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diff --git a/35606-8.txt b/35606-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..602dd99 --- /dev/null +++ b/35606-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18084 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4 + "Finland" to "Fleury, Andre" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 18, 2011 [EBook #35606] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10 SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE FINLAND: "... but does not reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 + m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards." 'Arctic' amended + from 'Artic'. + + ARTICLE FISCHART, JOHANN: "Sie haben Nasen und riechen's nit." + 'und' amended from 'vnd'. + + ARTICLE FISHER, JOHN: "The constancy of Fisher, while driving Henry + to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the whole + Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most + learned and pious bishops of the time." 'Christian' amended from + 'Christain'. + + ARTICLE FISHKILL LANDING: "... in which the New York Provincial + Congress met in August and September 1776." 'Provincial' amended + from 'Provinical'. + + ARTICLE FITZGERALD, EDWARD: "... until 1873 in the town of + Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house hard by, + called Little Grange." 'called' amended from 'ealled'. + + ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "He profited largely by the tyranny of + Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion of the + ecclesiastical preferments which were illegally kept vacant, and + obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099)." + 'illegally' amended from 'illegaly'. + + ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "A bishop, however, was an inconvenient + prisoner, and Flambard soon succeeded in effecting his escape from + the Tower of London." 'succeeded' amended from 'succeded'. + + ARTICLE FLAME: "... if the outer tube be slid up again, it detaches + the outer cone and carries it upward." 'be' amended from 'he'. + + ARTICLE FLAME: "It is least ambiguous when used in reference to + flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical + proportions before issuing from the burner." 'is' amended from + 'it'. + + ARTICLE FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE: "During the seventeen years of + his orderly government the country found time to recuperate its + forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis + XIV. and of the regent, and the general prosperity rapidly + increased." 'rapidly' amended from 'rapidy'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME X, SLICE IV + + Finland to Fleury, André + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + FINLAND FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM FITZWILLIAM + FINLAY, GEORGE FIUME + FINN MAC COOL FIVES + FINNO-UGRIAN FIX, THÉODORE + FINSBURY FIXTURES + FINSTERWALDE FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS + FIORENZO DI LORENZO FJORD + FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA FLACCUS + FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES + FIR FLACIUS, MATTHIAS + FIRDOUSI FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE + FIRE FLAG + FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION FLAGELLANTS + FIREBACK FLAGELLATA + FIRE BRAT FLAGEOLET + FIREBRICK FLAGSHIP + FIREFLY FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, JOSEPH + FIRE-IRONS FLAIL + FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO FLAMBARD, RANULF + FIRESHIP FLAMBOROUGH HEAD + FIRE-WALKING FLAMBOYANT STYLE + FIREWORKS FLAME + FIRM FLAMEL, NICOLAS + FIRMAMENT FLAMEN + FIRMAN FLAMINGO + FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS FLAMINIA, VIA + FIRMINY FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS + FIRST-FOOT FLAMINIUS, GAIUS + FIRST OF JUNE FLAMSTEED, JOHN + FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING FLANDERS + FIRTH, MARK FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE + FIRUZABAD FLANNEL + FIRUZKUH FLANNELETTE + FISCHART, JOHANN FLASK + FISCHER, EMIL FLAT + FISCHER, ERNST BERTHOLD FLATBUSH + FISH, HAMILTON FLAT-FISH + FISH FLATHEADS + FISHER, ALVAN FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE + FISHER, GEORGE PARK FLAVEL, JOHN + FISHER, JOHN FLAVIAN I. + FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER FLAVIAN II. + FISHERIES FLAVIAN + FISHERY FLAVIGNY + FISHGUARD FLAVIN + FISHKILL LANDING FLAX + FISK, JAMES FLAXMAN, JOHN + FISK, WILBUR FLEA + FISKE, JOHN FLÈCHE + FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT + FISTULA FLECKEISEN, CARL WILHELM ALFRED + FIT FLECKNOE, RICHARD + FITCH, JOHN FLEET + FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FLEET PRISON + FITCH, RALPH FLEETWOOD, CHARLES + FITCHBURG FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM + FITTIG, RUDOLF FLEETWOOD + FITTON, MARY FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT + FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT + FITZBALL, EDWARD FLEMING, PAUL + FITZGERALD FLEMING, RICHARD + FITZGERALD, EDWARD FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD + FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD FLEMING, SIR THOMAS + FITZGERALD, RAYMOND FLEMISH LITERATURE + FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS FLENSBURG + FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY FLERS + FITZHERBERT, THOMAS FLETA + FITZ NEAL, RICHARD FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM + FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER FLETCHER, ANDREW + FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English author) + FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English poet) + FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM + FITZROY, ROBERT FLETCHER, PHINEAS + FITZROY FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK + FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT FLEUR-DE-LIS + FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM FLEURUS + FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD FLEURY + FITZWALTER, ROBERT FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE + FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM + + + + +FINLAND (Finnish, _Suomi_ or _Suomenmaa_), a grand-duchy governed +subject to its own constitution by the emperor of Russia as grand-duke +of Finland. It is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and +includes, moreover, a large territory in Lapland. It touches at its +south-eastern extremity the government of St Petersburg, includes the +northern half of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian +governments of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows, +roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing into the +Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is +separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken line which takes the course +of the valley of the Torneå river up to its sources, thus falling only +21 m. short of reaching the head of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs +south-east and north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not +reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns +southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Åland +archipelago--its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the Swedish +coast--as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytärs, +&c. Its utmost limits are: 59° 48'--70° 6' N., and 19° 2'--32° 50' E. +The area of Finland, in square miles, is as follows (_Altas de Finlande, +1899_):-- + + +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ + | Government. |Continent.| Islands | Islands | Lakes.| Total. | + | | |in Lakes.| in Seas.| | | + +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ + | Nyland | 4,062 | 24 | 210 | 286 | 4,582 | + | Åbo-Björneborg | 7,594 | 8 | 1331 | 400 | 9,333 | + | Tavastehus | 6,837 | 97 | .. | 1,400 | 8,334 | + | Viborg | 11,630 | 362 | 130 | 4,502 | 16,624 | + | St Michel | 5,652 | 1018 | .. | 2,149 | 8,819 | + | Kuopio | 13,160 | 643 | .. | 2,696 | 16,499 | + | Vasa | 14,527 | 62 | 203 | 1,313 | 16,105 | + | Uleåborg | 60,348 | 171 | 94 | 3,344 | 63,957 | + +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ + | Total | 123,810 | 2385 | 1968 |16,090 |144,253 | + +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ + + _Orography._--A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the + eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts, + the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to + the Kjölen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, and to the + slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White + Sea. At the head-waters of the Torneå, Finland penetrates as a narrow + strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjölen (the Keel), where the + Haldefjäll (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and + is surrounded by other _fjälls_, or flat-topped summits, of from 3300 + to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into + which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are + deeply sunk, and which take the character of a mountain region in the + Saariselkä (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the remainder of + Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach + on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to 1000 ft. Quite different + is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs + of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line + traced through the lakes Uleå and Piellis. The meridional ridges which + formerly used to be traced here along the main water-partings do not + exist in reality, and the country appears on the hypsometrical map in + the _Atlas de Finlande_ as a plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, + covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 + ft. The three main lake-basins of Näsi-järvi, Päjäne and Saima are + separated by low and flat hills only; but one sees distinctly + appearing on the map a line of flat elevations running south-west to + north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from + Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A + regular gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia + (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie tracts in its lower parts. + + A notable feature of Finland are the _åsar_ or narrow ridges of + morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some of + them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and + they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the + rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in + the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo ås, which runs + from Hangöudd to Vesi-järvi, and is continued farther east under the + name of Salpauselliä, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland, + are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the + ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As a + rule these forest-clothed _åsar_ rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally + 120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to + the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways are + traced in preference along them. + + _Lakes and Rivers._--A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the + aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams + (_fjården_), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great + facilities for internal navigation, while the connecting streams + supply an enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake + Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three + and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen, + flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the + lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the Gulf of + Finland; the basins of Pyhä-selkä, Ori-vesi and Piellis-järvi; Päjäne, + surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are + discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; Näsi-järvi + and Pyhä-järvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing into the Gulf + of Bothnia; Uleå-träsk, discharged by the Uleå into the same gulf; and + Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. Two large rivers, + Kemi and Torneå, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Uleå + is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel. + + _Geology._--Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits + are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and + also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in + the Kjölen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age are met with in the Kola + peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder + of Finland is built up of the oldest known crystalline rocks belonging + to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem + to be the granites of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of + the granites gave rise to the _Ladoga schists_ and various deposits of + the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the + country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous + formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in + West Finland, formed the so-called _Bothnian series_. New masses of + granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits + underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at work + on a grand scale. A new series of _Jatulian deposits_ was formed and a + new system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this part + of the globe. The _Jotnian series_, which were formed next, remain + still undisturbed. It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi + granite of Åland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine deposits + younger than those just mentioned--all belonging to a pre-Cambrian + epoch--are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater + part of the country has probably been dry land since Palaeozoic times. + The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial + deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine of the + ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial clays (partly of + lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral + coast-region--or in separate areas in the interior depressions. Some + Finnish geologists--Sederholm for one--consider it probable that + during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (_Yoldia_ sea) covered all + southern Finland and also Scania (Skåne) in Sweden, thus connecting + the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad + channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in + Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a + post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the + Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to + 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces of a large inner + post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North America, have been + discovered. The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal + rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), + from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero in the Baltic + provinces. + + _Climate._--Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds + the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in + corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual + isotherms of 41° and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E. + direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from 9° + Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30° along the south coast; while in July the + difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees, being + 53° in the north and 61° in the south-east. Everywhere, and especially + in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts (June + 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain and snow is + from 25½ in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the interior of + southern Finland. + + _Flora_, _Forests_, _Fauna_.--The flora of Finland has been most + minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists + were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different + provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province. + These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651 + in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the total + for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants are not met with + in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the + Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch fir + (_Pinus sylvestris_, L.), the fir (_Picea excelsa_, Link.); two + species of birch (_B. verrucosa_, Ehrh., and _B. odorata_, Bechst.), + as well as the birch-bush (_B. nana_); two species of _Alnus_ + (_glutinosa_ and _incana_); the oak (_Q. pedunculata_, Ehrh.), which + grows only on the south coast; the poplar (_Populus tremula_); and the + Siberian larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over + 6,000,000 trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large + saw-mills, and about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The + total export of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is + estimated, however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for + fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used + for export in different shapes. The total area under forests is + estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the + state. The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the + vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the + necessary bibliographical indications in _Travaux géographiques en + Finlande_, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895. + + _Population._--The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in 1751, + 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was + 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 men. Of + these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country + districts. The distribution of population in various provinces was as + follows:-- + + +-----------------+------------+--------------+ + | 1904. | Population.| Density per | + | | |sq. kilometre.| + +-----------------+------------+--------------+ + | Åbo-Björneborg | 447,098 | 20.3 | + | Kuopio | 313,951 | 8.9 | + | Nyland | 297,813 | 29.3 | + | St Michel | 189,360 | 11.1 | + | Tavastehus | 301,272 | 17.7 | + | Uleåborg | 280,899 | 1.9 | + | Viborg | 421,610 | 14.6 | + | Vasa | 460,460 | 12.5 | + +-----------------+------------+--------------+ + | Total | 2,712,562 | 8.6 | + +-----------------+------------+--------------+ + + The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing + an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was estimated at + about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased + then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish autonomy. In 1899 the + emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 + in 1904. + + The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes + (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces + of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran + faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek Orthodox Church + and 755 Roman Catholics. + + The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the + grand-duchy and of the province (_län_) of Nyland, principal seaport + (111,654 inhabitants); Åbo, capital of the Åbo-Björneborg province and + ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading + manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of + province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleåborg, capital + of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa län + (18,028); Björneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519); + and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545). + + _Industries._--Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority of + the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has been + marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign exports + of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. Measures + have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the + state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose. + There are two high schools, one experimental station, twenty-two + middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides + ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies exist in each + province. + + Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of fish, + &c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of + £61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy, + machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern development, but + the aggregate production approaches one and a half millions sterling + in value. + + Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output, + which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951 + grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and iron. The + last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes. In + 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile industries + are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high + duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of paper out of wood is + also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, there are upwards of 500 + saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over + £3,000,000 annually. + + _Communications._--The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500 + m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway was + opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in + 1870 (cost only £4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type began to + be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of railway, + mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the state + railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. Finland + has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced + canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one. + It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 m. inland, and + is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. Considerable works + have also been made to connect the different lakes and lake-basins + for inland navigation, a sum of £1,000,000 having been spent for that + purpose. + + The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an enormous + extension both in the towns and between the different towns of + southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 40 + to 60 marks,[1] and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns. + + _Commerce._--The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and + reached in 1904 the following values:-- + + +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+ + | | From or to | From or to | Totals. | + | | Russia. |other Countries.| | + +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+ + | Imports | £4,036,000 | £6,488,000 | £10,524,000 | + | Exports | 2,332,000 | 6,292,000 | 8,624,000 | + +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+ + + The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great + Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports are: + cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding £3,000,000), metals, + machinery, textile materials and textile products. The chief articles + of export are: timber and wood articles (£5,250,000), paper and paper + pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. The chief ports are + Helsingfors, Åbo, Viborg, Hangö and Vasa. + + _Education._--Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new + education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading, + occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are + given in the maternal house, or in "maternal schools," or by + ambulatory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the + necessary examination in the houses of every parish. All education + above that level is in the hands of the educational department and + school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound + (since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts + and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these + expenses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each female + teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. Secondary + education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and + scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to + scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or + gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors + (formerly the Åbo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328 + women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the Helsingfors + polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical, + commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several scientific + societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific + Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several + medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian + Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical, + one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, as also + the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, &c., issue + publications well known to the scientific world. The numerous local + branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular + Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller + communes in establishing schools, and the latter in publishing popular + works, starting their own schools as well as free libraries (in nearly + every commune), and organizing lectures for the people. The university + students take a lively part in this work. + +_Government and Administration._--From the time of its union with Russia +at the Diet of Borgå in 1809 till the events of 1899 (see _History_) +Finland was practically a separate state, the emperor of Russia as +grand-duke governing by means of a nominated senate and a diet elected +on a very narrow franchise, and meeting at distant and irregular +intervals. This diet was on the old Swedish model, consisting of +representatives of the four estates--nobility, clergy, burghers and +peasants--sitting and voting in separate "Houses." The government of the +country was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated +with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the Russian +government. War and foreign affairs were entirely in the hands of +Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence in Helsingfors. The +senate also controlled the administration of the law. The constitutional +conflict of 1899-1905 brought about something like a revolution in +Finland. For some years the country was subject to a practically +arbitrary form of government, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese +War and the growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and +peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution. As a +Finnish writer puts it: "just as the calamities which had befallen +Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to come from Russia." +The _status quo ante_ was restored, the diet met in extraordinary +session, and proceeded to the entire recasting of the Finnish +government. Freedom of the press was voted, and the diet next proceeded +to reform its own constitution. Far-reaching changes were voted. The +new diet, instead of being composed of four estates sitting separately, +consists of a single chamber of 200 members elected directly by +universal suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the +grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not more +than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion to +population. A scheme of "proportional representation," the votes being +counted in accordance with the system invented by G.M. d'Hondt, a +Belgian, was also adopted. The executive was to consist of a +minister-secretary of state and of the members of the senate, who were +entitled to attend and address the diet and who might be the subject of +interpellations. The members of the senate were made responsible to the +diet as well as to the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has +power to consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government. +After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty of the +senate to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate is not obliged +to accept the decision of the majority of the diet, nor, apparently, is +the sovereign bound to accept the advice of the senate. The first +elections, April 1907, resulted in the election to the diet of about 40% +representatives of the Social Democratic party, and nineteen women +members. The budget of Finland in 1905 was £4,273,970 of "ordinary" +revenue. The "ordinary" expenditure was £3,595,300. The public debt +amounted at the end of 1905 to £5,611,170. + +_History._--It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning of +the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what is now Finland, +though it was only when Christianity was introduced, about 1157, that +they were brought into contact with civilized Europe. They probably +found the Lapps in possession of the country. The early Finlanders do +not seem to have had any governmental organization, but to have lived in +separate communities and villages independent of each other. Their +mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, as +"Ukko," the god of the air, "Tapio," god of the forests, "Ahti," the god +of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to have been both brave and +troublesome to their neighbours, and their repeated attacks on the coast +of Sweden drew the attention of the kings of that country. King Eric IX. +(St Eric), accompanied by the bishop of Upsala, Henry (an Englishman, it +is said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the country in +1157, when the people were conquered and baptized. King Eric left Bishop +Henry with his priests and some soldiers behind to confirm the conquest +and complete the conversion. After a time he was killed, canonized, and +as St Henry became the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend +to her own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence and +paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, Thomas (also an +Englishman), arrived and recommenced the work of St Henry. Bishop Thomas +nearly succeeded in detaching Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a +province subject only to the pope. The famous Birger Jarl undertook a +crusade in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the +subdivisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and +building a castle at Tavestehus. It was Torkel Knutson who conquered and +connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and built the strong castle +of Viborg. Almost continuous wars between Russia and Sweden were the +result of the conquest of Finland by the latter. In 1323 it was settled +that the river Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the +Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by the Swedes, +they spread among the Finlanders their civilization, gave them laws, +accorded them the same civil rights as belonged to themselves, and +introduced agriculture and other beneficial arts. The Reformed religion +was introduced into Finland by Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John +III. raised the country to the dignity of a grand-duchy. It continued to +suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by Sweden, +especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor having created an +order of nobility,--counts, barons and nobles, Gustavus Adolphus in the +beginning of the 17th century established the diet of Finland, composed +of the four orders of the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants. +Gustavus and his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and +gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing +printing. During the reign of Charles XI. (1692-1696) the country +suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the diocese of Åbo +alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months. Finland has been +visited at different periods since by these scourges; so late as 1848 +whole villages were starved during a dreadful famine. Peter the Great +cast an envious eye on Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in +1710 he managed to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and +Villmanstrand; and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime +the sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished in the +wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721 the province of +Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was finally ceded to Russia. +But the country had been laid very low by war, pestilence and famine, +though it recovered itself with wonderful rapidity. In 1741 the Swedes +made an effort to recover the ceded province, but through wretched +management suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August +1742, ceding by the peace of Åbo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand +and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have occurred till 1788, +under Gustavus III., who began to reign in 1771, and who confirmed to +Finland those "fundamental laws" which they have succeeded in +maintaining against kings and tsars for over two centuries. The country +was divided into six governments, a second superior court of justice was +founded at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and +science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the academic +language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war again broke out between +Sweden and Russia, and was carried on for two years without much glory +or gain to either party, the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the +lost Finnish province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again +broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the cession in +1809 of the whole of Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia. Finland, +however, did not enter Russia as a conquered province, but, thanks to +the bravery of her people after they had been abandoned by an +incompetent monarch and treacherous generals, and not less to the wisdom +and generosity of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her +free constitution and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent +grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates were summoned to +a free diet at Borgå and accepted Alexander as grand-duke of Finland, he +on his part solemnly recognizing the Finnish constitution and +undertaking to preserve the religion, laws and liberties of the country. +A senate was created and a governor-general named. The province of +Viborg was reunited to Finland in 1811, and Åbo remained the capital of +the country till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were +removed to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827. The diet, which had +not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors in +1863. Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole prosperous and +progressive, and his statue in the great square in front of the +cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors testifies to the regard in +which his memory is cherished by his Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his +successor soon fell under the influence of the reactionary party which +had begun to assert itself in Russia even before the assassination of +Alexander II. One of Alexander III.'s first acts was to confirm "the +constitution which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His +Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious memory, and +developed with the consent of the estates of Finland by our dearly +beloved father of blessed memory the emperor Alexander Nicolaievich." +But the Slavophil movement, with its motto, "one law, one church, one +tongue," acquired great influence in official circles, and its aim was, +in defiance of the pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to +Orthodoxy and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven +years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the defenders of the +Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were complicated by the +rivalry between the Swedish party, which had hitherto been dominant in +Finland, and the Finnish "nationalist" party which, during the latter +half of the 19th century, had been determinedly asserting itself +linguistically and politically. With some exceptions, however, the whole +country united in defence of its constitution; "Fennoman" and +"Svecoman," recognizing that their common liberties were at stake, +suspended their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II. +(see RUSSIA) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the "February +manifesto" (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated the legislative +power of the Finnish diet. A new military law, practically amalgamating +the Finnish with the Russian forces, followed in July 1901; Russian +officials and the Russian language were forced on Finland wherever +possible, and in April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was +invested with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded +with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the expenses +being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian system was now in +full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests and banishments, and the +suppression of newspapers, were the order of the day. To all this the +people of Finland opposed a dogged and determined resistance, which +culminated in November 1905 in a "national strike." The strike was +universal, all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the +industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway, +steamship, telephone and postal services were practically suspended. +Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and electricity; no shops +except provision shops were open; public departments, schools and +restaurants were closed. After six days the unconstitutional +government--already much shaken by events in Russia and +Manchuria--capitulated. In an imperial manifesto dated the 7th of +November 1905 the demands of Finland were granted, and the _status quo +ante_ 1899 was restored. + +But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constitution, although +precious to those whose only protection it was, was an antiquated and +not very efficient instrument of government. Popular feeling had been +excited by the political conflict, advanced tendencies had declared +themselves, and when the new diet met it proceeded as explained above to +remodel the constitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with +freedom of the press, speech, meeting and association. + +In 1908-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The Imperial +government insisted that the decision in all Finnish questions affecting +the Empire must rest with them; and a renewed attempt was made to +curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet. + +_Ethnology._--The term Finn has a wider application than Finland, being, +with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) or Ugro-Finnic, the +collective name of the westernmost branch of the Ural-Altaic family, +dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, the Baltic provinces (Esthonia, +Livonia, Curland), parts of Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both +banks of middle Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural +Mountains and the Yenissei) and Hungary. + +Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people except +the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence of +civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen, +agriculturists, traders, &c. Physically the Finns (here to be +distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who retain their +Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race, of low stature, with +almost round head, low forehead, flat features, prominent cheek bones, +eyes mostly grey and oblique (inclining inwards), short and flat nose, +protruding mouth, thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the +occiput seems flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard +weak and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture +with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion also somewhat +brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, faithful and +submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom and independence, but +also somewhat stolid, revengeful and indolent. Many of these physical +and moral characteristics they have in common with the so-called +"Mongolian" race, to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also +linguistically, related. + +Considerable researches have been accomplished since about 1850 in the +ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale which has no parallel +in any other country. The study of the prehistoric population of +Finland--Neolithic (no Palaeolithic finds have yet been made)--of the +Age of Bronze and the Iron Age has been carried on with great zeal. At +the same time the folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked +out with wonderful completeness (see _L'Oeuvre demi-séculaire de la +Société de Littérature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois_, by Dr +E.G. Palmén, Helsingfors, 1882, and K. Krohn's report to the London +Folklore Congress of 1891). The work that was begun by Porthan, Z. +Topelius, and especially E. Lönnrot (1802-1884), for collecting the +popular poetry of the Finns, was continued by Castrén (1813-1852), +Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka (1854-1889), who extended their +researches to the Finns settled in other parts of the Russian empire, +and collected a considerable number of variants of the _Kalewala_ and +other popular poetry and songs. In order to study the different eastern +kinsfolk of the Finns, Sjögren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to +North Russia, and Castrén to West and East Siberia (_Nordische Reisen +und Forschungen_), and collected the materials which permitted himself +and Schiefner to publish grammatical works relative to the Finnish, +Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, +Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott languages. Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a phalanx +of linguists, continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and +the Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches of Aspelin (_Foundations of +Finno-Ugrian Archaeology_, in Finnish, and _Atlas of Antiquities_) led +the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their attention to the +basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga. A series of expeditions (of +Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were consequently directed to those +regions, especially since the discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable +Orkhon inscriptions (see TURKS, p. 473), which finally enabled the +Danish linguist, V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to +discover that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See _Inscriptions +de l'Iénissei recueillies et publiées par la Société Finl. +d'Archéologie_, 1889, and _Inscriptions de l'Orkhon_, 1892.) + + AUTHORITIES.