----->  / HO.CH : CH.OH \
+                  ____/\____           ______/\_______
+  Ethylene.      / C2H2+H2O \         / 2CH2O=2CO+2H2 \
+                /  2C+H2+H2O \          Formaldehyde.
+
+The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high temperature
+is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is sufficient to carry the
+oxidation as far as the second stage, practically no decomposition of
+the monohydroxy molecule formed in the first stage occurs. This is
+especially the case with unsaturated hydrocarbons.
+
+As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential carbon
+oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture of equal
+volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb. In such a case a
+lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a black cloud of carbon
+particles and considerable condensation of water. About 10% of methane
+is also found. It is impossible within the limits of this article to
+give a more extended account of these later researches on the oxidation
+of hydrocarbons. They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of
+carbon and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the
+combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view that
+hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference from the
+behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own volume of oxygen, viz.
+that carbon is the more oxidizable element in hydrocarbons, are not in
+harmony with experimental facts.
+
+The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is due "to the
+deposition of solid charcoal" was first put forward by Sir Humphry Davy
+in 1816. In explaining the origin of this charcoal, Davy used somewhat
+ambiguous language, stating that it "might be owing to a decomposition
+of a part of the gas towards the interior of the flame where the air was
+in smallest quantity." This statement was interpreted commonly as
+implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential combustion of
+the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was given explicitly by
+Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy's view with regard to this part of
+the theory, his conclusion that finely divided carbon was the cause of
+luminosity in hydrocarbon flames was not questioned until 1867, when E.
+Frankland, in connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained
+that the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important degree
+to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of dense
+hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced against this view the
+most decisive is furnished by the optical test first used by J.L. Soret.
+If the image of the sun be focussed upon the glowing part of a
+hydrocarbon flame the scattered light is found to be polarized, and it
+is indisputable that the luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of
+finely divided solid matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by
+H.H.C. Bunte to be 0.1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft.
+per hour) is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy's
+original view may be said to be now universally accepted.
+
+The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a hydrocarbon
+flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is set free. The
+fact-that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in absence of air will
+deposit carbon has long been known and is daily evident in the operation
+of coal-gas making, when gas carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the
+highly-heated crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing
+therefore that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon
+within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls of the
+flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm this view. It is
+sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire be so disposed in a
+small flame as to make a girdle within the blue walls towards the base,
+the withdrawal of heat is rapid enough to prevent the maintenance of a
+temperature sufficient to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright
+luminosity disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed
+through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral gas such as
+nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of the burning gas and
+the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great that the temperature of
+separation is not attained, no carbon is separated and the flame
+consists of a single blue shell.
+
+Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon becomes
+separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to trace the
+processes by which the carbon becomes separated in the case of a given
+hydrocarbon. According to M.P.E. Berthelot, who made prolonged and
+elaborate researches on the pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons,
+these compounds only liberate carbon by a process of the continual
+coalescence of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen,
+until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly
+distinguishable from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot of
+flames.
+
+V.B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a study of the
+thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on temperature measurements of
+flames and analysis of their gases, has more recently developed a theory
+of flame luminosity in which the formation and sudden exothermic
+decomposition of acetylene are regarded as the essential incidents
+productive of carbon separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed
+the evidence on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained
+no adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but as it has
+not been formally disavowed by the author and has found its way into
+some text-books, it is mentioned here.
+
+W.A. Bone and H.F. Coward (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1908) published the
+results of a very careful study of the decomposition of hydrocarbons
+when heated in a stationary condition and when continually circulated
+through hot vessels. Their results disclose once more the great
+difficulty of tracing the processes of decomposition and of arriving at
+a generalization of wide applicability, but they appear to be conclusive
+against the views both of Berthelot and of Lewes.
+
+They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons can be
+adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations owing to the
+complexity of the changes which really take place. Methane, which is the
+most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears to be resolved at high
+temperatures directly into carbon and hydrogen, but the phenomenon is
+dependent mainly on surface action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene
+undergo decomposition throughout the body of the gas (loc. cit. p. 1197
+et seq.).
+
+  "In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the
+  _primary_ effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of
+  hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond
+  between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution)
+  residues such as : CH2 and [.:] CH. These residues, which can only
+  have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (a) form H2C :
+  CH2 and HC [.:] CH, as the result of encounters with other similar
+  residues, or (b) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen, or
+  (c) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in
+  hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simultaneously
+  in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent on the
+  temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present. The whole
+  process may be represented by the following scheme, the dotted line
+  indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the carbon atoms
+  which becomes actually effective at higher temperatures:--
+
+      H.:H
+    --------                     / (a) C2H4 + H2
+    H.C.:C.H = [2(:CH2) + H2] = <  (b) 2C + 2H2 + H2
+      H.:H                       \ (c) plus H2 = 2CH4
+
+      H.:H                       / (a) C2H2 + H2
+    -------- = [2(.:CH) + H2] = <  (b) 2C + H2 + H2
+    H.C.:C.H                     \ (c) _plus_ 2H2 = CH4.
+
+  "In the ease of acetylene, the main primary change may be either one
+  of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature, and
+  if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down across
+  the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to 2([.:]CH),
+  and that these residues are subsequently either resolved into carbon
+  and hydrogen or "hydrogenized" according to circumstances, thus:--
+
+       H.C.:C.H    = [2(.:CH)] = / (a) 2C + H2
+          \/                     \ (b) _plus_ 3H2 = 2CH4.
+    Polymerization.
+
+  "Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of polymerization
+  at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas initially
+  heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decomposition of
+  another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an extent dependent
+  on temperature."
+
+We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to the genesis
+of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:--
+
+The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick, let us suppose,
+in a cylindrical column. This column is not sharply marked off from the
+air but is so penetrated by it that we must suppose a gradual transition
+from the pure hydrocarbon in the centre of column to the pure air on the
+outside. Let us take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the
+lower part of the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral
+distance from the centre will combustion begin? Clearly, where enough
+oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combustion as
+takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This then defines the
+blue region. Outside this the combustion of the carbon monoxide,
+hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which pass from the blue region takes
+place in a faintly luminous fringe. These two layers form a sheath of
+active combustion, surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed
+hydrocarbons in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise
+and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They are
+accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the higher parts of
+the flame, giving the region of bright yellow luminosity. There remains
+a central core in which neither is there any oxygen for combustion nor a
+sufficiently high temperature to cause carbon separation. This
+constitutes the dark interior region of the flame. We thus account for
+the different parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the
+bright blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst the
+pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame. The flame also
+is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing explanation is therefore
+not quite complete. Let us suppose that the changes have gone on in the
+small section of the flame exactly as described and consider how the
+processes will differ in parts above this section. The central core of
+unburned gases will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new
+cylindrical column which will undergo changes just as the original one,
+leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other words,
+each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller diameter. This
+gives us the conical form of the flame. Again, the higher we ascend the
+flame the greater proportionally is the amount of separated carbon, for
+we have not only the heat of laterally outlying combustion to effect
+decomposition, but also that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower
+part of a luminous flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than
+the upper. Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion
+we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in the
+upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades away. The
+luminous fringe would, however, be continued, for the separated hydrogen
+has still to burn. In this way then we may reasonably account for the
+existence, position and relative sizes of the four regions of an
+ordinary luminous flame.     (A. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMEL, NICOLAS (c. 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist and scrivener
+to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or Pontoise about 1330,
+and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the bulk of his property to the
+church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, where he was buried. During his
+life he contributed freely to charitable and religious purposes from the
+considerable wealth he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or,
+as some surmise without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or
+money lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a document
+purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in Waite's _Lives
+of the Alchemystical Philosophers_, London, 1888), there fell into his
+hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book on alchemy by Abraham
+the Jew, which taught in plain words the transmutation of metals. It did
+not, however, explain the _materia prima_, but merely figured or
+depicted it, and for more than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find
+out the secret. Then, returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with
+a Christian Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after
+three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the _materia prima_,
+thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into both silver and
+gold. But this fantastic story was disposed of by the facts, derived
+from parish records, set forth in Vilain's _Essai sur l'histoire de
+Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie_, 1758, and his _Histoire critique de Nicolas
+Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme, recueillie d'actes anciens qui
+justifient l'origine et la mediocrite de leur fortune contre les
+imputations des alchimistes_, 1761.
+
+  A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibliotheque, _Le Tresor de
+  philosophie_, professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with
+  his own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises
+  bearing his name, such as the _Sommaire philosophique de Nicolas
+  Flamel_, published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises
+  entitled _Transformation metallique_, are certainly spurious.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMEN (from _flare_, "to blow up" the altar fire), a Roman sacrificial
+priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.) maximus, and
+were consecrated to the service of some particular deity. The highest in
+rank were the _flamen Dialis_, _flamen Martialis_ and _flamen
+Quirinalis_, who were always selected from among the patricians. Their
+institution is generally ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens
+was raised from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled
+_majores_, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were called
+_minores_, as connected with less important deities, and were chosen
+from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the number of the lesser
+flamens seems to have diminished. The flamens were held to be elected
+for life, but they might be compelled to resign office for neglect of
+duty, or on the occurrence of some ill-omened event (such as the cap
+falling off the head) during the performance of their rites. The
+characteristic dress of the flamens in general was the _apex_, a white
+conical cap, the _laena_ or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official
+insignia of the _flamen Dialis_ (of Jupiter), the highest of these
+priests, were the white cap (_pileus, albogalerus_), at the top of which
+was an olive branch and a woollen thread; the _laena_, a thick woollen
+_toga praetexta_ woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a rod to
+keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice. He was
+never allowed to appear without these emblems of office, every day being
+considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his office he was entitled
+to a seat in the senate and a curule chair. The sight of fetters being
+forbidden him, his toga was not allowed to be tied in a knot but was
+fastened by means of clasps, and the only kind of ring permitted to be
+worn on his finger was a broken one. If a person in fetters took refuge
+in his house he was immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal
+on his way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself at
+his feet he was respited for that day. The _flamen Dialis_ was not
+allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even touch a
+horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the consulship), to
+swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything unclean, or to look
+upon people working. His marriage, which was obliged to be performed
+with the ceremonies of _confarreatio_ (q.v.), was dissoluble only by
+death, and on the death of his wife (called _flaminica Dialis_) he was
+obliged to resign his office. The _flaminica Dialis_ assisted her
+husband at the sacrifices and other religious duties which he performed.
+She wore long woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her
+hair being plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (_tutulus_);
+and shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband,
+she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens was the
+offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of October the three major
+flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to _Fides Publica_ (the
+Honour of the People). Some of the municipal towns in Italy had flamens
+as well as Rome.
+
+We may mention, as distinct from the above, the _flamen curialis_, who
+assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the religious affairs of
+each curia (q.v.); the flamens of various sacerdotal corporations, such
+as the Arval Brothers; the _flamen Augustalis_, who superintended the
+worship of the emperor in the provinces.
+
+  See Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336,
+  473; H. Dessau, in _Ephemeris epigraphica_, iii. (1877); and the
+  exhaustive article by C. Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio,
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINGO (Port. _Flamingo_, Span. _Flamenco_), one of the tallest and
+most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright flame-coloured or
+scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known by its classical name
+_Phoenicopterus_, as an inhabitant of most of the countries bordering
+the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos have a very wide distribution, and the
+sole genus comprises only a few species. _Ph. roseus_ or _antiquorum_,
+white, with a rosy tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the
+remiges are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde
+Islands to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards
+through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as _P. minor_. _P. ruber_,
+entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the
+Galapagos; _P. chilensis_ s. _ignipalliatus_, from Peru to Patagonia,
+more resembles the classical species; while _P. andinus_, the tallest of
+all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the elevated
+desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and Argentina. Fossil
+remains of flamingos have been described from the Lower Miocene of
+France as _P. croizeti_, and from the Pliocene of Oregon. From the
+Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene of France are known several species of
+_Palaelodus_, _Elornis_ and _Agnopterus_, which have relatively shorter
+legs, longer toes and a complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier
+family, less specialized although not directly ancestral to the
+flamingos. _Palaelodidae_ and _Phoenicopteridae_ together form the
+larger group Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly
+intermediate between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact
+that T.H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as _Amphimorphae_.
+However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos obviously
+reveal themselves as much nearer related to the _Ciconiae_, especially
+to _Platalea_ and _Ibis_, than to the Anseres. This is the opinion
+arrived at by W.F.R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer and Gadow, while others
+prefer the goose-like voice and the webbed toes as reliable characters.
+(For a detailed analysis of this instructive question see Bronn's
+_Thierreich_, Aves Syst. p. 146.)
+
+[Illustration: The Flamingo.]
+
+The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small aquatic
+invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons, for instance
+Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low salt-water algae. Whilst
+feeding, the bird wades about, stirs up the mud with its feet, and,
+reversing the ordinary position of its head so as to hold the crown
+downwards and to look backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is
+abruptly bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather
+flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished with
+numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and large tongue, act
+like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the considerable movability of
+the upper jaw. Then the bird erects its long neck to swallow the
+selected food. When flying, flamingos present a striking and beautiful
+sight, with legs and neck stretched out straight, looking like white and
+rosy or scarlet crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock
+of these sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with
+their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable
+position.
+
+The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat conical
+structure rising above the water according to the depth, of which the
+cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as often happens, the
+water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher. On the top is a shallow
+cup for the reception of the one or two eggs, which have a bluish-white
+shell with chalky incrustation. Of course the hen sits with her legs
+doubled up under her, as does any other long-legged bird. It seems
+strange that many ornithologists should have given credence to W.
+Dampier's statement of the mode of incubation (_New Voyage round the
+World_, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): "And when they lay their eggs,
+or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock, but close
+by it with their legs on the ground and in the water, resting themselves
+against the hillock, and covering the hollow nest upon it with their
+rumps," &c. P.S. Pallas (_Zoograph. Rosso-Asiatica_, ii. p. 208) tried
+to improve upon this by stating that the standing bird leans upon the
+nest with its breast! The young, which are hatched after about four
+weeks' incubation, look very different from the adult. The small bill is
+still quite straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered
+with a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour.
+These _neossoptiles_ or first feathers bear no resemblance to those of
+the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills, the
+young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking extent, but
+they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift for themselves like
+ducks and geese.     (H. F. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINIA, VIA, an ancient high road of Italy, constructed by C.
+Flaminius during his censorship (220 B.C.). It led from Rome to
+Ariminum, and was the most important route to the north. We hear of
+frequent improvements being made in it during the imperial period.
+Augustus, when he instituted a general restoration of the roads of
+Italy, which he assigned for the purpose among various senators,
+reserved the Flaminia for himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except
+the Pons Mulvius, by which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built
+by M. Scaurus in 109 B.C.), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal
+arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at Ariminum,
+the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian constructed a new
+tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern Furlo, in A.D. 77 (see
+CALES), and Trajan, as inscriptions show, repaired several bridges along
+the road.
+
+The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable remains of its
+pavement being extant in the modern high road, passing slightly E. of
+the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it
+crossed the Nar by a splendid four-arched bridge to which Martial
+alludes (_Epigr._ vii. 93, 8), one arch of which and all the piers are
+still standing; and went on, followed at first by the modern road to
+Sangemini which passes over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past
+Carsulae to Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more
+circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted, passing by
+Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which a branch diverged to
+Perusia), and increasing the distance by 12 m. The road thence went on
+to Nuceria (whence a branch road ran to Septempeda and thence either to
+Ancona or to Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed
+the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus standing
+at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to Cales (where it turned
+N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa to Forum Sempronii
+(Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae, when it reached the coast of the
+Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W. through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total
+distance from Rome was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer.
+The road gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd
+century A.D. onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was at
+first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under Augustus it had
+formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after Constantine was
+always administered with Picenum.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS (c. 228-174 B.C.), Roman general and
+statesman. He began his public life as a military tribune under M.
+Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse. In 199 he was quaestor,
+and the next year, passing over the regular stages of aedile and
+praetor, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the rising school
+of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow patriotism of which Cato
+was the type, the disciples of Greek culture, and the advocates of a
+wide imperial policy. His winning manners, his polished address, his
+knowledge of men, his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge
+of Greek, all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in
+the East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct of the
+war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years, Rome had as
+yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him. Flamininus modified
+both the policy and tactics of his predecessors. After an unsuccessful
+attempt to come to terms, he drove the Macedonians from the valley of
+the Aous by skilfully turning an impregnable position. Having thus
+practically made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece,
+where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean League (q.v.)
+at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis, the tyrant of
+Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome; Acarnania and Boeotia
+submitted in less than a year, and, with the exception of the great
+fortresses, Flamininus had the whole of Greece under his control. The
+demand of the Greeks for the expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from
+Demetrias, Chalcis and Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of
+Greece, was refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were
+renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field supported by
+nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae the Macedonian phalanx and
+the Roman legion for the first time met in open fight, and the day
+decided which nation was to be master of Greece and perhaps of the
+world. It was a victory of superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman
+army was retiring in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip
+in person, when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged
+the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights. Before
+the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon them, and a massacre
+rather than a fight ensued. This defeat was turned into a general rout
+by a nameless tribune, who collected twenty companies and charged in the
+rear the victorious Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left
+the Roman right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome, but
+Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands. Philip lost all
+his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian kingdom almost
+entire. He was required to reduce his army, to give up all his decked
+ships except five, and to pay an indemnity of 1000 talents (L244,000).
+Ten commissioners arrived from Rome to regulate the final terms of
+peace, and at the Isthmian games a herald proclaimed to the assembled
+crowds that "the Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having
+conquered King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states
+which had been subject to the king henceforward free and independent."
+Flamininus's last act before returning home was characteristic. Of the
+Achaeans, who vied with one another in showering upon him honours and
+rewards, he asked but one personal favour, the redemption of the Italian
+captives who had been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic
+War. These, to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of
+his departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his
+triumph.
+
+In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III. the Great,
+Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil representative of
+Rome. His personal influence and skilful diplomacy secured the wavering
+Achaean states, cemented the alliance with Philip, and contributed
+mainly to the Roman victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook
+an embassy to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up
+Hannibal, who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is
+known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his end was
+peaceful and happy.
+
+There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a genuine love of
+Greece and its people. To attribute to him a Machiavellian policy, which
+foresaw the overthrow of Corinth fifty years later and the conversion of
+Achaea into a Roman province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more
+force in the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from
+seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek states of
+that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay in submitting to
+the protectorate of the Roman republic. But if the event proved that the
+liberation of Greece was a political mistake, it was a noble and
+generous mistake, and reflects nothing but honour on the name of
+Flamininus, "the liberator of the Greeks."
+
+  His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by F.D.
+  Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. iii.