--The general history of Finland is fully treated by Yrjö + Koskinen (1869-1873) and M.G. Schybergson (1887-1889). Both works have + been translated into German. The constitutional conflict gave rise to + a host of books and pamphlets in various languages. Mechelin, + Danielson and Hermanson were the leading writers on the Finnish side, + and M. Ordin on the Russian. Most of the political documents have been + published and translated. A finely illustrated book, _Finland in the + Nineteenth Century_, by various Finnish writers, gives an excellent + account of the country; also Reuter's _Finlandia_, a very complete + work with an exhaustive bibliography. The constitutional question was + fully discussed in English in _Finland and the Tsars_, by J.R. Fisher + (2nd ed., 1900). _The Atlas de Finlande_, published in 1899 by the + Geographical Society of Finland, is a remarkably well executed and + complete work. _The Statistical Annual for Finland--Statistisk Arsbok + för Finland_--published annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in + Helsingfors, gives the necessary figures. + (P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. F.*) + + +_Finnish Literature._ + +The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was Michael Agricola +(1506-1557), who published an _A B C Book_ in 1544, and, as bishop of +Åbo, a number of religious and educational works. A version of the New +Testament in Finnish was printed by Agricola in 1548, and some books of +the Old Testament in 1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at +Stockholm in 1642. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable to +the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the poets of +Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a wider audience. +It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of Finland, the _Kalewala_ +(q.v.), was introduced to readers by the exertions of Elias Lönnrot +(q.v.), that the Finnish language was used for literary composition. +Lönnrot also collected and edited the works of the peasant-poets P. +Korhonen (1775-1840) and Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing +the improvisations of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last +quarter of the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary +activity in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the +publication of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the +aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, in spite of the political +troubles, books in almost every branch of research are found in the +language, mainly translations or adaptations. We meet with, during the +present century, a considerable number of names of poets and dramatists, +no doubt very minor, as also painters, sculptors and musical composers. +At the Paris International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish +painters and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any +country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied a +position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution to a history +of Finnish literature is Krohn's _Suomenkielinen runollisuns +ruotsinvallan aikana_ (1862). Finland is wonderfully rich in periodicals +of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish Societies of Literature +and of Sciences and other learned bodies being specially valuable. A +great work in the revival of an interest in the Finnish language was +done by the _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura_ (the Finnish Literary +Society), which from the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, +_Suomi_. The Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition +of the works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan +(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published at +Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjö Koskinen, and has been translated into +both Swedish and German. The author was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the +above form being a Finnish translation. Other works on Finnish history +and some important works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In +language we have Lönnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published +by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donner's _Comparative +Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig) is in +German. In imaginative literature Finland has produced several important +writers of the vernacular. Alexis Stenwall ("Kiwi") (1834-1872), the son +of a village tailor, was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular +dramas and an historical romance, _The Seven Brothers_ (1870). Among +recent playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most +successful. Other dramatists are E.F. Johnsson (1844-1895), P. Cajander +(b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish, and Karl Bergbom (b. +1843). Among lyric poets are J.H. Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Jännes (b. 1848) +and Yrjö Weijola (b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari +Päivärinta (b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a +grimly realistic story, _His Life_. Many of the popular Finnish authors +of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio Filander a +farmer; Heikki Maviläinen a smith; Juhana Kokko (Kyösti) a gamekeeper. +The most gifted of the writers of Finland, however, is certainly Juhani +Aho (b. 1861), the son of a country clergyman. His earliest writings +were studies of modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went +to reside in France, where he made a close study of the methods of the +leading French novelists of the newer school. About the year 1893 he +began to publish short stories, some of which, such as _Enris_, _The +Fortress of Matthias_, _The Old Man of Korpela_ and _Finland's Flag_, +are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a very interesting +degree the temper and ambitions of the contemporary Finnish population. +It has been well said that in the writings of Juhani Aho can be traced +all the idiosyncrasies which have formed the curious and pathetic +history of Finland in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b. +1857), in tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships +which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country life. +Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Järnefelt (b. 1861). Santeri +Ingman (b. 1866) somewhat naïvely, but not without skill, has followed +in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to exaggerate either the force +or the originality of these early developments of a national Finnish +literature, which, moreover, are mostly brief and unambitious in +character. But they are eminently sincere, and they have the great merit +of illustrating the local aspects of landscape and temperament and +manners. + + AUTHORITIES.--E.G. Palmén, _L'Oeuvre demi-séculaire de la Suomalaisen + Kirjallisuuden Seura_, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 1882); J. Krohn, + _Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden waiheet_ (Helsingfors, 1897); F.W. + Pipping, _Förteckning öfver böcker på finska språket_ (Helsingfors, + 1856-1857); E. Brausewetter, _Finland im Bilde seiner Dichtung und + seiner Dichter_ (Berlin, 1899); C.J. Billson, _Popular Poetry of the + Finns_ (London, 1900); V. Vasenius, _Öfversigt af Finlands + Litteraturhistoria för skolor_ (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using + the Swedish language, see SWEDEN: _Literature_. (E. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Finnish mark, _markka_, of 100 _penni_, equals about 9½ d. + + + + +FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875), British historian, was born of Scottish +parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December 1799. He studied for +the law in Glasgow, and about 1821 went to Göttingen. He had already +begun to feel a deep interest in the Greek struggle for independence, +and in 1823 he resolved to visit the country. In November he arrived in +Cephalonia, where he was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly +afterwards he landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he +improved his knowledge of the language, history and antiquities of the +country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion of the Greek leaders, +both civil and military, he by no means lost his enthusiasm for their +cause. A severe attack of fever, however, combined with other +circumstances, induced him to spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the +spring of 1825 in Rome, Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland, +and, after spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to +Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the +university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His +enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he resided almost +uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in the unsuccessful +operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard Church for the relief of +Athens in 1827. When independence had been secured in 1829 he bought a +landed estate in Attica, but all his efforts for the introduction of a +better system of agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to +the literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first +publications were _The Hellenic Kingdom and the Greek Nation_ (1836); +_Essai sur les principes de banque appliqués à l'état actuel de la +Grèce_ (Athens, 1836); and _Remarks on the Topography of Oropia and +Diacria, with a map_ (Athens, 1838). The first instalment of his great +historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed., 1857) under the title _Greece +under the Romans; a Historical View of the Condition of the Greek Nation +from the time of its Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the +Roman Empire in the East_. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself +still further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several +tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of one of +them he published a volume _On the Site of the Holy Sepulchre; with a +plan of Jerusalem_ (1847). _The History of the Byzantine and Greek +Empires from 716-1453_ was completed in 1854. It was speedily followed +by the _History of Greece under the Ottoman and Venetian Domination_ +(1856), and by the _History of the Greek Revolution_ (1861). In weak +health, and conscious of failing energy, he spent his last years in +revising his history. From 1864 to 1870 he was also correspondent of +_The Times_ newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable +attention, and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct +influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned +societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edinburgh the +honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the 26th of January 1875. +A new edition of his _History_, edited by the Rev. H.F. Tozer, was +issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in 1877. It includes a brief but +extremely interesting fragment of an autobiography of the author, almost +the only authority for his life. + +As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field of +research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon alone being +a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious; as a scholar he was +accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute and profound; and in all that +he wrote he was unswerving in his loyalty to the principles of +constitutional government and to the cause of liberty and justice. + + + + +FINN MAC COOL (in Irish FIND MAC CUMAILL), the central figure of the +later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called Ossianic or Fenian. In +Scotland Find usually goes by the name of Fingal. This appears to be due +to a misunderstanding of the title assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Rí +Fionnghall, i.e. king of the Norse. Find's father, Cumall mac Trénmóir, +was uncle to Conn Cétchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in A.D. +157. Cumall carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named +Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which Cumall +was slain by Goll mac Morna (A.D. 174). Find was born after his father's +death and was at first called Demni. He is leader of the _fiann_ or +_féinne_ (English "Fenians"), a kind of militia or standing army which +was drawn from all quarters of Ireland. His father had held the same +office before him, but after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac +Morna, who retained it until Find came to man's estate. Find usually +resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded by some +of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered throughout +Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those coming from over the +sea. In times of invasion Find collected his forces, overcame the foe, +and pursued him to Scotland or Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might +be. When not engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or +love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the conditions of +admission to this privileged band, which were at once singular and +exacting. The foremost heroes in Find's train were his son Ossian, his +grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain, and Diarmait O'Duibne, whose +elopement with Find's destined bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King +Cormac mac Airt (A.D. 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story. +These, like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with which was +allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance. The +latter hailed from Connaught, chief among them being Goll and Conan. By +the annalists Find is represented as having met with death by treachery +either in 252 or 283. Under Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac +Airt, the power of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly +took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the battle of +Gabra (A.D. 283). Very few survived the defeat, but the story makes +Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival of St Patrick in 432. + +It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have existed in +the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older in date than the +Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal with events happening +in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196), Lugaid mac Con (196-227), +and Cormac mac Airt (227-266), but none of these in their oldest shape +contain any allusion whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history +of the Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a +Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster against +Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was originally a figure in +Leinster-Munster tradition previous to the Viking age, but we have no +documentary evidence concerning him at this time. He seems primarily to +have been regarded as a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been +transformed into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that his +personality was developed in Leinster and Munster local tradition out of +stories clustering round the figure of the Viking leader Ketill Hviti +(Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the year 1000 Find was +certainly connected in the minds of the people with the reign of Cormac +mac Airt, but the process is obscure. Recently John MacNeill has pointed +out that in the oldest genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui +Tairrsigh of Failge (Offaley, a district comprising the present county +of Kildare and parts of King's and Queen's counties). The Ui Tairrsigh +were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill would account in this +manner for the slow acceptance of the stories by the conquering +Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was fashionable at court, the subject +races clung to the Fenian cycle. For the last 800 years Find has been +the national hero of the Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the +Scottish Highlands and the Isle of Man. See also CELT (subsection _Irish +Literature_). + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Nutt, _Ossian and the Ossianic Literature_ (London, + 1899); H. Zimmer, "Keltische Beiträge iii.," _Zeitschrift für + deutsches Altertum_ (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1-172; L.C. Stern, "Die + Ossianischen Heldenlieder," _Zeitschrift für vergleichende + Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895; trans, by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions + of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, 1897-1898, vol. xxii. pp. + 257-325); J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London, 1908). (E. C. Q.) + + + + +FINNO-UGRIAN, or Finno-Ugric, the designation of a division of the +Ural-Altaic family of languages and their speakers. The first part is +the name given by their neighbours, though not used by themselves, to +the inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Baltic. It is probably the +same word as the Fenni of Tacitus and [Greek: Phinnoi] of Ptolemy, +though it is not certain that those races were Finns in the modern +sense. It possibly means people of the fens or marshes, and corresponds +to the native word _Suomi_, which appears to be derived from _suo_, a +marsh. Finn and Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland +but also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia and +sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this sense the +Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and Mordvins (Volga), +and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The name is not, however, extended +to the Ostiaks, Voguls and Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate +subdivision called Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country +on either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castrén in a +scientific sense. + +The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not be pressed as +indicating a community of physical features and customs. But making +allowance for the change of language by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians +form, with the striking exception of the Hungarians, a moderately +homogeneous whole. They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and +Manchus, have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power of +political organization. Those of them who have not come under European +influence live under the simplest form of patriarchal government, and +states, kings or even great chiefs are almost unknown among them. + +Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south Siberia +extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large parts of it are +still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and marsh was no doubt +much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric tribes seem to shun the open +steppes but are widely spread in the wooded country, especially on the +banks of lakes and rivers. Their want of political influence renders +them obscure, but they form a considerable element in the population of +the northern, middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found +much to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except +in the Baltic provinces). The difference of temperament between the +Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Little Russians is partly +due to an infusion of Finnish blood. + +Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly built and, though +there is considerable variation in height and the cephalic index, are +mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat squat, and brachy- or +mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish or olive coloured, the eyes +grey or blue, the hair light, the beard scanty. Most of them seem +deficient in energy and liveliness, both mental and physical; they are +slow, heavy, conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined +to be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are patient, +persevering, industrious, faithful and honest. When their natural +mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly and hospitable. + +I. _Tribes and Nations._--The Ugrian subdivision, which seems to be in +many respects the more primitive, consists of three peoples standing on +very different levels of civilization, the Ostiaks and Voguls and the +Hungarians. + + + Ostiaks. + + Voguls. + +The _Ostiaks_ (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic fishermen and +hunters inhabiting at present the government of Tobolsk and the banks of +the Obi. They formerly extended into the government of Perm on the +European side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the +Yenisei appear to be a different race and not to belong to the +Finno-Ugrian group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship +the River Obi. Allied to them are the _Voguls_, a similar nomadic tribe +found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly extending at least as far +as the government of Vologda. The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls +are allied, though not mere dialects of one another, and form a small +group separated from the languages of the Finns both Western and +Eastern. For further details of these and other tribes see under the +separate headings. + + + Magyars or Hungarians. + +According to the legend, Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and Magyor. They +married daughters of the prince of the Alans and became the ancestors of +the two kindred nations, Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story +corresponds with what can be ascertained scientifically about the origin +of these peoples. It is probable that the Huns and Magyars were allied +tribes of mixed descent comprising both Turkish and Finno-Ugrian +elements. The language is indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name +Hungarian seems to lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish +connexions which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and +Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu as far east +as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are of opinion that +the tribes from whom the present Hungarians are descended were formed +originally in the Terek-Kuban country to the north of the Caucasus, +where a mixture of Turkish and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian +language but Turkish mode of life predominating. They were also +influenced by Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns +and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe in the 5th +century and made no permanent settlement in spite of the devastation +they caused, whereas the Magyars remained for some centuries near the +banks of the Don. According to tradition they were compelled to leave a +country called Lebedia under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved +westward under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary in +the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions was called +Árpád. For the chequered and often tragic history of the country see +HUNGARY. The Magyars were converted to Christianity in the 11th century +and adhered to the Roman not the Eastern Church. They have in all +probability entirely lost their ancient physique, but have retained +their language, and traces of their older life may be seen in their +fondness for horses and flocks. + + + Permians and Syryenians. + +The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The _Permians_ and +_Syryenians_ may be treated as one tribe. The latter name is very +variously spelt as Syrjenian, Sirianian, Zyrjenian, Zirian, &c. They +both call themselves Komi and speak a mutually intelligible language, +allied to Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied to this +sub-group. Both Permians and Syryenians are found chiefly in the +governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel, but there are a few +Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals. The Syryenian headquarters +are at the town of Ishma on the Pechora, whereas the name Permian is +more correctly restricted to the inhabitants of the right bank of the +upper Kama. Both probably extended much farther to the west in former +times. The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than +most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for trading +purposes. They are possibly a mixed race. + + + Votiaks. + +The _Votiaks_ are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons +dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government of Viatka. +Their language indicates that they have borrowed a good deal from the +Tatars and Chuvashes, and they seem to have little individuality, being +described as weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves +Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them migrated, +doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into the government of +Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are said to have improved in +physique. + + + Cheremissians. + +The _Cheremissians_, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call themselves +Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the neighbourhood of +Kazan. Those inhabiting the right bank of the Volga are physically +stronger and are known as Hill Cheremiss. The evidence of place names +makes it probable that their present position is the result of their +being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then southwards by the +Russians. There is some discrepancy between their language and their +physical characteristics. The former shows affinities to both Mordvinian +and the Permian group, but their crania are said to be mainly +dolichocephalic, and it has been suggested that they are connected with +the neolithic dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle +and honest, but neither active nor intelligent. + + + Mordvinians. + +The _Mordvinians_, also called Mordvá, Mordvins and Mordvs, are +scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially Nizhniy +Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk, Ufa and even Orenburg. Though +not continuous, their settlements are considerable both in extent and +population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns, and their +traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought with the Tatars. +They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the 6th century, but do not +now use the name, calling themselves after one of their two divisions, +Moksha or Erza. Their country is still covered with forest to a large +extent. Their language is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the +other it shows a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other +Eastern languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar +to itself. + + + Lapps. + +The _Lapps_ are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They call +themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians. They are the +shortest and most brachycephalic race in Europe. The majority are nomads +who live by pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but +others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or fishing. +From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation among the Finns +and other neighbouring nations for skill in sorcery. + + + Esthonians. + +The _Esthonians_ are the peasantry of the Russian province Esthonia and +the neighbouring districts. They were serfs until 1817 when they were +liberated, but their condition remained unsatisfactory and led to a +serious rebellion in 1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns, +and are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting the +Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they are known to +foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii of Tacitus, and to have +properly belonged to quite a different tribe. They call themselves Ma +mes, or country people, and their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf. Finnish, +Virolaiset, Esthonians.) Though not superior to other tribes in general +intelligence, they have become more civilized owing to their more +intimate connexion with the Russian and German population around them. + + + Livonians. + +_Livs_, _Livlanders_ or _Livonians_ is the name given to the old +Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or Livonia and north +Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and predatory pagan tribe in the +middle ages, and it is possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish +race from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost +completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken in a few +places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been disputed if it still +exists. It is known as Livish or Livonian and is allied to Esthonian. + + + Votes. + +The _Votes_ (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also called +southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent the original +inhabitants of Ingria, the district round St Petersburg, but have +decreased before the advance of the Russians and also of Karelians from +the north. They are heard of in the 11th century, but now occupy only +about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. + + + Vepsas. + +The _Vepsas_ or _Vepses_, also called Northern Chudes, are another tribe +allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the Votes. They are +found in the district of Tikhvinsk and other parts of the government of +Old Novgorod, and apparently extended farther east into the government +of Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and Vepsas are +closely related to the Esthonians. + + + Finns. + +The _Finns_ proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the most +important and civilized division of the group. They inhabit at present +the grand duchy of Finland and the adjacent governments, especially +Olonetz, Tver and St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called +Kainulaiset was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns +Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns, the +Tavastlanders or Hämäläiset, who occupy the southern and western parts +of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaiset found in the east +and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards the White Sea. + +The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the grand +duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There is a considerable +admixture of Swedish blood; the language is full of Swedish words; +Christianity is universal; and the upper classes and townspeople are +mainly Swedish in their habits and speech, though of late a persistent +attempt has been made to Russify the country. The Finns have much the +same mental and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but +have reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several +collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been made, the +most celebrated of which is the _Kalewala_, compiled by Lönnrot about +1835, and there is a copious modern literature. The study of the +national languages and antiquities is prosecuted in Helsingfors and +other towns with much energy: several learned societies have been formed +and considerable results published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that +this scientific activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, +owes much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary language +there are several dialects, the most important of which is that of +Savolaks. + + + Karelians. + +The _Karelians_ are not usually regarded as separate from the Finns, +though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas and Votes. Living +farther east they have come less under Swedish and more under Russian +influence than the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the +districts which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this +influence has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of +European civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more +than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better proportioned +build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and friendly, but less +persevering and tenacious. They number about 260,000, of whom about +63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000 in Tver and Novgorod, but in the +southern districts are less distinguished from the Russian population. +They belong to the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy +are Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a Karelian +population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda and Tambov. It was +among them that the _Kalewala_ was collected, chiefly in East Finland +and Olonetz. + + + Samoyedes. + +There is some difference of opinion as to whether the _Samoyedes_ should +be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given the rank of a +separate division equivalent to Finno-Ugrian and Turkish. The linguistic +question is discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe who wander +with their reindeer over the treeless plains which border on the White +and Kara seas on either side of the Urals. In culture and habits they +resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes, and there seems to be no adequate +reason for separating them. + + + Other inclusions. + +Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian group, but +some doubt must remain as to the propriety of the classification, either +because they are now extinct, or because they are suspected of having +changed their language. + +The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga before they +invaded the country which now bears their name, were probably a tribe +similar to the Magyars, though all record of their language is lost. It +has been disputed whether the Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied +parts of south Russia and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians +or Turks, and there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs, +which without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the +difference ethnographically important. The formation of hordes of +warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different races, +was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably often a matter +of chance what language was adopted as the common speech. + +At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, who speak Tatar +languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are also the +Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified by Finnish +influence. The little known Soyots of the head-waters of the Yenisei are +also said to be Finno-Ugrians. + +The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas and Votes +but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all Finno-Ugrian tribes, +and to all extinct tribes of whatever race who have left tombs, +monuments or relics of mining operations in European Russia or Siberia. +Some Russian archaeologists use it specifically of the Permian group. +But its extension is so vague that it is better to discard it as a +scientific term. + +II. _Languages._--The Finno-Ugric languages are generally considered as +a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists of four families: +Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric, including Samoyede unless it is +reckoned separately as a fifth. The chief character of the group is that +agglutination, or the addition of suffixes, is the only method of +word-formation, prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, +as is also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages, +such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A connexion +between the Finno-Ugric and Dravidian languages has also been suggested. +On the other hand, the more highly developed agglutinative languages, +such as Finnish, approach the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan +languages may have been developed from an ancestor not unlike the +Ural-Altaic group. + +The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other divisions of +the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabulary. Compared with +Mongol and Manchu they have a much greater wealth of forms, both in +declension and conjugation; the suffixes form one word with the root and +are not wholly or partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal +element is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and +nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages, but +Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting position or +motion, and the union of the case termination with the noun is more +complete; in some languages the object can be incorporated in the verb, +which does not occur in Turkish, but the negative is rarely +(Cheremissian) thus incorporated after the Turkish fashion (e.g. +_yazmak_, "to write"; _yazmamak_, "not to write"), and in some languages +takes pronominal suffixes (Finnish _en tule_, _et tule_, _eivät tule_, +"I, you, they do not come"). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in +Finnish and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed, +or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns and +particles exist and are fully developed in some languages. The tendency +to form compounds, which is not characteristic of Turkish, is very +marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is said also to be found in +Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian. The original order in the sentence +seems to be that the governing word follows the word governed, but there +are many exceptions to this, particularly in Hungarian where the +arrangement is very free. + +In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of Turkish, +Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance between the numbers. +Many of the languages contain numerous Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but +with this exception the resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and +indicates an ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of +word-building and of the elements used, even if they have not the same +sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of sentences and +in some details (e.g. the use of the infinitive or verbal substantive), +seem to justify the hypothesis of an original relationship with the +Turkish languages, which in their turn have connexions with the other +groups. + +Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by some among the +Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any rate displays a far closer +resemblance to them in both grammar and vocabulary than do any of the +Turkish languages. The numerals are different, but the personal and +interrogative pronouns and many common words (e.g. _joha_, "river," +Finn. _joki_; _sava_, "good," Finn, _hywä_; _kole_, "fish," Finn, +_kala_) show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is +very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb differs, verb +and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In detail, however, the +verbal suffixes show analogies to those of Finno-Ugrian. Vowel-harmony +and weakening of consonants occur as in Finnish. + +Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be divided into two +sections: (1) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak, Vogul and Magyar; and (2) +Finnish. The Permian languages (Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a +distinct group within this latter section, and the remainder may be +divided into the Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West +Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper). + +The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the Finnish branch +before the systems of declension or conjugation were developed. Their +case suffixes seem to be later formations, though we find, _t_, _tl_ or +_k_ for the plural and traces of _l_ as a local suffix. Ostiak and +Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods and tenses are less numerous +but the number of verbal forms is increased by those in which the +pronominal object is incorporated. Hungarian has naturally advanced +enormously beyond the stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks +of strong European influence, but also retains primitive features. +Vowel-harmony is observed (_várok_, "I await," but _verek_, "I strike"). +The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive or +intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated. Alone +among Finno-Ugrian languages it has developed an article, and the +adjective is inflected when used as a predicate though not as an +attribute (_Jó emberek_, "good men," but _Az emberek jók_, "the men are +good"). There is great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, +a tendency to form long compounds. + +The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by any striking +differences, but show greater resemblances to one another in details. +None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian an objective conjugation. +The case system is elaborate and generally comprises twelve or fifteen +forms. The negative conjugation is peculiar; there are negative +adjectives ending in _tem_ or _tom_ and abessive cases (e.g. Finnish +_syyttä_, without a cause, _tiedotta_, without knowledge). + +Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development less fully +than the more western languages. They are less completely inflected than +the Finnish languages and more thoroughly agglutinative in the strict +sense. In vocabulary, e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the +Ugrian division. Syryenian has older literary remains than any +Finno-Ugrian language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th +century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals and +translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose. + +Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of the Volga +Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been influenced by Russian and +Tatar rather than by Scandinavian, and hence show apparent differences. +But Mordvinian has points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem +to point to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of _kemen_ for +ten, _-nza_ as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the +regular formation of the imperfect with _i_, the infinitive with _ma_, +and the participle with _f_ (Finnish _va_). On the other hand it has +many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation like the Ugrian +languages, and has developed two forms of declension, the definite and +indefinite. + +Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages and +Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations and also in +marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable (Syry. _yas_, +Cher. _vlya_) between the singular and the case suffixes. Most of the +numerals are like Syryenian but _kändekhsye_, _indekhsye_, for eight and +nine, recall Finnish forms (_kahdeksan_, _yhdeksän_), as do also the +pronouns. + +The connexion between the various West Finnish languages is more obvious +than between those already discussed. Lappish (or Lapponic) forms a link +between them and Mordvinian. Its pronouns are remarkably like the +Mordvinian equivalents, but the general system of declension and +conjugation, both positive and negative, is much as in Finnish. +Superficially, however, the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the +difference in phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for +diphthongs and also an unusually ample provision of consonants. + +The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and Livish) to +Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but to the casual +learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than Finnish, but on the +whole is less primitive and has assumed under foreign influence the +features of a European language even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony +is found only in the Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the +pronominal affixes are not used, and the negative has become an +unvarying particle, though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in +Finnish. On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the +general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and the +positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish. Esthonian +has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and a certain amount +of literary culture, the best-known work being the national epic or +_Kalewi-poeg_. + +Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian or +Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken language of the +Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian, but the _Kalewala_ and +their other old songs are written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has +come to be accepted as the ordinary language of poetry throughout modern +Finland, just as the Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic +poetry. It is more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves +many old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is +softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in +ordinary speech, e.g. _saa'a, kosen_ for _saada, kosken_. + +The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the group is +clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian and in its +present form consists of non-Aryan material recast in an Aryan and +European mould. Not only are some of the simplest words borrowed from +Scandinavian, but the grammar has been radically modified. Un-Aryan +peculiarities have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian. +The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with a string +of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms a whole with the +root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the adjective is declined and +compared and agrees with its substantive; compound tenses are formed +with the aid of the auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of +relative pronouns and particles. + +Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting examples of +non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both translation and +imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it may be doubted if the +experiment is successful. The sense of effort is felt less in Hungarian +than in the other languages; though they are admirable instruments for +terse conversation or popular poetry, there appears to be some +deep-seated difference in the force of the verb and the structure of +phrases which renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to +express sentences of the type common in European literature. + +III. _Civilization and Religion._--The Finno-Ugric tribes have not been +equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and Magyars, have adopted, +at least in towns, the ordinary civilization of Europe; others are +agriculturists; others still nomadic. The wilder tribes, such as the +Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly consist of one section which is +nomadic and another which is settling down. The following notes apply to +traces of ancient conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere +universal. Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike, +though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages as they +advanced among this older population. But most Finno-Ugrians are astute +and persevering hunters, and the Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow. +The tribes are divided into numerous small clans which are exogamous. +Marriage by capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are +still polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the +more general form. Women are treated as servants and often excluded +from pagan religious ceremonies. The most primitive form of house +consists of poles inclined towards one another and covered with skins or +sods, so as to form a circular screen round a fire; winter houses are +partly underground. Long snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are +largely employed in summer. The Finns in particular are very good +seamen. The Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden +moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different languages, +which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that the original system +did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude for calculating and +trading is not great. Several thousands of the Ostiaks, Voguls and +Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much paganism lingers among the +nominal Christians, and in poetry such as the _Kalewala_. The deities +are chiefly nature spirits and the importance of the several gods varies +as the tribes are hunters, fishermen, &c. Sun or sky worship is found +among the Samoyedes and _Jumala_, the Finnish word for god, seems +originally to mean sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river +Obi and also a thunder-god. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns, +Lapps and Cheremiss. There are also clan gods worshipped by each clan +with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship are also found. The +Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice to ghosts, and the Ostiaks +to make images of the more important dead, which are tended and +honoured, as if alive, for some years. Images are found in the tombs and +barrows of most tribes, and the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use +idols, generally of wood. Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of +the idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations of +Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are said to +sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is due to possession +by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and cured by spells, seems to +prevail among all tribes, and in general extraordinary power is supposed +to reside in incantations and magical formulae. This belief is +conspicuous in the _Kalewala_, and almost every tribe has its own +collection of prayers, healing charms and spells to be used on the most +varied occasions. A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards +(Finnish noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples. They +are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the will of the gods; a +magic drum plays a great part in their invocations, and their office is +generally hereditary. The non-Buddhist elements of Chinese and Japanese +religion present the same features as are found among the +Finno-Ugrians--nature-worship, ancestor-worship and exorcism--but in a +much more elaborate and developed form. + +IV. _History._--Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history or +written records, and little in the way of traditions of their past. In +their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter to some extent the +course of ordinary European history. For the earlier period we have no +positive information, but the labours of investigators, especially in +Finland, have collected a great number of archaeological and +philological data from which an account of the ancient wanderings of +these tribes may be constructed. Barrows containing skulls and ornaments +may mark the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be +of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan words of +an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact with the other +language from which it borrowed at the time when such forms were +current. But clearly all such deductions contain a large element of +theory, and the following sketch is given with all reserve. + +The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the Urals and +spoke a common language. It is not certain if they were all of the same +physical type, for the association of different races speaking one +language is common in central Asia. They were hunters and fishermen, not +agriculturists. At an unknown period the Finns, still undivided, moved +into Europe and perhaps settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps +arrived there before 1500 B.C., learned some rudiments of agriculture, +and developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still in the +neolithic stage. About 600 B.C. they came in contact with an Iranian +people, from whom they learned the use of metals, and borrowed numerals +for a hundred (Finnish _sata_, Ostiak _sat_, Magyar _szaz_; cf. Zend +_sata_) and a thousand (Magyar _ezer_; cf. _hazanra_ and _hazar_). +Magyar and some other languages also borrowed a word for ten (_tíz_, cf. +_das_). This Iranian race may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are +believed by many authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented +by the Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route up the +Volga in the 4th century B.C. About that time the Western Finns must +have broken away from the Mordvinians and wandered north-westwards. At a +period not much later than the Christian era, they must have come in +contact with Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also +with Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter first +in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as there may +have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces. But the distribution of +tombs and barrows seems to indicate that they entered Finland not from +the east through Karelia but from the Baltic provinces by sea to +Satakunta and the south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From +both Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous quantity of +culture-words and probably the ideas and materials they indicate. Thus +the Finnish words for gold, king and everything concerned with +government are of Scandinavian origin. Their migration to Finland was +probably complete about A.D. 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later +as Russians were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns +northwards, overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country +between St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to drive the +Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east. The Finns know the +Russians by the name of _Venäjä_, or Wends, and as this name is not used +by Slavs themselves but by Scandinavians and Teutons, it seems clear +that they arrived among the Finns as greater strangers than the +Scandinavians and known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps +first preached to the Finns as early as A.D. 1000, but there was a long +political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of the 13th +century Finland was definitely converted and annexed to Sweden, +remaining a dependency of that country until 1809, when it was ceded to +Russia. + +The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward movement and +did not fall under western influences but came into contact with Tatar +tribes and were more or less Tatarized. In some cases this took the form +of the adoption of a Tatar language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and +Votiak) a large number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that +there were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting +to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such was Great +Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the Mongols in 1238. The +pressure of tribes farther east acting on these settlements dislodged +sections of them from time to time and created the series of invasions +which devastated the East Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But +we do not know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians, +Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were Turks, +Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a horde speaking a Ugrian +language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspection of the +performances of the various tribes, as far as we can distinguish them, +suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the warlike element. The names +Hun and Hungarian may possibly be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot +assume that this tribe passed across Asia unchanged in language and +physique. The Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of +the 9th century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and +conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or so before +this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu, probably a +district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The isolated groups of +Hungarians now found in Transylvania and called Szeklers are considered +the purest descendants of the invading Magyars. Those who settled in the +plains of Hungary probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars +and earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as +Pechenegs and Kumans. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the older writers may be mentioned Strahlenberg + (_Das nord- und östliche Theil von Europa und Asia_, 1730), Johann + Gottlieb Georgi (_Description de toutes les nations de l'empire de la + Russie_, French tr., St Petersburg, 1777); but especially the various + works of Matthias A. Castrén (1852-1853) and W. Schott (1858). Modern + scientific knowledge of the Finno-Ugrians and their languages was + founded by these two authors. Among newer works some of the most + important separate publications are: J.R. Aspelin, _Antiquités du nord + finno-ougrien_ (1877-1884); J. Abercromby, _Pre- and Proto-historic + Finns_ (1898); and A. Hackmann, _Die ältere Eisenzeit in Finnland_ + (1905). + + The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and + languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not + in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there + are several: _Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne_ (Helsingfors) + (_Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja_); _Finnisch-Ugrische + Forschungen_ (Helsingfors and Leipzig); _Mitteilungen der + archäologischen, historischen und ethnographischen Gesellschaft der + Kais. Universität zu Kasan; Keleti Szemle or Revue orientale pour les + études ouralo-altaïques_ (Budapest). In all of these will be found + numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Halévy, + Heikel, Krohn, Muncácsi, Paasonen, Setälä, Smurnow, Thomsen and + Vambéry. + + The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the + headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions + may be consulted the works of Castrén, Schott and Otto Donner, also + such parts of the following as treat of Finno-Ugric languages: Byrne, + _Principles of the Structure of Language_, vol. i. (1892); Friedrich + Müller, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft II._, Band ii., Abth. 1882; + Steinthal and Misleli, _Abriss der Sprachwissenschaft_ (1893). + (C. El.) + + + + +FINSBURY, a central metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. +by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S. by the city of London and W. by +Holborn and St Pancras. Pop. (1901) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares +are Pentonville Road, from King's Cross east to the Angel, Islington, +continuing E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate +Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre from W. to +E., King's Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon Road, and so to the +City; St John Street and Road and Goswell Road (the residence of +Dickens' Pickwick) running S. from the Angel towards the City; and +Rosebery Avenue running S.W. from St John Street into Holborn. The +commercial character of the City extends into the southern part of the +borough; the residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local +industries include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing +and paper-making. + +An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation is not known. +The place was supposed by some to take name from an extensive fen, a +part of which, commonly known as Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was +drained in the 16th century and subsequently laid out as public grounds. +It was a frequent resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of +entertainment and the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that +it furnished a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in +the fire of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous at +a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of Clerkenwell +(q.v.), a locality of considerable historic interest, including the +former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which the gateway and other +traces remain. Among several other sites and buildings of historical +interest the Charterhouse (q.v.) west of Aldersgate Street, stands +first, originally a Carthusian monastery, subsequently a hospital and a +school out of which grew the famous public school at Godalming. Bunhill +Fields, City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the +middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons interred +here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother of John and Charles +Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends. A +neighbouring chapel is intimately associated with the Wesleys, and the +house of John Wesley is opened as a museum bearing his name. Many +victims of the plague were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields, +near the junction of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the +fields lies the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable +Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and armoury. +Sadler's Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as a place of +entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a fashionable medicinal +spring, music room and theatre, the last most notable in its connexion +with the names of Joseph Grimaldi the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other +institutions are the technical college, Leonard Street, and St Mark's, +St Luke's and the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the +parcels department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green +the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the Thames). +Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the New River Head. The +municipal borough coincides with the east and central divisions of the +parliamentary borough of Finsbury, each returning one member. The +borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. +Area, 589.1 acres. + + + + +FINSTERWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the +Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster, 28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus +by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The town has a Gothic church (1581), a +château, schools, cloth and cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and +saw mills and factories for machine building. The town, which is first +mentioned in 1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635 +and of Prussia in 1815. + + + + +FIORENZO DI LORENZO (c. 1440-1522), Italian painter, of the Umbrian +school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most of his authentic works +are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There is probably no other +Italian master of importance of whose life and work so little is known. +In fact the whole edifice that modern scientific criticism has built +around his name is based on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in +the Pinacoteca of Perugia--a niche with lunette, two wings and +predella--and on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that +city in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint an +altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova--the pentatych of the "Madonna and +Saints" now in the Pinacoteca. Of his birth and death and pupilage +nothing is known, and Vasari does not even mention Fiorenzo's name, +though he probably refers to him when he says that Cristofano, +Perugino's father, sent his son to be the shop drudge of a painter in +Perugia, "who was not particularly distinguished in his calling, but +held the art in great veneration and highly honoured the men who +excelled therein." Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino +and of Pinturicchio show certain mannerisms which point towards +Fiorenzo's influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some +fifty pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorenzo includes +works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be surprised +to find great divergence of opinion as regards the masters under whom +Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied. Pisanello, Verrocchio, Benozzo +Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo, Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantegna, Squarcione, +Filippo Lippi, Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with +this distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter that +stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the probability is that +he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly influenced by Gozzoli. +Fiorenzo's authentic works are remarkable for their sense of space and +for the expression of that peculiar clear, soft atmosphere which is so +marked a feature in the work of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity +of feeling and a power of expressing character which are far removed +from the somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures +bearing Fiorenzo's name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight charming +St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-authenticated works, +so Florentine in conception and movement, that the Perugian's authorship +is very questionable. On the other hand the beautiful "Nativity," the +"Adoration of the Magi," and the "Adoration of the Shepherds" in the +same gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the +fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco at Deruta. +The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the Frankfort museums +contain each a "Madonna and Child" ascribed to the master, but the +attribution is in each case open to doubt. + + See Jean Carlyle Graham, _The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo_ + (Perugia, 1903); Edward Hutton, _The Cities of Umbria_ (London). + (P. G. K.) + + + + +FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of +Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft. above sea-level. +Pop. (1901) 7792. It is traversed by the Via Aemilia, and has a +picturesque piazza with an old tower in the centre. The Palazzo Grossi +also is a fine building. Alseno lies 4 m. to the S.E., and near it is +the Cistercian abbey of Chiaravalle della Colomba, with a fine Gothic +church and a large and beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble), +of the 12th-14th century. + + + + +FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS (1748-1821), German painter and historian of +art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th of October 1748. He received his +first instructions in art at an academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in +1761, to continue his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to +Bologna, where he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 +admission to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained +the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick. In 1781 +he removed to Göttingen, occupied himself as a drawing-master, and was +named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints at the university +library. He was appointed professor extraordinary in the philosophical +faculty in 1799, and ordinary professor in 1813. During this period he +had made himself known as a writer by the publication of his _Geschichte +der zeichnenden Künste_, in 5 vols. (1798-1808). This was followed in +1815 to 1820 by the _Geschichte der zeichnenden Künste in Deutschland +und den vereinigten Niederlanden_, in 4 vols. These works, though not +attaining to any high mark of literary excellence, are esteemed for the +information collected in them, especially on the subject of art in the +later middle ages. Fiorillo practised his art almost till his death, but +has left no memorable masterpiece. The most noticeable of his painting +is perhaps the "Surrender of Briseis." He died at Göttingen on the 10th +of September 1821. + + + + +FIR, the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch pine (_Pinus +sylvestris_), but at present not infrequently employed as a general term +for the whole of the true conifers (_Abielineae_); in a more exact +sense, it has been transferred to the "spruce" and "silver firs," the +genera _Picea_ and _Abies_ of most modern botanists. + +The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having their +needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of growing in +clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their cones are composed of +thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales, each with a more or less +conspicuous bract springing from the base. The trees have usually a +straight trunk, and a tendency to a conical or pyramidal growth, +throwing out each year a more or less regular whorl of branches from the +foot of the leading shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend +horizontally. + +In the spruce firs (_Picea_), the cones are pendent when mature and +their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the shoots, +though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally. In the genus +_Abies_, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their scales drop off +when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct rows on each side of +the shoot. + +The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the Norway +spruce (_Picea excelsa_), so well known in British plantations, though +rarely attaining there the gigantic height and grandeur of form it often +displays in its native woods. Under favourable conditions of growth it +is a lofty tree, with a nearly straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in +somewhat irregular whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed +with dark, clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as +they increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even +in large trees, often sweeping the ground--a habit that, with the jagged +sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses, gives a peculiarly +graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway spruce. The slender, +sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered thickly around the shoots; +the upper one pressed towards the stem, and the lower directed sideways, +so as to give a somewhat flattened appearance to the individual sprays. +The elongated cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper +branches; they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and +eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the +extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge their seeds +until the following spring. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Male Flowers. +A, branch bearing male cones, reduced; B, single male cone, enlarged; C, +single stamen, enlarged.] + +The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on most of the +mountain ranges of northern and central Europe; while in Asia it occurs +at least as far east as the Lena, and in latitude extends from the +Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle. On the Swiss Alps it is one +of the most prevalent and striking of the forest trees, its dark +evergreen foliage often standing out in strong contrast to the snowy +ridges and glaciers beyond. In the lower districts of Sweden it is the +predominant tree in most of the great forests that spread over so large +a portion of that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part +of the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according to +Franz Christian Schübeler, on the mountain slopes up to an altitude of +from 2800 to 3100 ft., and clothing the shores of some of the fjords to +the water's edge; in the higher regions it is generally mingled with the +pine. Less abundant on the western side of the fjelds, it again forms +woods in Nordland, extending in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to +the 67th parallel; but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at +a greater elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish +Lapland it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft., +its upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In all the +Scandinavian countries it is known as the _Gran_ or _Grann_. Great +tracts of low country along the southern shores of the Baltic and in +northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce. It everywhere shows +a preference for a moist but well-drained soil, and never attains its +full stature or luxuriance of growth upon arid ground, whether on plain +or mountain--a peculiarity that should be remembered by the planter. In +a favourable soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of +the stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of from +150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from 5 to 6 ft. at the +base. But when it grows in dense woods, where the lower branches decay +and drop off early, only a small head of foliage remaining at the +tapering summit, its stem, though frequently of great height, is rarely +more than 1½ or 2 ft. in thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight +leading shoot, in the vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2½ or +even 3 ft. in a single season. In its native habitats it is said to +endure for several centuries; but in those countries from which the +commercial supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection +in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + SILVER FIR (_Abies pectinata_). + A, Cone and foliage. + + SPRUCE FIR (_Picea excelsa_). + B, Cone and foliage. + + HEMLOCK SPRUCE (_Tsuga canadensis_) + C, Cone, seed and foliage. + + DOUGLAS FIR (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_). + D, Cone, seed and foliage. + + _Photos by Henry Irving_.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + CYPRESS (_Cupressus sempervirens_). + A, Cone and branchlets. + + JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_). + B, Fruit and foliage. + + ARAUCARIA (_A. imbricata_, Chile pine or monkey-puzzle). + C, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale with seed. + + YEW (_Taxus baccata_). + D, Seed and foliage. + + Photos by Henry Irving.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Norway Spruce (_Picea excelsa_). Cones; scale +with seeds. A, Branch bearing (a) young female cones, (b) ripe cones, +reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, enlarged.] + +In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood is white, +apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an open place, but, as +produced in the close northern forests, often of fine and even grain. +Immense quantities are imported into Britain from Norway, Sweden and +Prussia, under the names of "white Norway," "Christiania" and "Danzig +deal." The larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used +for the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists and +rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably as +lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears less +adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from Sweden in a +manufactured state, in the form of door and window-frames and +ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap "white deal" furniture is +made of this wood. The younger and smaller trees are remarkably durable, +especially when the bark is allowed to remain on them; and most of the +poles imported into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and +similar uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often +made of it, and are said to be lighter than those of pine. The best +poles are obtained in Norway from small, slender, drawn-up trees, +growing under the shade of the larger ones in the thick woods, these +being freer from knots, and tougher from their slower growth. A variety +of the spruce, abounding in some parts of Norway, produces a red +heartwood, not easy to distinguish from that of the Norway pine (Scotch +fir), and imported with it into England as "red deal" or "pine." This +kind is sometimes seen in plantations, where it may be recognized by its +shorter, darker leaves and longer cones. The smaller branches and the +waste portion of the trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported +as fire-wood, or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce +is also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper. + +The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded by the tree +in less abundance than those furnished by the pine, are of considerable +economic value. In Scandinavia a thick turpentine oozes from cracks or +fissures in the bark, forming by its congelation a fine yellow resin, +known commercially as "spruce rosin," or "frankincense"; it is also +procured artificially by cutting off the ends of the lower branches, +when it slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of +Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce, a long +strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin that +slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in the latter part +of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the following spring to +ensure a continuance of the supply. The process is repeated every +alternate year, until the tree no longer yields the resin in abundance, +which under favourable circumstances it will do for twenty years or +more. The quantity obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on +the vigour of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected +to the operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed, and +the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value even for +fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better sort of "Burgundy +pitch" of the druggists is prepared. By the peasantry of its native +countries the Norway spruce is applied to innumerable purposes of daily +life. The bark and young cones afford a tanning material, inferior +indeed to oak-bark, and hardly equal to that of the larch, but of value +in countries where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In +Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over the +floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses, as a +fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting. The young +shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of those northern +latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to obtain. In times of +scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the sweetish inner bark, beaten +in a mortar and ground in his primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke +out a scanty supply of meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable +though somewhat resinous substitute for his ordinary _flad-brod_. A +decoction of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy for +scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential ingredient +in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as an occasional +beverage. The well-known "Danzig-spruce" is prepared by adding a +decoction of the buds or cones to the wort or saccharine liquor before +fermentation. Similar preparations are in use wherever the spruce fir +abounds. The wood is burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being +reckoned in Germany about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the +widespreading roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland and +Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are selected, split +through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley of wood-ashes and salt, +which, dissolving out the resin, loosens the fibres and renders them +easily separable, and ready for twisting into cordage. Light portable +boats are sometimes made of very thin boards of fir, sewn together with +cord thus manufactured from the roots of the tree. + +The Norway spruce seems to have been the "Picea" of Pliny, but is +evidently often confused by the Latin writers with their "Abies," the +_Abies pectinata_ of modern botanists. From an equally loose application +of the word "fir" by our older herbalists, it is difficult to decide +upon the date of introduction of this tree into Britain; but it was +commonly planted for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th +century. In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as +well as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for its +successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be turned to +agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for economic planting in +Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, which come to perfection in more +bleak and elevated regions, and on comparatively barren ground, though +it may perhaps be grown to advantage on some moist hill-sides and +mountain hollows. Its great value to the English forester is as a +"nurse" for other trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form +render it admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the +young saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out. +For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a picturesque +tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among the best of the +conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet harmonizing with the olive +green and rounded outline of oaks and beeches, or with the red trunk and +glaucous foliage of the pine. When young its spreading boughs form good +cover for game. The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are +useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring. In a +good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous size: one +in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft. in height, and the +trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the ground. The spruce bears the +smoke of great cities better than most of the _Abietineae_; but in +suburban localities after a certain age it soon loses its healthy +appearance, and is apt to be affected with blight (_Eriosoma_), though +not so much as the Scotch fir and most of the pines. + +The black spruce (_Picea nigra_) is a tree of more formal growth than +the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle and in more +regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce; and, though the lower +ones become bent to a horizontal position, they do not droop, so that +the tree has a much less elegant appearance. The leaves, which grow very +thickly all round the stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a +dark greyish-green. The cones, produced in great abundance, are short +and oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are deep +purple when young, but become brown as they ripen. The tree also occurs +in the New England states and extends over nearly the whole of British +North America, its northern limit occurring at about 67° N. lat., often +forming a large part of the dense forests, mostly in the swampy +districts. A variety with lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in +Newfoundland and some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees +usually grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great +height bare of branches; but they do not attain the size of the Norway +spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a diameter of 1½ or +2 ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty soil, and often grows +luxuriantly in very moist situations. The wood is strong, light and very +elastic, forming an excellent material for small masts and spars, for +which purpose the trunks are used in America, and exported largely to +England. The sawn timber is inferior to that of _P. excelsa_, besides +being of a smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the +log-houses of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks. +The spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots of +this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for some time in +water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the resulting decoction is +then poured into a cask with molasses or maple sugar and a little yeast, +and left to ferment. It is often made by the settlers and fishermen of +the St Lawrence region, being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The +American "essence of spruce," occasionally used in England for making +spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and +concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree are of no +great value. It was introduced into Britain at the end of the 17th +century. + +The white spruce (_Picea alba_), sometimes met with in English +plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce, the +branches being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light glaucous +green; the small light-brown cones are more slender and tapering than in +_P. nigra_, and the scales have even edges. It is of comparatively small +size, but is of some importance in the wilds of the Canadian dominion, +where it is found to the northern limit of tree-vegetation growing up to +at least 69°; the slender trunks yield the only useful timber of some of +the more desolate northern regions. In the woods of Canada it occurs +frequently mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous +tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used by the +Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark covering of their +canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark is employed to varnish +over the seams. It was introduced to Great Britain at the end of the +17th century and was formerly more extensively planted than at present. + +The hemlock spruce (_Tsuga canadensis_) is a large tree, abounding in +most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador; in lower +Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often the prevailing tree. +The short leaves are flat, those above pressed close to the stem, and +the others forming two rows; they are of a rather light green tint +above, whitish beneath. The cones are very small, ovate and pointed. The +large branches droop, like those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays +are much lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most +elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old, the branches, +broken and bent down by the winter snows, give it a ragged but very +picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently 3 ft. thick near the base. +The hemlock prefers rather dry and elevated situations, often forming +woods on the declivities of mountains. The timber is very much twisted +in grain, and liable to warp and split, but is used for making +plasterers' laths and for fencing; "shingles" for roofing are sometimes +made of it. The bark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most +valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are sometimes used +for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It was introduced into +Great Britain in about the year 1736. + +The Douglas spruce (_Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii_), one of the finest +conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes considerably +more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures 8 or 10 ft. across. +The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are of a deep green tint; the +cones are furnished with tridentate bracts that project far beyond the +scales. It forms extensive forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia +and Oregon, whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its +strength, durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep +yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick bark. It +was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery by David Douglas +in 1827, and has been widely planted, but does not flourish well where +exposed to high winds or in too shallow soil. + +Of the _Abies_ group, the silver fir (_A. pectinata_), may be taken as +the type,--a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size, with large +spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward the extremities. The +flat leaves are arranged in two regular, distinct rows; they are deep +green above, but beneath have two broad white lines, which, as the +foliage in large trees has a tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery +appearance from below. The large cones stand erect on the branches, are +cylindrical in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which +project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is of a +silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to have been +the true "Abies" of the Latin writers--the "pulcherrima abies" of +Virgil. From early historic times it has been held in high estimation in +the south of Europe, being used by the Romans for masts and all purposes +for which timber of great length was required. It is abundant in most of +the mountain ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in +the northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the Caucasus +and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Extensive woods of this +fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree grows up to nearly 4000 +ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms great part of the extensive forest +of the Hochwald, and occurs in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; it is +plentiful likewise on the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior +to that of _Picea excelsa_, but, being soft and easily worked, is +largely employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all the +purposes of carpentry. Articles of furniture are frequently made of it, +and it is in great esteem for carving and for the construction of +stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the wood is more perishable +than that of the spruce fir when exposed to the air, though it is said +to stand well under water. The bark contains a large amount of a fine, +highly-resinous turpentine, which collects in tumours on the trunk +during the heat of summer. In the Alps and Vosges this resinous +semi-fluid is collected by climbing the trees and pressing out the +contents of the natural receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels +held beneath them. After purification by straining, it is sold as +"Strasburg turpentine," much used in the preparation of some of the +finer varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar +process as that from _Picea excelsa_. A fine oil of turpentine is +distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse resin. +Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th century, the silver +fir has become common there as a planted tree, though, like the Norway +spruce, it rarely comes up from seed scattered naturally. There are many +fine trees in Scotland; one near Roseneath, figured by Strutt in his +_Sylva Britannica_, then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In +the more southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90 +ft., and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young +shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the tree on light +soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents a +ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofty top and horizontal +boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque relief above the rounded +summits of the neighbouring trees. The silver fir flourishes in a deep +loamy soil, and will grow even upon stiff clay, when well drained--a +situation in which few conifers will succeed. On such lands, where +otherwise desirable, it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones +do not ripen till the second year. + +The silver fir of Canada (_A. balsamea_), a small tree resembling the +last species in foliage, furnishes the "Canada balsam"; it abounds in +Quebec and the adjacent provinces. + +Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies, and some +furnish valuable products in their native countries; but they are not +yet of sufficient economic or general interest to demand mention here. + + For further information see Veitch's _Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed., + 1900). + + + + +FIRDOUSI, FIRDAUSI or FIRDUSI, Persian poet. Abu 'l Kasim Mansur (or +Hasan), who took the _nom de plume_ of Firdousi, author of the epic poem +the _Shahnama_, or "Book of Kings," a complete history of Persia in +nearly 60,000 verses, was born at Shadab, a suburb of Tus, about the +year 329 of the Hegira (941 A.D.), or earlier. His father belonged to +the class of _Dihkans_ (the old native country families and landed +proprietors of Persia, who had preserved their influence and status +under the Arab rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of +Tus (in Khorasan). Firdousi's own education eminently qualified him for +the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook, for he was profoundly +versed in the Arabic language and literature and had also studied deeply +the Pahlavi or Old Persian, and was conversant with the ancient +historical records which existed in that tongue. + +The _Shahnama_ of Firdousi (see also PERSIA: _Literature_) is perhaps +the only example of a poem produced by a single author which at once +took its place as the national epic of the people. The nature of the +work, the materials from which it was composed, and the circumstances +under which it was written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and +necessarily tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the +empire and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series +of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their ancient +sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces in the memory of so +imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th century of the +Christian era we find mention made of these historical traditions in the +work of an Armenian author, Moses of Chorene (according to others, he +lived in the 7th or 8th century). During the reign of Chosroes I. +(Anushirvan) the contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch, +an attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the kingdom, +all the popular tales and legends relating to the ancient kings, and the +results were deposited in the royal library. During the last years of +the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed, the former collection being +revised and greatly added to by the Dihkan Danishwer, assisted by +several learned mobeds. His work was entitled the _Khoda'inama_, which +in the old dialect also meant the "Book of Kings." On the Arab invasion +this work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the +iconoclastic caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately +preserved; and we find it in the 2nd century of the Hegira being +paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn el Mokaffa, a learned Persian who +had embraced Islam. Other Guebres occupied themselves privately with the +collection of these traditions; and, when a prince of Persian origin, +Yakub ibn Laith, founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing +off his allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the +work of his illustrious predecessors. His "Book of Kings" was completed +in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely circulated in Khorasan and +Irak. Yakub's family did not continue long in power; but the Samanid +princes who succeeded applied themselves zealously to the same work, and +Prince Nuh II., who came to the throne in 365 A.H. (A.D. 976), entrusted +it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki's labours were +brought to a sudden stop by his own assassination, and the fall of the +Samanian house happened not long after, and their kingdom passed into +the hands of the Ghaznevids. Mahmud ibn Sabuktagin, the second of the +dynasty (998-1030), continued to make himself still more independent of +the caliphate than his predecessors, and, though a warrior and a +fanatical Moslem, extended a generous patronage to Persian literature +and learning, and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic +institutions. The task of continuing and completing the collection of +the ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted +him. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many of the +influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount of materials for the +work, and after having searched in vain for a man of sufficient learning +and ability to edit them faithfully, and having entrusted various +episodes for versification to the numerous poets whom he had gathered +round him, he at length made choice of Firdousi. Firdousi had been +always strongly attracted by the ancient Pahlavi records, and had begun +at an early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of the +death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design of himself +carrying out the work which the latter had only just commenced; and, +although he had not then any introduction to the court, he contrived, +thanks to one of his friends, Mahommed Lashkari, to procure a copy of +the Dihkan Danishwer's collection, and at the age of thirty-six +commenced his great undertaking. Abu Mansur, the governor of Tus, +patronized him and encouraged him by substantial pecuniary support. When +Mahmud succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest in the +work, Firdousi was naturally attracted to the court of Ghazni. At first +court jealousies and intrigues prevented Firdousi from being noticed by +the sultan; but at length one of his friends, Mahek, undertook to +present to Mahmud his poetic version of one of the well-known episodes +of the legendary history. Hearing that the poet was born at Tus, the +sultan made him explain the origin of his native town, and was much +struck with the intimate knowledge of ancient history which he +displayed. Being presented to the seven poets who were then engaged on +the projected epic, Abu 'l Kasim was admitted to their meetings, and on +one occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud's request, in praise of his +favourite Ayaz, with such success that the sultan bestowed upon him the +name of Firdousi, saying that he had converted his assemblies into +paradise (_Firdous_). During the early days of his sojourn at court an +incident happened which contributed in no small measure to the +realization of his ambition. Three of the seven poets were drinking in a +garden when Firdousi approached, and wishing to get rid of him without +rudeness, they informed him who they were, and told him that it was +their custom to admit none to their society but such as could give proof +of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed that each +should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own to be the last, and +all four ending in the same rhyme. Firdousi accepted the challenge, and +the three poets having previously agreed upon three rhyming words to +which a fourth could not be found in the Persian language, 'Ansari +began-- + + "Thy beauty eclipses the light of the sun"; + +Farrakhi added-- + + "The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun"; + +'Asjadi continued-- + + "Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior's johsun";[1] + +and Firdousi, without a moment's hesitation, completed the quatrain-- + + "Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun." + +The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and Firdousi +recited to them the battle as described in the _Shahnama_, and delighted +and astonished them with his learning and eloquence. + +Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling and +versifying the ancient legends, and bestowed upon him such marks of his +favour and munificence as to elicit from the poet an enthusiastic +panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of the _Shahnama_, and forms +a curious contrast to the bitter satire which he subsequently prefixed +to the book. The sultan ordered his treasurer, Khojah Hasan Maimandi, to +pay to Firdousi a thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but +the poet preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was +finished, with the object of amassing sufficient capital to construct a +dike for his native town of Tus, which suffered greatly from defective +irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream of his childhood. +Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy of Hasan Maimandi, who +often refused to advance him sufficient for the necessaries of life, +Firdousi passed the later portion of his life in great privation, though +enjoying the royal favour and widely extended fame. Amongst other +princes whose liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary +difficulties, was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who +sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy of the +episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which Firdousi had sent him, and +promised him a gracious reception if he should ever come to his court. +As this prince belonged, like Firdousi, to the Shiah sect, while Mahmud +and Maimandi were Sunnites, and as he was also politically opposed to +the sultan, Hasan Maimandi did not fail to make the most of this +incident, and accused the poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and +patron, as well as of heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in +the attack, and for some time Firdousi's position was very precarious, +though his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work +prevented him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the +misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37. + +At length, after thirty-five years' work, the book was completed (1011), +and Firdousi entrusted it to Ayaz, the sultan's favourite, for +presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi to take the poet as +much gold as an elephant could carry, but the jealous treasurer +persuaded the monarch that it was too generous a reward, and that an +elephant's load of silver would be sufficient. 60,000 silver dirhems +were accordingly placed in sacks, and taken to Firdousi by Ayaz at the +sultan's command, instead of the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse, +which had been promised. The poet was at that moment in the bath, and +seeing the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold, +received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he +complained to Ayaz that he had not executed the sultan's order. Ayaz +related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan Maimandi, and +Firdousi in a rage gave 20 thousand pieces to Ayaz himself, the same +amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the rest to a beer seller for a +glass of beer (_fouka_), sending word back to the sultan that it was not +to gain money that he had taken so much trouble. On hearing this +message, Mahmud at first reproached Hasan with having caused him to +break his word, but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master's +anger upon Firdousi to such an extent that he threatened that on the +morrow he would "cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the feet of his +elephants." Being apprised by one of the nobles of the court of what had +taken place, Firdousi passed the night in great anxiety; but passing in +the morning by the gate that led from his own apartments into the +palace, he met the sultan in his private garden, and succeeded by humble +apologies in appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being +appeased himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Returning +home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses which he had +composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing to the grand mosque +of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the place where the sultan was in +the habit of praying, the following lines:-- + + "The auspicious court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea. + What a sea! One cannot see its shore. If I have dived therein without + finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the sea." + +He then gave a sealed paper to Ayaz, begging him to hand it to the +sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed, and set off on his +travels with no better equipment than his staff and a dervish's cloak. +At the expiration of the 20 days Ayaz gave the paper to the sultan, who +on opening it found the celebrated satire which is now always prefixed +to copies of the _Shahnama_, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest +and severest pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage, +sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture, but he +was already in comparative safety. Firdousi directed his steps to +Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of Jorjan, who at first +received him with great favour, and promised him his continued +protection and patronage; learning, however, the circumstances under +which he had left Ghazni, he feared the resentment of so powerful a +sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew already coveted his kingdom, and +dismissed the poet with a magnificent present. Firdousi next repaired to +Bagdad, where he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him +to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic poem +which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier gave Firdousi an +apartment near himself, and related to the caliph the manner in which he +had been treated at Ghazni. The caliph summoned him into his presence, +and was so much pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which +Firdousi composed in his honour, that he at once received him into +favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to +chronicling the renown of fire-worshipping Persians was, however, +somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph's eyes; in order therefore to +recover his prestige, Firdousi composed another poem of 9000 couplets on +the theme borrowed from the Koran of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar's +wife--_Yusuf and Zuleikha_ (edited by H. Ethé, Oxford, 1902; complete +metrical translation by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, +though rare and little known, is still in existence--the Royal Asiatic +Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time heard of his +asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter menacing his liege +lord, and demanding the surrender of the poet. Firdousi, to avoid +further troubles, departed for Ahwaz, a province of the Persian Irak, +and dedicated his _Yusuf and Zuleikha_ to the governor of that district. +Thence he went to Kohistan, where the governor, Nasir Lek, was his +intimate and devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon +the frontier. Firdousi confided to him that he contemplated writing a +bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the sultan +of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of the latter, +dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and remonstrated with +Mahmud. Nasir Lek's message and the urgent representations of Firdousi's +friends had the desired effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his +intention of offering full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy +Maimandi to death. The change, however, came too late; Firdousi, now a +broken and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tus, and, +while wandering through the streets of his native town, heard a child +lisping a verse from his own satire in which he taunts Mahmud with his +slavish birth:-- + + "Had Mahmud's father been what he is now + A crown of gold had decked this aged brow; + Had Mahmud's mother been of gentle blood, + In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood." + +He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his +misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was buried in a +garden, but Abu'l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of Tus, refused to read +the usual prayers over his tomb, alleging that he was an infidel, and +had devoted his life to the glorification of fire-worshippers and +misbelievers. The next night, however, having dreamt that he beheld +Firdousi in paradise dressed in the sacred colour, green, and wearing an +emerald crown, he reconsidered his determination; and the poet was +henceforth held to be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 411 of the +Hegira (1020 A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion +of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the meanwhile +despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of gold to Firdousi, +with a robe of honour and ample apologies for the past. But as the +camels bearing the treasure reached one of the gates of the city, +Firdousi's funeral was leaving it by another. His daughter, to whom they +brought the sultan's present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister +remembering his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for +the river of Tus, this work was completed in honour of the poet's +memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus. + + Much of the traditional life, as given above, which is based upon that + prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by order of + Baisingar Khan, grandson of Timur-i-Leng (Timur), is rejected by + modern scholars (see T. Nöldeke, "Das iranische Nationalepos," in W. + Geiger's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii. pp. 150-158). + + The _Shahnama_ is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends + current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dihkans, a + class of men who had the greatest facilities for this purpose. There + is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousi adhered faithfully + to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect + storehouse of the genuine traditions of the country. + + The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of the + 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French translation in a + magnificent folio edition, at the expense of the French government, by + the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl. The size and number of + the volumes, however, and their great expense, made them difficult of + access, and Frau von Mohl published the French translation (1876-1878) + with her illustrious husband's critical notes and introduction in a + more convenient and cheaper form. Other editions are by Turner Macan + (Calcutta, 1829), J.A. Vullers and S. Landauer (unfinished; Leiden, + 1877-1883). There is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, + 1832; reprinted 1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly + rhymed and partly unrhymed, by A.G. and E. Warner (1905 foll.), with + an introduction containing an account of Firdousi and the Shahnama; + the version by A. Rogers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. + The episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers from + Matthew Arnold's poem. The only complete translation is Il Libro dei + Rei, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886-1888), also the author of a + history of Persian poetry. + + See also E.G. Browne's _Literary History of Persia_, i., ii. + (1902-1906); T. Nöldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shahnama, + editions, &c.; and H. Ethé, "Neupersische Litteratur," in the same + work. (E. H. P.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A sort of cuirass. + + + + +FIRE (in O. Eng. _fýr_; the word is common to West German languages, cf. +Dutch _vuur_, Ger. _Feuer_; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit +_pu_, _pavaka_, and Gr. [Greek: pur]; the ultimate origin is usually +taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. _purus_), the term +commonly used for the visible effect of combustion (see FLAME), +operating as a heating or lighting agency. + +So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a question +whether we have any authentic instance on record of a tribe altogether +ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to be found in the voluminous +literature of travel which would decide the question in the affirmative; +but when they are carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be +far from conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe +in the southern part of Shoa who lived like monkeys in the bamboo +jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no better authority has +been found for the statement, and the story, which seems to be current +in eastern Africa, may be nothing else than the propagation of fables +about the Pygmies whom the ancients located around the sources of the +Nile. Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring +expedition of 1838-42, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island "there +was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of fire," and that +the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks produced by flint and steel +and the smoke emitted by those with cigars in their mouths. The presence +of the word _afi_, fire, in the Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the +ethnographer of the expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as +equivalent only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the +supposition of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a +missionary voyage in 1859, not only repeats the word _afi_ in his list +for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin of fire, and +describes some peculiar customs connected with its use. Alvaro de +Saavedra, an old Spanish traveller, informs us that the inhabitants of +Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific, showed great fear when they saw +fire--which they did not know before. But that island has not been +identified with certainty by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to +the Ladrones or Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre +Gobien, "till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants, +burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts ablaze, +their first thought was that fire was a beast which eats up wood. Some +of them having approached the fire too near were burnt, and the others +kept aloof, fearing to be torn or poisoned by the powerful breath of +that terrible animal." To this Freycinet objects that these Ladrone +islanders made pottery before the arrival of Europeans, that they had +words expressing the ideas of flame, fire, oven, coals, roasting and +cooking. Let us add that in their country numerous graves and ruins have +been found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus the +question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing impossible in +the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe, it cannot be said +that such a tribe has been discovered. + +It is useless to inquire in what way man first discovered that fire was +subject to his control, and could even be called into being by +appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon and its various aspects +he must soon have become familiar. The volcano lit up the darkness of +night and sent its ashes or its lava down into the plains; the lightning +or the meteor struck the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less +obvious cause produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is +possible that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings +save awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity as +with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have bred +confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary to suppose that +the practical discovery of fire was made only at one given spot and in +one given way; it is much more probable indeed that different tribes and +races obtained the knowledge in a variety of ways. + +It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable to +rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers in +Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman bearing always +about with her a burning brand, which it is one of her principal duties +to protect and foster; and it has been supposed that it was only +ignorance which imposed on her the endless task. This is absurd. The +Australian methods of producing fire by the friction of two pieces of +wood are perfectly well known, and are illustrated in Howitt's _Native +Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 771-773. To carry a brand saves a +little trouble to the men. + +The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably in detail, but +are for the most part merely modified applications of concussion or +friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the working up of stone into +implements must have been followed sooner or later by the discovery of +fire; for in the process of chipping sparks were elicited, and in the +process of polishing heat was generated. The first or concussion method +is still familiar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of +use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are +comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians take two +pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur, strike them +together till the sulphur catches fire, and then transfer the flame to a +heap of dry grass over which a few feathers have been scattered. Instead +of two pieces of quartz the Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of +iron pyrites. Mr Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken +china violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same process +in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China two pieces of bamboo +are considered sufficient, the silicious character of the outside layer +rendering it as good as native flint. The friction methods are more +various. One of the simplest is what E.B. Tylor calls the stick and +groove--"a blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own +making in a piece of wood lying on the ground." Much, of course, depends +on the quality of the woods and the expertness of the manipulator. In +Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce fire in a few seconds, but +only succeeded himself after much labour. The same device was employed +in New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak +Islands. Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards +other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the stationary +piece of wood--thus making what Tylor has happily designated a +fire-drill. This device has been observed in Australia, Kamchatka, +Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs of Ceylon, throughout a +great part of southern Africa, among the Eskimo and Indian tribes of +North America, in the West Indies, in Central America, and as far south +as the Straits of Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient +Mexicans, and Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a +Mexican MS.--a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick to +rotate between the palms of his hands. This simple method of rotation +seems to be very generally in use; but various devices have been +resorted to for the purpose of diminishing the labour and hastening the +result. The Gaucho of the Pampas takes "an elastic stick about 18 in. +long, presses one end to his breast and the other in a hole in a piece +of wood, and then rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's +centre-bit." In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord +or thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end and +that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others put the upper +end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold firmly in their mouth. +A further advance was made by the Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who +applied the principle of the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious +pump-drill was used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of +these instruments and a rich variety of details connected with +fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor's valuable chapter in his +_Researches_. These methods of producing fire are but rarely used in +Europe, and only in connexion with superstitious observances. We read in +Wuttke that some time ago the authorities of a Mecklenburg village +ordered a "wild fire" to be lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. +For two hours the men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was +not to be ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the +atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, objecting to +the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such a fire, to be +efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded female was +compelled to give in; fire was obtained---but of bad quality, for it did +not stop the murrain. + +It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be concentrated by +a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes mentions the burning-lens in _The +Clouds_, and the story of Archimedes using a mirror to fire the ships at +Syracuse is familiar to every schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be +trusted as an authority the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the +sacred fire with a concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the +burning-glass is in common use. + +To the inquiry how mankind became possessed of fire, the cosmogonies, +those records of pristine speculative thought, do not give any reply +which would not be found in the relations of travellers and historians. + + They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes is + likewise the god of fire. At Mangaïa it is told that the great Maui + went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making fire by + rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the tale + differently. Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind + grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands. Wishing + to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out, and so he + obtained fire from her great toe. It was so fierce that every thing + melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother herself were + already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven, saved the hero and + the perishing world; but before the waters extinguished all the blaze, + Mahuika shut a few sparks into some trees, and thence men draw it now. + The Maoris have also the legend that thunder is the noise of Tawhaki's + footsteps, and that lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western + Point, Victoria, the Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened + the door of the sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that + Karakorok, the good man's good daughter, seeing the earth to be full + of serpents, went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had + killed them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame + burst out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the + Persian _Shahnama_ also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. + Hushenk, the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, + which, evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. + "Light shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out + in glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." The + snake escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed. + + North American legends narrate how the great buffalo, careering + through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and sets the + prairie ablaze by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same idea + in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have been, among + many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on the Akmon or + hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that their ancestor + obtained fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its + claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill. + + Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like + the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri, + the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by + hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children. + Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed "the secret of + the stone's edge and the iron's hardness." The Slavonian god of + thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from + his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head; + the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other. + Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six + little ones. Finnish poems describe how "fire, the child of the sun, + came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, + in a large pail of gold." Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth + lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the + Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and + from the nail issued the "fiery babe." He gave it to the Wind's + daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea, + where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been + lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He + dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and + found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to + earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's chariot. + +Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses +increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save the labour +expended on the initial process of procuring light, or on carrying it +about constantly, primitive men hit on the expedient of a fire which +should burn night and day in a public building. The Egyptians had one in +every temple, the Greeks, Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. +The Natchez, the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their "national +fires" burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the "eternal lamps" +in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic churches, may be a +survival. The "Regia," Rome's sacred centre, supposed to be the abode of +Vesta, stood close to a fountain; it was convenient to draw from the +same spot the two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and +political interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was at +once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: all +public business and most private affairs were transacted by the light +and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder that its flagstones +should become sacred. Primitive communities consider as holy everything +that ensures their existence and promotes their welfare, material things +such as fire and water not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew +into a religious institution. And if we hear a little more of fire +worship than of water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole +more difficult to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and +the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the Roman +temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all authority, all +public or private business had to stop immediately. The connexion +between heaven and earth had been broken, and it had to be restored in +some way or other--either by Jove sending down divine lightning on his +altars, or by the priests making a new fire by the old sacred method of +rubbing two pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun +in a concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier without +carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum burned night +and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the emigrants took with them +living coals from the altar of Hestia, and had in their new country a +fire lit as a representative of that burning in the mother country.[1] +Not before the three curiae united their fires into one could Rome +become powerful; and Athens became a shining light to the world only, +we are told, when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought +each its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated, +making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated around +Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year. + +_Periodic Fires._--Because the sun loses its force after noon, and after +midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the ancients +inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, as time goes +on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. Therefore men set +about renewing the fires in the temples and on the hearth on the longest +day of summer or at the beginning of the agricultural year. The ceremony +was attended with much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. +Houses were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent +lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels were +made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by the creditor; +criminals were released by the civil authorities in imitation of the +heavenly judges, who were believed to grant on the same day a general +remission of sins. All things were made new; each man turned over a new +page in the book of his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in +the Old World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried these +ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated with magnificent +ceremonies the renewal of the _saecula_, or astronomic periods, which +might be shorter or longer than a century. Some details of the festival +among the Aztecs have been preserved. On the last night of every period +(52 years) every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn +procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, the +priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if they had a +vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and stars, had been wound +up like a clock for a definite period of time. And had they failed to +raise the vital spark, they would have believed that it was because the +great fire was being extinguished at the central hearth of the world. +The Stoics and many other ancient philosophers thought that the world +was doomed to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the +end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, how the +cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying everything. The +Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is also found in the +Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha (2 Esdras xvi. 15). + + See Dupuis, _Origine de tous les cultes_ (1794); Burnout, _Science des + religions_; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert + Kuhn. _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_ (1859); + Steinthal, _Über die ursprüngliche Form der Sage von Prometheus_ + (1861); Albert Reville, "Le Mythe de Prométhée," in _Revue des deux + mondes_ (August 1862); Michel Bréal, _Hercule et Cacus_ (1863); Tylor, + _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, ch. ix. (1865); + Bachofen, _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (1870); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric + Times_ (6th ed., 1900); Haug, _Religion of the Parsis_ (1878). + (E. Re.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among the + Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people with + a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care of a + so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating + from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home. + The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman + temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American + Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, had + each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die out, + they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, Pueblos and + Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins discussed + important affairs of state at the "council fires," around which each + _sachem_ marched three times, turning to it all the sides of his + person. "It was a saying among our ancestors," said an Iroquois chief + in 1753, "that when the fire goes out at Onondaga"--the Delphi of the + league--"we shall no longer be a people." + + + + +FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this article, primarily, +from the point of view of the protection against fire that can be +accorded by preventive measures and by the organization of fire +extinguishing establishments. + +History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in towns and +cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. The following is +a list of notable fires of early days:-- + + + GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND + + 798. _London_, nearly destroyed. + + 982. " greater part of the city burned. + + 1086. " all houses and churches from the east to the west gate + burned. + + 1212. " greater part of the city burned. + + 1666. " "The Great Fire," September 2-6. + It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned + for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, + 400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul's + church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, + the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals + and libraries, 52 companies' halls, and a vast number + of other stately edifices, together with three of the + city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of + Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street + Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple + church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six + persons were killed. The total loss of property was + estimated at the time to be £10,731,500. + + 1794. _London_, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above + £1,000,000. + + 1834. " Houses of Parliament burned. + + 1861. " Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at + £2,000,000. + + 1873. " Alexandra palace destroyed. + + 1137. _York_, totally destroyed. + + 1184. _Glastonbury_, town and abbey burned. + + 1292. _Carlisle_, destroyed. + + 1507. _Norwich_, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned. + + 1544. _Leith_, burned. + + 1598. _Tiverton_, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33 + persons killed. Loss, £150,000. + + 1612. " 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000. + + 1731. " 300 houses burned. + + 1700. _Edinburgh_, "the Great Fire." + + 1612. _Cork_, greater part burned, and again in 1622. + + 1613. _Dorchester_, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000. + + 1614. _Stratford-on-Avon_, burned. + + 1644. _Beaminster_, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781. + + 1675. _Northampton_, almost totally destroyed. + + 1683. _Newmarket_, large part of the town burned. + + 1694. _Warwick_, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution. + + 1707. _Lisburn_, burned. + + 1727. _Gravesend_, destroyed. + + 1738. _Wellingborough_, 800 houses burned. + + 1743. _Crediton_, 450 houses destroyed. + + 1760. _Portsmouth_, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000. + + 1770. " " " Loss, £100,000. + + 1802. _Liverpool_, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000. + + 1827. _Sheerness_, 50 houses and much property destroyed. + + 1854. _Gateshead_, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000. + + 1875. _Glasgow_. Great fire. Loss, £300,000. + + + FRANCE + + 59. _Lyons_, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it. + + 1118. _Nantes_, greater part of the city destroyed. + + 1137. _Dijon_, burned. + + 1524. _Troyes_, nearly destroyed. + + 1720. _Rennes_, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned. + + 1784. _Brest_. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000. + + 1862. _Marseilles_, destructive fire. + + 1871. _Paris_. Communist devastations. Property destroyed, + £32,000,000. + + + CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE + + 64. _Rome_ burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were + destroyed. + + 1106. _Venice_, greater part of the city was burned. + + 1577. " fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by + an explosion. + + 1299. _Weimar_, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618. + + 1379. _Memel_ was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540, + 1678, 1854. + + 1405. _Bern_ was destroyed. + + 1420. _Leipzig_ lost 400 houses. + + 1457. _Dort_, cathedral and large part of the town burned. + + 1491. _Dresden_ was destroyed. + + 1521. _Oviedo_, large part of the city destroyed. + + 1543. _Komorn_ was burned. + + 1634. _Fürth_ was burned by Austrian Croats. + + 1680. _Fürth_ was again destroyed. + + 1686. _Landau_ was almost destroyed. + + 1758. _Pirna_ was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed. + + 1762. _Munich_ lost 200 houses. + + 1764. _Königsberg_, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, £600,000. + + 1769. " almost destroyed. + + 1784. _Rokitzan_ (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, £300,000. + + 1801. _Brody_, 1500 houses destroyed. + + 1859. " 1000 houses destroyed. + + 1803. _Posen_, large part of older portion of city burned. + + 1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets. + + 1818. _Salzburg_ was partly destroyed. + + 1842. _Hamburg_. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7. + During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219 + buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed. + One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100 + persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to + £7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany + came in to help to rebuild the city. + + 1861. _Glarus_ (Switzerland), 500 houses burned. + + + NORTHERN EUROPE + + 1530. _Aalborg_, almost entirely destroyed. + + 1541. _Aarhuus_, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556. + + 1624. _Opslo_, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site. + + 1702. _Bergen_, greater part of the town destroyed. + + 1728. _Copenhagen_, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets. + + 1794. " royal palace with contents burned. + + 1795. " 50 streets, 1563 houses burned. + + 1751. _Stockholm_, 1000 houses destroyed. + + 1759. " 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns. + + 1775. _Åbo_, 200 houses and 15 mills burned. + + 1827. " 780 houses burned, with the university. + + 1790. _Carlscrona_, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed. + + 1802. _Gothenburg_, 178 houses burned. + + 1858. _Christiania_. Loss estimated at £250,000. + + 1865. _Carlstadt_ (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's + residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost. + + + RUSSIA + + 1736. _St Petersburg_, 2000 houses burned. + + 1862. " great fire. Loss, £1,000,000. + + 1752. _Moscow_, 18,000 houses burned. + + 1812. " The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive + out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five + days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number + of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, £30,000,000. + + 1753. _Archangel_, 900 houses burned. + + 1793. " 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned. + + 1786. _Tobolsk_, nearly destroyed. + + 1788. _Milau_, nearly destroyed. + + 1812. _Riga_, partly destroyed. + + 1834. _Tula_, destructive fire. + + 1848. _Orel_, large part of the town destroyed. + + 1850. _Cracow_, large part of the town burned. + + 1864. _Novgorod_, large amount of property destroyed. + + + TURKEY + + The following fires have occurred at _Constantinople_:-- + + 1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people. + + 1745. A fire lasted five days. + + 1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed + estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later in the year + 10,000 houses were destroyed. + + 1751. 4000 houses were burned. + + 1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761, + 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire. + + 1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m. + in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly + 650 houses were destroyed. + + 1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops. + + 1778. 2000 houses were burned. + + 1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50 + mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In + February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more. + + 1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000 + houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of + 1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of + Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at + 2,000,000 florins. + + 1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been + burned, and as many in 1795. + + 1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many + magnificent buildings. + + 1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter + were destroyed. + + 1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses. + + 1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses. + + 1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at + £3,000,000. + + 1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c. + Over 22,000 people were left homeless. + + 1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population + and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed + over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city, + including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss + estimated at nearly £5,000,000. + + 1797. _Scutari_, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed. + + 1763. _Smyrna_, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, £200,000. + + 1772. " 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c. + consumed. Loss, £4,000,000. + + 1796. " 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned. + + 1841. " 12,000 houses were burned. + + + INDIA + + 1631. _Rajmahal_. Palace and great part of the town burned. + + 1799. _Manilla_, vast storehouses were burned. + + 1833. " 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people + rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost. + + 1803. _Madras_, more than 1000 houses burned. + + 1803. _Bombay_. Loss by fire of £600,000. + + + CHINA AND JAPAN + + 1822. _Canton_ was nearly destroyed by fire. + + 1866. _Yokohama_, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the + foreign settlement destroyed. + + 1872. _Yeddo_. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind, + destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m. + 20,000 persons were made homeless. + + 1873. " A fire destroyed 10,000 houses. + + + UNITED STATES + + 1679. _Boston_. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in + the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £200,000. + + 1760. " A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000. + + 1787. " A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20. + + 1794. " 96 buildings were burned. Loss, £42,000. + + 1872. " Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest + quarter of Boston was destroyed. + The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston + streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings, + comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the + city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about + £15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned + district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever. + + 1778. _Charleston_ (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of £100,000. + + 1796. " 300 houses were burned. + + 1838. " One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158 + buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000. + + 1802. _Portsmouth_ (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed. + + 1813. " 397 buildings destroyed. + + 1820. _Savannah_, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, £800,000. + + 1835. _New York_. The great fire of New York began in Merchant + Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in + the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile + firms lost their places of business. The area + burned over was 52 acres. The loss was £3,000,000. + + 1845. " A fire in the business part of the city, July 20, + destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was £1,500,000. + 35 persons were killed. + + 1845. _Pittsburg_. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20 + squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000. + + 1846. _Nantucket_ was almost destroyed. + + 1848. _Albany_. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37 + acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000. + + 1849. _St Louis_. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part + of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss, + £600,000. + + 1851. " More than three-quarters of the city was burned, + May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000. + + 1851. " 500 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000. + + 1850. _Philadelphia_. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost. + Loss, £200,000. + + 1865. " 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons + killed. Loss, £100,000. + + 1851. _Washington_. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the + Congressional Library were burned. + + 1851. _San Francisco_. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings. + A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city + destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In June another fire + burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at £600,000. + + 1857. _Chicago_. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost. + + 1859. " Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15. + + 1866. " Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss, + £100,000 each. + + 1871. " The greatest fire of modern times. + It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and + raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or + 3-1/3 sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were + lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings + were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and + one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the + end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The + loss was estimated at £39,000,000. + + 1862. _Troy_ (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire. + + 1866. _Portland_ (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city + was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown + up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, £2,000,000 to + £2,250,000. + + 1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan. + 15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss + estimated at £600,000. + + + BRITISH NORTH AMERICA + + 1815. _Quebec_ was injured to the extent of £260,000. + + 1845. " 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the + population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to + £750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300 + dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30 + streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770. + + 1866. " 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned. + + 1825. _New Brunswick_. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in + length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons + killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss, + about £60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown + destroyed. + + 1837. _St John_ (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and + nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, £1,000,000. + + 1877. _St. John._ Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200 + acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed; + 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss, + £2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned. + + 1846. _St John's_ (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two + whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at + £1,000,000. + + 1850. _Montreal_. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on + June 7. 200 houses were burned. + + 1852. " A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute. + The space burned was 1 m. in length by ½ m. in + width, including 1200 houses. Loss, £1,000,000. + + + SOUTH AMERICA + + 1536. _Cuzco_ was nearly consumed. + + 1861. _Mendoza_. A great fire followed an earthquake which had + destroyed 10,000 people. + + 1862. _Valparaiso_ was devastated by fire. + + 1863. _Santiago_. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly + women and children, perished. + + + WEST INDIES + + 1752. _Pierre_ (Martinique) had 700 houses burned. + + 1782. _Kingston_ (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000. + + 1795. _Montego Bay_ (Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000. + + 1805. _St Thomas._ 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,000,000. + + 1808. _Spanish Town_ (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated + at £1,500,000. + + 1828. _Havana_ lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty. + + 1843. _Port Republicain_ (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was + burned. + +Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires, +more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago, +Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking +generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated +the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general +negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the +development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better +organization of the fire-fighting establishments. + +It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire, +and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:-- + + Port of Spain (Trinidad) March 4, 1895 + New Westminster (British Columbia) Sept. 10, 1898 + Toronto (Ontario) Jan. 6, 10, and + March 3, 1895 + Windsor (Nova Scotia) Oct. 17, 1897 + St John's (Newfoundland) July 8, 1892 + London--Charterhouse Square Dec. 25, 1889 + " St Mary Axe July 18, 1893 + " Old Bailey and Fleet Street Nov. 15, 1893 + " Tabernacle Street, Finsbury June 21, 1894 + " Bermondsey Leather Market Sept. 13, 1894 + " " " " May 17, 1895 + " Minories Nov. 10, 1894 + " South-West India Docks Feb. 8, 1895 + " Charlotte and Leonard + Streets, Finsbury June 10, 1896 + " Cripplegate Nov. 19, 1897 + Nottingham Nov. 17, 1894 + Sheffield Dec. 21, 1893 + Bradford Nov. 30, 1896 + Sunderland July 18, 1898 + Dublin May 4, 1894 + Glasgow--Anderston Quay Jan. 16, 1897 + " Dunlop Street April 25, 1898 + +As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary +number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public +entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention. +Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in +this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire +prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in +1897 (_Fires at Public Entertainments_), and the results of these fires +analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 +souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in +other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list +extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk +of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has +occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago. + +The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far +greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and +property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the +fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual +fire wastage of the world still averages quite £50,000,000 sterling. It +is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss, +insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the +annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say +1897), was about £17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially +reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling. This +extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,--in spite +of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of +property in buildings--is in the main owing to the fire-preventive +measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great +improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of +intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the +public. + +Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more +particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England +since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl's +Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to +have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization +and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made +by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the +fire-preventive side of fire protection. + +_Fire Protection._--The term "Fire Protection" is often misunderstood. +Fire-extinguishing--in other words, fire brigade work--is what the +majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well +protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine +establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor rôle +in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe +their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive +legislation, based on the practical experience and research of +architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal +officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire +combating and fire research. + +Under the heading of "Fire Prevention" should be classed all preventive +measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading +"Fire Combating" should be classed both self-help and outside help. + +Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a +rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in +Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey +regulations--supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the +treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the +manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of +the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and +continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious +arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire +reports. + + Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced. + There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, had + some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school _Standard + Reader_ replaced by more instructive ones, which warn children not to + play with matches, and teach them to run for help in case of an + emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been arranged in place + of the meaningless sentences so often used in elementary schools. + There are a number of municipalities where regular warnings are issued + every December as to the dangerous Christmas-tree. In such places + every inhabitant has at least an opportunity of learning how to throw + a bucket of water properly, and how to trip up a burning woman and + roll her up without fanning the flames. The householder is officially + informed where the nearest fire-call point is, and how long he must + expect to wait till the first engine can reach his house. If he is a + newspaper reader, he will also have ample opportunity of knowing the + resources of his town, and the local reporter's fire report will give + him much useful information based on facts or hints supplied by the + authorities. + +Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the heading of +"Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with the protection of large +risks, such as factories, stores and public places of amusement, which +lend themselves to regulation. The requirements of the fire survey code +may allow for hydrants or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for +their regular inspection, and the means for self-help may thus be given. +These means will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some +of the employés engaged on the risk are instructed as to their purpose, +and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. The possibility +of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be encouraged by enforcing +regular drills for the employés, and regular inspections to test their +efficiency. There are towns where great reliance is placed on the +efforts of such amateur firemen. In some cities they even receive extra +pay and are formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and +retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies. + +Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder can scarcely +be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned for the education of +the public, if properly utilized, would assure intelligent behaviour on +the part of a large percentage of the community. There are places where, +without any regulation being attempted, and thanks entirely to the +influence referred to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a +bucket, and a crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the +household. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly +encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference with +personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, with +the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple of scaling +ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given to householders to +learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box of this kind be put in +a fire-station, and certain afternoons in the year be reserved on which +this elementary instruction will be given, and the students afterwards +shown over the fire-station or treated to a "turn-out," a considerable +number will be found to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter +whether curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will +be attained. + +Under "outside" help should be understood what is organized, and not +simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or by a neighbour. +The link between self-help and outside help is the fire-call. + +_The Fire-Call._--The efficiency of the fire-call depends not only on +the instrument employed and its position, but also on its conspicuous +appearance, and the indications by which its situation may be +discovered. These indications are quite as important as the instruments +themselves. The conspicuousness of the instrument alone does not +suffice. Of the official notifications given in the press, those in +regard to the position of the call-points are among the most useful. An +indication at every street corner as to the direction to take to reach +the point--or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the +nearest call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front +door--may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize +the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It is +immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by bell outside +a fire-station, by a messenger from some special messenger service, by a +call through a telephone, or by an electric or automatic appliance. Any +instrument will do that ensures the call being transmitted with maximum +speed and certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the +locality. + +_Outside Help._--Organized outside help may not be limited simply to the +attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements can be made for the +attendance of the local police force, a public or private salvage corps, +an ambulance, or, in some cases, a military guard. Then in some +instances arrangements are made for the attendance of the water and gas +companies' servants, and even officials from the public works office, +insurance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage +corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire brigade, +and others where the police are generally on the spot in good force five +minutes after the arrival of the first engines. There are several cities +where the ambulance wagon and the steamers arrive together, and another +city where the military authorities always send a fire piquet which can +be turned out in a few minutes. + +If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank of the +individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire brigade, even if +he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank, should have control, and +his authority be fully recognized. Unfortunately, there are not many +countries where this is the case. The efficiency of outside help depends +in the first instance on the clear definition of the duties and powers +of all concerned--on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the +organization, the theoretically as well as practically correct +executive; and, last but by no means least, on the prestige, the social +standing, the education of commanders and their ability to handle men. +Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck, +smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry; +showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for public applause, will be +dangerous. + +_Research._--Under the heading "Fire Research" should be included +theoretical and experimental investigation as to materials and +construction, combined with the chronicling of practical experience in +fires, then the careful investigation and chronicling of the causes of +fires, assisted where necessary by a power for holding fire inquests in +interesting, suspicious or fatal cases. Experimental investigation as to +natural and accidental causes as distinct from criminal causes can be +included. Research in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire +inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, by the +senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by immediate +government investigations held on the same lines as inquiries into +explosions and railway accidents.[1] As to general research work, there +are several cities which contribute substantially towards the costs of +fire tests at independent testing stations. Some towns also have special +commissions of experts who visit all big fires occurring within easy +travelling distance, take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as +to how the materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics +as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places such +tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with oil lamps, their +burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like. + + _The British Fire Prevention Committee._--The British Fire Prevention + Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great + Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February 1899. + It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The members include + civil engineers, public officials holding government appointments, + fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst the + subscribers in the main include the great public departments, such as + the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the + important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial + government departments and municipalities are also on the roll, + together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand has + formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. The + ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council and an + executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription of + members and subscribers. The services of the members of council and + executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket expenses of any + kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals mainly with + questions of regulations, rules and publications of general technical + interest, the tests are probably what have brought the committee into + prominence and given it an international reputation. They are not only + the recognized fire tests of Great Britain, but they rank as universal + standard tests for the whole of the civilized world, and Americans, + just as much as Danes, Germans or Austrians, pride themselves when + some product of their country has passed the official procedure of a + test by the committee. The reports of the tests, which state facts + only without giving criticisms or recommendations, are much + appreciated by all who have the control of public works or the + specification of appliances. The committee does not limit itself + solely to testing proprietary forms of construction or appliances, but + has a number of tests--quite equal to the proprietary tests--of + articles in general use. The ordinary concrete floor or the ordinary + wooden joist floor protected by asbestos boards or slag wool receives + as much attention as a patent floor; and similarly the ordinary + everyday hydrant receives equal attention with the patent hydrant, or + ordinary bucket of water with the special fire extinguisher. The door + tests of the committee, which cover some thirty different types of + doors, deal with no less than twenty ordinary wooden doors that can be + made by any ordinary builder or cabinet-maker. These so-called + non-proprietary tests are made at the expense of the general funds of + the committee, whilst for the proprietary tests the owners have to pay + about two-thirds of the expenses incurred in the form of a testing + fee. The expenses incurred in a test, of course, not only comprise the + actual testing operation of testing, but also the expense of producing + the report, which is always a very highly finished publication with + excellent blocks. The expense incurred also includes the establishment + expenses of the testing station at Regent's Park. + + The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire + Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in both + of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National Fire + Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. It + from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent of + Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official + reports, well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and + methods of the countries visited, and serving as most useful reference + publications. + + Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both in + respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been most + beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless of the + fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount of + property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage + annually is about £5,000,000. This great annual saving has been + obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British + Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about £23,000, of which + more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary + contributions or subscriptions. + + There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although + several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests, + notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several + insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American + Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside Great + Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare with the + systematic series of inquiries conducted without any substantial state + aid in London. + +_Distribution of Losses._--Property destroyed by fire is practically an +absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the owner, or it may +be distributed among a number of people, who are taxed for it in the +form of a contribution to their national or local fire fund, a share in +some mutual insurance "ring," or the more usual insurance companies' +premium. In the first two cases some expenses have also to be met in +connexion with the management of the fund, "tariff" organization, or +"ring." In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to be +covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance enterprise +as such, and then a further amount for division amongst those who share +the risk of the venture--namely, the insurance company's shareholders. + + It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. The + sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss with a + minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly managed company + paying large dividends will cover a loss, but with an unnecessarily + large extra outlay. In every case the loss remains; and as property + may always be considered part of the community, the province or + nation, as the case may be, suffers. It is always in the interest of a + nation to minimize its national losses, no matter whether they fall on + one individual's shoulders or on many, and whether such losses are + good for certain trades or not. With a suitable system of fire + protection it is possible to bring these losses to a minimum, but this + minimum would probably only be reached by an extra expense, which + would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets in the form of municipal + rates than the higher premium for the greater risk. A practical + minimum is all that can be attempted, and that practical minimum + varies according to circumstances. + + Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, and the + actual extra cost of this protection should be something less than the + saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a smaller dead + loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure for his + combined contributions toward the losses, the management of his + insurance, and the protective measures. Where there is mutual + insurance or municipal insurance in its best sense, the losses by fire + and the costs of the protection are often booked in one account, and + the better protection up to a certain point should mean a smaller + individual annual share. Where there is company insurance the + municipal rates are increased to cover the cost of extra protection, + while a proportionate decrease is expected in the insurance premiums. + Competition and public opinion generally impose this decrease of the + insurance rates as soon as there is a greater immunity from fire. + Where the insurance companies are well managed and the shareholders + are satisfied with reasonable dividends, practical protection can be + said to find favour with all concerned, but if the protection is + arranged for and the companies do not moderate their charges + accordingly, the reverse is the case. + + The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the + maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is + considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which + municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the + effect that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good + fire service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly + managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however, + means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has to pay + for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal rate, or in + the form of an increased premium raised to meet the contribution + levied, this is simply juggling with figures. + +_Cost._--As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, better +and safer building from the fire point of view means better and more +valuable structures of longer life from the economic aspect. Such better +and safer constructional work pays for itself and cannot be considered +in the light of an extra tax on the building owner. The compilation and +administration of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be +attended to by the same executive authorities as would in any case +superintend general structural matters, and the additional work would at +the most require some increased clerical aid. If the execution of the +fire survey regulations were delegated to the same authority there would +again simply be some extra clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of +perhaps a few extra surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly +efficient, it has been found advisable in several instances to form +parties of three for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be +a fire brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep, +who would have to receive a special retaining fee. + +The cost of the public training referred to would be small, as the +elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster's work, and +the Press matters could be easily managed in the fire brigade office. +Payments would have only to be made for advertisements, such as the +official warnings, lists for fire-call points, &c., and perhaps for the +publication of semi-official hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and +drills for amateurs are concerned would be under the control of the fire +brigade. There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase and +maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to. + +The most expensive items in the system of fire protection undoubtedly +come under the headings "Fire-Call" and "Fire Brigade." As to the +former, there are a number of cities where the cost is modified by +having the whole of the electrical service for the police force, the +ambulance and fire brigade, managed by a separate department. The same +wires call up each of these services, and, as the same staff attend to +their maintenance, the fire protection of a city need only be debited +with perhaps a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed +independently. The combined system has also the great advantage of +facilitating the mutual working of the different services in case of an +emergency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an outlay; +but here again, if the three services work together, the expenses on the +count of fire protection can be lessened. The money rewards given in +some cities to the individuals who first call the fire-engines may +become a heavy item. Their utility is doubtful, and they have formed an +inducement for arson. + +As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong active force +should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. The latter should +be as inexpensive as possible, but should at least constitute a +part-paid and disciplined body which could be easily called in for +emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot allow for an active force being +ready for such coincidences as an unusual number of large fires starting +simultaneously, but they must allow for an ample strength always being +forthcoming for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due +consideration for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire +brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the property +owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of the force. The +budget must also allow for an attractive rate of pay, as the profession +is one which requires men who have a maximum of the sterling qualities +which we look for in the pick of a nation. It must also not be +forgotten that the fire service is one of the few where a system of +pensions is the only fair way of recognizing the risks of limb and +health, and at the same time securing that stability in which practical +experience from long service is so essential a factor. The budget must +allow for an ample reserve of appliances. + +Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit of its +having a separate section for salvage corps purposes depends on +circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is required, and should be +part and parcel of the municipal brigade and organized on the same lines +with a reserve, no matter whether the insurance of the locality be +managed by the authorities or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it +matters little whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates. + +Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are items for +fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, due confidence +being placed in the opinions of the fire officers and surveyors, there +is no reason why the outlay should be great. The statistical work would +only require some clerical aid. Where special coroners are retained for +criminal cases some extra money will of course be required; but even +here the costs need not be excessive, as there are many retired fire +brigade officers and fire surveyors who are well suited for the work, +and would be satisfied with a small emolument. + +As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places where +special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests of fire +protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the heading "Fire +Protection" have simply to cover the maintenance of hydrants and +tablets, or at the most the cost of the water actually used for +fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the cost of hydrants is shared +with the scavenging department or the commission of sewers, which also +have the use of them. Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to +a private water company, the property owners will be paying their share +for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates. + +The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving and +for the protection of property. It should be remembered that a good +staircase and a ladder are often as useful for the manoeuvring of the +firemen as for life-saving purposes, and that they are practically as +essential for the saving of property as for saving life. No distinction +need be made between the two risks when speaking of fire protection in +general; but as the safety of the most valueless life is generally +classed higher than that of the most valuable property, it may be well +to give life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately. + +Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective system is +defective. With good construction and a fire survey, the quick arrival +of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks of detection are as a +rule far too great to encourage its growth. + +_Saving of Life._--Under "Fire Prevention" special requirements in the +Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life by requiring +practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. The risks in +theatres and assembly halls require separate legislation. In ordinary +structures no inmate of a building should be more than sixty feet away +from a staircase, and preferably there should be two staircases at his +disposal in the event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only +given to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that +their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater danger +than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of +opening a window has saved many a life. + +_Safety of Property._--As far as the protection of property is +concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful +construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of +buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of +skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention +of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by +the materials used in construction. + +The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one house +from spreading to another, and a stranger's property, so to say, from +being endangered. This is quite possible, given good party walls +carried well over the roof to a height regulated by the nature of the +risk, the provision of the shutters to windows where necessary, and the +use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a thoroughly good roof--or still +better, a fire-resisting attic floor--can do much. If the locality has a +fire brigade and the force is efficiently handled, "spreads" from one +house to another should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts +are, however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to +localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible for +street improvements. + +The division of a building or large "risk" into a number of minor ones +is only possible to a certain extent. There is no need to spend enormous +sums to make each of the minor "risks" impregnable. The desire should be +simply to try to retard the spread for a certain limited time after the +flames have really taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most +fires will have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient +fire-extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can be +on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the conflagration from +becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an ordinary well-built house, +for example, if the joists are strong and the boards grooved, if some +light pugging be used and the plastering properly done, if the doors are +made well-fitting and fairly strong, a very considerable amount of +furniture and fittings can remain well alight for half an hour before +there is a spread. In a warehouse or factory "risk" the same holds good. +With well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps +run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary +double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with sheet +iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned for a +considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent" flooring are +exceedingly useful for the division of "risks," and with their aid a +fire can be limited to an individual storey of a building, but it should +not be forgotten that even the best of flooring is useless if carried by +unprotected iron girders supported, say, by some light framing or weak +partition. The general mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete +construction is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts, +shafting, &c.), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that the +protection of the supports and girder-work requires most careful +attention. + +Of the various systems of "patent" flooring, as a rule the simpler forms +are the more satisfactory. It should, however, always be remembered that +any specific form of flooring alone does not prevent a fire breaking +from one "risk" to another. They should go hand in hand with general +good construction, and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the +modern fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their +introduction for fire protection alone. In considering their +introduction, the general advantages which they afford as to spans, +thickness, general stability, &c., should be taken into account. A +practical installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first, +not increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly should +add to the general value of the structure by giving it a more +substantial character. + +The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should not be +forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well armed with +shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting glass, and the lifts +not only vertical doors, but also horizontal flaps, cutting up the well +into sections. The question of light partitions must also not be +neglected. + +Division of "risks," common-sense construction, and proper staircase +accommodation are really all that fire protection requires, and where +the special Building Act clauses have been kept within the lines +indicated, there has been little friction and discontent. It is only as +a rule when the authorities are eccentric in their demands that the +building owner considers himself harassed by protective measures. + +Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the actual +outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey can also +increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen the possibility +of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes or ladders, and a +regular inspection of their efficiency, will do much. The examination of +a rusty door-catch may save a building. The actual preventive work of +the surveyor will, however, mostly consist in warning property owners +against temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty +chimneys, badly hung lamps, dangerous burners and gas brackets fixed in +risky positions. Self-help will be greatly facilitated by the judicious +arrangement of fire-extinguishing gear, and a like inspection of its +efficiency. Hydrants and cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so +stiff that the water cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand +pumps and pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest +errors generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of the +fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his efforts are +unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not, perhaps, use the +gear at all. + +With regard to regulations governing "special risks," so far as the +safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls is concerned, +attention should be chiefly given to the exits. Spread of fire, and even +its outbreak, are secondary considerations. A panic caused by the +suspicion of a fire can be quite as fatal as that caused by the actual +start of a conflagration. In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct +communication should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the +main staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and +burners should be prohibited. + +_Fire-resisting Materials._--One of the greatest misnomers in connexion +with fire prevention was originally the description of certain materials +and systems of construction as being "fire-proof." This has seriously +affected the development of the movement towards fire prevention, for, +having regard to the fact that nothing described as "fire-proof" could +be fire-proof in the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so +described, and in fact everything described as "fire-proof" came to be +looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion and obtain +a better understanding on the subject, the International Fire Prevention +Congress of London in 1903, at which some 800 representatives of +government departments and municipalities were present, discussed this +matter at considerable length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in +consideration of their importance in affecting the whole development of +fire-resisting construction, are published below. It is the +classification of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1903 that +has been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire, and in +numerous other countries, since that date. + +The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the recommendations +contained in the following statement issued by the British Fire +Prevention Committee:-- + + The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having given + their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term + "fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably applied + to many building materials and systems of building construction in use + in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that the avoidance of + this term in general business, technical, and legislative vocabulary + is essential. + + The executive consider the term "fire-resisting" more applicable for + general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying + qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended + to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or + low temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general + adoption of this term in place of "fire-proof." + + Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the + fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction, + consider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise the + authorities controlling building operations, should clearly + discriminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact, + requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city + warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight + requires very different protection from the tenement house of the + suburbs. + + The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting + materials and systems of construction affording _temporary_ + protection, _partial_ protection, and _full_ protection against fire, + and to classify all building materials and systems of construction + under these three headings. The exact and definite limit of these + three classes is based on the experience obtained from numerous + investigations and tests, combined with the experience obtained from + actual fires, and after due consideration of the limitations of + building practice and the question of cost. + + The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for building + materials or systems of construction will be seen from the standard + tables appended for-- + + I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings, + II. Fire-resisting partitions, + III. Fire-resisting doors, + + but they could be popularly summarized as follows:-- + + (a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire for at + least three-quarters of an hour. + + (b) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire + for at least one hour and a half. + + (c) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire + for at least two hours and a half. + + The conditions under this resistance should be obtainable, the actual + minimum temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and the + application of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables by all + technically interested, but for the popular discrimination---which the + executive are desirous of encouraging--the time standard alone should + suffice. + + It is desirable that these standards become the universal standards in + this country, on the continent and in the United States, so that the + same standardization may in future be common to all countries, and the + preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization are + already in hand. + +_Fire Combating._--As to self-help, complication must always be avoided. +The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest lines. One thing +which must be instilled into him is not to waste water--a sure sign of +lack of training. Of course the drills must be on the same lines as +those of the local brigade, and on no account should other gear be used +for self-help than is generally customary in that force. When +volunteers and regulars work together, the former should always remember +that the paid force are experts, though the regulars must never have +that contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers are +often men who are probably experts in some other vocation outside +fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which a professional +fire-fighter has had. + + + _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings._ + + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | | | | Load per | Minimum | Minimum | + | | |Duration | Minimum | Superficial | Superficial | Time for | + | Classification |Sub-Class.| of Test.|Temperature.| Foot | Area |Application | + | | |At Least | | Distributed | under Test. | of Water | + | | | | |(per Sq. Metre).| |under Press.| + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 45 mins.| 1500° F. | Optional | 100 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (815.5° C.)| |(9.290 sq. m.) | | + |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B | 60 mins.| 1500° F. | Optional | 200 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (815.5° C.)| |(18.580 sq. m.)| | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 90 mins.| 1800° F. | 112 lb. | 100 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (546.852 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)| | + |Partial Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |120 mins.| 1800° F. | 168 lb. | 200 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (820.278 kg.) |(18.580 sq. m.)| | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A |150 mins.| 1800° F. | 224 lb. | 100 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (1093.706 kg.) | (9.290 sq. m.)| | + |Full Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |240 mins.| 1800° F. | 280 lb. | 200 sq. ft. | 5 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (1367.130 kg.) |(18.258 sq. m.)| | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + kg. = kilogramme. + + + _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Partitions._ + + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | | | | | Minimum | Minimum | + | | |Duration | Minimum | Thickness of | Superficial | Time for | + | Classification |Sub-Class.|of Test. |Temperature.| material. | Area |Application | + | | |At Least | | | Under Test. | of Water | + | | | | | | |under Press.| + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 45 mins.| 1500° F. |2 in. and under | 80 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (815.5° C.)| (.051 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B | 60 mins.| 1500° F. | Optional | 80 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (815.5° C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 90 mins.| 1800° F. |2½ in. and under| 80 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (.063 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + |Partial Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |120 mins.| 1800° F. | Optional | 80 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A |150 mins.| 1800° F. |2½ in. and under| 80 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| (.063 m.) |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + |Full Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |240 mins.| 1800° F. | Optional | 80 sq. ft. | 5 mins. | + | | | | (982.2° C.)| |(7.432 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + kg. = kilogramme. + + + _Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without + Frames._ + + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | | | | | Minimum | Minimum | + | | |Duration | Minimum | Thickness of | Superficial | Time for | + | Classification |Sub-Class.| of Test.|Temperature.| material. | Area |Application | + | | |At Least | | | Under Test. | of Water | + | | | | | | |under Press.| + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 45 mins.| 1500° F. |2 in. and under | 20 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | |(815.5° C.) | (.051 m.) |(1.858 sq. m.) | | + |Temporary Protection+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B | 60 mins.| 1500° F. | Optional | 20 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | |(815.5° C.) | |(1.858 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A | 90 mins.| 1800° F. |2½ in. and under| 20 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | |(982.2° C.) | (.063 m.) |(1.858 sq. m.) | | + |Partial Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |120 mins.| 1800° F. | Optional | 20 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | |(982.2° C.) | |(1.858 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class A |150 mins.| 1800° F. | ½ in. and under| 25 sq. ft. | 2 mins. | + | | | |(982.2° C.) | (.018 m.) |(2.322 sq. m.) | | + |Full Protection +----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + | | Class B |240 mins.| 1800° F. | Optional | 25 sq. ft. | 5 mins. | + | | | |(982.2° C.) | |(2.322 sq. m.) | | + +--------------------+----------+---------+------------+----------------+---------------+------------+ + +_Transmission of Fire-Calls._--There are several methods of transmitting +the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of course, to run direct to +the nearest fire-station; but this is only possible where the distance +is short. In one or two cities, however, the number of fire-stations is +so great that they are very close to one another, and hence "direct" +calls are generally recorded. + +Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is reported at +some public office, police-station or guard-room, where there are always +runners ready to start off to the nearest fire-station. The special +runner is here practically a makeshift for the more modern telegraph or +telephone line, and it is believed that the only city in which this +system is employed is one where the unsettled political atmosphere has +compelled the authorities to prohibit the construction of any telegraph +lines other than those for the use of the general postal service. +Similar messenger services have, however, also been introduced in +connexion with the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises +known as "general messenger" or "call-boy" services, which are organized +for business purposes, have the advantage of including the fire-call and +the police-call. In the same way that a cab can be signalled, a call may +come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready runner makes off to the +fire-station instead of to the cab rank. As a rule, these messenger +offices are near the fire-station. The combination is rather a curious +one, as it embraces the most advanced notions of giving every "risk" its +own fire-call, and the somewhat ancient one of the special runner. + +Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely on the +public telephone system, the terms of subscription to which may compel +holders to forward fire messages if required to do so. This system +allows for such development as the payment of retaining fees to porters +in public and other buildings which have a night service, on condition +that the fire-call shall be promptly despatched. The telephones are, +perhaps, even provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should +be remembered that the service always goes through a general telephone +exchange, which is, of course, open day and night. + +In the special telephone line system special wires are laid from +buildings which are practically open all the year round direct to their +nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again made for prompt +attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes the place of the telephone, but +this requires the porter or attendant to be specially trained to the +work. To simplify matters, the buildings are sometimes provided with +automatic fire-calls instead of telephones; but the principle of the +system remains the same. In districts where there are few public +offices, the list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has +been frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops, +where night service is not unusual. + +What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next. Automatic +fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles are under lock +and key, and the keys are distributed only among policemen, watchmen or +householders, and the messages can, therefore, only be given by persons +known to the authorities. + +The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next to the +direct message. Private automatic fire-calls or telephones can be laid +on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an instance where an +attempt was made to give every householder a private fire-call. This +system is, however, unfortunately too extreme for the municipal purse. +If in connexion with some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the +messenger services referred to, it would be a different matter, though +it should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call points +means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire, and a risk of +too many sections of the fire brigade being on the road to it. + +Besides these forms of "call," there is also the private alarm. +Dangerous buildings are frequently provided with telephones, +alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which a call +can be given direct from the "risk" involved. + +Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also in most frequented +positions. Possibly, in some towns, a point in front of a church would +be the best; in others, the front of a public-house. It should always be +remembered that every facility should be given to enable as many people +as possible to know the whereabouts of the call points without any +distinct effort on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar +conspicuous by day, and a coloured lamp by night. + +As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box stating +the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the best +methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most in use in a +modern city, and hence the plate is read by many. In an oriental town +the public fountain would, however, take the place of the letter-box. +Plates put up inside every front door are somewhat extreme measures. In +one city red darts are painted on the glass of every street lamp, +indicating the direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign, +however, has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its +meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town. + +Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a sovereign. +In some places every call is rewarded--even those to chimney fires--and +this often results in an abuse of the privilege. Rogues light fires on +the top of a chimney and then run to call the engines. If a reward be +given, a limitation should be made. In one town no relation or employé +of the owner receives a reward. In other cities no rewards are given for +calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney. + +No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by mistake. The +possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is a bona fide reason +for a call which should not be discouraged. Malicious alarms should, +however, be treated with the utmost rigour, as the absence of firemen +from their stations always means an extra risk to life and property. +Combined "lynch law" and imprisonment has generally been adopted with +good effect. The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of +the engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that +handed to the police. + +The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to +facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the +headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed or the +telephone is used no special arrangements are required, but where the +telegraph or automatic call point has been introduced, the apparatus +must be adapted for this contingency. At some automatic fire-call points +a few signals can be given, at others, a telegraphic or telephonic +transmitter can be applied. Much valuable time may be saved in this way +when more assistance is required. + +_Fire Brigades._--The organization of fire brigades varies greatly. +There are brigades where officers and men are practically constantly +ready to attend a fire, and others where they are ready on alternate +days, two days out of every three, or three days out of every four, and +the off day is entirely their own, or at the most, only partially used +by the authorities for some light work. The men off duty are only +expected to attend a fire if there is a great emergency, the brigade +being strong enough without them for ordinary eventualities. Both +systems can be worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service, +which would be only called out for great calamities. They could be +organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the reserve men +might be attached to sections of the regulars and mixed with them when +the occasion arises. The reserves can consist either of retired firemen +who have a few regular drills, or of amateurs who go through a special +course of training, and have some series of drills at intervals, with +preferably a short spell of service every year with the regulars. For +the regulars, forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has +given the most satisfactory results. + +The division of the active force may be on a system of a number of small +parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong bodies. Another +system allows for subdivision into sections of equal strength, ranging +from parties of, say, five men with a non-commissioned officer to thirty +non-commissioned officers and men with an officer. The force can, of +course, also simply be divided up into parties or sections of different +strengths not governed by a system of military units. The sections +either can work independently, as units, simply governed by one central +authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor or major +bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole individually +responsible to headquarters. + +The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may be "officers +and gentlemen" in the military sense, or have only temporarily done work +with the rank and file when in training. There could also be a +combination of these two systems. Only the captain and deputy-captain +might be officers in the military sense, the sections or divisions being +officered by "non-coms." Some cities have an officer to every thirty +"non-coms" and men, whilst others put a division of as many as two +hundred under a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection +is treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have +really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military +sense have been found essential. They have also been found advantageous +where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing. The prestige of the +fire service has been raised everywhere where the officers, besides +being fire experts, are educated men of social standing. There are +cities where the officers of the fire brigade are in every way +recognized as equal to army or navy men, their social position is the +same, and their mess fulfils the same functions as a regimental mess. +The fire brigade officer is recognized at court, and there is no +ceremonial without him. On the other hand, there are also cities with +brigades several hundred strong where the captain's social standing is +beneath that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary +training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally had some +experience in another profession, such as the army, the navy, or the +architectural and engineering professions, previous to their entering +the fire service. Some brigades recruit from army officers only, and +preferably from the engineers or artillery regiments; others recruit +from among architects and engineers, subject to their having at least +had some military experience in the reserve forces or the volunteers. +Some cities only take engineers or architects, and make a point of it +that they should have no previous military experience. Some previous +experience in the handling of men is essential. + +As to the men, there are cities where only trained soldiers are taken as +firemen; others where the engines are manned by sailors. In some towns +the building trades supply the recruits; in others, all trades are +either discriminately or indiscriminately represented. A combination +from the army or navy on the one side and the building trades on the +other is most satisfactory. The knowledge of building construction in +the ranks stands the force in good stead, and has often saved both lives +and property. Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important +trade, much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing their +own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from sedentary trades +should not be excessive. Where there are only men of one trade or +calling, there is often too great a tendency to one-sidedness, and a +great amount of prejudice. + +Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for both +officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry men are very +useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are necessary, also a good +memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in a brigade, and should be +transferred to some other service if the fatness be developed during +their engagement with a brigade. Many brigades take only single men, +"non-coms" and officers only being allowed to marry. There are many +brigades where twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the +privates, fifty for the "non-coms," and sixty for the officers. + +As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their sections or +units provided with practically the same gear; others where each unit +has a double or treble set, one of which is used according to +circumstances. The section may have a manual engine, a steamer and a +ladder truck at its disposal, and may turn out with either. There are +towns where the units are differently equipped, and steamer or manual +sections called out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where +the sections are very strong, they may be equipped with a set of engines +and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete with (say) a +chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape. The contrast to this +will be found in the small parties of twos or threes, whose turn-out +would only consist of a small hose trolley or an escape. Of course, +there are all kinds of combinations, the most important of which allows +a section to have one or more independent subsections. Though +practically belonging to the "unit," the subsections work independently +in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long ladder, or +a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The subsections may act as +outposts or simply as specialist parties, which are only called out for +particular work. + +As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street stations are +provided for the small parties referred to. In a few cases two small +parties are housed under the same roof. The large bodies that back them +are generally quartered together in extensive barracks, from which any +number of engines and men can be turned out according to the nature of +the call. Then there are cities where every section has its own +well-built station; others where one or two sections are housed +together, according to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a +dozen located at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of +the group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the +other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be the central +station of a district at the same time. The actual working of the +district headquarters would, however, then be kept separate from the +working of the headquarters staff. The latter would, perhaps, have some +sections ready to send anywhere besides the trucks, &c., necessary for +the officers, the general extra gear, &c., that might be required. It is +usual to combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &c., with the +headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district +centres. + +In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts, &c., +various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory results have +been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not simply a hose-car or +escape-party) can reach any building in the city within six minutes from +the time of the call reaching the station, the six minutes including +both turn-out and run. Where there are exceptionally large or dangerous +risks, this time has had to be shortened to four minutes, and the +possibility of an attendance from a second station assured within six +minutes. In dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have +been obtained where every house can be reached from the district centre +within fifteen minutes from the call. Headquarters would naturally have +a central position in the city. In one or two instances the headquarters +offices are located in a separate building, which in no way serves as a +fire-station, but simply as a centre through which all orders and +business pass. + +The different stations must be in connexion with each other. The special +runner or rider is practically disappearing. The telegraph and +telephone have taken his place. Some cities favour Morse telegraphy, +which certainly had great advantages over the telephone at one time, as +messages could be easily transmitted to several stations with the same +effort, but telephone distributors have now been successfully +introduced. Errors are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and +there is always a record of every message. The most modern forms of +telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the fire service +than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in direct communication with +every station, but every station should be able to communicate with its +neighbour directly, as well as through the headquarters office, and +there should be a direct wire to its district station if it has one. +There should be three routes of communication, so that two should be +always ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters +or the district centres would be in touch with the various auxiliaries +referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and the telephone +exchange. + +As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one unit to +answer the first call if they have no particulars, others always turn +out two or three sections, and there are several cities where the +district centre would at least send an officer and a few men as well. In +one brigade, headquarters is always represented by either the chief or +the second officer in the case of a call of this kind. The idea is that +it is always better to have too strong a force quickly in attendance +than too small a number of men, and that it is most important that the +first arrival should be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a +call and one breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being +too great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however, +not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other fires +are not unusual, and that the absence of too many engines, on account of +a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a call reaches the +firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn out, and if more help is +required other sections will be called up individually. In others the +reinforcements are not called up separately, but the fires are divided +into three classes--small, medium and large; and on the message arriving +of a more extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section +already know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First calls to +certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may always +be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the same message will +then simultaneously turn out the stronger body without any further +detailed instructions being necessary. In some towns the fire-call +automata are so arranged that the messenger can at once call for the +different classes of fire. This, however, is not to be recommended, as a +messenger will probably consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic +blaze, and will bring out too many engines. + +_Equipment._--The following are characteristic features in the equipment +of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure water supply, some +brigades simply attend with hose-cars, life-saving gear and ladders; or, +instead of the hose-cars, take their manuals, which they practically +never use and which serve only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others +take, and make a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with +them ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time is +thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug; and in case of +a hydrant being out of order, there is always sufficient water at hand +until the second hydrant has been found. Many cities have introduced +chemical engines to take the place of this combination of water barrel +and manual engine. A supply of water is carried on the chemical engine. +Some cities always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however, +only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at once +used in the same way as the manual, and this quite independently of the +pressure there is in the water service. Where there is no good water +service, manuals or steamers have, of course, to be sent out, and are +supplied either from the low-pressure service or from the natural +waterways or wells. There are still a large number of cities where the +suburbs have no proper water service, and the water barrel is then very +handy for water porterage. Attempts have also been made at the chemical +treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire, with the view of +increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals instead of water. In +certain localities fire appliances are still run out to fires by hand, +especially where there is a high pressure water system and hose carts +only are required. Generally the appliances are horsed. Motor traction +is, however, now rapidly superseding horse traction for reasons of +economy and the wider and more rapid range of efficiency. + +As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely almost +entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend on scaling +ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great confidence is placed in the +jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are much used; and there are a few +where wonderful work is done with life-lines. To indicate the diversity +with which any one appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the +fire service, it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different +ways in which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material of +the jumping-sheet to be considered; the size and the shape--whether +round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means of holding it, the +way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at what distance from the +endangered building the sheet is to be held. Last, but not least, come +the words of command. + +_Working of Brigades._--In some forces all possible attention is given +to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others the speed at +which engines run to the fire is considered to be of primary importance. +Other brigades, again, give equal attention to both. There are brigades +which work entirely on military lines, each man having certain duties +marked out for him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are +others where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there are +combinations in the same way as regards command. Some chief officers +arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies, and control +the working of the brigade from a position of vantage at a distance. +Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire, perhaps at the branch +itself, or on some gallant life-saving exploit where they no doubt do +good work as a fireman, but in no way fulfil the office of commanders. +Officers must remember that they are officers, and not rank and file; +and this is generally very difficult to those who have advanced from the +ranks. Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to +their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must always be +in a good position where they can superintend everything pertaining to +the outbreak in question. Some brigades seem to make a point of working +quietly, and shouting is absolutely forbidden, all commands being given +by shrill whistles. In some brigades all commands are given by word of +mouth, and there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being +bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes trying. As a +rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency. + +Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others are +satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a distance. Some +attack the fire direct, others only try to protect what surrounds the +seat of the flames. Several brigades are ordered always to try to attack +by the natural routes of the front door and the staircases. In others, +the men always have to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the +aid of ladders--through windows, for instance. Some brigades carefully +extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades boast of never +having damaged property unnecessarily. They have, for instance, had the +patience to suffocate a cellar fire, instead of putting the whole cellar +under water. In certain classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the +hand-pump have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction +than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which to +judge the training and handling of a fire brigade--to see what damage +they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and windows, when there +is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided, where every man in the +force feels that his first duty is to prevent damage and loss and his +second to extinguish the fire. + +Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally stationed +at headquarters; where this division is split up into sections, there +would also be a distribution among the district centres; the salvage men +are simply part of the force, told off on special duty. Where there are +private salvage corps, their stations are generally near the +headquarters or district centres of the brigade, from which they receive +notice of the fire. In some cities the salvage corps work quite +independently; in others, they work under the chief of the brigade +directly they arrive at the fire. + +As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with the fire +service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room to work in is +now fully recognized, and the police are at once called out and often +brought on to the scene in an incredibly short time. The value of these +measures should not be under-rated, especially in cities where rowdyism +exists. In many cities the ambulance service is also turned out to +fires. Where no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen +should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and gasmen are +also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many garrison towns the +military turn out to assist the fire brigade. + + _National Fire Brigades' Union._--The National Fire Brigades' Union, + which is the representative Fire Service Society for Great Britain, + originated in a national demonstration of volunteer fire brigades held + at Oxford in celebration of Queen Victoria's jubilee on the 30th of + May 1887, when 82 fire brigades with 916 firemen were present. Next + day a meeting of the officers was held at the Guildhall, Oxford, and + it was then resolved to form the National Fire Brigades Union. + Alderman Green, the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade, was + appointed the first chairman. Sir Eyre Massey Shaw was appointed first + president in 1888, and on his retirement in 1896 through ill-health he + was succeeded by the duke of Marlborough. When the union offered to + provide ambulance firemen and stretcher bearers for his regiment the + duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped corps were sent out to + the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deelfontein, South Africa, under + Colonel Sloggett, who specially mentioned the services rendered by the + firemen in his despatches. + + The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own + council, and sending one delegate for every ten brigades to the + central council. The districts are:--Eastern, Midlands, South Coast, + South-Eastern, West Midland, North-Eastern, North-Western, South + Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North Wales, + Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in 1902). There + are also seventy-five foreign members and correspondents in America, + Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, + Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, India and the + Federated Malay Straits. The total strength of the union is 667 fire + brigades and members with nearly 12,000 firemen. Every member of the + union gives his time and services for the benefit of the country; all + appointments are honorary, with the exception that a small allowance + is made for clerical assistance. A drill book is issued by the union, + and the fourth edition was published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these + books have been issued to brigades all over the world. + + The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers. All + members have to come up for re-examination every three years, else + they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination is + more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Association. + This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial fire + brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance work. A + very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the union + entitled _First Aid in the Fire Service_, by Chief Officer William + Ettles, M.D. + + The union organized and took part in the International Fire + Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and 1896, + and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses at + Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It has also + held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal Palace, and + before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park. + + +_Fire Brigade Organization._ + +Below are given examples of the organization of different fire brigades. +The brigades so described have been selected not so much on account of +their intrinsic importance, as because they represent classes or types +of brigades and fire brigade organization which it may be useful to +refer to. In respect of the London fire brigade, however, historical +data are also presented, as it is only with the aid of these that the +extraordinary development of that force can be properly realized. + +With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire brigade, the +resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1903 are reprinted below. +As they indicate, the general feeling amongst all interested in fire +protection from an economic point of view is that fire brigades should +not be merely fire extinguishing organizations but should utilize their +influence in a much wider sense. + +The Congress considered:-- + + 1. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers to + take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire projection, + inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers' experience in + actual fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work + of architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful + for the organization and development of precautionary measures. + + 2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should + encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study of + questions of fire prevention. + + 3. That fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and + that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a + government department. + + 4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That on + the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immediately + made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain the + cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the result of + such investigation to a public department for tabulation and + publication. + + 5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be + charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred, as + may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case. + + 6. That the press should from time to time publish technical reports + on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge and + experience gained. + +_London._--In the early part of the 19th century the methods in vogue +for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis were of the +most crude and disjointed character, in striking contrast with the +highly elaborated system now put into practice by the London County +Council through its fire brigade; and it was not until the second half +of the 19th century was well advanced that anything approaching an +adequate and satisfactory organization was brought into existence. Until +the passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only acts +relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London were the +Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90), and "an act (14 +Geo. III., c. 78) for the further and better Regulation of Buildings and +Party Walls, and for the more effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire +within the Cities of London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof, +and other the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of +Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras, and St +Luke's at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex." The clauses in the +latter act relating to protection against fire remained in force till +the passing of the act of 1865. They provided that every parish should +keep "one large engine and one small, called a hand engine, a leathern +pipe, and a certain number of ladders." The Lighting and Watching Act +contained a clause which extended to England and Wales and so covered +the area "without the bills of mortality," enabling the inspectors +appointed under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines; and +certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without the bills +of mortality, availed themselves of this provision. + +The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in 1862, +reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act of George +III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered practically of +importance, but that, at the time of the report, the arrangements +generally made by the parishes under the act were not only entirely +useless, but in many cases produced injurious results, as the system +under the act frequently conferred a reward for the first useless +parochial engine, whereas the efficient engine which might be on the +spot a few minutes later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were, +however, exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a +"very efficient" fire brigade was maintained at an expense of about £500 +a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the rating of the parish. +The select committee were unable to ascertain with any accuracy the +total amount paid by the metropolitan parishes for the maintenance, +"however inefficient," of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be +about £10,000. + +For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance offices in +London kept fire brigades at their individual expense; to these +brigades were attached a considerable number of men usually occupied as +Thames watermen, retained in the service of the different Fire Offices, +who received payment only on the occurrence of fires, and who wore the +livery and badge of the respective companies. These fire brigades were, +to quote the report of the select committee of 1862, considered as +giving notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a +considerable rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of +good as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires. + +The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced an attempt to +be made, which was effectually carried out in the year 1832, by R. Bell +Forde, a leading director of the Sun Fire Office, to form one brigade +for the purpose of promoting economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus +the first organized fire brigade for London began its operations under +the united sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the +leading insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known as +the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense was at first +£8000, the number of stations 19, the number of men employed 80. By 1862 +the annual cost had grown to £25,000, the number of stations had become +20, and the number of men 127. + +It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire Engine +Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in substitution for which +the new Cannon-Street station has been built. The following is a list of +the other stations of the establishment:-- + + School House-lane, Shadwell Crown Street, Soho + Wellclose Square Wells Street + Jeffrey's Square Baker Street + Whitecross Street King Street, Golden Square + Farringdon Street Horseferry Road + Holborn Waterloo Road + Chandos Street Southwark Bridge Road + Tooley Street Southwark Bridge (floating) + Lucas Street, Rotherhithe Rotherhithe (floating) + +The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner as far as +its limited equipment and strength would permit, but it was universally +admitted that the staff, engines and stations were totally inadequate +for the general protection of London from fire. The directors of the +insurance offices themselves admitted this, but they considered their +brigade sufficient for the protection of that part of London in which +the largest amount of insured property was located, and contended that +it was not their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying +districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve their +offices in serious loss. + +From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire offices was +supplemented by the "Society for the Protection of Life from Fire." This +society was managed by a committee of which the lord mayor was +president. It was supported entirely by voluntary contributions, and, at +a cost of about £7000 a year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90 +stations in different parts of the most central districts in London. Its +most outlying station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it +maintained no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham, +Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its equipment +was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the metropolis. + +In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire Engine +Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, and the +attention of the government was consequently directed to the inadequacy +of the existing conditions for fire extinction. It was suggested, at the +time, that the parochial engines should be placed under the inspection +of the commissioners of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and +the existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another thirty +years. The select committee of 1862 recommended that a fire brigade +should be created under the superintendence of the commissioners of +police, and should form part of the general establishment of the +metropolitan police. In 1865, however, the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act +was passed, under which the responsibility for the provision and +maintenance of an efficient fire brigade was laid upon the Metropolitan +Board of Works. Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the +staff, stations and equipment of the Fire Engine Establishment; the +engines maintained by the various parochial authorities, and the men in +charge of them were also absorbed by the new organization, as were the +fire-escapes and staff of the Society for the Protection of Life from +Fire. + +The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the maintenance of the +brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny rate on all the rateable +property in London; (2) contributions by the fire insurance companies at +the rate of £35 per million of the gross amount insured by them in +respect of property in London; and (3) a contribution of £10,000 a year +by the government. Although the revenue allotted increased year by year, +its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls from all +parts of London for protection from fire. Some temporary financial +relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board of Works (Loans) Act 1869, +which (1) authorized the interest on borrowed money to be paid, and the +principal to be redeemed out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan +Consolidated rate, apart from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade +purposes; and (2) provided that the amount to be raised for the annual +working expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be +produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value of +property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One result of +the passing of the Local Government Act 1888 (by which the London County +Council was constituted), under which a county rate for all purposes is +levied, was virtually to repeal the limitation of the amount which might +be raised from the ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time +the expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other +departments of the council's service, been determined solely by what the +council has judged to be the requirements of the case. + +When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire brigade was +admittedly not large enough properly to protect the whole of London, the +provision in various suburban districts being notoriously inadequate to +the requirements. A plan for enlarging and improving old stations, and +for carrying out a scheme of additional protection laid down after +careful consideration of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on +the 8th of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided +for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for the +establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with horsed +escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-escape and +hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares. + + Since it came into existence the London County Council has established + additional fire stations at Dulwich, New Cross, Kingsland, + Whitefriars, Lewisham, Shepherd's Bush, West Hampstead, East + Greenwich, Perivale, Homerton, Highbury, Vauxhall, Pageant's Wharf + (Rotherhithe), Streatham, Kilburn, Bayswater, Eltham, Burdett Road + (Mile End), Wapping, Northcote Road (Battersea), Herne Hill, Lee Green + and North End (Fulham). Of these, Vauxhall, Kilburn, Bayswater, + Eltham, Burdett Road, Herne Hill and North End stations are + sub-stations. New stations have been erected, in substitution for + small and inconvenient buildings, at Wandsworth, Shoreditch, Fulham, + Brompton, Islington, Paddington, Redcross Street (City), Euston Road, + Clapham, Mile End, Deptford, Old Kent Road, Millwall, Kensington, + Westminster, Brixton and Cannon Street (City), and the existing + stations at Kennington, Rotherhithe, Clerkenwell, Hampstead, + Battersea, Whitechapel, Greenwich and Stoke Newington have been + considerably enlarged. Two small stations without horses have been + established in Battersea Park Road and North Woolwich respectively. A + building has been erected at Rotherhithe for the accommodation of the + staff of the Cherry-garden river station; and another building has + been erected at Battersea for the accommodation of the staff of a + river station which has been established there. + + In 1909 new stations in substitution for existing stations were in + course of erection at Knightsbridge and Tooting, and additional + sub-stations were being erected at Plumstead and Hornsey Rise. The + Bethnal Green station was being considerably altered and enlarged. The + council had also determined to erect new stations in substitution for + existing inconvenient buildings at Holloway, Waterloo Road, Shooter's + Hill and North End, Fulham; and to build additional sub-stations at + Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton Hill, Camberwell New Road, + Roehampton, Balham, Brockley and Earlsfield. + + +_Budapest._--There is a combination of a professional force and a +volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary service of +factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade possesses a central +station and eight sub-stations, two minor stations, and permanent +theatre-watchrooms at the royal theatres. The staff (in 1901) of the +professional brigade consisted of a chief officer, an inspector, a +senior adjutant and two junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23 +warrant officers, 3 engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 30 coachmen +with 62 horses. There have been some slight increases since. The +apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22 manual +engines, 27 small manual engines, 11 water carts, 13 traps, 4 tenders, +26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders, 9 ordinary extension +ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets and 22,000 metres of hose. +The various stations are connected with the central station by private +telephone lines. There are 149 telephonic fire alarms distributed +throughout the city. They are on radial lines connected up with their +respective nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from +three to seventeen call-points. + +The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and comprises some +eighty members. Its equipment is housed with that of the professional +brigade, and is bought and maintained by the municipality. This +volunteer brigade is a comparatively wealthy institution, having a +capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst receiving a special subsidy annually +from the municipality. Though legally an entirely independent +institution, the brigade voluntarily puts itself under the command of +the chief officer of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at +the disposal of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every +night and "turn out" when called upon to render service. This volunteer +brigade stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer brigades, and +it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that the educational +classes referred to above are held and facilities accorded to the +officers undergoing instruction to gain experience at the Budapest +fires. + + The Budapest professional fire brigade, even if assisted by the + volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with + the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest + factories and mills have a splendidly organized service of factory + fire brigades. These brigades--forty-four in number--are essentially + private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to + which they belong, but they are well organized, and have a mutual + understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory + immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory + brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with 1 + steam fire-engine, 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have a + very considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke helmets. + +_Cologne._--The Cologne professional fire brigade is 153 strong (1906), +with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional officers, a +warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16 foremen. The brigade +has 26 horses, of which 2, however, are used for ambulance purposes. The +brigade has three large stations and a minor station, and has a +permanent fire-watch at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for +duty as coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of +duty to twenty-four hours of rest. + +A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary retained fire +brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent, 2 deputy +superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses, who are retained +men housed in municipal buildings (tenements), and available as an +immediate reserve force. The first section of the reserve force are +housed centrally. + +There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades manned by +volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and horsed from the +municipal stables or municipal tramways. Three of these volunteer +brigades, which have large suburban districts, comprise each a +superintendent, 2 senior foremen and 3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen +and 3 coachmen. The minor outlying suburbs have several such brigades, +each having one senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, 20 firemen and 2 +coachmen. The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295, +all ranks. + + The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of professional + brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade and a system of suburban + volunteer brigades. Of the three stations, the central one is still an + old building, and the other two are in modern buildings; the extra + sub-station (near the river stores) is also a modern building. The + brigade has about 150 fires to attend per annum. Its printed matter, + in the form of an annual detailed report, is exceptionally well + prepared. The brigade does permanent "fire-watch" duty at the + municipal theatres which are strengthened of an evening. It provides + additional watches during performances at all other theatres and + public entertainments. Such duties are provided in part by an + auxiliary brigade and partly by the professional brigade. A number of + the professional brigade are always utilized for doing general work in + the workshops of the brigade. The first or central section of the + auxiliary brigade drills eleven times per annum, and is additionally + turned out eleven times per annum (without drill). Men newly attached + to the auxiliary force have to go through a four weeks' recruit drill. + +_Nuremberg._--The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most economically +organized efficient fire service in Central Europe, and its form of +organization is peculiar and exceptional. In 1902 the entire +fire-service cost the city 126,000 marks (£6300). The total of +inhabitants in 1900 was 261,000. For this small amount of money the city +gets a highly-trained retained fire brigade of 156 men (1907), and two +volunteer fire brigades of 130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has +an auxiliary of eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and +two private factory fire brigades (71 men). The whole service stands +under a professional chief officer and professional second officer. +There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen attached to the +retained brigade. The service has been in existence for fifty years. It +has gradually developed and has worked remarkably well, and may, in +fact, be taken as a model institution for municipal economy, with due +regard to up-to-dateness and efficiency. The retained fire brigade +comprises entirely municipal employés, regularly engaged in the +municipal workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal +workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There is a +headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer brigade in +the centre of the town, a modern district station in the western +district, and a third district station is in course of erection for the +eastern district, which is at present only served by a small branch +station. + + At headquarters station there are on immediate duty by day 14 firemen + (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade. Nine men of + the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at night, together + with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west district + station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day, and the + same number at night. + + The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units of the + following strength, namely:-- + + First unit, a large chemical engine, and a mechanical long ladder. + + Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a special gear-cart and a long + ladder. + + Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder. + + Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose- and coal-tender trap. + + From the west district station three units can be turned out in + rotation, namely:--- + + First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder. + + Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine. + + Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender + trap. + + The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises a + turn-out of a trap and a long ladder. + + The brigade can thus turn out immediately, in rapid succession, these + horsed appliances, well organized and fully manned. It further has a + reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders. + + The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal 25 + manual engines, 9 fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of the + hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet + pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening "fire watch" + at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get modest extra pay + for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather to cover + disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages. The brigade + uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in proximity to + the fire stations, and a number of which are kept on duty for fire + brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical purposes + the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which the men do + municipal work in the municipal workshops, and elsewhere, i.e. in + training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up to the best + professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well drilled and + includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do duty at night by + rotation. The brigade's responsibilities are clearly defined, and the + position of the professional chief and second officer clearly laid + down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During the fifty + years' existence of the service, 85 firemen received the twenty-five + years' long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the suburban + volunteer brigades. + +_Venice._--The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force of "Vigili" +or municipal watchmen, which body does general duty in preserving order +and rendering assistance to the community. In other words, this force +performs the duties of the civil police (rather than governmental or +criminal police), fire, patrol watch service, and public control in a +general sense. The force, which in all its sections made a most +excellent impression, has a commandant, under whom the two primary +sections work, namely (a) the civil police section and the (b) fire +brigade section; each section in turn having its own principal officers. +The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire brigade +section some 73 of all ranks (1908). The commandant of the whole force +is a retired military officer, and the chief of the fire service section +is a civil engineer, and these two officers, together with the chief of +the civil police section, are the three superior officers of the force. +The police section serve as auxiliaries to the fire brigade section in +case of any great fire, and, of course, generally work very much hand in +hand on all occasions. The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6 +foremen, 6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well +equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large modern +petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old type +steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small petrol +motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-engines, ladders, +&c., which are in considerable number, are carried in a large fleet of +swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is done with Roman ladders, which are +usually planted on two gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the +depth of the canal permits, the lower length is buried in the canal +bottom. Hook ladders are also used. + + Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the + headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a strength + of 22, and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite the + station. The fire brigade does theatre watch duty. As a fire station + of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the Doge's + palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground floor + facing St Mark's Square have been adapted for fire station purposes in + a very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of the brigade has + been used to form emblems, &c. + +_Vienna._--In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted on modern +lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality having been greatly +extended. The professional brigade was somewhat strengthened and +entirely re-equipped, and the various existing volunteer brigades of the +outlying districts were transformed into suburban volunteer fire +brigades, equipped and controlled by the municipality and standing under +the general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle +involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force around +Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal brigade, a +principle of great economic advantage, as the professional brigade would +otherwise have had to be materially strengthened, probably trebled. +These suburban volunteer fire brigades number no fewer than 34, and have +1200 firemen of all ranks. They are practically independent institutions +as far as the election of officers and administration is concerned, but +their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided by the +municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional firemen +detached from headquarters are attached to their stations as telegraph +clerks and drill-instructors. + +The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their own +districts, and further, assist in other districts when so ordered by +headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great fires in the city +proper. Headquarters, of course, renders assistance at large suburban +fires. These suburban volunteer fire brigades are very perfectly +equipped with appliances, generally of the same type as those used in +the central professional brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped +with combined chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached. +They have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern. The +men are volunteers in the truest sense of the word, i.e. do not take pay +of any description or make any charges for attendance at fires or +refreshments at fires. + +The Vienna "professional brigade," as it is generally called, has a +personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, 5 officials and 475 men. Of +stations there is the headquarters, a district station, 4 branch +stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations, and 2 +"watches" in public buildings. The officers of the brigade consist of +the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors. The officers, of +whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered at headquarters. There +are three telegraph superintendents. The rank and file is composed of 8 +drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph clerks (three classes), 53 foremen (two +classes), 22 engineers and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four +telegraph clerks and engineers are detailed for duty with the suburban +volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen. + + The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus and + service vehicles of all kinds standing ready to "turn out":--2 open + and 2 officers' service carriages (at headquarters), 6 "traps" for the + first "turn-out" (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district fire + station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men, and + equipped with 3 hook-ladders, a portable extension ladder and jumping + sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-boxes, a jack, + tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump and a hose-reel + attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters and 1 at the + district station), each manned by seven firemen and equipped like the + "traps" with the exception that, instead of the life-saving chute, the + carts carry with them a sliding-sheet, two petroleum torches each, an + extension ladder (15 metres long) and some spare coal for the steam + fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension ladders each 25 metres long, and 3 + extension turn-table ladders each 25 metres long (at headquarters and + at two of the sub-stations); each of the pneumatic ladders has three + men, and each turn-table ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at + headquarters and 1 each in the other stations), each having five men + with 3 hook-ladders, a jointed ladder (in four sections), a hose-reel, + a hand-engine, a smoke helmet, a jumping sheet, an ambulance chest, a + tool box, torches, &c.; 8 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and + one each in the district fire station and the 4 steam-engine + stations), each with an engineer and stoker. + + The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large + chemical engines, 17 steel water-carts (with 1000 litre reservoirs). + The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68, and + there are 15 ordinary smoke helmets with hand-pumps. The total number + of horses is 132. One electrically-driven trap and two + electrically-driven chemical engines are being tried. The fire + telegraphic and telephonic installation, including the lines in the + volunteer brigades' districts kept up by the professional brigade, + comprises 47 telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with + altogether 161 Morse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points. + +_Zürich._--Zürich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of which are +built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the buildings being +subject to the local building regulations and the State Insurance +Association's rules, in which they are compulsorily insured. The brigade +is a compulsory militia brigade, placed under the control of the head of +the department of police under a law of 1898. The same municipal officer +is head of a special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the +safety of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is +known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade. His +office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a small +permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence. Every male +inhabitant of Zürich is compelled to do some service for the prevention +of, or protection against, fire, from the age of twenty to fifty years. +The duty may be fulfilled (1) by active service, or (2) in the case of +an able-bodied citizen, who for some reason is not found suited to be a +member of the brigade, or has been dismissed from the brigade, by the +payment of a tax, which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain +citizens, however, are _ipso facto_ exempt from active service, namely +members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic school, of +the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice, and of the Town +Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters, the officials of railways, +tramway and steamboat companies, of the post-office and telephone +department, students of the Polytechnic school and other educational +institutions and municipal officials, with whose duties fire brigade +service is incompatible. Exemption from active service can also be +accorded on a testimonial of a medical board. Exemption from active +service, however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which +amounts to between £4000 and £5000. In making the selection of men for +active service only, men particularly fitted for the work are taken, +namely, men who are personally keen, who have a good physique, and who +are preferably of the building or allied trades. The officers of the +brigade are appointed by the municipal committee. The men's drills are +by the chief officer, and the men are liable to fines and to +imprisonment (up to four days) for not attending their drills. The whole +of the brigade is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss +Fire Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition +provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty. There +is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the municipality, which +also accords a scale of compensation. + + The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen + companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections, namely, + a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police section, + the last being utilized for keeping the ground and attending to + salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal with + the fire in its own district without calling upon the company of an + adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious fire + that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a system of + decentralization and independence of companies in this brigade not + often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc for each drill of + two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours, and fifty centimes per + hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided. Any telephone can be used + free by law for an alarm. The brigade has at its disposal an extension + telephone service, but the men are not all connected up with the + telephone of their respective districts, and thus the alarm is given + mainly with horns sounded by men who are on the telephone. No section + of the brigade has less than ten men on the telephone. + + The water-supply is of a most excellent character. The appliances in + the main comprise hydrants and hose-reels with ladder trucks, and each + section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly housed in + small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter doors, to + which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty of these hydrant + houses distributed round the city, the larger