+  chs. 8, 9.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMINIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general, of plebeian family.
+During his tribuneship (232 B.C.), in spite of the determined opposition
+of the senate and his own father, he carried a measure for distributing
+among the plebeians the _ager Gallicus Picenus_, an extensive tract of
+newly-acquired territory to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, _De
+senectute_, 4, _Brutus_, 14). As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting
+gratitude of the people of his province (Sicily) by his excellent
+administration. In 223, when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the
+field against the Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his
+agrarian law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at
+first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate. Reinforced
+by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the banks of the Addua.
+He had previously been recalled by the optimates, but ignored the order.
+The victory seems to have been due mainly to the admirable discipline
+and fighting qualities of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a
+triumph only after the decree of the senate against it had been
+overborne by popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly
+limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see COMITIA). His name is
+further associated with two great works. He erected the Circus Flaminius
+on the Campus Martius, for the accommodation of the plebeians, and
+continued the military road from Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto
+only reached as far as Spoletium (see FLAMINIA, VIA). He probably also
+instituted the "plebeian" games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic
+opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the measure
+brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which prohibited senators
+and senators' sons from possessing sea-going vessels, except for the
+transport of the produce of their own estates, and generally debarred
+them from all commercial speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective
+support of this measure vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius
+with his own order, and secured his second election as consul in the
+following year (217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus
+at the Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of the
+western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the Apennines,
+but was defeated and killed at the battle of the Trasimene lake (see
+PUNIC WARS).
+
+The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)--no
+friendly critics--shows that Flaminius was a man of ability, energy and
+probity. A popular and successful democratic leader, he cannot, however,
+be ranked among the great statesmen of the republic. As a general he was
+headstrong and self-sufficient and seems to have owed his victories
+chiefly to personal boldness favoured by good fortune.
+
+His son, GAIUS FLAMINIUS, was quaestor under P. Scipio Africanus the
+elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture of New Carthage.
+Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he distributed large
+quantities of grain among the citizens at a very low price. In 193, as
+praetor, he carried on a successful war against the insubordinate
+populations of his recently constituted province of Hispania Citerior.
+In 187 he was consul with M. Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the
+warlike Ligurian tribes. In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia
+connecting Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he
+founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life is the
+portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period.
+
+
+
+
+FLAMSTEED, JOHN (1646-1719), English astronomer, was born at Denby, near
+Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a
+maltster, he was educated at the free school of Derby, but quitted it
+finally in May 1662, in consequence of a rheumatic affection of the
+joints, due to a chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved
+of no avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be "stroked" by Valentine
+Greatrakes, but "found not his disease to stir." Meanwhile, he solaced
+his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Beginning with J.
+Sacrobosco's _De sphaera_, he read all the books on the subject that he
+could buy or borrow; observed a partial solar eclipse on the 12th of
+September 1662; and attempted the construction of measuring instruments.
+A tract on the equation of time, written by him in 1667, was published
+by Dr John Wallis with the _Posthumous Works_ of J. Horrocks (1673); and
+a paper embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon,
+which appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ (iv. 1099), signed
+_In Mathesi a sole fundes_, an anagram of "Johannes Flamsteedius,"
+secured for him, from 1670, general scientific recognition.
+
+On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became acquainted with
+Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name at Jesus college, and took,
+four years later, a degree of M.A. by letters-patent. An essay composed
+by him in 1673 on the true and apparent diameters of the planets
+furnished Newton with data for the third book of the _Principia_, and he
+fitted numerical elements to J. Horrocks's theory of the moon. In 1674,
+and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas Moore, governor
+of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in a private observatory at
+Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated by the determination of Charles
+II. to have the tables of the heavenly bodies corrected, and the places
+of the fixed stars rectified "for the use of his seamen," and Flamsteed
+was appointed "astronomical observator" by a royal warrant dated 4th of
+March 1675. His salary of L100 a year was cut down by taxation to L90;
+he had to provide his own instruments, and to instruct, into the
+bargain, two boys from Christ's hospital. Sheer necessity drove him, in
+addition, to take many private pupils; but having been ordained in 1675,
+he was presented by Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in
+Surrey; and his financial position was further improved by a small
+inheritance on his father's death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense
+of L120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began to observe
+systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_).
+The latter part of Flamsteed's life passed in a turmoil of controversy
+regarding the publication of his results. He struggled to withhold them
+until they could be presented in a complete form; but they were urgently
+needed for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a
+public servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting of his
+lunar theory upon "places of the moon" reluctantly doled out from
+Greenwich, led the movement for immediate communication; whence arose
+much ill-feeling between him and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince
+George of Denmark undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the
+Royal Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed,
+protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only partially
+through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of October 1708, and
+its completion devolved upon a board of visitors to the observatory
+endowed with ample powers by a royal order of the 12th of December 1712.
+As the upshot, the _Historia coelestis_, embodying the first Greenwich
+star-catalogue, together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705,
+was issued under Edmund Halley's editorship in 1712. Flamsteed denounced
+the production as surreptitious; he committed to the flames three
+hundred copies, of which he obtained possession through the favour of
+Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of bodily infirmities, vigorously
+prosecuted his designs for the entire and adequate publication of the
+materials he continued to accumulate. They were but partially executed
+when he died on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his
+monumental work, _Historia coelestis Britannica_ (3 vols. folio, 1725),
+was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by Abraham
+Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of Flamsteed's
+observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third contained the _British
+Catalogue_ of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous errors in this valuable record
+having been detected by Sir William Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up
+a list of 560 stars observed, but not catalogued, while 111 of those
+catalogued proved to have never been observed (_Phil. Trans._ lxxxvii.
+293; see also F. Baily, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, iv. 129). The
+appearance of the _Atlas coelestis_, corresponding to the _British
+Catalogue_, was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by
+Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society. The
+extent and quality of his performance were the more remarkable
+considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened means, and
+the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable in private life, he
+was highly susceptible in professional matters, and hence failed to keep
+on terms with his contemporaries.
+
+  Francis Baily's _Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed_ (1835) is the
+  leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical
+  narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of
+  Flamsteed's letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the _British
+  Catalogue_, besides authoritative and detailed introductory
+  discussions. Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame
+  for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell
+  vindicated his character in _Flamsteed and Newton_ (1836).
+
+  See also _General Dictionary_, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied
+  by James Hodgson, Flamsteed's nephew-in-law; _Biographia Britannica_,
+  iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud's _Correspondence of Scientific Men_;
+  Cunningham's _Lives of Eminent Englishmen_, iv. 366 (1835); Mark
+  Noble's Continuation of James Granger's Biog. _Hist. of England_, ii.
+  132; R. Grant's _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, p. 467; W. Whewell's
+  _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. 162; J.S. Bailly's _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre's _Hist. de
+  l'astronomie au XVIII^e siecle_, p. 93; _Observatory_, xv. 355, 379,
+  382.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+
+
+FLANDERS (Flem. _Vlaanderen_), a territorial name for part of the
+Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges and the
+immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries it was gradually
+extended to the whole of the coast region from Calais to the Scheldt. In
+the middle ages this was divided into two parts, one looking to Bruges
+as its capital, and the other to Ghent. The name is retained in the two
+Belgian provinces of West and East Flanders.
+
+1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and its
+coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for a little
+over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns of the
+province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agriculture is the
+chief occupation of the population, and the country is under the most
+careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration of the foreign observer
+for the Belgian system of market gardening is not diminished on learning
+that the subsoil of most of this tract is the sand of the "dunes."
+Fishing employs a large proportion of the coast population. The area of
+West Flanders is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1263 sq. m. In
+1904 the population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.
+
+2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western province, and
+extends northwards to the neighbourhood of Antwerp. It is still more
+productive and richer than Western Flanders, and is well watered by the
+Scheldt. The district of Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory
+of man, is supposed to be the most productive district of its size in
+Europe. The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St
+Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is given at
+749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,073,507,
+showing an average of 916 per sq. m.
+
+_History._--The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not only the
+modern provinces known as East and West Flanders, but the southernmost
+portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland and a considerable district in
+north-western France. In the time of Caesar it was inhabited by the
+Morini, Atrebates and other Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that
+followed the land was repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally
+became a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the
+Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun (843)
+made the line of division between the kingdom of East Francia
+(Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the kingdom of West Francia
+(Neustria) under Charles the Bald. In virtue of this compact Flanders
+was henceforth attached to the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus
+acquired a position unique among the provinces of the territory known in
+later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that
+northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor Lothaire
+(855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called Lotharingia or
+Lorraine.
+
+The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record is
+Baldwin, surnamed _Bras-de-fer_ (Iron-arm). This man, a brave and daring
+warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with the king's daughter
+Judith, the youthful widow of two English kings, married her, and fled
+with his bride to Lorraine. Charles, though at first very angry, was at
+last conciliated, and made his son-in-law margrave (_Marchio Flandriae_)
+of Flanders, which he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at
+this time continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was
+entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the west
+Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders. He was the
+first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date early in the 10th
+century exchanged the title of margrave for that of count. His son,
+Baldwin II.--the Bald--from his stronghold at Bruges maintained, as did
+his father before him, a vigorous defence of his lands against the
+incursions of the Northmen. On his mother's side a descendant of
+Charlemagne, he strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by
+marrying Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918
+his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the Elder and
+Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time and Arnulf succeeded
+to the whole inheritance. His reign was filled with warfare against the
+Northmen, and he took an active part in the struggles in Lorraine
+between the emperor Otto I. and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the
+government in the hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the
+count of Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very
+short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial progress
+of the country, establishing the first weavers and fullers at Ghent, and
+instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges and other places.
+
+On Baldwin III.'s death in 961 the old count resumed the control, and
+spent the few remaining years of his life in securing the succession of
+his grandson Arnulf II.--the Younger. The reign of Arnulf was terminated
+by his death in 989, and he was followed by his son Baldwin IV., named
+_Barbatus_ or the Bearded. This Baldwin fought successfully both against
+the Capetian king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found
+himself obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the
+burgraveship of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count of
+Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of the French
+crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish history as Crown Flanders
+(_Kroon-Vlaanderen_), the German fiefs as Imperial Flanders
+(_Rijks-Vlaanderen_). Baldwin's son--afterwards Baldwin V.--rebelled in
+1028 against his father at the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter
+of Robert II. of France; but two years later peace was sworn at
+Oudenaarde, and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036.
+Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the people the
+surname of _Debonnaire_. He was an active enterprising man, and greatly
+extended his power by wars and alliances. He obtained from the emperor
+Henry IV. the territory between the Scheldt and the Dender as an
+imperial fief, and the margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become
+that the Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060 was
+appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see FRANCE). Before
+his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda (d. 1083) sharing the
+English throne with William the Conqueror, his eldest son Baldwin of
+Mons in possession of Hainaut in right of his wife Richilde, heiress of
+Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see
+HAINAUT), and his second son Robert the Frisian regent (_voogd_) of the
+county of Holland during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude
+of Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had married
+(see HOLLAND). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin of Mons, already
+count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship of Flanders. Baldwin V. had
+granted to Robert the Frisian on his marriage in 1063 his imperial
+fiefs. His right to these was disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out
+between the two brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert
+now claimed the tutelage of Baldwin's children and obtained the support
+of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin's widow, appealed to
+Philip I. of France. The contest was decided at Ravenshoven, near
+Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071, where Robert was victorious.
+Richilde was taken prisoner and her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain.
+Robert obtained from Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and
+from Henry IV. the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.
+
+The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut (see
+HAINAUT), which was thus after a brief union separated from Flanders.
+Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son Robert II., who
+acquired great renown by his exploits in the first crusade, and won the
+name of the Lance and Sword of Christendom. His fame was second only to
+that of Godfrey of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1100. He
+fought with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English,
+and was drowned in 1111 by the breaking of a bridge. His son and
+successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also fought against
+the English in France. He died at the age of twenty-seven from the wound
+of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no heir. He nominated as his successor his
+cousin Charles, son of Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of
+Robert the Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and
+to promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname of "the
+Good." His determination to enforce the right made him many enemies, and
+he was foully murdered on Ash Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died
+childless, and there were no less than six candidates to the countship.
+The contest lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of
+Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders,
+and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother Gertrude was a daughter of
+Robert the Frisian. William Clito, through the support of Louis of
+France, was at first accepted by the Flemish nobles as count, but he
+gave offence to the communes, who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued
+and William was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without
+further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good, Marguerite
+of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise and prudent prince,
+encouraging the growth of popular liberty and of commerce. In 1146 he
+took part in the second crusade and distinguished himself by his
+exploits. In 1157 he resigned the countship to his son Philip of Alsace
+and betook himself once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East
+twenty years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own
+land.
+
+Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did much to promote
+the growth of the municipalities for which Flanders was already becoming
+famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, Lille and Douai under him made much
+progress as flourishing industrial towns. He also conferred rights and
+privileges on a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel,
+Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the development of
+the communes and "free towns," Philip sternly repressed any spirit of
+independence or attempted uprisings against his authority. This count
+was a powerful prince. He acted for a time as regent in France during
+the minority of his godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his
+niece Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third
+crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence in 1191.
+
+As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of Hainaut, who
+had married Philip's sister Margaret. The countships of Flanders and
+Hainaut were thus united under the same ruler. Baldwin did not obtain
+possession of Flanders without strong opposition on the part of the
+French king, and he was obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin
+and a great part of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of
+Portugal, the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in
+right of her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following
+year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both countships.
+Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the Latin empire at
+Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in 1206. The emperor's two
+daughters were both under age, and the government was carried on by
+their uncle Philip, marquess of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent
+on his departure to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his
+charge, and he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip
+Augustus, who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his
+nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to the French
+king's supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as governor in the name of
+his wife, joined himself to the confederacy formed by Germany, England,
+and the leading states of the Netherlands against Philip Augustus.
+Ferdinand was, however, taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of
+Bouvines (1214) and was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre.
+The countess Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and
+courage. On Ferdinand's death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died in
+1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities by her
+younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly known amongst her
+contemporaries as "Black Meg" (_Zwarte Griet_). Margaret had been twice
+married. Her first husband was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the
+first of Hainaut's nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally
+destined for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by
+Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with the result
+that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him. She married in second
+wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre. Two sons were the issue of the
+first marriage, three sons and three daughters of the second.
+
+When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and Hainaut, she
+wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknowledged as her successor.
+John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly protested against this and was
+supported by the French king. A civil war ensued, which ended in a
+compromise (1246), the succession to Flanders being granted to William
+of Dampierre, that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however,
+ruled with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons,
+dying at the age of eighty in 1280. On her death her grandson, John II.
+of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut: Guy of Dampierre, her second son by
+her second marriage, count of Flanders.
+
+The two counties were once more under separate dynasties. The government
+of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was the interest of the Flemish
+weavers to be on good terms with England, the wool-producing country,
+and Guy entered into an alliance with Edward I. against France. This led
+to an invasion and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his
+sons and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris, and
+Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though in the principal
+towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a powerful French
+faction--known as _Leliaerts_ (adherents of the lily)--the arbitrary
+rule of the French governor and officials stirred up the mass of the
+Flemish people to rebellion. The anti-French partisans (known as
+_Clauwaerts_) were strongest at Bruges under the leadership of Peter de
+Conync, master of the cloth-weavers, and John Breydel, master of the
+butchers. The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May 19th, 1302),
+and on the following 11th of July a splendid French army of invasion was
+utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was concluded in 1305, but owing
+to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading Flemish nobles being in the hands
+of the French king, on terms very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very
+shortly afterwards the aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair.
+Robert of Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties
+with France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a
+stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence.
+Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers. Louis had
+been brought up at the French court, and had married Margaret of France.
+His sympathies were entirely French, and he made use of French help in
+his contests with the communes.
+
+Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the status of
+a French province. In his time the long contest between Flanders and
+Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland was brought to an
+end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March 1323, by which West Zeeland
+was assigned to the count of Holland, the rest to the count of Flanders.
+The latter part of the reign of Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the
+successful revolt of the Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to
+great material prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE,
+JACOB VAN). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in his
+contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while Louis of
+Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle of Crecy
+(1346). He was followed in the countship by his son Louis II. of Male.
+The reign of this count was one long struggle with the communes, headed
+by the town of Ghent, for political supremacy. Louis was as strong in
+his French sympathies as his father, and relied upon French help in
+enforcing his will upon his refractory subjects, who resented his
+arbitrary methods of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon
+them by his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with
+their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their opposition
+to the count's despotism, they would have proved successful, but Ghent
+and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out into open feud. The power of
+Ghent reached its height under Philip van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE,
+PHILIP VAN) in 1382. He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made
+_ruward_ of Flanders. But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular
+party was called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382
+Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at
+Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years later,
+leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in 1369 Philip the
+Bold, duke of Burgundy.
+
+Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian domain, which in
+the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret's grandson, had absorbed almost
+the whole of the Netherlands (see BURGUNDY; NETHERLANDS). The history of
+Flanders as a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of
+the countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts from time to
+time of great towns against the exactions even of these powerful
+princes, but they were in vain. The conquest and humiliation of Bruges
+by Philip the Good in 1440, and the even more relentless punishment
+inflicted on rebellious Ghent by the emperor Charles V. exactly a
+century later are the most remarkable incidents in the long-continued
+but vain struggle of the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their
+privileges. The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of
+Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders and its rich
+commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished to them no small part
+of their resources, but for this very reason, while fostering the
+development of Flemish industry and trade, they were the more determined
+to brook no opposition which sought to place restrictions upon their
+authority.
+
+The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of Dutch
+Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders. Albert and Isabel
+on their accession to the sovereignty of the southern Netherlands in
+1599 found "the great cities of Flanders and Brabant had been abandoned
+by a large part of their inhabitants; agriculture hardly in a less
+degree than commerce and industry had been ruined." In 1633 with the
+death of Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty
+of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known as States
+(or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces
+(1648). By a succession of later treaties--of the Pyrenees (1659),
+Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679) and others--a large slice of
+the southern portion of the old county of Flanders became French
+territory and was known as French Flanders.
+
+From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic provinces, was
+incorporated in France, and was divided into two departments--_departement
+de l'Escaut_ and _departement de la Lys_. This division has since been
+retained, and is represented by the two provinces of East Flanders and
+West Flanders in the modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of
+Flanders was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son,
+Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905).     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864), French painter, was born at Lyons
+in 1809. His father, though brought up to business, had great fondness
+for art, and sought himself to follow an artist's career. Lack of early
+training, however, disabled him for success, and he was obliged to take
+up the precarious occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the
+second of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third
+son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern landscape
+school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest, passed the greater
+part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he died. After studying
+for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and Paul, who had long determined on
+the step and economized for it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to
+place themselves under the tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to
+enter the atelier of Ingres, who became not only their instructor but
+their friend for life. At first considerably hampered by poverty,
+Hippolyte's difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832,
+the Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the "Recognition of
+Theseus by his Father." This allowed him to study five years at Rome,
+whence he sent home several pictures which considerably raised his fame.
+"St Clair healing the Blind" was done for the cathedral of Nantes, and
+years after, at the exhibition of 1855, brought him a medal of the first
+class. "Jesus and the Little Children" was given by the government to
+the town of Lisieux. "Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck
+with Blindness," and "Euripides writing his Tragedies," belong to the
+museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in 1838 he soon
+received a commission to ornament the chapel of St John in the church of
+St Severin at Paris, and reputation increased and employment continued
+abundant for the rest of his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above,
+and others of a similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits.
+The works, however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his
+monumental decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those
+executed in the following churches:--in the sanctuary of St Germain des
+Pres at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same church (1846-1848),
+in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-1849), of St Vincent de Paul at
+Paris (1850-1854), in the church of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave
+of St Germain des Pres (1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was
+elected to the Academie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health,
+rendered worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts
+of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of smallpox at
+Rome on the 21st of March 1864. As might naturally be expected in one
+who looked upon painting as but the vehicle for the expression of
+spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too little pride in the technical
+qualities of his art. There is shown in his works much of that austerity
+and coldness, expressed in form and colour, which springs from a faith
+which feels itself in opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life.
+He has been compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long
+processions of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity
+of souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted
+life which shines from the work of the early master.
+
+  See Delaborde, _Lettres et pensees de H. Flandrin_ (Paris, 1865);
+  Beule, _Notice historique sur H. F._ (1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLANNEL, a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and fineness, made
+usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of the word is uncertain, but
+in the 16th century flannel was a well-known production of Wales, and a
+Welsh origin has been suggested. The French form _flanelle_ was used
+late in the 17th century, and the Ger. _Flanell_ early in the 18th
+century. Baize, a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to
+have been first introduced to England about the middle of the 16th
+century by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture of
+flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases,
+deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture of silk
+or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become the
+predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine quality from a
+Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was principally in favour with the
+flannel manufacturers of Rochdale, who also used largely the wool from
+the Norfolk breed, a cross between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In
+Wales the short staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in
+Ireland that of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the
+New Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively employed, and
+English wools are not commonly used alone. Over 2000 persons are
+employed in flannel manufacture in Rochdale alone, which is the historic
+seat of the industry, and a good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen
+Valley district, Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch
+of the flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and
+Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation, and make
+an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There are also flannel
+manufactories in Ireland.
+
+A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain. The
+following table gives the quantities exported during three years:--
+
+            1904.       1905.       1906.
+  Yards   9,758,300   9,220,500   8,762,200
+
+In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this trade has
+varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel are not very large.
+
+Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture of cotton,
+but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something to limit the
+indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the development of the
+flannel trade has been checked by the great increase in the production
+of flannelettes, the better qualities of which have become formidable
+competitors with flannel. There must, however, be a regular and large
+demand for flannel while theory and experience confirm its value as a
+clothing particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body.
+
+
+
+
+FLANNELETTE, a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel. The word seems to
+have been first used in the early 'eighties, and there is a reference in
+the _Daily News_ of 1887 to "a poverty-stricken article called
+flannelette." Now it is used very extensively for underclothing, night
+gear, dresses, dressing-gowns, shirts, &c. It is usually made with a
+much coarser weft than warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained
+by the raising or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing
+processes. Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may
+be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is
+required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed, and also in
+woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any heavy or coarse cotton
+cloth can be made into flannelette. It is now largely used by the poorer
+classes of the community, and the flimsier kinds have been a frequent
+source of accident by fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in
+a fair quality, a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented
+under the title of "Non-flam," has been made with fire-resisting
+properties, but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in
+the lower and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the
+continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great
+Britain.
+
+
+
+
+FLASK, in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for carrying
+liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applications in current
+usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood, formerly of horn, used for
+carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-necked, round-bodied glass vessel,
+usually covered with plaited straw or maize leaves, containing olive or
+other oil or Italian wines--it is often known as a "Florence flask":
+similarly shaped vessels are used for experiments, &c., in a
+laboratory; (3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine
+or other liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster,
+usually covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance,
+and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup. "Flask"
+is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or case to contain part
+of the mould. The word "flagon," which is by derivation a doublet of
+"flask," is usually applied to a larger type of vessel for holding
+liquor, more particularly to a type of wine-bottle with a short neck and
+circular body with flattened sides. The word is also used of a
+jug-shaped vessel with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be
+decanted from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped
+vessel to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the
+chalice. "Flask" (in O. Eng. _flasce_ or _flaxe_) is represented both in
+Teutonic and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in Med.
+Lat. _flasco_, _flasconis_, whence come Ital. _fiascone_, O. Fr.
+_flascon_ (mod. _flacon_), adapted in the Eng. "flagon." Another Lat.
+form is _flasca_, this gave a Fr. _flasque_, which in the sense of
+"powder flask" remained in use till later than the 16th century. In
+Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the common one for
+"bottle," so in Ger. _Flasche_, Dutch _flesch_, &c. If the word is of
+Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized form of the Lat.
+_vasculum_, diminutive of _vas_, vessel. There is no very satisfactory
+etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin; the New English Dictionary
+considers a connexion with "flat" probable phonetically, but finds no
+evidence that the word was used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.
+
+
+
+
+FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. _flet_, an obsolete word of Teutonic
+origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term commonly used as an
+adjective, signifying level in surface, level with the ground, and so,
+figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate, tasteless, dull; or, by another
+transference, downright; or, in music, below the true pitch. In a
+substantival form, the term is used in physical geography for a level
+tract.
+
+The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a self-contained
+residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the term _flatted house_
+is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which form a portion,
+usually on a single floor, of a larger building, called the tenement
+house, the remainder being similarly divided. The approach to it is over
+a hall, passage and stairway, which are common to all residents in the
+building, but from which each private flat is divided off by its own
+outer door (Clode, _Tenement Houses and Flats_, pp. 1, 2).
+
+There is in England a considerable body of special law applicable to
+flats. The following points deserve notice:--(i.) The occupants of
+distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into flats are generally,
+and subject, of course, to any special terms in their agreements, not
+lodgers but tenants with exclusive possession of separate
+dwelling-houses placed one above the other. They are, therefore, liable
+to distress by the immediate landlord, and each flat is separately
+rateable, though as a general rule by the contract of tenancy the rates
+are payable by the landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes are
+exempt from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878 (see
+_Grant_, v. _Langston_, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue Act 1903
+(s. 11), provision is made for excluding from assessment or for
+assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate dwellings
+at rents not exceeding L60 a year. It appears that tenants of a flat
+would not come within the meaning of "lodger" for the purposes of the
+Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871. (ii.) The owner of an upper storey,
+without any express grant or enjoyment for any given time, has a right
+to the support of the lower storey (_Dalton_ v. _Angus_, 1881, 6 A.C.
+740, 793). The owner of the lower storey, however, so long as he does
+nothing actively in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to
+repair, in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation
+upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of the owner
+of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in law entitled to
+enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing the necessary
+repairs. It appears, however, that there is an implied obligation by the
+landlord to the tenants to keep the common stair and the lift or
+elevator in repair, and, for breach of this duty, he will be liable to
+a third party who, while visiting a tenant in the course of business, is
+injured by its defective condition (_Miller_ v. _Hancock_, 1893, 2 Q.B.
+177). No such liability would be involved in a mere licence to the
+tenants to use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of
+their flats. (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the
+rent abates _pro tanto_ and an apportionment is made; _pari ratione_,
+where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether (Clode, p.
+14); unless the tenant has entered into an express and unqualified
+agreement to pay rent, when he will remain liable till the expiration of
+his tenancy. (iv.) Where the agreements for letting the flats in a
+single building are in common form, an agreement by the lessor not to
+depart from the kind of building there indicated may be held to be
+implied. Thus an injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion
+into a club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in
+residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an
+agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules suitable only
+for residential purposes (_Hudson_ v. _Cripps_, 1896, 1 Ch. 265). (v.)
+The porter is usually appointed and paid by the landlord, who is liable
+for his acts while engaged on his general duties; while engaged on any
+special duty for any tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who
+is liable for his conduct within the scope of his employment.
+
+In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and lessees of
+flats, or--as they are called--"flatted houses," spring partly from the
+exclusive possession by each lessee of his own flat, partly from the
+common interest of all in the tenement as a whole. The "law of the
+tenement" may be thus summed up. The _solum_ on which the flatted house
+stands, the area in front and the back ground are presumed to belong to
+the owner of the lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally,
+subject to the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury
+to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external
+walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat; but the
+other owners can prevent operations on them which would endanger the
+security of the building. The roof and uppermost storey belong to the
+highest owner or owners, but he or they may be compelled to keep them in
+repair and to refrain from injuring them. The gables are common to the
+owner of each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner
+of the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building have
+cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the stability of
+the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are divided in
+ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle of the joists; they
+may be used for ordinary purposes, but may not be weakened or exposed to
+unusual risk from fire. The common passages and stairs are the common
+property of all to whose premises they form an access, and the walls
+which bound them are the common property of those persons and of the
+owners on their farther side.
+
+In the United States the term "apartment-house" is applied to what in
+England are called flats. The general law is the same as in England. The
+French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that where the different storeys
+of a house belong to different owners the main walls and roof are at the
+charge of all the owners, each one in proportion to the value of the
+storey belonging to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible
+for his own flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the
+staircase which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning
+from where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and so
+on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (Art.
+664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH LAW: Clode, _Law of Tenement-Houses and Flats_
+  (London, 1889); Daniels, _Manual of the Law of Flats_ (London, 1905).
+  SCOTS LAW: Erskine, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (10th ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1899). AMERICAN LAW: Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and
+  London, 1897). FOREIGN LAWS: Burge, _Foreign and Colonial Laws_ (2nd
+  ed., London, 1906).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+FLATBUSH, formerly a township of Kings county, Long Island, New York,
+U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and after the 1st of January 1898 a
+part of the borough of Brooklyn, New York City. The first settlement
+was made here by the Dutch about 1651, and was variously called
+"Midwout," "Midwoud" and "Medwoud" (from the Dutch words, _med_,
+"middle" and _woud_, "wood") for about twenty years, when it became more
+commonly known as Vlachte Bos (_vlachte_, "wooded"; _bos_, "plain") or
+Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the present name. Farming was
+the chief occupation of the early settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776
+the village was occupied by General Cornwallis's division of the
+invading force under Lord Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous
+battle of Long Island (or "battle of Flatbush," as it is sometimes
+called), "Flatbush Pass," an important strategic point, was vigorously
+defended by General Sullivan's troops.
+
+
+
+
+FLAT-FISH (_Pleuronectidae_), the name common to all those fishes which
+swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill, plaice, flounder,
+sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the bottom, and in some kinds
+is the right, in others the left, is generally colourless, and called
+"blind," from the absence of an eye on this side. The opposite side,
+which is turned upwards and towards the light, is variously, and in some
+tropical species even vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this
+side of the head. All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more
+strongly developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these
+fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are symmetrical
+like other fishes.
+
+Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes, the
+question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans may be
+regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old notion that they
+are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was the result of the artificial
+classification of the past and is now generally abandoned. The condition
+of the caudal fin, which in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that
+of ordinary Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing
+the idea of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the
+Anacanthini, and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks
+against such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as
+noticed in the article DORY, that considerable, deep-seated resemblances
+exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the more generalized of the
+Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish from the Upper Eocene,
+_Amphistium paradoxum_, evidently allied to the Zeidae, appears to
+realize in every respect the prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they
+had assumed the asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In
+accordance with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G.A. Boulenger
+in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called _Zeorhombi_. The
+three families included in that division can be traced back to the Upper
+Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably be found in the Upper
+Cretaceous associated with the _Berycidae_, to which they will no doubt
+prove to be related. The very young are transparent and symmetrical,
+with an eye on each side, and swim in a vertical position. As they grow,
+the eye of one side moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes
+the upper eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the
+frontal region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the
+profile, temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some of
+the less modified genera, such as _Psettodes_; in other genera, the
+dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the migration takes
+place, and the eye, passing between the frontal bone and the tissues
+supporting the fin, appears to make its way from side to side through
+the head, as was believed by some of the earlier observers.
+
+About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a few species
+allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters of South America,
+West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago, whilst a few others, such as the
+English flounder, ascend streams, though still breeding in the sea. They
+range from the Arctic Circle to the southern coasts of the southern
+hemisphere and may occur at great depths.     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+FLATHEADS, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan stock. They
+formerly occupied the mountains of north-western Montana and the country
+around. They have always been friendly to the whites. Curiously enough
+they have not the custom, so general among American tribes, of
+flattening the heads of their infants. Father P.J. de Smet in 1841
+founded among them a mission which proved the most successful in the
+north-west. With the Pend d'Oreille tribe and some Kutenais they are on
+a reservation in Montana, and number a few hundreds.
+
+
+
+
+FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880), French novelist, was born at Rouen on the
+12th of December 1821. His father, of whom many traits are reproduced in
+Flaubert's character of Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at
+Rouen; his mother was connected with some of the oldest Norman families.
+He was educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840,
+when he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at
+school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age of
+eleven. Flaubert in his youth "was like a young Greek," full of vigour
+of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and
+apparently without any species of ambition. He loved the country, and
+Paris was extremely distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of
+Victor Hugo, and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees
+and Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre dreams,
+living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left quite alone
+through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline, Flaubert
+gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law together, to make a home
+for her at Croisset, close to Rouen. This estate, a house in a pleasant
+piece of ground which ran down to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for
+the remainder of his life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations
+with the poetess, Mlle Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved,
+and according to M. Emile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode
+of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. His
+principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with whom he travelled
+in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in 1849. Greece and Egypt made
+a profound impression upon the imagination of Flaubert. From this time
+forth, save for occasional visits to Paris, he did not stir from
+Croisset.
+
+On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the composition of
+_Madame Bovary_. He had hitherto scarcely written anything, and had
+published nothing. The famous novel took him six years to prepare, but
+was at length submitted to the _Revue de Paris_, where it appeared in
+serial form in 1857. The government brought an action against the
+publisher and against the author, on the charge of immorality, but both
+were acquitted; and when _Madame Bovary_ appeared in book-form it met
+with a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in 1858,
+and now settled down to the archaeological studies which were required to
+equip him for _Salammbo_, which, however, in spite of the author's
+ceaseless labours, was not finished until 1862. He then took up again the
+study of contemporary manners, and, making use of many recollections of
+his youth and childhood, wrote _L'Education sentimentale_, the
+composition of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869.
+Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert had been
+comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather around him. He felt
+the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly that the break-up of his health
+has been attributed to it; he began to suffer greatly from a distressing
+nervous malady. His best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal
+misunderstanding; in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances
+became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by his niece, Mme
+Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of friendship with George Sand,
+with whom he carried on a correspondence of immense artistic interest,
+and occasionally he saw his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet,
+Tourgenieff, the Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's
+life from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, to
+work with the same intensity and thoroughness. _La Tentation de
+Saint-Antoine_, of which fragments had been published as early as 1857,
+was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In that year he was
+subjected to a disappointment by the failure of his drama _Le Candidat_.
+In 1877 Flaubert published, in one volume, entitled _Trois contes, Un
+Coeur simple, La Legende de Saint-Julien-l'Hospitalier and Herodias_.
+After this something of his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the
+remainder of his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the
+futility of human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he
+left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering _Bouvard et
+Pecuchet_ (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious irony, he
+believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly and prematurely aged
+since 1870, and he was quite an old man when he was carried off by a
+stroke of apoplexy at the age of only 58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died
+at Croisset, but was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen.
+A beautiful monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen
+in 1890.
+
+The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. He was
+shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed from silence to
+an indignant and noisy flow of language. The same inconsistencies marked
+his physical nature; he had the build of a guardsman, with a magnificent
+Viking head, but his health was uncertain from childhood, and he was
+neurotic to the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by
+misanthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the "bourgeois" began in
+his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania. He despised his
+fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, their contempt for
+beauty, with a passionate scorn which has been compared to that of an
+ascetic monk. Flaubert's curious modes of composition favoured and were
+emphasized by these peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude,
+sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never
+satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for
+the best turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It
+cannot be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His private
+letters show that he was not one of those to whom easy and correct
+language is naturally given; he gained his extraordinary perfection with
+the unceasing sweat of his brow. One of the most severe of academic
+critics admits that "in all his works, and in every page of his works,
+Flaubert may be considered a model of style." That he was one of the
+greatest writers who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and
+his greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour and
+exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other writer, not of
+France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields admission to the inexact,
+the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary
+methods of composition. He never allowed a _cliche_ to pass him, never
+indulgently or wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which
+"almost" expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost
+equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous propriety
+of his style has been helpful to later writers of both schools, of every
+school. The absolute exactitude with which he adapts his expression to
+his purpose is seen in all parts of his work, but particularly in the
+portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree
+and manner in which, since his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended,
+form an interesting chapter of literary history. The publication of
+_Madame Bovary_ in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than
+admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the
+beginning of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.
+Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to crowd out
+all others. At the time of his death he was famous as a realist, pure
+and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary
+influence over E. de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet and M. Zola. But even
+since the decline of the realistic school Flaubert has not lost
+prestige; other facets of his genius have caught the light. It has been
+perceived that he was not merely realistic, but real; that his
+clairvoyance was almost boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more
+clearly than the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who
+must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at large,
+because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of perfect
+expression, were always before him, and because he hated the lax
+felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most sacred
+procedures of the literary artist.
+
+  His _Oeuvres completes_ (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original
+  manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the
+  two plays, _Le Candidat_ and _Le Chateau des coeurs_. Another edition
+  (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert's correspondence with
+  George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de
+  Maupassant. Other posthumous works are _Par les champs et par les
+  greves_ (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four volumes of
+  _Correspondance_ (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget, _Essais de
+  psychologie contemporaine_ (1883); Emile Faguet, _Flaubert_ (1899);
+  Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_ (1878); Emile Zola, _Les
+  Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
+  lundi_, vol. xiii., _Nouveaux lundis_, vol. iv.; and the _Souvenirs
+  litteraires_ (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FLAVEL, JOHN (c. 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine, was born at
+Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627. He was the elder son of
+Richard Flavel, described in contemporary records as "a painful and
+eminent minister." After receiving his early education, partly at home
+and partly at the grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered
+University College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he obtained
+a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the vicar he was
+appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he removed in 1656 to Dartmouth.
+He was ejected from his living by the passing of the Act of Uniformity
+in 1662, but continued to preach and administer the sacraments privately
+till the Five Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away.
+He then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth, where he
+laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four times. He was a
+vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without a play of fine fancy.
+
+  His principal works are his _Navigation Spiritualized_ (1671); _The
+  Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons_ (1672); _The Method of Grace_
+  (1680); _Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man_ (1698); _A
+  Token for Mourners_; _Husbandry Spiritualized_ (1699). Collected
+  editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles
+  Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN I. (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was born about 320,
+most probably in Antioch. He inherited great wealth, but resolved to
+devote his riches and his talents to the service of the church. In
+association with Diodorus, afterwards bishop of Tarsus, he supported the
+Catholic faith against the Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius
+as bishop of Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside
+the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion; and,
+according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the practice of
+antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services of the church.
+When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch in 361 he raised Flavian
+to the priesthood, and on the death of Meletius in 381 Flavian was
+chosen to succeed him. The schism between the two parties was, however,
+far from being healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt
+refused to acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme
+Eustathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius, still
+exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the death of
+Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor, but after the
+death of Evagrius (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in preventing his receiving
+a successor, though the Eustathians still continued to hold separate
+meetings. Through the intervention of Chrysostom, soon after his
+elevation to the patriarchate of Constantinople (398), and the influence
+of the emperor Theodosius, Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate
+bishop of Antioch by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was
+not finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is
+venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.
+
+  See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article "Flavianus
+  von Antiochien" by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's _Real-encyklop._ (ed. 3).
+  For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack's, _Hist. of Dogma_, iv.
+  95.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN II. (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was chosen by the
+emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most probably in 498. He
+endeavoured to please both parties by steering a middle course in
+reference to the Chalcedon (q.v.) decrees, but was induced after great
+hesitation to agree to the request of Anastasius that he should accept
+the Henoticon, or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing
+so, while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of
+Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who in 511
+found in the riots which were occurring between the rival parties in the
+streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian, and banishing him to
+Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was soon after his death enrolled
+among the saints of the Greek Church, and after some opposition he was
+also canonized by the Latin Church.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIAN (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent of the
+Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided at the council
+which deposed Eutyches (q.v.) in 448, but in the following year he was
+deposed by the council of Ephesus (the "robber synod"), which reinstated
+Eutyches in his office. Flavian's death shortly afterwards was
+attributed, by a pious fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his
+theological opponents. The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a
+martyr, and in the Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of
+February.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIGNY, a town of eastern France, in the department of Cote-d'Or,
+situated on a promontory overlooking the river Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of
+Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725. Among its antiquities are the remains of
+an abbey of the 8th century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the
+manufacture of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as
+the 17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th centuries,
+containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine rood-screen (early
+16th century). A Dominican convent, some old houses and ancient gateways
+are also of interest. About 3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont
+Auxois, the probable site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in A.D. 52
+defeated the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been
+erected on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman
+period have been discovered on the hill.
+
+
+
+
+FLAVIN (Lat. _flavus_, yellow), the commercial name for an extract or
+preparation of quercitron bark (_Quercus tinctoria_), which is used as a
+yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered bark (see QUERCITRON).
+
+
+
+
+FLAX. The terms flax or lint (Ger. _Flachs_, Fr. _lin_, Lat. _linum_)
+are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and the plant from
+which it is prepared. The flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_) belongs to
+the natural order _Linaceae_, and, like most plants which have been long
+under cultivation, it possesses numerous varieties, while its origin is
+doubtful. As cultivated it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a
+height of from 20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly
+lance-shaped leaves, branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet
+ending in a bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical,
+having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin, five
+petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing five
+distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five cells, each
+of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten divisions, each of
+which contains a single seed. The seeds of the flax plant, well known as
+linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and of a bright greenish-brown
+colour. They are oval in section, but their maximum contour represents
+closely that of a pear with the stalk removed. The contents are of an
+oily nature, and when liquefied are of great commercial value.
+
+The earliest cultivated flax was _Linum angustifolium_, a smaller plant
+with fewer and narrower leaves than _L. usitatissimum_, and usually
+perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by the inhabitants of
+the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild in south and west Europe
+(including England), North Africa, and western Asia. The annual flax
+(_L. usitatissimum_) has been cultivated for at least four or five
+thousand years in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the
+districts included between the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the
+Black Sea. This annual flax appears to have been introduced into the
+north of Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by the
+western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians; lastly,
+into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after their separation from the
+European Aryans. (De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_.)
+
+The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most ancient of
+all textile industries, very distinct traces of their existence during
+the stone age being preserved to the present day. "The use of flax,"
+says Ferdinand Keller (_Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, translated by
+J.E. Lee), "reaches back to the very earliest periods of civilization,
+and it was most extensively and variously applied in the lake-dwellings,
+even in those of the stone period. But of the mode in which it was
+planted, steeped, heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we
+can form no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by
+the settlers in its cultivation.... Rough or unworked flax is found in
+the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what are technically called
+heads, and, as much attention was given to this last operation, it was
+perfectly clean and ready for use." As to its applications at this early
+period, Keller remarks: "Flax was the material for making lines and nets
+for fishing and catching wild animals, cords for carrying the
+earthenware vessels and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly
+imagine how navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings
+themselves be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the
+erection of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to
+whatever people these monuments may belong, would be altogether
+impracticable without the use of strong ropes."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flax Plant (_Linum usitatissimum_).]
+
+_Manufacture._--That flax was extensively cultivated and was regarded as
+of much importance at a very early period in the world's history there
+is abundant testimony. Especially in ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a
+most important place, linen having been there not only generally worn by
+all classes, but it was the only material the priestly order was
+permitted to wear, while it was most extensively used as wrappings for
+embalmed bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are
+told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph "in vestures of fine linen" (Gen. xlii.
+42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail destroyed the flax and
+barley crops, "for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled"
+(Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous pictorial representations of flax
+culture and preparation exist to the present day on the walls of tombs
+and in Egypt. Sir J. G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt
+shows clearly the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing
+flax. "At Beni Hassan," he says, "the mode of cultivating the plant, in
+the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much resembling our
+salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and making them into
+ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth are distinctly pointed
+out." The preparation of the fibre as conducted in Egypt is illustrated
+by Pliny, who says: "The stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed
+by the heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon them,
+for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind, becoming loose
+is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated. They are then taken out
+and repeatedly turned over in the sun until perfectly dried, and
+afterwards beaten by mallets on stone slabs. That which is nearest the
+rind is called _stupa_ ['tow'], inferior to the inner fibres, and fit
+only for the wicks of lamps. It is combed out with iron hooks until the
+rind is all removed. The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality.
+Men are not ashamed to prepare it" (Pliny, _N.H._ xix. 1). For many
+ages, even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax
+occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent into all
+regions with which open intercourse was maintained. Among Western
+nations it was, without any competitor, the most important of all
+vegetable fibres till towards the close of the 18th century, when, after
+a brief struggle, cotton took its place as the supreme vegetable fibre
+of commerce.
+
+Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a
+moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it requires
+the soil to be in fresh condition without being too rich. Lands newly
+broken up from pasture suit it well, as these are generally freer from
+weeds than those that have been long under tillage. It is usually
+inexpedient to apply manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency
+of this is to produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of
+the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason it
+must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall,
+slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been ploughed in
+autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with the grubber, harrow
+and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the
+seed is sown broadcast by hand or machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per
+acre, and covered in the same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable
+immediately to hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove
+all stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants.
+When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully
+hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and hence the
+importance of sowing the crop on land as free as possible from weeds of
+all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind, move slowly on hands and
+knees, and should remove every vestige of weed in order that the flax
+plants may receive the full benefit of the land. When flax is cultivated
+primarily on account of the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before
+the capsules are quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from
+a green to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have
+become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.
+
+The various operations through which the crop passes from this point
+till flax ready for the market is produced are--(1) Pulling, (2)
+Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling, (6) Scutching.
+
+_Pulling_ and _rippling_ may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is always
+pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it cut or shorn
+like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in dry clear weather;
+and care is to be taken in this, as in all the subsequent operations, to
+keep the root-ends even and the stalks parallel. At the same time it is
+desirable to have, as far as possible, stalks of equal length
+together,--all these conditions having considerable influence on the
+quality and appearance of the finished sample. As a general rule the
+removal of the "bolls" or capsules by the process of rippling
+immediately follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the
+field; but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the
+Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into sheaves,
+dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the early part of
+the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or apparatus for separating
+the seed capsules from the branches, consists of a kind of comb having,
+set in a wooden frame, iron teeth made of round-rod iron 3/16ths of an
+inch asunder at the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in.
+long, to allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The
+points should begin to taper 3 in, from the top. A sheet or other cover
+being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the middle of it,
+and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with the machine between
+them, work at the same time. It is unadvisable to ripple the flax so
+severely as to break or tear the delicate fibres at the upper part of
+the stem. The two valuable commercial products of the flax plant, the
+seeds and the stalk, are separated at this point. We have here to do
+with the latter only.
+
+_Retting_ or _rotting_ is an operation of the greatest importance, and
+one in connexion with which in recent years numerous experiments have
+been made, and many projects and processes put forth, with the view of
+remedying the defects of the primitive system or altogether supplanting
+it. From the earliest times two leading processes of retting have been
+practised, termed respectively water-retting and dew-retting; and as no
+method has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these
+operations, they will first be described.
+
+_Water-retting._--For this--the process by which flax is generally
+prepared--pure soft water, free from iron and other materials which
+might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much impregnated with
+lime is also specially objectionable. The dams or ponds in which the
+operation is conducted are of variable size, and usually between 4 and 5
+ft. in depth. The rippled stalks are tied in small bundles and packed,
+roots downwards, in the dams till they are quite full; over the top of
+the upper layer is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with
+the grassy side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to
+keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a process of
+fermentation should immediately be set up, which soon makes itself
+manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles. After a few days the
+fermentation subsides; and generally in from ten days to two weeks the
+process ought to be complete. The exact time, however, depends upon the
+weather and upon the particular kind of water in which the flax is
+immersed. The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies
+in deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain under
+water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed "over-retting,"
+a condition which increases the amount of codilla in the scutching
+process; whilst "under-retting" leaves part of the gummy or resinous
+matter in the material, which hinders the subsequent process of
+manufacture. As the steeping is such a critical operation, it is
+essential that the stalks be frequently examined and tested as the
+process nears completion. When it is found that the fibre separates
+readily from the woody "shove" or core, the beets or small bundles are
+ready for removing from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly
+and equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes from a
+week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the fibres may spin
+equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is necessary to turn the
+material over several times during the process. It is ready for
+gathering when the core cracks and separates easily from the fibre. At
+this point advantage is taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax,
+which is now ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stooking
+and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching mill.
+
+_Dew-retting_ is the process by which all the Archangel flax and a large
+portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are prepared. By this method
+the operation of steeping is entirely dispensed with, and the flax is,
+immediately after pulling, spread on the grass where it is under the
+influence of air, sunlight, night-dews and rain. The process is tedious,
+the resulting fibre is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly
+liable to undergo heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of
+the flax) if exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little
+access of air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in
+structure, although in all probability water-retting would result in a
+fibre as good or even better in quality.
+
+The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb, is
+that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence of heat and
+moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular substance--pectose
+or an analogue of that body--into pectin and pectic acid. The former,
+being soluble, is left in the water; but the latter, an insoluble body,
+is in part attached to the fibres, from which it is only separated by
+changing into soluble metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline
+ley in the subsequent process of bleaching.
+
+To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the primitive
+fashions above described, although numerous and persistent attempts have
+been made to improve upon it, or to avoid the process altogether. The
+uniform result of all experiments has only been to demonstrate the
+scientific soundness of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all
+the proposed improvements of recent times seek to obviate the
+tediousness, difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on
+in the open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention
+was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by Mr James
+Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely mechanical means
+without any retting whatever; but after the Irish Linen Board had
+expended many thousands of pounds and much time in making experiments
+and in erecting his machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete
+failure. About the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a
+process of "cottonizing" flax--a method of proceeding which had been
+suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen's process
+consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours in a weak
+solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two hours in a
+similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution containing 5% of
+carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed in a vat containing water
+acidulated with 1/2% of sulphuric acid. The action of the acid on the
+carbonate of soda with which the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre
+to split up into a fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to
+manufacture in the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax
+into bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recommend
+it to public acceptance; and Claussen's process therefore remains only
+as an interesting and suggestive experiment.
+
+The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto endured the
+test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm position as a distinct
+improvement, is the warm-water retting patented in England in 1846 by an
+American, Robert B. Schenck. For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes
+large wooden vats under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in
+an upright position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and
+maintained at a temperature of from 75 deg. to 95 deg. F. during the
+whole time the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermentation is
+set up, gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently becoming very
+repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy scum over the surface
+of the water. The whole process occupies only from 50 to 60 hours. A
+still further improvement, due to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at
+this point, which consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are
+taken out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream of pure
+water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all the slimy
+glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but the subsequent
+processes of breaking and scutching are much facilitated.
+
+A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of Glasgow in
+1852, and subsequently modified and improved by J. Buchanan. The system
+possessed the advantages of rapidity, being completed in about ten
+hours, and freedom from any noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh,
+ill-spinning fibre, and consequently failed to meet the sanguine
+expectations of its promoters.
+
+In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael Andrews, secretary
+of the Belfast Flax Supply Association, made some suggestions and
+experiments which deserve close attention. In a paper contributed to the
+International Flax Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details
+regarding an experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of
+imitating by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary
+methods. In brief, Mr Andrews' method consists in introducing water at
+the proper temperature into the retting vat, and maintaining that
+temperature by keeping the air of the chamber at a proper degree of
+heat. By this means the flax is kept at a uniform temperature with great
+certainty, since even should the heat of the air vary considerably
+through neglect, the water in the vat only by slow degrees follows such
+fluctuations. "It may be remarked," says Mr Andrews, "that the
+superiority claimed for this method of retting flax over what is known
+as the 'hot-water steeping' is uniformity of temperature; in fact the
+experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control can be exercised
+over the means adopted to produce the artificial climate in which the
+vats containing the flax are situated."
+
+Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtaining a quick
+and practical method of retting flax. The one by Messrs Doumer and
+Deswarte appears to have been well received in France, but in Ireland
+the invention of Messrs Loppens and Deswarte has recently received the
+most attention. The apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the
+partition being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and
+covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other.
+Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately under the
+perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters the upper
+chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams, the latter being
+prevented from rising too high. The soluble substances are dissolved by
+the water, and the liquid thus formed being heavier than water, sinks to
+the bottom of the tank where it is allowed to escape through an outlet.
+By this arrangement the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh
+water, a condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids,
+in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow, and hence
+the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the operation is
+completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the flax remains on
+the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly before being removed to
+dry.
+
+The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, and
+the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly made some experiments
+with this method, and the following extract from the Association's
+report for 1905 shows the success which attended their efforts:--
+
+  "By desire of the department (which has taken up the position of an
+  impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was
+  divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the
+  patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to Courtrai
+  and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched were
+  examined by an inspector of the department and by several flax
+  spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced superior to
+  the other"....
+
+  "To summarise results up to date--
+
+    1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in the field
+    in Ireland.
+
+    2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.
+
+    3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte's patent) is at
+    least equal to the Lys, as to quality and yield of fibre produced."
+
+Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to expect
+further attempts with the same object of supplanting the ordinary
+steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical or other method would
+probably be the means of reviving the flax industry in the remote parts
+of the British Isles.
+
+_Scutching_ is the process by which the fibre is freed from its woody
+core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-retted flax two
+operations are required, first breaking and then scutching, and these
+are done either by hand labour or by means of small scutching or lint
+mills, driven either by water or steam power. Hand labour, aided by
+simple implements, is still much used in continental countries; also in
+some parts of Ireland where labour is cheap or when very fine material
+is desired; but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these
+being more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks
+between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these rollers,
+of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes arranged to work
+alternately forwards and backwards in order to thoroughly break the
+woody material or "boon" of the straw, while the broken "shoves" are
+beaten out by suspending the fibre in a machine fitted with a series of
+revolving blades, which, striking violently against the flax, shake out
+the bruised and broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching
+machines and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view
+of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of fibre, both
+in respect of cleanness and in producing the least proportion of codilla
+or scutching tow.
+
+The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable staple in
+the market, on account of its fineness, strength and particularly bright
+colour. There the flax is dried in the field, and housed or stacked
+during the winter succeeding its growth, and in the spring of the
+following year it is retted in crates sunk in the sluggish waters of the
+river Lys. After the process has proceeded a certain length, the crates
+are withdrawn, and the sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter
+once more tied up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to
+complete the retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably
+practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in cones,
+instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored for some time
+previous to undergoing the operation of scutching. In all operations the
+greatest care is taken, and the cultivators being peculiarly favoured as
+to soil, climate and water, Courtrai flax is a staple of unapproached
+excellence.
+
+  An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb. of
+  air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he separated
+  1946 lb. of bolls which yielded 910 lb. of seed. The 5824 lb. (52 cwt.)
+  of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving 39 cwt. of
+  retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lb. (702 lb.) of finished
+  flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal to about 9%
+  of the dried flax with the bolls, 12% of the boiled straw, and over
+  16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by Schenck's method
+  gave 33 tons bolls, with 27.50 tons of loss in steeping; 32.13 tons
+  were separated in scutching, leaving 5.90 tons of finished fibre, with
+  1.47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following analysis of two
+  varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo Muller (Hoffmann's
+  _Berichte uber die Entwickelung der chemischen  Industrie_):--
+
+    Ash                                          0.70    1.32
+    Water                                        8.65   10.70
+    Extractive matter                            3.65    6.02
+    Fat and wax                                  2.39    2.37
+    Cellulose                                   82.57   71.50
+    Intercellular substance and pectose bodies   2.74    9.41
+
+  According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (_Die Rohstoffe des
+  Pflanzenreiches_), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140
+  centimetres, the length of the individual cells being from 2.0 to 4.0
+  millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0.012 and 0.025 mm.,
+  the average being 0.016 mm.
+
+Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement both in the
+growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till comparatively recent
+times, the whole industry was conducted only on a domestic scale has had
+much influence. At no very remote date it was the practice in Scotland
+for every small farmer and cotter not only to grow "lint" or flax in
+small patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven,
+bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own premises,
+and all by members or dependents of the family. The same practice
+obtained and still largely prevails in other countries. Thus the flax
+industry was long kept away from the most powerful motives to apply to
+it labour-saving devices, and apart from the influence of scientific
+inquiry for the improvement of methods and processes. As cotton came to
+the front, just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving
+were being introduced, the result was that in many localities where flax
+crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually drooped and
+ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by degrees ceased to be a
+domestic industry, and began to centre in and become the characteristic
+factory employment of special localities, which depended, however, for
+their supply of raw material primarily on the operations of small
+growers, working, for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote
+thinly populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the
+preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day, not
+come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities) of
+scientific knowledge and experience.
+
+_Cultivation._--The approximate number of acres (1905) under cultivation
+in the principal flax-growing countries is as follows:--
+
+  Russia     3,500,000 acres.
+  Caucasia     450,000   "
+  Austria      175,000   "
+  Italy        120,000   "
+  Poland        95,000   "
+  Rumania       80,000   "
+  Germany       75,000   "
+  France        65,000   "
+  Belgium       53,000   "
+  Hungary       50,000   "
+  Ireland       46,000   "
+  Holland       38,000   "
+
+Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably the combined
+quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned countries, the quality
+of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is cultivated in the Russian
+provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia, Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod,
+Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka, Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or
+Jaroslav, while the bulk of the material is exported through the Baltic
+ports. Riga and St Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal
+ports, but flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau,
+Narva and Konigsberg. Sometimes it is exported from Archangel, but this
+port is frost-bound for a great period of the year; moreover, most of
+the districts are nearer to the Baltic.
+
+
+  _The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the
+  Change in Price of a few well-known Varieties._
+
+  +-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+--------+------+-----+------+------+------+
+  |                 |     Dec.    |     Dec.    |     Dec.   |  Dec.|  Dec.  |  Dec.| Dec.|  Dec.|  Dec.|  Dec.|
+  |                 |    1897.    |    1898.    |    1899.   | 1900.| 1901.  | 1902.|1903.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.|
+  |                 +-------------+-------------+------------+------+--------+------+-----+------+------+------+
+  |Riga--           |      L      |     L       |      L     |   L  |   L    |   L  |  L  |   L  |   L  |   L  |
+  |   SPK           |    23-1/2   | 21  to 22   |  28 to 32  |  42  |28 to 32|  32  | 39  |  33  |  35  |  32  |
+  |  XHDX           |      27     |   26-1/2    |32-1/2 to 33|43-1/2|   34   |  35  | 42  |  34  |  36  |  33  |
+  |     W           |16 to 16-1/4 |15-1/2 to 16 |22-1/2 to 24|  31  |18 to 19|  22  | 29  |  23  |  24  |  24  |
+  |St Petersburg--  |             |             |            |      |        |      |     |      |      |      |
+  |  Bajetsky       |   28 to 29  | 26  to 27   |32 to 32-1/2|  46  |   37   |  33  | 49  |  36  |  42  |  38  |
+  |  Jaropol        |   24 to 25  |23 to 23-1/2 |     30     |  42  |   32   |  30  | 42  |  33  |  35  |  33  |
+  |Tows--           |             |             |            |      |        |      |     |      |      |      |
+  |  Mologin        |24 to 24-1/4 |23 to 23-1/2 |24-1/2 to 25|31-1/2|   32   |  32  | 42  |  32  |  34  |32-1/2|
+  |  Novgorod       |23-1/2 to 24 |   23[1]     |26 to 26-1/2|  33  | 31-1/2 |32-1/2| 41  |31-1/2|  37  |34-1/2|
+  |                 | [1]         |             | [1]        |      |        |      |     |      |      |      |
+  |Archangel--      |             |             |            |      |        |      |     |      |      |      |
+  |  1/2 and 1/2 tow|      25     |24  to 24-1/2|  26 to 27  |  32  |   31   |  32  | 41  |31-1/2|32-1/2|  31  |
+  |  2nd Codilla    |      25     | 24  to 24   |25-1/2 to 26|  32  |   31   |  32  | 41  |  32  |  33  |  31  |
+  +-----------------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+--------+------+-----+------+------+------+
+
+The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as the district
+in which it is grown, and it is further classified by special marks.
+The following names amongst others are given to the fibre:--Archangel,
+Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher, Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin,
+Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz, Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol,
+Jaroslav, Kama, Kashin, Konigsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns,
+Krasnoholm, Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Malmuish,
+Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky, Nolinsk, Novgorod,
+Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy, Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel,
+Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg, Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk,
+Sytcheffka, Taroslav. Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni,
+Vologda, Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk.
+
+These names indicate the particular district in which the flax has been
+grown, but it is more general to group the material into classes such as
+Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs, Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens,
+Pernau, Archangel, &c.
+
+  The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one or
+  other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not
+  necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October 1906
+  quotations appeared as under:--
+
+    Livonian     basis K    L26 to L27     per ton,
+    Hoffs          "   HD   L21 to L22        "
+    Pernau.        "   D    L28 to L28: 10    "
+    Dorpat         "   D    L32 to L32: 10    "
+                 cleaned.
+
+  It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to
+  variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and
+  demand.
+
+  The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:--
+
+    K means Crown and is usually the base mark.
+    H   "   Light and represents a rise of about L1
+    P   "   Picked        "       "         "    L3
+    G   "   Grey          "       "         "    L3
+    S   "   Superior      "       "         "    L4
+    W   "   White         "       "         "    L4
+    Z   "   Zins          "       "         "    L10
+
+  Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be
+  understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two
+  letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more, since
+  every mark has not the same value.
+
+  If we take L25 as the value of the base mark, the value per ton for
+  the different groups would be:--
+
+      K   L25     HSPK   L33
+     HK   L26     GSPK   L35
+     PK   L28     WSPK   L36
+    HPK   L29       ZK   L35
+    GPK   L31      HZK   L36
+    SPK   L32      GZK   L38, &c.
+
+  The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for Hoffs, D
+  for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and R for
+  Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before, after or
+  in both places. With L20 as base mark we have:--
+
+       HD    L20 per ton.
+      PHD    L23  "   "
+     FPHD    L26  "   "
+    SFPHD    L29  "   "
+     XHDX    L32  "   "
+      XRX    L35  "   "
+
+  Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named;
+
+      W, Wrack flax.                 PD, Picked Dreiband flax.
+     PW, Picked wrack flax.          LD, Livonian Dreiband.
+    WPW, White picked wrack.        PLD, Picked Livonian Dreiband.
+    GPW, Grey picked wrack flax.     SD, Slanitz Dreiband.
+      D, Dreiband (Threeband).      PSD, Picked Slanitz Dreiband.
+
+  The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped from Riga
+  either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or Wiasma Slanitz,
+  showing from what district they come, as there are differences in the
+  quality of the produce of each district. The lowest quality of Riga
+  flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband Wrack.
+
+  Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is imported
+  is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few. The leading
+  marks are:--
+
+    LOD, indicating Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).
+     OD,     "      Ordinary Dreiband.
+      D,     "      Dreiband.
+     HD,     "      Light Dreiband.
+      R,     "      Risten.
+      G,     "      Cut.
+      M,     "      Marienburg.
+
+  Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being
+  the best.
+
+  Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Petersburg,
+  the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
+  Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. 2, while all the Archangel
+  flax is dew-retted.
+
+  Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered from
+  the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this quantity
+  a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom. The Chief
+  British ports for the landing of flax are:--Belfast, Dundee, Leith,
+  Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the chief centres
+  of the flax industry.
+
+  The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast Flax
+  Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all sources
+  into the different parts of the United Kingdom:--
+
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+    |       | Imports to | Imports to | Imports to  |
+    | Year. | the United |  Ireland.  | England and |
+    |       |  Kingdom.  |            |  Scotland.  |
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+    |       |   Tons.    |    Tons.   |     Tons.   |
+    | 1895  |  102,622   |   33,506   |    67,116   |
+    | 1896  |   95,199   |   36,650   |    58,549   |
+    | 1897  |   98,802   |   37,715   |    61,087   |
+    | 1898  |   97,253   |   34,440   |    62,813   |
+    | 1899  |   99,052   |   40,145   |    58,907   |
+    | 1900  |   71,586   |   31,563   |    40,023   |
+    | 1901  |   75,565   |   28,785   |    46,780   |
+    | 1902  |   73,611   |   29,727   |    43,884   |
+    | 1903  |   94,701   |   38,168   |    56,533   |
+    | 1904  |   74,917   |   33,024   |    41,893   |
+    | 1905  |   90,098   |   40,063   |    50,035   |
+    +-------+------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the
+  acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864 it
+  reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433.
+  After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that
+  year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated
+  considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to 89,225
+  acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage was above
+  108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000, while the
+  average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000 acres.
+       (T. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] 8 and 2, which means 80% of one quality and 20% of another.
+    Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not unusual to have
+    quotations for flaxes containing four different kinds.
+
+
+
+
+FLAXMAN, JOHN (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughtsman, was born on
+the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary residence of his parents at
+York. The name John was hereditary in the family, having been borne by
+his father after a forefather who, according to the family tradition,
+had fought on the side of parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled
+as a carrier or farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the
+father of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder
+and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New Street,
+Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was See, and John was
+their second son. Within six months of his birth the family returned to
+London, and in his father's back shop he spent an ailing childhood. His
+figure was high-shouldered and weakly, the head very large for the body.
+His mother having died about his tenth year, his father took a second
+wife, of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and that
+she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother. Of regular
+schooling the boy must have had some, since he is reputed as having
+remembered in after life the tyranny of some pedagogue of his youth; but
+his principal education he picked up for himself at home. He early took
+delight in drawing and modelling from his father's stock-in-trade, and
+early endeavoured to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the
+light of translations from classic literature.
+
+Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped him with
+books, advice, and presently with commissions. The two special
+encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney, and a cultivated
+clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose house in Rathbone Place
+the young Flaxman used to meet the best "blue-stocking" society of those
+days, and, among associates of his own age, the artists Blake and
+Stothard, who became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to
+work with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve
+years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal, and
+became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society of Artists;
+at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of Arts and began to
+exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the second year of its existence.
+In the same year, 1770, he entered as an Academy student and won the
+silver medal. But all these successes were followed by a discomfiture.
+In the competition for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman,
+who had made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged by
+the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor named
+Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement, and indeed seemed
+to have had a wholesome effect in curing the successful lad of a
+tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency which made Thomas Wedgwood say
+of him in 1775: "It is but a few years since he was a most supreme
+coxcomb."
+
+He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the schools
+and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy, occasionally also
+attempting diversions into the sister art of painting. To the Academy he
+contributed a wax model of Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax
+(1771); a terracotta bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History
+(1772); a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During
+these years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew family,
+for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work of this class he
+could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The means of such a
+livelihood, however, presented themselves in his twentieth year, when he
+first received employment from Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley,
+as a modeller of classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental
+vessels and medallion portraits, in those varieties of "jasper" and
+"basalt" ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the
+manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention. In the same
+year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from New Street, Covent Garden,
+to a more commodious house in the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years,
+from his twentieth to his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted
+chiefly by his work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the
+minute refinements of figure outline and modelling which these
+manufacturers aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities
+best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the gifts of
+an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long upon such a minor
+and half-mechanical art of household decoration; but the beauty of the
+product it would be idle to deny, or the value of the training which the
+sculptor by this practice acquired in the delicacies and severities of
+modelling in low relief and on a minute scale.
+
+By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another branch of his
+profession, which was in the future to furnish his chief source of
+livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for the dead. Three of the
+earliest of such monuments by his hand are those of Chatterton in the
+church of St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in
+Gloucester cathedral (1784), and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in
+the cathedral at Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman's career
+memorial bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his
+industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches throughout the
+length and breadth of England, and in them the finest qualities of his
+art are represented. The best are admirable for pathos and simplicity,
+and for the alliance of a truly Greek instinct for rhythmical design and
+composition with that spirit of domestic tenderness and innocence which
+is one of the secrets of the modern soul.
+
+In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married to Anne
+Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until almost his life's
+end. She was a woman of attainments in letters and to some extent in
+art, and the devoted companion of her husband's fortunes and of his
+travels. They set up house at first in Wardour Street, and lived an
+industrious life, spending their summer holidays once and again in the
+house of the hospitable poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five
+years, in 1787, they found themselves with means enough to travel, and
+set out for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice.
+Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman's residence in
+Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than in the shape of
+correspondence. He soon ceased modelling himself for Wedgwood, but
+continued to direct the work of other modellers employed for the
+manufacture at Rome. He had intended to return after a stay of a little
+more than two years, but was detained by a commission for a marble group
+of a Fury of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with
+circumstances of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious
+Comte-Eveque, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of Derry. He
+did not, as things fell out, return until the summer of 1794, after an
+absence of seven years,--having in the meantime executed another ideal
+commission (a "Cephalus and Aurora") for Mr Hope, and having sent home
+models for several sepulchral monuments, including one in relief for the
+poet Collins in Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord
+Mansfield in Westminster Abbey.
+
+But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and European fame
+was not his work in sculpture proper, but those outline designs to the
+poets, in which he showed not only to what purpose he had made his own
+the principles of ancient design in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but
+also by what a natural affinity, better than all mere learning, he was
+bound to the ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the _Iliad_
+and _Odyssey_ were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for Dante by
+Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer; they were all engraved by
+Piroli, not without considerable loss of the finer and more sensitive
+qualities of Flaxman's own lines.
+
+During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled through central and
+northern Italy. On their return they took a house, which they never
+afterwards left, in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square. Immediately
+afterwards we find the sculptor publishing a spirited protest against
+the scheme already entertained by the Directory, and carried out five
+years later by Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of
+art with the spoils of conquered Europe.
+
+The record of Flaxman's life is henceforth an uneventful record of
+private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious industry,
+with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not loud but
+loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best worth
+having--Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a son of Hayley's,
+who presently afterwards sickened and died. In 1797 he was made an
+associate of the Royal Academy. Every year he exhibited work of one
+class or another: occasionally a public monument in the round, like
+those of Paoli (1798), or Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey,
+of Sir William Jones for St Mary's, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or
+Howe for St Paul's; more constantly memorials for churches, with
+symbolic Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both
+commonly in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell,
+Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and many more];
+and these pious labours he would vary from time to time with a classical
+piece like those of his earliest predilection. Soon after his election
+as associate, he published a scheme, half grandiose, half childish, for
+a monument to be erected on Greenwich Hill, in the shape of a Britannia
+200 ft. high, in honour of the naval victories of his country. In 1800
+he was elected full Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to
+Paris to see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself
+according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next event which
+makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a chair specially
+created for him by the Royal Academy--the chair of Sculpture: this took
+place in 1810. We have ample evidence of his thoroughness and
+judiciousness as a teacher in the Academy schools, and his professorial
+lectures have been often reprinted. With many excellent observations,
+and with one singular merit--that of doing justice, as in those days
+justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval
+schools--these lectures lack point and felicity of expression, just as
+they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are somewhat
+heavy reading. The most important works that occupied Flaxman in the
+years next following this appointment were the monument to Mrs Baring in
+Micheldever church, the richest of all his monuments in relief
+(1805-1811); that for the Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire,
+which is the next richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's
+(1807), to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and
+Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of Wales's
+Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813). At this time
+the antiquarian world was much occupied with the vexed question of the
+merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman was one of those whose evidence
+before the parliamentary commission had most weight in favour of the
+purchase which was ultimately effected in 1816.
+
+After his Roman period he produced for a good many years no outline
+designs for the engraver except three for Cowper's translations of the
+Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets of outline illustrations drawn
+about the same time, but not published, were one to the _Pilgrim's
+Progress_, and one to a Chinese tale in verse, called "The Casket,"
+which he wrote to amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to
+his old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the
+happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod,
+excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Immediately
+afterwards he was much engaged designing for the goldsmiths--a
+testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and following that, the great
+labour of the famous and beautiful (though quite un-Homeric) "Shield of
+Achilles." Almost at the same time he undertook a frieze of "Peace,
+Liberty and Plenty," for the duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at
+Woburn, and an heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord
+Egremont's house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is
+shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed to Rees's
+_Encyclopaedia_ (1819-1820).
+
+In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis six years
+earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the sculptor's own
+sister,, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house, and his industry was
+scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he delivered at the Academy a lecture
+in memory of his old friend and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then
+lately dead; in 1823 he received from A.W. von Schlegel a visit of which
+that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring soon after
+this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work and exhibition, but
+on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold in church, and died four days
+later, in his seventy-second year. Among a few intimate associates, he
+left a memory singularly dear; having been in companionship, although
+susceptible and obstinate when his religious creed--a devout
+Christianity with Swedenborgian admixtures--was crossed or slighted, yet
+in other things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of
+modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true friend
+and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.
+
+Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or of his age,
+which in England offered neither training nor much encouragement to a
+sculptor, that he is weakest when he is most ambitious, and most
+inspired when he makes the least effort; but so it is. Not merely does
+he fail when he seeks to illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival
+the tumultuousness of Michelangelo--to be intense or tumultuous he was
+never made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his
+work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as it is
+partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures, the "St
+Michael" at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably composed from
+all points of view; but it lacks fire and force, and it lacks the finer
+touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like the diploma piece of the
+"Apollo" and "Marpessa" in the Royal Academy compares with it
+favourably. This is one of the very few things which he is recorded to
+have executed in the marble entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he
+entrusted the finishing work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his
+employ, and was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they
+imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked at the
+Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman's complicated monuments in
+the round, such as the three in Westminster Abbey and the four in St
+Paul's, there is scarcely one which has not something heavy and
+infelicitous in the arrangement, and something empty and unsatisfactory
+in the surface execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in
+relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The truth is
+that he did not thoroughly understand composition on the great scale and
+in the round, but he thoroughly understood relief, and found scope in it
+for his remarkable gifts of harmonious design, and tender, grave and
+penetrating feeling. But if we would see even the happiest of his
+conceptions at their best, we must study them, not in the finished
+marble but rather in the casts from his studio sketches (marred though
+they have been by successive coats of paint intended for their
+protection) of which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the
+Flaxman gallery at University College And the same is true of his
+happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-known
+relief of "Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury." Nay, going farther
+back still among the rudiments and first conceptions of his art, we can
+realize the most essential charm of his genius in the study, not of his
+modelled work at all, but of his sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of
+these the principal public collections are at University College, in the
+British Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are
+dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the excellence
+of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus and Hesiod, in all
+cases save when the designer aims at that which he cannot hit, the
+terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman at his best it is necessary
+to be acquainted not only with the original studies for such designs as
+these (which, with the exception of the Hesiod series, are far finer
+than the engravings), but still more with those almost innumerable
+studies from real life which he was continually producing with pen, tint
+or pencil. These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor's notes
+in existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and
+expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that struck his
+fancy. There are groups of Italy and London, groups of the parlour and
+the nursery, of the street, the garden and the gutter; and of each group
+the artist knows how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual
+secret, expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art of
+sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and balancings of
+the various figures in any given group, and not less happily the charm
+of the affections which link the figures together and inspire their
+gestures.
+
+  The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various
+  biographical and other publications; the principal are the
+  following:--An anonymous sketch in the _European Magazine_ for 1823;
+  an anonymous "Brief Memoir," prefixed to _Flaxman's Lectures_ (ed.
+  1829, and reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan
+  Cunningham's _Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters_, &c., vol.
+  iii.; notices in the _Life of Nollekens_, by John Thomas Smith; in the
+  _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the
+  _Diaries and Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson_ (London, 1869), the
+  latter an authority of great importance; in the _Lives_ of Stothard,
+  by Mrs Bray, of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and
+  of Blake, by Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated
+  essays, principally on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the
+  _Art Journal_ for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G.F. Teniswood; _Essays in
+  English Art_, by Frederick Wedmore; _The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32
+  plates, with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and
+  Genius of Flaxman_, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article
+  "Flaxman" in the _Dictionary of National Biography_.     (S. C)
+
+
+
+
+FLEA (0. Eng. _fleah_, or _flea_, cognate with _flee_, to run away from,
+to take flight), a name typically applied to _Pulex irritans_, a
+well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other mammals,
+remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly cosmopolitan. In
+ordinary language the name is used for any species of _Siphonaptera_
+(otherwise known as _Aphaniptera_), which, though formerly regarded as a
+suborder of _Diptera_ (q.v.), are now considered to be a separate order
+of insects. All _Siphonaptera_, of which more than 100 species are
+known, are parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
+belong to the family _Pulicidae_, of which _P. irritans_ may be taken as
+the type; but the order also includes the _Sarcopsyllidae_, the females
+of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the _Ceratopsyllidae_,
+or bat-fleas.
+
+Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body, small and
+indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae situated in
+cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes, which are always
+minute and sometimes absent. The structure of the mouth-parts is
+different from that seen in any other insects. The actual piercing
+organs are the mandibles, while the upper lip or labrum forms a sucking
+tube. The maxillae are not piercing organs, and their function is to
+protect the mandibles and labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of
+the host. Maxillary and labial palpi are also present, and the latter,
+together with the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.
+
+Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis. The
+footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very active; they feed upon
+almost any kind of waste animal matter, and when full-grown form a
+silken cocoon. The human flea is considerably exceeded in size by
+certain other species found upon much smaller hosts; thus the European
+_Hystrichopsylla talpae_, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small
+mammals, attains a length of 5-1/2 millimetres; another large species
+infests the Indian porcupine. Of the _Sarcopsyllidae_ the best known
+species is the "jigger" or "chigoe" (_Dermatophilus penetrans_),
+indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West Africa
+during the second half of last century. Since then this pest has spread
+across the African continent and even reached Madagascar. The
+impregnated female jigger burrows into the feet of men and dogs, and
+becomes distended with eggs until its abdomen attains the size and
+appearance of a small pea. If in extracting the insect the abdomen be
+ruptured, serious trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At
+least four species of fleas (including _Pulex irritans_) which infest
+the common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the active
+agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human beings.
+     (E. E. A.)
+
+
+
+
+FLECHE (French for "arrow"), the term generally used in French
+architecture for a spire, but more especially employed to designate the
+timber spire covered with lead, which was erected over the intersection
+of the roofs over nave and transepts; sometimes these were small and
+unimportant, but in cathedrals they were occasionally of large
+dimensions, as in the fleche of Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly
+100 ft. high; this, however, is exceeded by the example of Amiens
+cathedral, which measures 148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its
+finial.
+
+
+
+
+FLECHIER, ESPRIT (1632-1710), French preacher and author, bishop of
+Nimes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse, on the 10th of June
+1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by his uncle, Hercule Audiffret,
+superior of the Congregation des Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered
+the order. On the death of his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the
+strictness of its rules, and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to
+writing poetry. His French poems met with little success, but a
+description in Latin verse of a tournament (_carrousel, circus regius_),
+given by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
+subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefevre de Caumartin,
+afterwards _intendant_ of finances and counsellor of state, whom he
+accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (q.v.), where the king had ordered the
+_Grands Jours_ to be held (1665), and where Caumartin was sent as
+representative of the sovereign. There Flechier wrote his curious
+_Memoires sur les Grand Jours tenus a Clermont_, in which he relates, in
+a half romantic, half historical form, the proceedings of this
+extraordinary court of justice. In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured
+for him the post of _lecteur_ to the dauphin. The sermons of Flechier
+increased his reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest
+pitch by his funeral orations. The most important are those on Madame de
+Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership of the Academy, the
+duchesse d'Aiguillon (1675), and, above all, Marshal Turenne (1676). He
+was now firmly established in the favour of the king, who gave him
+successively the abbacy of St Severin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the
+office of almoner to the dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of
+Lavaur, from which he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nimes. The edict
+of Nantes had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were
+still very numerous at Nimes. Flechier, by his leniency and tact,
+succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even gained
+the esteem of those who declined to change their faith. During the
+troubles in the Cevennes (see HUGUENOTS) he softened to the utmost of
+his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed himself so indulgent even
+to what he regarded as error, that his memory was long held in
+veneration amongst the Protestants of that district. It is right to add,
+however, that some authorities consider the accounts of his leniency to
+have been greatly exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond
+what the edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of
+February 1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
+Flechier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust and
+sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal Bourdaloue in
+earnestness of thought and vigour of expression; nor can he rival the
+philosophical depth or the insinuating and impressive eloquence of
+Massillon. But he is always ingenious, often witty, and nobody has
+carried farther than he the harmony of diction, sometimes marred by an
+affectation of symmetry and an excessive use of antithesis. His two
+historical works, the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more
+remarkable for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive
+insight.
+
+  The last complete edition of Flechier's works is by J.P. Migne (Paris,
+  1856); the _Memoires sur les Grands Jours_ was first published in 1844
+  by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as _Mem. sur les Gr. J. d'Auvergne_, with notice
+  by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M. Cheruel, 1862). His chief works
+  are: _Histoire de Theodose le Grand_, _Oraisons funebres_, _Histoire
+  du Cardinal Ximenes_, _Sermons de morale_, _Panegyriques des saints_.
+  He left a _portrait_ or _caractere_ of himself, addressed to one of
+  his friends. The _Life of Theodosius_ has been translated into English
+  by F. Manning (1693), and the "Funeral Oration of Marshal Turenne" in
+  H.C. Fish's _History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence_ (ii., 1857).
+  On Flechier generally see Antonin V.D. Fabre, _La Jeunesse de
+  Flechier_ (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, _Flechier, orateur_ (1886); A.
+  Delacroix, _Hist, de Flechier_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED (1820-1899), German
+philologist and critic, was born at Wolfenbuttel on the 23rd of
+September 1820. He was educated at the Helmstedt gymnasium and the
+university of Gottingen. After holding several educational posts, he was
+appointed in 1861 to the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum'sches
+Gymnasium at Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died
+on the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his labours
+on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these authors he was
+unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-long friend and a worker
+in the same field. His chief works are: _Exercitationes Plautinae_
+(1842), one of the most masterly productions on the language of Plautus;
+"Analecta Plautina," printed in _Philologus_, ii. (1847); _Plauti
+Comoediae_, i., ii. (1850-1851, unfinished), introduced by an _Epistula
+critica ad F. Ritschelium_; _P. Terenti Afri Comoediae_ (new ed., 1898).
+In his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance with
+the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin language and
+metre. He attached great importance to the question of orthography, and
+his short treatise _Funfzig Artikel_ (1861) is considered most valuable.
+Fleckeisen also contributed largely to the _Jahrbucher fur Philologie_,
+of which he was for many years editor.
+
+  See obituary notice by G. Gotz in C. Bursian's _Biographisches
+  Jahrbuch fur Altertumskunde_ (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener
+  in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (where the date of birth is given
+  as the 20th of September).
+
+
+
+
+FLECKNOE, RICHARD (c. 1600-1678?), English dramatist and poet, the
+object of Dryden's satire, was probably of English birth, although there
+is no corroboration of the suggestion of J. Gillow (_Bibliog. Dict. of
+the Eng. Catholics_, vol. ii., 1885), that he was a nephew of a Jesuit
+priest, William Flecknoe, or more properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few
+known facts of his life are chiefly derived from his _Relation of Ten
+Years' Travels in Europe, Asia, Affrique and America_ (1655?),
+consisting of letters written to friends and patrons during his travels.
+The first of these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to
+escape the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Beatrix de
+Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him to Rome to
+secure the legalization of her marriage. There in 1645 Andrew Marvell
+met him, and described his leanness and his rage for versifying in a
+witty satire, "Flecknoe, an English Priest at Rome." He was probably,
+however, not in priest's orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in
+1648 crossed the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a
+detailed description. On his return to Europe he entered the household
+of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back to England.
+His royalist and Catholic convictions did not prevent him from writing a
+book in praise of Oliver Cromwell, _The Idea of His Highness Oliver_ ...
+(1659), dedicated to Richard Cromwell. This publication was discounted
+at the restoration by the _Heroick Portraits_ (1660) of Charles II. and
+others of the Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking
+horse from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in _Mac Flecknoe_
+(1682). The opening lines run:--
+
+  "All human things are subject to decay.
+   And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.
+   This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
+   Was called to empire, and had governed long;
+   In prose and verse was owned, without dispute,
+   Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute."
+
+Dryden's aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe's affectation of
+contempt for the players and his attacks on the immorality of the
+English stage. His verse, which hardly deserved his critic's sweeping
+condemnation, was much of it religious, and was chiefly printed for
+private circulation. None of his plays was acted except _Love's
+Dominion_, announced as a "pattern for the reformed stage" (1654), that
+title being altered in 1664 to _Love's Kingdom_, with a _Discourse of
+the English Stage_. He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the
+actors whom he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been
+staged. Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and is
+said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted with the
+nobility than with the muses. He died probably about 1678.
+
+  A _Discourse of the English Stage_, was reprinted in W.C. Hazlitt's
+  _English Drama and Stage_ (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert Southey,
+  in his _Omniana_ (1812), protested against the wholesale depreciation
+  of Flecknoe's works. See also "Richard Flecknoe" (Leipzig, 1905, in
+  _Munchener Beitrage zur ... Philologie_), by A. Lohr, who has given
+  minute attention to his life and works.
+
+
+
+
+FLEET, a word in all its significances, derived from the root of the
+verb "to fleet," from O. Eng. _fleotan_, to float or flow, which
+ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in Gr. [Greek:
+pleein], to sail, and Lat. _pluere_, to rain; cf. Dutch _vliessen_, and
+Ger. _fliessen_. In English usage it survives in the name of many
+places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream in
+London that formerly ran into the Thames between the bottom of Ludgate
+Hill and the present Fleet Street. From the idea of "float" comes the
+application of the word to ships, when in company, and particularly to a
+large number of warships under the supreme command of a single officer,
+with the individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and
+subordinate command. The distinction between a fleet and a squadron is
+often one of name only. In the British navy the various main divisions
+are or have been called fleets and squadrons indifferently. The word is
+also frequently used of a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is
+also applied to a row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original
+meaning of the word "flowing" comes the adjectival use of the word,
+swift, or speedy; so also "fleeting," of something evanescent or fading
+away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.
+
+
+
+
+FLEET PRISON, an historic London prison, formerly situated on the east
+side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from the Fleet stream,
+which flowed into the Thames. Concerning its early history little is
+known, but it certainly dated back to Norman times. It came into
+particular prominence from being used as a place of reception for
+persons committed by the Star Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and
+persons imprisoned for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It
+was burnt down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was
+destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782. In
+pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842), by which
+the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen's Bench prisons were consolidated into
+one under the name of Queen's prison, it was finally closed, and in 1844
+sold to the corporation of the city of London, by whom it was pulled
+down. The head of the prison was termed "the warden," who was appointed
+by patent. It became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to
+"farm out" the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which
+made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted on
+prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly evil repute,
+by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid, with another, the sum of
+L5000 to John Huggins for the wardenship. He was guilty of the greatest
+extortions upon prisoners, and, in the words of a committee of the House
+of Commons appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the
+kingdom, "arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into
+dungeons, and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most
+barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of the laws
+of this kingdom." He was committed to Newgate, and an act was passed to
+prevent his enjoying the office of warden or any other office
+whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the Fleet were the limits within
+which particular prisoners were allowed to reside outside the prison
+walls on observing certain conditions.
+
+_Fleet Marriages._--By the law of England a marriage was recognized as
+valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by a person in holy orders,
+even if those orders were not of the Church of England. Neither banns
+nor licence were necessary, and the time and place were alike
+immaterial. Out of this state of the marriage law, in the period of
+laxness which succeeded the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable
+clandestine marriages. They were contracted at first to avoid the
+expenses attendant on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which
+imposed a penalty of L100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted
+another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or licence,
+acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned for debt in the
+Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors, for they had "neither
+liberty, money nor credit to lose by any proceedings the bishop might
+institute against them." The earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage
+is 1613, while the earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in
+1674, but it was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or
+licence that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition,
+and "many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the neighbourhood
+fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or houses as a chapel,"
+and employed touts to solicit custom for them. The scandal and abuses
+brought about by these clandestine marriages became so great that they
+became the object of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke's Act
+(26 Geo. ii. c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity,
+that banns should be published according to the rubric, or a licence
+obtained, and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in
+church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must be by
+the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect of putting a
+stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England was concerned,
+and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna Green (q.v.).
+
+The _Fleet Registers_, consisting of "about two or three hundred large
+registers" and about a thousand rough or "pocket" books, eventually came
+into private hands, but were purchased by the government in 1821, and
+are now deposited in the office of the registrar-general, Somerset
+House. Their dates range from 1686 to 1754. In 1840 they were declared
+not admissible as evidence to prove a marriage.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.S. Burn, _The Fleet Registers; comprising the History
+  of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and Marriage-house
+  Keepers_, &c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, _The Fleet: its River, Prison
+  and Marriages_ (London, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, CHARLES (d. 1692), English soldier and politician, third son
+of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, and of Anne,
+daughter of Nicholas Luke of Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into
+Gray's Inn on the 30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great
+Rebellion, like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished
+themselves in the field, he joined Essex's life-guard, was wounded at
+the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and fought at
+Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of the court of wards,
+and in 1646 became member of parliament for Marlborough. In the dispute
+between the army and parliament he played a chief part, and was said to
+have been the principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at
+Holmby, but he did not participate in the king's trial. In 1649 he was
+appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as
+lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell's campaign in
+Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next year he was
+elected a member of the council of state, and being recalled from
+Scotland was entrusted with the command of the forces in England, and
+played a principal part in gaining the final triumph at Worcester. In
+1652 he married [1] Cromwell's daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and
+was made commander-in-chief in Ireland, to which title that of lord
+deputy was added. The chief feature of his administration, which lasted
+from September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the
+soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of the
+original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed also great
+severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic priests, and favoured
+the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan sects to the disadvantage of the
+moderate Presbyterians, exciting great and general discontent, a
+petition being finally sent in for his recall.
+
+Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell's policy. He
+supported his assumption of the protectorate and his dismissal of the
+parliaments. In December 1654 he became a member of the council, and
+after his return to England in 1655 was appointed one of the
+major-generals. He approved of the "Petition and Advice," only objecting
+to the conferring of the title of king on Cromwell, became a member of
+the new House of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell's foreign policy
+in Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the
+Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell's death,
+naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said that Cromwell
+had in fact so nominated him. He, however, gave his support to Richard's
+assumption of office, but allowed subsequently, if he did not instigate,
+petitions from the army demanding its independence, and finally
+compelled Richard by force to dissolve parliament. His project of
+re-establishing Richard in close dependence upon the army met with
+failure, and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of
+May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the committee of
+safety and of the council of state, and one of the seven commissioners
+for the army, while on the 9th of June he was nominated
+commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his power was undermined and
+was attacked by parliament, which on the 11th of October declared his
+commission void. The next day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of
+the parliament and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk's
+approach from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order. While
+hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on the point
+of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th of December restored
+the Rump, when he was deprived of his command and ordered to appear
+before parliament to answer for his conduct. The Restoration therefore
+took place without him. He was included among the twenty liable to
+penalties other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding
+any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he survived
+till the 4th of October 1692.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a
+    third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward
+    Hartopp.
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM (1656-1723), English divine, was descended of an
+ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the Tower of London on New
+Year's Day 1656. He received his education at Eton and at King's
+College, Cambridge. About the time of the Revolution he took orders, and
+was shortly afterwards made rector of St Austin's, London, and lecturer
+of St Dunstan's in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in 1702, and
+in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from which he was
+translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at Tottenham, Middlesex, on
+the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood was regarded as the best preacher of
+his time. He was accurate in learning, and effective in delivery, and
+his character stood deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal
+administration he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a
+zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite of his
+Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance brought him
+into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with Swift, but he
+never entered into personal controversy.
+
+  His principal writings are---_An Essay on Miracles_ (1701); _Chronicum
+  preciosum_ (an account of the English coinage, 1707); and _Free
+  Sermons_ (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary,
+  the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last was
+  condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384 of _The
+  Spectator_, circulated more widely than ever. A collected edition of
+  his works, with a biographical preface, was published in 1737.
+
+
+
+
+FLEETWOOD, a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of the Wyre, 230 m. N.W.
+by N. from London, the terminus of a joint branch of the London &
+North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274;
+(1901) 12,082. It dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir
+Peter Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward views,
+especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine, but the neighbouring
+country is flat and of little interest. The two railways jointly are the
+harbour authority. The dock is provided with railways and machinery for
+facilitating traffic, including a large grain elevator. The shipping
+traffic is chiefly in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers
+serve Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other
+ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there are
+salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant promenade, with
+other appointments of a watering-place. There are also barracks with a
+military hospital and a rifle range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one
+of the principal public schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall
+was the seat of Sir Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of
+the school on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided
+into classical and modern sides, with a special department for
+preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A number of
+entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships tenable at the
+universities are offered annually. The number of boys is about 350.
+
+
+
+
+FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT (1855-1886), German traveller in West Africa, was
+born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna, Russia. After receiving a
+commercial education he obtained in 1875 a position in Lagos, West
+Africa. In 1879 he ascended the Benue river some 125 m. above the
+farthest point hitherto reached. His careful survey of the channel
+secured him a commission from the German African Society to explore the
+whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba, and then
+visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct from the sultan for his
+intended expedition to Adamawa. This expedition was undertaken in 1882,
+and on the 18th of August in that year Flegel discovered the source of
+the Benue at Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the
+Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed. After a
+short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in April 1885 with a
+commission from the German African Company and the Colonial Society to
+open up the Niger-Benue district to German trade. This expedition had
+the support of Prince Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to
+obtain for Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of
+influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger Company).
+Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue to Yola, but was
+unable to accomplish his mission. He returned to the coast and died at
+Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the 11th of September 1886. (See
+further GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE.)
+
+  Flegel wrote _Lose Blatter aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaafreunde_
+  (Hamburg, 1885), and _Vom Niger-Benue. Briefe aus Afrika_ (edited by
+  K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT (1801-1888), German Orientalist, was born
+at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he
+studied theology and oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently
+continuing his studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of
+oriental languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till
+his death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda's
+_Historia ante-Islamica_ (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi's _Commentary on
+the Koran_ (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue of the oriental MSS, in
+the royal library at Dresden (1831); published an edition and German
+translation of Ali's _Hundred Sayings_ (1837); the continuation of
+Babicht's edition of _The Thousand and One Nights_ (vols. ix.-xii.,
+1842-1843); and an edition of Mahommed Ibrihim's _Persian Grammar_
+(1847). He also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS.
+at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the 10th of February
+1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members of the French
+Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the German _Ordre pour le
+merite_.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640), German poet, was born at Hartenstein in the
+Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October 1609, the son of the village
+pastor. At the age of fourteen he was sent to school at Leipzig and
+subsequently studied medicine at the university. Driven away by the
+troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he was fortunate enough to become
+attached to an embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of
+Holstein-Gottorp to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller
+Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned to Reval, and
+here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined to settle as a
+physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a doctor's diploma, but
+died suddenly at Hamburg on his way home on the 2nd of April 1640.
+
+Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming is distinguished
+from most of his contemporaries by the ring of genuine feeling and
+religious fervour that pervades his lyric poems, even his occasional
+pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite form of verse, he was particularly
+happy. Among his religious poems the hymn beginning "In allen meinen
+Taten lass ich den Hochsten raten" is well known and widely sung.
+
+  Fleming's _Teutsche Poemata_ appeared posthumously in 1642; they are
+  edited by J.M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des litterarischen
+  Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains Fleming's Latin
+  poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann in the second
+  volume of the series entitled _Deutsche Dichter des siebzehnten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Osterley (Stuttgart, 1885). A
+  life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ense's _Biographische
+  Denkmale_, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1826). See also J. Straumer, _Paul
+  Flemings Leben und Orientreise_ (1892); L.G. Wysocky, _De Pauli
+  Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and founder of Lincoln
+College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in Yorkshire. He was descended from
+a good family, and was educated at University College, Oxford. Having
+taken his degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next
+year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he became an
+ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some of high rank, to the
+side of the reformer, and incurring the censure of Archbishop Arundel.
+He afterwards became one of Wycliffe's most determined opponents. Before
+1415 he was instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in
+1420 he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended the
+councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope, Martin V.,
+made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native country, and in
+eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this occasion that he was named
+chamberlain to the pope. To Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution
+of the decree of the council for the exhumation and burning of
+Wycliffe's remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it
+on Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the appointment.
+In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence empowering him to found a
+college at Oxford for the special purpose of training up disputants
+against Wycliffe's heresy. He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January
+1431. Lincoln College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its
+endowments were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827-   ), Canadian engineer and publicist, was
+born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of January 1827, but emigrated
+to Canada in 1845. Great powers of work and thoroughness in detail
+brought him to the front, and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of
+the Dominion government. Under his control was constructed the
+Intercolonial railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his
+retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian and
+Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning throughout
+the world, and the construction of a state-owned system of telegraphs
+throughout the British empire. After years of labour he saw the first
+link forged in the chain, in the opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable
+between Canada and Australia. Though not a party man he strongly
+advocated Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the
+Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States. He
+took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became chancellor of
+Queen's University, Kingston.
+
+  He published _The Intercolonial: a History_ (Montreal and London,
+  1876); _England and Canada_ (London, 1884); and numerous _brochures_
+  and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1544-1613), English judge, was born at Newport,
+Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
+in 1574. He represented Winchester in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when
+he was returned for Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of
+London, and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon.
+This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603. In 1604
+he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided over many
+important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted to the chief justiceship
+of the king's bench, and was one of the judges at the trial of the
+_post-nati_ in 1608, siding with the majority of the judges in declaring
+that persons born in Scotland after the accession of James I. were
+entitled to the privileges of natural-born subjects in England. He was
+praised by his contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his "great
+judgments, integrity and discretion." He died on the 7th of August 1613
+at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.
+
+  See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+FLEMISH LITERATURE. The older Flemish writers are dealt with in the
+article on DUTCH LITERATURE; after the separation of Belgium, however,
+from the Netherlands in 1830 there was a great revival of Flemish
+literature. The immediate result of the revolution was a reaction
+against everything associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard
+the French language as the speech of liberty and independence. The
+provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the
+Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois. For some
+years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems[1] (1793-1846) had been advocating
+the claims of the Flemish language. He had done his best to allay the
+irritation between Holland and Belgium and to prevent a separation. As
+archivist of Antwerp he made use of his opportunities by writing a
+history of Flemish letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies
+had made it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he
+settled at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish. He
+edited old Flemish classics, _Reinaert de Vos_ (1836), the rhyming
+Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c., and gathered round
+him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the chevalier Philipp Blommaert
+(1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874),
+F.A. Snellaert (1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others.
+Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809, founded in
+1834 in his native town the _Nederduitsche letteroefeningen_, a review
+for the new writers, and it was speedily followed by other Flemish
+organs, and by literary societies for the promotion of Flemish. In 1851
+a central organization for the Flemish propaganda was provided by a
+society, named after the father of the movement, the "Willemsfonds." The
+Catholic Flemings founded in 1874 a rival "Davidsfonds," called after
+the energetic J.B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of
+Louvain, and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium (_Vaderlandsche
+historie_, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda the
+Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in law, and in
+administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools in 1883. Finally in
+1886 a Flemish Academy was established by royal authority at Ghent,
+where a course in Flemish literature had been established as early as
+1854.
+
+The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified by the
+appearance (1837) of _In't Wonderjaar_ 1566 (In the Wonderful year) of
+Hendrik Conscience (q.v.), who roused national enthusiasm by describing
+the heroic struggles of the Flemings against the Spaniards. Conscience
+was eventually to make his greatest successes in the description of
+contemporary Flemish life, but his historical romances and his popular
+history of Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which
+had been started by professors and scholars.
+
+The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best known of whose
+poems are those on the "three sister cities" of Bruges, Ghent and
+Antwerp (_Die drie zustersteden, vaderlandsche trilogie_, Ghent, 1846),
+in which he makes an impassioned protest against the adoption of French
+ideas, manners and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The
+book speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who was a
+magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish. Jan Theodoor
+van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a volunteer in the campaign
+of 1830, settled down as a clerk in Antwerp, and became one of the
+hottest champions of the Flemish movement. He wrote a series of
+political and satirical songs, admirably suited to his public. The
+romantic and sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (q.v.), was typically
+Flemish in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse,
+whose most ambitious work was the epic _Artavelde_ (1859), is perhaps
+best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for children. Peter
+Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native of Antwerp, wrote novels,
+poems, dramas, and a work on the Flemish revival (_De Vlaemsche
+Beweging_, 1847).
+
+Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht Damien Sleeckx
+(1818-1901). An inspector of schools by profession, he was an
+indefatigable journalist and literary critic. He was one of the founders
+in 1844 of the _Vlaemsch Belgie_, the first daily paper in the Flemish
+interest. His works include a long list of plays, among them _Jan Steen_
+(1852), a comedy; _Gretry_, which gained a national prize in 1861; _De
+Visschers van Blankenberg_ (1863); and the patriotic drama of _Zannekin_
+(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to the
+idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete in his
+methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of carefully
+observed detail. He was particularly successful in describing the life
+of the shipping quarter of his native town. Among his novels are: _In't
+Schipperskwartier_ (1856), _Dirk Meyer_ (1860), _Tybaerts en K^ie_
+(1867), _Kunst en Liefde_ ("Art and Love," 1870), and _Vesalius in
+Spanje_ (1895). His complete works were collected in 17 vols.
+(1877-1884).
+
+Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with North Brabant;
+his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by writing historical
+novels in the manner of Conscience, but his later novels are satires on
+contemporary society. A more original talent was displayed by Anton
+Bergmann (1835-1874), who, under the pseudonym of "Tony," wrote _Ernest
+Staas, Advocat_, which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in
+1874. In the same year appeared the _Novellen_ of the sisters Rosalie
+(1834-1875) and Virginie Loveling (b. 1836). These simple and touching
+stories were followed by a second collection in 1876. The sisters had
+published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie Loveling's gifts of fine
+and exact observation soon placed her in the front rank of Flemish
+novelists. Her political sketches, _In onze Vlaamsche gewesten_ (1877),
+were published under the name of "W.G.E. Walter." _Sophie_ (1885), _Een
+dure Eed_ (1892), and _Het Land der Verbeelding_ (1896) are among the
+more famous of her later works. Reimond Styns (b. 1850) and Isidoor
+Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular novel,
+_Arm Vlaanderen_ (1884), and some others, and have since written
+separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling, is a disciple of
+Zola. _Het Recht van den Sterkste_ ("The Right of the Strongest," 1893)
+is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders; _Schoppenboer_ ("The Knave of
+Spades," 1898) deals with brutalized peasant life; and _Sursum corda_
+(1895) describes the narrowness and religiosity of village life.
+
+In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed translation of
+_Reinaert_ (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888), &c., produced a
+social epic in three parts, _Drie menschen van in de wieg tot in het
+graf_ ("Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave," 1861), in which he
+propounded radical and humanitarian views. The songs of Julius Vuylsteke
+(1836-1903) are full of liberal and patriotic ardour; but his later life
+was devoted to politics rather than literature. He had been the leading
+spirit of a students' association at Ghent for the propagation of
+"_flamingant_" views, and the "Willemsfonds" owed much of its success to
+his energetic co-operation. His _Uit het studenten leven_ appeared in
+1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of Mme van Ackere
+(1803-1884), _nee_ Maria Doolaeghe, were modelled on Dutch originals.
+Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890), nee Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her
+tales than her poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales
+are sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets were
+Emmanuel Hiel (q.v.), author of comedies, opera libretti and some
+admirable songs; the abbe Guido Gezelle (1830-1899), who wrote religious
+and patriotic poems in the dialect of West Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck
+(b. 1838), who attempted a great epic subject in _Menschdon Verlost_
+(1872); J.M. Dautzenberg (1808-1869), author of a volume of charming
+_Volksliederen_. The best of Dautzenberg's work is contained in the
+posthumous volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort
+(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs from
+Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The _Makamen en Ghazelen_
+(1866), adapted from Ruckert's version of Hariri, and other volumes by
+"Jan Ferguut" (J.A. van Droogenbroeck, b. 1835) show a growing
+preoccupation with form, and with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b.
+1840), they prepare the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of
+the younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is the
+leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and became professor
+in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp. He introduced something of
+the ideas and methods of contemporary French writers into Flemish verse;
+and explained his theories in 1898 in an _Inleiding tot de Poezie_.
+Among Pol de Mont's numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards
+are _Claribella_ (1893), and _Iris_ (1894), which contains amongst other
+things a curious "_Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef_," a version
+of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.
+
+Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (_Gent van den
+vroegsten Tijd tot heden_, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter (b. 1834), and
+of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839), curator of the Plantin
+museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe (b. 1846).
+
+  See Ida van Duringsfeld, _Von der Schelde bis zur Maas_. _Das geistige
+  Leben der Vlamingen_ (Leipzig, 3 vols., 1861); J. Stecher, _Histoire
+  de la litterature neerlandaise en Belgique_ (1886); _Geschiedenis der
+  Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden_ (1899), by Theodoor
+  Coopman and L. Scharpe; A. de Koninck, _Bibliographie nationale_ (3
+  vols., 1886-1897); and _Histoire politique et litteraire du mouvement
+  flamand_ (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The _Vlaamsche Bibliographie_,
+  issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans de Potter, contains a
+  list of publications between 1830 and 1890; and there is a good deal
+  of information in the excellent _Biographisch woordenboeck der Noord-
+  en Zuid- Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (1878) of Dr W.J.A. Huberts and
+  others.     (E. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Max Rooses, _Keus van Dicht- en Prozawerken van J.F.
+    Willems_, and his _Brieven_ in the publications of the Willemsfonds
+    (Ghent, 1872-1874).
+
+
+
+
+FLENSBURG (Danish, _Flensborg_), a seaport of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the Flensburg Fjord, 20
+m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction of the main line Altona-Vamdrup
+(Denmark), with branches to Kiel and Glucksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The
+principal public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored
+1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval
+church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the
+exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineering,
+navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery contains the
+remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle of Idstedt (25th
+of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument, erected by the Danes to
+commemorate their victory, was removed to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a
+busy centre of trade and industry, and is the most important town in
+what was formerly the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent
+wharves, does a large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards,
+breweries, distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works,
+copper-works, soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade
+with the West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous
+development of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in
+the Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.
+
+Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It attained
+municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged by the Swedes
+after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under Danish rule, of
+Schleswig.
+
+  See Holdt, _Flensburg fruher und jetzt_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+FLERS, a manufacturing town of north-western France, in the
+arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on the Vere, 41 m.
+S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906) 11,188. A modern church
+in the Romanesque style and a restored chateau of the 15th century are
+its principal buildings. There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, a communal college and a branch of the Bank of
+France. Flers is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region
+which includes the towns of Conde-sur-Noireau and La Ferte-Mace.
+Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton and linen
+fabrics, of which the annual value is about L1,500,000, drugs and
+chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour mills and
+dyeworks.
+
+
+
+
+FLETA, a treatise, with the sub-title _seu Commentarius juris
+Anglicani_, on the common law of England. It appears, from internal
+evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward I., about the year
+1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation of Bracton. The author is
+supposed to have written it during his confinement in the Fleet prison,
+hence the name. It has been conjectured that he was one of those judges
+who were imprisoned for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first
+printed by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845-   ), American ethnologist, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She studied the remains of Indian
+civilization in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, became a member of the
+Archaeological Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with
+the Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American
+Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she was appointed
+special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes, in 1884 prepared and
+sent to the New Orleans Exposition an exhibit showing the progress of
+civilization among the Indians of North America in the quarter-century
+previous, in 1886 visited the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands
+on a mission from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United
+States special agent in the distribution of lands among the Winnebagoes
+and Nez Perces. She was made assistant in ethnology at the Peabody
+Museum in 1882, and received the Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president
+of the Anthropological Society of Washington and of the American
+Folk-Lore Society, and vice-president of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Science; and, working through the Woman's National
+Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans to
+Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In 1888 she published
+_Indian Education and Civilization_, a special report of the Bureau of
+Education. In 1898 at the Congress of Musicians held at Omaha during the
+Trans-Mississippi Exposition she read "several essays upon the songs of
+the North American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of
+Omaha Indians ... sang their native melodies." Out of this grew her
+_Indian Story and Song from North America_ (1900), illustrating "a stage
+of development antecedent to that in which culture music appeared."
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish politician, was the
+son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-1664), and was born at
+Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet,
+afterwards bishop of Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of
+Saltoun, he completed his education by spending some years in travel and
+study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament which
+met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher was a
+fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced by John
+Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of Charles II. in
+Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York, afterwards King James
+II.; but he left Scotland about 1682, subsequently spending some time in
+Holland as an associate of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents.
+
+Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the rising of 1685,
+he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England, but left the army after
+killing one of the duke's trusted advisers. This incident is thus told
+by Sir John Dalrymple:
+
+  "Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of danger to
+  be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the horse of a
+  country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood ready equipt for
+  its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion to Fletcher, gave
+  him opprobrious language, shook his cane and attempted to strike.
+  Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality, yet having been
+  accustomed to foreign services both by sea and land in which he had
+  acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier and a gentleman and of
+  the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol and shot him dead on the
+  spot. The action was unpopular in countries where such refinements
+  were not understood. A clamour was raised against it among the people
+  of the country, in a body they waited upon the duke with their
+  complaints; and he was forced to desire the only soldier and almost
+  the only man of parts in his army, to abandon him."
+
+Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as quitting the
+rebel army because he disapproved of the action of Monmouth in
+proclaiming himself king.
+
+His history during the next few years is rather obscure. He probably
+travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks in Hungary; and having
+in his absence lost his estates and been sentenced to death, he joined
+William of Orange at the Hague, and returned to Scotland in 1689 in
+consequence of the success of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were
+restored to him; and he soon became a leading member of the "club," an
+organization which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland,
+and in general an active opponent of the English government. In 1703, at
+a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher again became a
+member of the Scottish parliament. The failure of the Darien expedition
+had aroused a strong feeling of resentment against England, and Fletcher
+and the national party seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree
+of independence for their country.
+
+His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the union of
+the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third edition of
+the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:--
+
+  "The thought of England's domineering over Scotland was what his
+  generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression which
+  Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his learned and
+  elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted courage and
+  pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union, he performed
+  essential service. He got the act of security passed, which declared
+  that the two crowns should not pass to the same head till Scotland was
+  secured in her liberties civil and religious. Therefore Lord Godolphin
+  was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war after the queen's
+  demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some of the articles, and
+  indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as the act of security
+  was his own work, he had all the merit of that important transaction."
+
+Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired from public
+life. Employing his abilities in another direction, he did a real, if
+homely, service to his country by introducing from Holland machinery for
+sifting grain. He died unmarried in London in September 1716.
+
+Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher's integrity, but he was
+also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as "a Scotch gentleman
+of great parts and many virtues, but a most violent republican and
+extremely passionate." In appearance he was "a low, thin man, of a brown
+complexion; full of fire; with a stern, sour look." Fletcher was a fine
+scholar and a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford
+bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his time. His
+chief works are: _A Discourse of Government relating to Militias_
+(1698); _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698); and
+_An Account of a Conversation concerning a right regulation of
+Governments for the common good of Mankind_ (1704). In Two Discourses he
+suggests that the numerous vagrants who infested Scotland should be
+brought into compulsory and hereditary servitude; and in _An Account of
+a Conversation_ occurs his well-known remark, "I knew a very wise man
+so much of Sir Christopher's (Sir C. Musgrave) sentiment, that he
+believed if a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not
+care who should make the laws of a nation."
+
+  _The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher_ were published in London in
+  1737. See D.S. Erskine, 11th earl of Buchan, _Essay on the Lives of
+  Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792); J.H. Burton,
+  _History of Scotland_, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang,
+  _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611), English author, son of Richard Fletcher,
+vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the poets Phineas and Giles
+Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549. He was educated at Eton and at
+King's College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1569. He was a
+fellow of his college, and was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had
+married Joan Sheafe of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr
+Bridgwater, chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for
+Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland, Germany
+and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the court of the czar
+Theodore with instructions to conclude as alliance between England and
+Russia, to restore English trade, and to obtain better conditions for
+the English Russia Company. The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey,
+had already obtained large concessions through the favour of the
+protector, Boris Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he
+found that Godunov's interest was alienated, and that the Russian
+government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The envoy was badly
+lodged, and treated with obvious contempt, and was not allowed to
+forward letters to England, but the English victory over the Armada and
+his own indomitable patience secured among other advantages for English
+traders exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from
+the infliction of torture. Fletcher's treatment at Moscow was later made
+the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth. He returned to
+England in 1589 in company with Jerome Horsey, and in 1591 he published
+_Of the Russe Commonwealth, Or Maner of Government by the Russe Emperour
+(commonly called The Emperour of Moskovia) with the manners and fashions
+of the people of that Countrey_. In this comprehensive account of
+Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare, church and
+manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to arrange his material
+during the return journey, doubtless received some assistance from the
+longer experience of his travelling companion, who also wrote a
+narrative of his travels, published in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (1626).
+The Russia Company feared that the freedom of Fletcher's criticisms
+would give offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage
+their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was not reprinted
+in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from a copy of the
+original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an introduction by Mr
+Edward A. Bond.
+
+Fletcher was appointed "Remembrancer" to the city of London, and an
+extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and became treasurer of St
+Paul's in 1597. He contemplated a history of the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord Burghley he suggested that it might
+be well to begin with an account from the Protestant side of the
+marriage of Henry VIII. and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties
+prevented the execution of this plan. He had become security to the
+exchequer for the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of
+London, who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprisonment by
+the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually in prison in 1601,
+when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous letter to Burghley from which it
+may be gathered that his prime offence had been an allusion to Essex's
+disgrace as being the work of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed
+in 1610 to negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the "Eastland Merchants,"
+and he died next year, and was buried on the 11th of March in the parish
+of St Catherine Colman, London.
+
+  _The Russe Commonwealth_ was issued in an abridged form in _Hakluyt's
+  Principal Navigations, Voyages_, &c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of 1598), a
+  somewhat completer version in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (pt. iii. ed.
+  1625), also as _History of Russia_ in 1643 and 1657. Fletcher also
+  wrote _De literis antiquae Britanniae_ (ed. by Phineas Fletcher,
+  1633), a treatise on "The Tartars," printed in _Israel Redux_ (ed. by
+  S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost tribes of
+  Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and _Licia, or
+  Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular vertues of his
+  Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets ... whereunto is added
+  the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third_ (1593). This series of
+  love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was published anonymously.
+  Most critics, with the notable exception of Alexander Dyce (Beaumont
+  and Fletcher, _Works_, i. p. xvi., 1843) have accepted it as the work
+  of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence afforded in the first of the
+  _Piscatory Eclogues_ of his son Phineas, who represents his father
+  (Thelgon), as having "raised his rime to sing of Richard's climbing."
+
+  See E.A. Bond's Introduction to the Hakluyt Society's edition; also Dr
+  A.B. Grosart's prefatory matter to _Licia_ (_Fuller Worthies Library_,
+  Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of Phineas
+  Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher's letters relative to the
+  college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved in the
+  Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in
+  Grosart's edition.
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623), English poet, younger son of the
+preceding, was born about 1584. Fuller in his _Worthies of England_ says
+that he was a native of London, and was educated at Westminster school.
+From there he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A.
+degree in 1606, and became a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was
+reader in Greek grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he
+contributed a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to _Sorrow's Joy_.
+His great poem of _Christ's Victory_ appeared in 1610, and in 1612 he
+edited the _Remains_ of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall. It is not known in
+what year he was ordained, but his sermons at St Mary's were famous.
+Fuller tells us that the prayer before the sermon was a continuous
+allegory. He left Cambridge about 1618, and soon after received, it is
+supposed from Francis Bacon, the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk
+coast, where "his clownish and low-parted parishioners ... valued not
+their pastor according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy
+and hastened his dissolution." (Fuller, _Worthies of England_, ed. 1811,
+vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, _The Reward of the Faithful_, appeared
+in the year of his death (1623).
+
+The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is _Christ's
+Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and after Death_ (1610).
+An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page illustrative engravings by
+George Tate. It is in four cantos and is epic in design. The first
+canto, "Christ's Victory in Heaven," represents a dispute in heaven
+between Justice and Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ's life on earth;
+the second, "Christ's Victory on Earth," deals with an allegorical
+account of the Temptation; the third, "Christ's Triumph over Death,"
+treats of the Passion; and the fourth, "Christ's Triumph after Death,"
+treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes with an
+affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher (q.v.) as
+"Thyrsilis." The metre is an eight-line stanza owing something to
+Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and the stanza concludes with
+a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit which nearly every verse
+embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his brother Phineas, to whom he was
+deeply attached, was a close follower of Spenser. In his very best
+passages Giles Fletcher attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear
+of Milton, who did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the
+_Christ's Victory and Triumph_ in his _Paradise Regained_. Fletcher
+lived in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and
+Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion with the
+sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away by his theme and
+forgets to be ingenious, he attains great solemnity and harmony of
+style. His descriptions of the Lady of Vain Delight, in the second
+canto, and of Justice and of Mercy in the first, are worked out with
+much beauty of detail into separate pictures, in the manner of the
+_Faerie Queene_.
+
+  Giles Fletcher's poem was edited (1868) for the _Fuller Worthies
+  Library_, and (1876) for the _Early English Poets_ by Dr A.B. Grosart.
+  It is also reprinted for _The Ancient and Modern Library of
+  Theological Literature_ (1888), and in R. Cattermole's and H.
+  Stebbing's _Sacred Classics_ (1834, &c.) vol. 20. In the library of
+  King's College, Cambridge, is a MS. _Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica
+  Lamentationum Jeremiae_.
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (1729-1785), English divine, was born at Nyon in
+Switzerland on the 12th of September 1729, his original name being DE LA
+FLECHIERE. He was educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to
+a clerical one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his
+sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders,
+where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went to
+England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutor in a
+Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of the new Methodist
+preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being ordained by the bishop of
+Bangor. He often preached with John Wesley and for him, and became known
+as a fervent supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of
+Dunham, he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five
+years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and zeal.
+Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood Wesley and his
+work, yet he never wrote or said anything inconsistent with his own
+Anglican position. In theology he upheld the Arminian against the
+Calvinist position, but always with courtesy and fairness; his
+resignation on doctrinal grounds of the superintendency (1768-1771) of
+the countess of Huntingdon's college at Trevecca left no unpleasantness.
+The outstanding feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and
+saintliness of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his
+godliness is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the
+words "Mark the perfect man." Southey said that "no age ever provided a
+man of more fervent piety or more perfect charity, and no church ever
+possessed a more apostolic minister." His fame was not confined to his
+own country, for it is said that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a
+character as perfect as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of
+Madeley. He died on the 14th of August 1785.
+
+  Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836. The
+  chief of them, written against Calvinism, are _Five Checks to
+  Antinomianism_, _Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth_,
+  and the _Portrait of St Paul_. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L.
+  Tyerman (1882); F.W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also C.J.
+  Ryle, _Christian Leaders of the 18th Century_, pp. 384-423 (1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650), English poet, elder son of Dr Giles
+Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed above, was born at
+Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the 8th of April 1582. He was
+admitted a scholar of Eton, and in 1600 entered King's College,
+Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of
+the contributors to _Sorrow's Joy_ (1603). His pastoral drama,
+_Sicelides or Piscatory_ (pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance
+before James I., but only produced after the king's departure at King's
+College. He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow of
+his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently because
+certain emoluments were refused him. He became chaplain to Sir Henry
+Willoughby, who presented him in 1621 to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk,
+where he married and spent the rest of his life. In 1627 he published
+_Locustae, vel Pietas Jesuitica_. _The Locusts or Apollyonists_, two
+parallel poems in Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr
+Grosart saw in this work one of the sources of Milton's conception of
+Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, _Brittains Ida_, with Edmund
+Spenser's name on the title-page. It is certainly not by Spenser, and is
+printed by Dr Grosart with the works of Phineas Fletcher. _Sicelides_, a
+play acted at King's College in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632
+appeared two theological prose treatises, _The Way to Blessedness_ and
+_Joy in Tribulation_, and in 1633 his _magnum opus, The Purple Island_.
+The book was dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his
+_Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies_. He died in 1650,
+his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December of that year.
+_The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man_, is a poem in twelve cantos
+describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological structure of the human
+body and the mind of man. The intellectual qualities are personified,
+while the veins are rivers, the bones the mountains of the island, the
+whole analogy being worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of
+Spenser is preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his
+moral aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the _Faerie
+Queene_. What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses
+in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem lies in its
+descriptions of rural scenery. The _Piscatory Eclogues_ are pastorals
+the characters of which are represented as fisher boys on the banks of
+the Cam, and are interesting for the light they cast on the biography of
+the poet himself (Thyrsil) and his father (Thelgon). The poetry of
+Phineas Fletcher has not the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother
+Giles. The mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more
+far-fetched, but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor
+music.
+
+  A complete edition of his works (4 vols.) was privately printed by Dr
+  A.B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK, SEIGNEUR DE (1491-1537), marshal
+of France and historian, was the son of Robert II. de la Marck; duke of
+Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the
+celebrated William de la Marck, "The Wild Boar of the Ardennes." A
+fondness for military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years,
+and at the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed
+in charge of the count of Angouleme, afterwards King Francis I. In his
+twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d'Amboise, but after
+three months he quitted his home to join the French army in the
+Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself into Verona, then
+besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was protracted, and being
+impatient for more active service, he rejoined the army. He then took
+part in the relief of Mirandola, besieged by the troops of Pope Julius
+II., and in other actions of the campaign. In 1512 the French being
+driven from Italy, Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of
+10,000 men, in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy
+in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara. But the
+French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped with his life,
+having received more than forty wounds. He was rescued by his father and
+sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons. Returning to Italy with Francis
+I. in 1515, he distinguished himself in various affairs, and especially
+at Marignano, where he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so
+powerfully to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with
+his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called home by the
+news of his father's illness. In 1519 he was sent into Germany on the
+difficult errand of inducing the electors to give their votes in favour
+of Francis I.; but in this he failed. The war in Italy being rekindled,
+Fleuranges accompanied the king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was
+taken prisoner with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the
+defection of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into
+confinement in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this
+imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed his enforced
+leisure in writing his _Histoire des choses memorables advenues du regne
+de Louis XII et de Francois I, depuis 1499 jusqu'en l'an 1521_. In this
+work he designates himself _Jeune Adventureux_. Within a small compass
+he gives many curious and interesting details of the time, writing only
+of what he had seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was
+first published in 1735, by Abbe Lambert, who added historical and
+critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections. The
+last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active service was at
+the defence of Peronne, besieged by the count of Nassau in 1536. In the
+following year he heard of his father's death, and set out from Amboise
+for his estate of La Marck; but he was seized with illness at
+Longjumeau, and died there in December 1537.
+
+  See his own book in the _Nouvelle Collection des memoires pour servir
+  a l'histoire de France_ (edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. Poujoulat,
+  series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.).
+
+
+
+
+FLEUR-DE-LIS (Fr. "lily flower"), an heraldic device, very widespread in
+the armorial bearings of all countries, but more particularly associated
+with the royal house of France. The conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littre
+says, represents very imperfectly three flowers of the white lily
+(_Lilium_) joined together, the central one erect, and each of the
+other two curving outwards. The fleur-de-lis is a common device in
+ancient decoration, notably in India and in Egypt, where it was the
+symbol of life and resurrection, the attribute of the god Horus. It is
+common also in Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the
+conventional fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or
+white iris--the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare--or an arrow-head, a
+spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the evil eye,
+&c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the fleur-de-lis is a
+frequent sculptured ornament. As early as 1120 three fleurs-de-lis were
+sculptured on the capitals of the Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The
+fleur-de-lis was first definitely connected with the French monarchy in
+an _ordonnance_ of Louis le Jeune (c. 1147), and was first figured on a
+seal of Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry
+dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became a very
+common charge in France, England and Germany, where every gentleman of
+coat-armour desired to adorn his shield with a loan from the shield of
+France, which was at first _d'azur, seme de fleurs de lis d'or_. In
+February 1376 Charles V. of France reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis
+to three--in honour of the Trinity--and the kings of France thereafter
+bore _d'azur, a trois fleurs de lis d'or_. Tradition soon attributed the
+origin of the fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish
+monarchy, and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an
+angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation for this
+legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William Newton
+(_Display of Heraldry_, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was the figure of
+a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre at the proclamation
+of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the true origin of the fleur-de-lis
+as a conventional decoration, it is demonstrably far older than the
+Frankish monarchy, and history does not record the reason of its
+adoption by the royal house of France, from which it passed into common
+use as an heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the
+Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman states
+by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged to defend the
+patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the church. Another order
+of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII. in 1816, in memory of the silver
+fleurs-de-lis which the comte d'Artois had given to the troops in 1814
+as decorations; it was abolished by the revolution of 1830.
+
+[Illustration: Middle Ages. 17th century. 18th and 19th centuries.]
+
+
+
+
+FLEURUS, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, 5 m. N.E. of
+Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles. The first of these
+was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between the forces of Count Mansfeld
+and Christian of Brunswick and the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter
+being defeated. The second is described below, and the third and fourth,
+incidents of Jourdan's campaign of 1794, under FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
+WARS. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms the battlefield
+of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Fleurus 1690.]
+
+The second battle was fought on the 1st of July 1690 between 45,000
+French under Francois-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville, duke of Luxemburg,
+and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and Imperialists under George
+Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The latter had formed up his army between
+Heppignies and St Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a
+double barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a
+village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army exactly.
+But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard from Velaine, decided,
+after a cursory survey of the ground, to attack the front and both
+flanks of the Allies' position at once--a decision which few, if any,
+generals then living would have dared to make, and which of itself
+places Luxemburg in the same rank as a tactician as his old friend and
+commander Conde. The left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of
+woods, houses and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect
+with the frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop
+Waldeck's right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of cavalry and
+some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep round the enemy's left by
+way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes, concealed by the high-standing
+corn. At 8 o'clock the frontal attack began by a vigorous artillery
+engagement, in which the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns,
+held their own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been
+absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy already
+formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second line back to oppose
+them, but while he was doing so the French leader filled up the gap
+between himself and the frontal assailants by posting infantry around
+Wagnelee, and also guns on the neighbouring hill whence their fire
+enfiladed both halves of the enemy's army up to the limit of their
+ranging power. At 1 P.M. Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole
+line. He himself scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the
+Dutch infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded. The
+left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and in their
+first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean Christophe,
+comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers in the service. But
+Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary success, sent a portion of
+his right wing towards St Amand, where it merely shared the fate of his
+left, and the day was decided. Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14
+battalions of infantry (English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck
+could do no more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the
+Spaniards at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the
+infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them--the French cavalry,
+eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest. Then slowly and in
+perfect order, they retired into the broken ground above Mellet, where
+they were in safety. The French slept on the battlefield, and then
+returned to camp with their trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost
+some 2500 killed, amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of
+artillery, the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg
+was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-Dame. But
+the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV. ordered Luxemburg to
+keep in line with other French armies which were carrying on more or
+less desultory wars of manoeuvre on the Meuse and Moselle.
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BENARD] (1750-1822), French actor, was born at
+Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and began his stage apprenticeship
+at Nancy, where his father was at the head of a company of actors
+attached to the court of King Stanislaus. After four years in the
+provinces, he came to Paris in 1778, and almost immediately was made
+_societaire_ at the Comedie Francaise, although the public was slow to
+recognize him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like
+the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of the
+presentation of Laya's _L'Ami des lois_, and, when liberated, appeared
+at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the rehabilitated
+Comedie Francaise. After forty years of service he retired in 1818, and
+died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was notoriously illiterate, and it is
+probable that the interesting _Memoire de Fleury_ owes more to its
+author, Lafitte, than to the subject whose "notes and papers" it is said
+to contain.
+
+
+
+
+FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE (1653-1743), French cardinal and statesman, was
+born at Lodeve (Herault) on the 22nd of June 1653, the son of a
+collector of taxes. Educated by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the
+priesthood, and became in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi,
+almoner to Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of
+Frejus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined him to seek a
+position at court. He became tutor to the king's great-grandson and
+heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of ambition, he acquired over the
+child's mind an influence which proved to be indestructible. On the
+death of the regent Orleans in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy
+years of age, deferred his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment
+of Louis Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present
+at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and on
+Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired from court.
+Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the 11th of July 1726 took
+affairs into his own hands, and secured the exile from court of Bourbon
+and of his mistress Madame de Prie. He refused the title of first
+minister, but his elevation to the cardinalate in that year secured his
+precedence over the other ministers. He was naturally frugal and
+prudent, and carried these qualities into the administration, with the
+result that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 15,000,000 livres
+instead of the usual deficit. In 1726 he fixed the standard of the
+currency and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment
+thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced labour
+from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though at the cost of
+rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen years of his orderly
+government the country found time to recuperate its forces after the
+exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent,
+and the general prosperity rapidly increased. Internal peace was only
+seriously disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise
+against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to accept the
+bull _Unigenitus_, and he met the opposition of the parlement of Paris
+by exiling forty of its members.
+
+In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance of peace,
+which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore led to a
+continuance of the good understanding between France and England. It was
+only with reluctance that he supported the ambitious projects of
+Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain, in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the
+succession of Don Carlos to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had
+economized in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was
+forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled by public
+opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.'s father-in-law Stanislaus
+Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish crown on the death of
+Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-Austrian candidate; but the
+despatch of a French expedition of 1500 men to Danzig only served to
+humiliate France. Fleury was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic
+measures; he concluded a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and
+sent two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the Rhine
+and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty of Vienna
+(1735-1738). France had joined with the other powers in guaranteeing the
+succession of Maria Theresa under the Pragmatic sanction, but on the
+death of Charles VI. in 1740 Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an
+excuse for repudiating his engagements, when he found the party of war
+supreme in the king's counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian
+campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian general
+Konigsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury disavowed his own
+letter, and died a few days after the French evacuation of Prague on the
+29th of January 1743. He had enriched the royal library by many valuable
+oriental MSS., and was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of
+Science, and the Academy of Inscriptions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F.J. Bataille, _Eloge historique de M. le Cardinal A.
+  H. de Fleury_ (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, _Oraison
+  funebre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Fleury_ (Paris, 1743); P.
+  Vicaire, _Oraison funebre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury_ (Caen, 1743);
+  M. van Hoey, _Lettres et negotiations pour servir a l'histoire de la
+  vie du Cardinal de Fleury_ (London, 1743); _Leben des Cardinals A. H.
+  Fleury_ (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morenas, _Parallele du ministere du
+  Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury_ (Avignon, 1743);
+  _Nachrichten von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury_
+  (Hamburg, 1744).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35606.txt or 35606.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/6/0/35606/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35606.zip b/35606.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5cda56a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35606.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c485acb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #35606 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35606)