appliances being at + headquarters and at some depots. + + Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for + the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company might + be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief officer and + staff, and independent organization, the organization of the + companies, however, being identical. A company comprises 1 chief + officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6 orderlies, + a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively 1 + lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service + section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the + life-saving section, and 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 20 men + for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there + some slight variation in the organization, namely, 1 and 2 sections + have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior + officer. At Zürich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an + extraordinary uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and + instructions in all its sections. In 1908 the brigade comprised 2268 + in all ranks. There were about 70 fires in that year. (E. O. S.) + + +_United States._ + +Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a scale that +in 1902 it was estimated by P.G. Hubert ("Fire Fighting To-Day and +To-Morrow," _Scribner's Magazine_, 1902, 32, pp 448 sqq.) that in +proportion to population the fire force of America was nearly four times +that of Germany or France and about three times that of England. The +many fires consequent on wooden construction even in the large cities; +the bad effect of sudden climatic changes--drying, parching heat being +followed by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less +safe character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements, the +more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the reasons +assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-fighting service in +the United States is in no way connected with the military as it is on +the continent of Europe; the association of volunteer with paid firemen +is uncommon except in the suburban parts of the large cities, and in the +smaller cities and towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term +are, during that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty. + +_New York._--The fire department of New York City is the result of +gradual development. The first record of municipal action in regard to +fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250 leather buckets and a supply +of fire-ladders and hooks were purchased, and a tax of one guilder for +fire apparatus was imposed on every chimney; in 1676 fire-wells were +ordered to be dug; in 1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was +required to provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and +bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets respectively; in +1689 "brent-masters" or fire-marshals were appointed; in 1695 every +dwelling-house had to provide one fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two +Richard Newsham hand-engines were ordered from England, and soon +afterwards a superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small +salary; in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad +Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the +appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable or militia +duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire companies increased +rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially political; and success +in a fire company was a sure path to success in politics, the best-known +case being that of Richard Croker, a member of "Americus 6," commonly +called "Big Six," of which William M. Tweed was organizer and foreman. +Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (predecessors of +the present "ward leader's outing") under the auspices of the volunteer +organizations, annual balls after 1829, water-throwing contests, often +over liberty poles, and bitter fights between different companies +(sometimes settled by fist duels between selected champions), improved +the organization of these companies as political factors if not as +fire-fighters. So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in +1836, when James Gulick, chief engineer since 1831, was removed from +office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when the +volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their work, and +they began again only when Gulick assured them that the news was false; +almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick was reinstated. The type of +the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer fire hero was made famous in +1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau's playing of the part Mose in Benjamin +Baker's play, _A Glance at New York_. The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York +were raised entirely from volunteer firemen of the city. + +In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted of 163 +companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder) manned by 3521 men +(engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts about 25, and hook and +ladder companies about 40); the chief engineer, elected with assistants +for terms of five or three years by ballots of the firemen, received a +salary of $3000 a year; and three bell-ringers in each of eight district +watch-towers, who watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a +year. The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire District +and established therein a Fire Department, headed by four commissioners, +who with the mayor and comptroller constituted a board of estimate. + +This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when the Greater +New York was chartered and the present system was introduced. At its +head is a commissioner who receives $7500 a year. The more immediate +head of the firemen is a chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member +of the force not appointed on the basis of a civil service examination; +the chief has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond +boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each receiving an annual +salary of $5000. + + In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Manhattan, + Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens); 59 chiefs of + battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 28 in Brooklyn and + Queens); 248 foremen or captains (137 in Manhattan, Bronx and + Richmond, and 111 in Brooklyn and Queens), 365 assistant foremen (221 + in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond; and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 431 + engineers of steamers (247 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184 + in Brooklyn and Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and + Richmond, and 1161 in Brooklyn and Queens); and the total uniformed + force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine + companies--at East 99th St., Battery Park, Grand St. (East River), + West 35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan and + the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in Brooklyn and + Queens there were 70 engine companies, including two fire-boat + companies--at 42nd St. and at North 8th St. The appropriations for the + year 1906 were $4,777,687 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and + $3,147,033 for Brooklyn and Queens; and the department expenses were + $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for + Brooklyn and Queens. + + The first high-pressure main system in the city was installed at Coney + Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically driven + centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area, 1360 acres) + and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced in 1908, and where + the protected district (1454 acres) reaches from the City Hall to 25th + St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue and East Broadway, being + the "Dry Goods District"; water is pumped either from city mains or + from the river, and the change may be made instantaneously. The fire + watch-tower system was abolished in 1869; the present system is that + of red box electric telegraph alarms, which register at headquarters + (East 67th St.), where an operator sends out the alarm to that + engine-house nearest to the fire which is ready to respond, and a + chart informing him of the absence from the engine-house of apparatus. + There are volunteer forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond + boroughs and in other outlying districts. + + _Boston._--The Boston fire department (reorganized after the great + fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000), a + chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior + deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent + and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent + and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the force + numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men. There were 53 steam + fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination + chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3 + fire-boats (built in 1889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 29 + ladder-trucks and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water main + service was established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the + application of the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made + in Boston in 1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer, + then a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric + telegraph alarm; and in 1851-1855 Farmer became superintendent of the + Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 1852.[2] + + _Chicago._--The Chicago organization practically dates from the fire + of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858. Its + principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary + $8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen + battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and + assistant, and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants, + engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908 was + 1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale, Norwood + Park, Hansen Park and Ashburn Park. In the business part of the city + there is a patrol of seven companies employed by the Board of Fire + Underwriters. Since 1895 all men in the uniformed force (except the + chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In 1908 the equipment + included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and ladder companies, including + one water-tower, 15 chemical engines and one hose company; and there + were 5 fire-boats (4 active and 1 reserve). The first fire-boat was + built in 1883. The initial installation of high-pressure mains was + completed in 1902, and was greatly enlarged in 1908. + + +_Fire Appliances._ + +_Fire-Alarms._--Most large cities possess a system of electrical +fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals along +the streets. Any one wishing to give notice of a fire either opens the +door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window with which it is +fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus causing the particular +number allocated to the box, which of course indicates its position, to +be electrically telegraphed to the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as +thought advisable. Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box. +Automatic fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric +circuit is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain +temperature. The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or +to give warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for +closing it are of the most varied kinds--the expansion of mercury in a +thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended between +horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass in a curved +strip of brass and steel welded together, &c. + +_Fire-Engines._--The earliest method of applying water to the extinction +of fires was by means of buckets, and these long remained the chief +instruments employed for the purpose, though Hero of Alexandria about +150 B.C. described a fire-engine with two cylinders and pistons worked +by a reciprocating lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in +Rome. In the 16th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we hear of fire +squirts or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same +century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by a screw +handle. The fire squirts used in London about the time of the Great Fire +were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2½ or 3 in. in diameter, and three men were +required to manipulate them. The next stage of development was to mount +a cistern or reservoir on wheels so that it was portable, and to provide +it with pumps which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed +delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important advance was +made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van der Heyde, senior and junior, +made flexible hose by sewing together the edges of a strip of leather, +and applied it for both suction and delivery, so that the engines could +be continuously supplied with water and the stream could be more readily +directed on the seat of the fire. For many years manual engines were the +only ones employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as +many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are superseded by +power-driven engines, at least for all important services. The first +practical steam fire-engine was made by John Braithwaite about 1829, but +though it proved useful in various fires in London for several years +after that date, it was objected to by the men of the fire brigade and +its use was abandoned. A generation later, however, steam fire-engines +began to come into vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to +the scene of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be +geared to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not +till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines were +employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity have all been +used. Such engines have the advantage that they can reach a fire much +more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle, especially in hilly districts, +and they can if necessary be made of greater power, since their size +need not be limited by considerations of the weight that can be drawn by +horses. Petrol-propelled engines can be started off from a station +within a few seconds of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are +ready to work immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines +possess the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under +steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol engines, +which cost nothing for maintenance except while they are actually +working. Motor engines are made with a capacity to deliver 1000 gallons +of water a minute or even more, but the sizes than can deal with 400 or +500 gallons a minute are probably those most commonly used. + +In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are often provided +for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks and along the waterside. +The capacity of these may rise to 6000 gallons a minute. Steam is the +power most commonly used in them, both for propulsion and for pumping, +but in one built for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in +1909, an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam +engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with oil-fuel, and +steam could be raised in a few minutes while the boat was on its way to +a fire. The pumps could throw a 1½-in. jet to a height of nearly 200 ft. +In some places, as at Boston, Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for +service at some distance from the water. Fire-mains laid through the +streets terminate in deep water at points accessible to the boats, the +pumps of which can be connected to them and made to fill them with water +at high pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply +system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure water +can be used, by means of Greathead hydrants or similar devices, to draw +a much larger quantity from the ordinary mains and force it in jets to +considerable heights and distances, without the intervention of any +engine. + +The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose-pipes, which +are made either of leather fastened with brass or copper rivets, or of +canvas (woven from flax) which has the merit of lightness but is liable +to rot, or of rubber jacketed with canvas (or in America with cotton). +For directing the water on the fire, nozzles of various forms are +employed, some throwing a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and +others again combining jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive +away smoke and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to +enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached. A line +of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the extensions of which +are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests on the wall of the +building at the required height. Water-towers enable the jet to be +delivered at a considerable height independently of any support from the +building. A light, stiff, lattice steel frame is mounted on a truck, on +which it lies horizontally while being drawn to a fire, but when it has +to be used it is turned to an upright position, often by the aid of +compressed gas, and then an extensible tube is drawn out to a still +greater height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be +controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the nozzle to be +moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe up the tower may be of +large diameter, so that it can carry a huge volume of water, and at the +bottom it may terminate in a reservoir into which several fire-engines +may pump simultaneously. + +Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable sizes as +fire-extinguishers or "extincteurs," and in the larger ones as "chemical +engines," throw a jet of water charged with gas, commonly carbon +dioxide, which does not support combustion. Essentially they consist of +a closed metal tank, filled with a solution of some carbonate and also +containing a small vessel of sulphuric acid. Under normal conditions the +acid is kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to be +used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger +projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the bottle +of acid, while in others the act of inverting the apparatus breaks the +bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker which pierces the +metallic capsule that closes it. As soon as the acid comes into contact +with the carbonate solution carbon dioxide is formed, and a stream of +gas and liquid mixed issues under considerable pressure from the +attached nozzle or hosepipe. Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few +gallons, are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings, +&c., and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act +when they are wanted, they are useful in the early stages of a fire, +because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear; but it +is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid they emit is much +more efficacious than plain water, and too much importance can easily be +attached to spectacular displays of their power to extinguish artificial +blazes of wood soused with petrol, which have been burning only a few +seconds. Chemical engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by +fire brigades as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or +motor vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose, and +other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with pumps for throwing +powerful jets of ordinary water. Large buildings, such as hotels and +warehouses, where a competent watchman is assumed to be always on duty, +may be protected by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and +connected by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the +various floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when +pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and +carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a stream is +available at the hydrants. + +_Automatic Sprinklers._--Factories, warehouses and other buildings in +which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted with automatic +sprinklers which discharge water from the ceiling of a room as soon as +the temperature rises to a certain point. Lines of pipes containing +water under pressure are carried through the building near the ceilings +at distances of 8 or 10 ft. apart, and to these pipes are attached +sprinkler heads at intervals such that the water from them is +distributed all over the room. The valves of the sprinklers are normally +kept closed by a device the essential feature of which is a piece of +fusible metal; this as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about +160° F.) by the heat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the +water, which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower. +In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes are +filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 lb. per sq. in. When the +sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a fire, the +compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of pressure in the pipes +is arranged to operate a system of levers that opens the water-valve of +the main-feed pipe. The idea of automatic sprinklers is an old one, and +a system was patented by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their +present development they are specially associated with the name of +Frederick Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island. + +_Fire-Escapes._--The best kind of fire-escape, because it is always in +place, and always ready for use, is an external iron staircase, reaching +from the top of a building to the ground, and connected with balconies +accessible from the windows on each floor. In many towns the building +by-laws require such staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a +certain height and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of +non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper room to +reach the ground through the window, numberless forms have been +invented, from simple knotted ropes and folding ladders to slings and +baskets suspended by a rope over sheaves fixed permanently outside the +windows, and provided with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the +speed of his descent, and to "chutes" or canvas tubes down which he +slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders, mounted on a +wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb; sometimes the persons +rescued are sent down a chute attached to the apparatus, but many fire +brigades think it preferable to rely on carrying down those who are +unable to descend the ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a +number of men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape +is by jumping from an upper window. (X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the United States a special officer called a "fire-marshal" + has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in + 1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in + Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut + (1901), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been + passed making official inquiry compulsory. In England the question + has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred, + should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in + recent years in the City of London no regular system exists. + + [2] See Thomas C. Martin, _Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police + Patrol Systems_ (Washington, 1904), Bulletin II of the Bureau of the + Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was + installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed in + 1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in 1860. + + + + +FIREBACK, the name given to the ornamented slab of cast iron protecting +the back of a fireplace. The date at which firebacks became common +probably synchronizes with the removal of the fire from the centre to +the side or end of a room. They never became universal, since the +proximity of deposits of iron ore was essential to their use. In England +they were confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey, +and appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties was +exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other parts of the +country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there was a certain +commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed an interesting and even +artistic form. The earlier examples were commonly rectangular, but a +shaped or gabled top eventually became common. English firebacks may +roughly be separated into four chronological divisions--those moulded +from more than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical, +mythological and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies +of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Netherlandish. The +fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of detached ornament were +much used before attempts were made to elaborate a homogeneous design, +but by the middle of the 17th century firebacks of a very elaborate type +were being produced. Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion, +the death of Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of +serpents. Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being +used extensively--many existing firebacks bear the arms of the Stuarts. +About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private families began to be +used, the earliest instances remaining bearing those of the Sackvilles, +who were lords of a large portion of the forest of Anderida, which +furnished the charcoal for the smelting operations in our ancient +iron-fields. To the armorial shields the date was often added, together +with the initials of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to +cut the design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face +downwards upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into the +impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands and in parts +of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and Metz there are several +private collections, and there are also many examples in public museums. +The museum of the Porte de Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest +examples in existence with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles +V., accompanied by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first destroyed +in France the possession of a _plaque de cheminée_ bearing heraldic +insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection to the republic, and on +the 13th of October 1793 the National Convention issued a decree giving +the owners and tenants of houses a month in which to turn such firebacks +with their face to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron +foundries of a sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct +of equality. Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to +this day the old chateaux of France contain many with their backs +outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not infrequently +made, and the old examples are much prized and collected. + + + + +FIRE BRAT, a small insect (_Thermobia_ or _Thermophila furnorum_) +related to the silverfish, and found in bakehouses, where it feeds upon +bread and flour. + + + + +FIREBRICK.--Under this term are included all bricks, blocks and slabs +used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues, &c., where the brickwork +has to withstand high temperature (see BRICK). + +The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary very +greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain, corrosive +action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace charge, chemical +action of furnace charge and products of combustion, &c., and in order +to meet these different conditions many varieties of firebricks are +manufactured. + +Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, i.e. from clays which +withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive shrinkage or +warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although the term "fireclay" +is generally restricted in use to certain shales from the Coal Measures, +which contain only a small percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are +consequently highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of +refractoriness for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a +fireclay which has a fusion point below 1600° C. + + Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, but generally the + percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high, and the + percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime, soda and potash (taken + together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite, &c., are + also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special chemical or + other properties are necessary. + + The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various + fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon its + refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the clay a + certain proportion of ground firebrick, ganister, sand or some similar + refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking + generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing is + continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or + other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic clays; whereas + firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected to + rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained and + consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken to + obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by selection and + mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose to + which the goods are to be applied. The Coal Measure clays often + contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron + disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules + are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the clay is + used. + + A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather + open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping, + strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be subjected + when in use, and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the full + contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these + requirements, and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground + firebrick, ganister, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up. + The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between + rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to + ensure a certain size and evenness of grain, after which the clay and + other materials are mixed in suitable proportion in the dry state, + water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks made up + from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way. + + The proportion of ground firebrick, &c., used depends on the nature of + the clay and the purpose for which the material is required, but + generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage + of a plastic material than the less plastic clays, the object being to + produce a clay mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking, + warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing a + sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate heatings and + coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes special + mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain fireclay + goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay for the + manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, &c., where the temperature + is very variable but never very high, a certain percentage of sawdust + is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out on firing and + ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material is much less + liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a closer + texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work, where + strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For the + construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, &c., the firebrick used must be + sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing strain of the + superimposed brickwork, &c., at the highest temperature to which they + are subjected. + + The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces, + &c., takes place in various ways according to the character of the + brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. The + firebrick may waste by crumbling--due to excessive porosity or + openness of texture; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence + of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, &c.; it may gradually wear away + by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the solid + particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases themselves; + it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface through + contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is subjected to very + high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract and so split + and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognized fact that + successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion point, or + long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually produce + vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close texture, + and entirely alters the properties of the brick. + + Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is + necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the + chemical composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the + formation of fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the + furnace charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be + basic or aluminous and not siliceous, i.e. it should be made from a + fireclay containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to + which a high percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has + been added. For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials + containing little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and + uncalcined magnesite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their + carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite, clay + and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of iron, &c. + + In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the + manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or + ganister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the + material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of the + south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely used for making these + siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork does + not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, &c., of + many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick can + be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should endeavour to + make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, &., to meet + certain definite requirements, recognizing that the materials at his + disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making + firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a + thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of + which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary mortar, + and the joints should be as close as possible, only just sufficient of + the paste being used to enable the bricks to bed on one another. + + It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of + firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory + material--such as kaolin--in order to protect the firebricks from the + direct action of the flue gases, &c., and quite recently a thin paste + of carborundum and clay, or carborundum and silicate of soda has been + more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carborundum + bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of + carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to + have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that + the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin + coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious + and highly-refractory facing. (J. B.*; W. B.*) + + + + +FIREFLY, a term popularly used for certain tropical American +click-beetles (_Pyrophorus_), on account of their power of emitting +light. The insects belong to the family _Elateridae_, whose characters +are described under COLEOPTERA (q.v.). The genus _Pyrophorus_ contains +about ninety species, and is entirely confined to America and the West +Indies, ranging from the southern United States to Argentina and Chile. +Its species are locally known as _cucujos_. Except for a few species in +the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous _Elateridae_ are +unknown in the eastern hemisphere. The light proceeds from a pair of +conspicuous smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area beneath +the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these regions are +situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of cells which may be +regarded as a specialized portion of the fat-body. Both the male and +female fireflies emit light, as well as their larvae and eggs, the egg +being luminous even while still in the ovary. The inhabitants of +tropical America sometimes keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of +illumination, or make use of the insects for personal adornment. + +The name "firefly" is often applied also to luminous beetles of the +family _Lampyridae_, to which the well-known glow-worm belongs. + + + + +FIRE-IRONS, the implements for tending a fire. Usually they consist of +poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most frequently of iron, steel, or +brass, or partly of one and partly of another. The more elegant brass +examples of the early part of the 19th century are much sought after for +use with the brass fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from +an ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are smaller +in size and lighter in make than those of the best period. + + + + +FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO (1493-c. 1545), Italian poet and littérateur, was +born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493. The family name was +taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated at the foot of the +Apennines, its original home. The grandfather of Agnolo had obtained the +citizenship of Florence and transmitted it to his family. Agnolo was +destined for the profession of the law, and pursued his studies first at +Siena and afterwards at Perugia. There he became the associate of the +notorious Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the +model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola practised for +a time the profession of an advocate, but with little success. It is +asserted by all his biographers that while still a young man he assumed +the monastic dress at Vallombrosa, and that he afterwards held +successively two abbacies. Tiraboschi alone ventures to doubt this +account, partly on the ground of Firenzuola's licentiousness, and partly +on the ground of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to +be conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope Clement +VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled at Prato as +abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a collected edition was +published in 1548, are partly in prose and partly in verse, and belong +to the lighter classes of literature. Among the prose works +are--_Discorsi degli animali_, imitations of Oriental and Aesopian +fables, of which there are two French translations; _Dialogo delle +bellezze delle donne_, also translated into French; _Ragionamenti +amorosi_, a series of short tales in the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling +him in elegance and in licentiousness; _Discacciamento delle nuove +lettere_, a controversial piece against Trissino's proposal to introduce +new letters into the Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of +_The Golden Ass_ of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed +through many editions; and two comedies, _I Lucidi_, an imitation of the +_Menaechmi_ of Plautus, and _La Trinuzia_, which in some points +resembles the _Calandria_ of Cardinal Bibbiena. His poems are chiefly +satirical and burlesque. All his works are esteemed as models of +literary excellence, and are cited as authorities in the vocabulary of +the Accademia della Crusca. The date of Firenzuola's death is only +approximately ascertained. He had been dead several years when the first +edition of his writings appeared (1548). + + His works have been very frequently republished, separately and in + collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued at + Florence in 2 vols. in 1848. + + + + +FIRESHIP, a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down on an enemy to +set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity, and in the middle +ages. The highly successful employment of one by the defenders of +Antwerp when besieged by the prince of Parma in 1585 brought them into +prominent notice, and they were used to drive the Armada from its +anchorage at Gravelines in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes +with great effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century. +Thus in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald) +were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque Roads; +and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of the Greek +fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the consequent demoralization of +the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely contributed to secure for +the insurgents the command of the sea. In general, however, it was found +that fireships hampered the movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an +enemy's fire, or towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion +was frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position. They +were made by building "a fire chamber" between the decks from the +forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the mainmast. This space was +filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar, together with gunpowder in +iron vessels. The gunpowder and combustibles were connected by trains of +powder, and by bundles of brushwood called "bavins." When a fireship was +to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy, and when +close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat which was towed +astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous a reward of £100, or in +lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be worn as a mark of honour, was +granted in the British navy to the successful captain of a fireship. A +rank of _capitaine de brûlot_ existed in the French navy of Louis XIV., +and was next to the full captain--or _capitaine de vaisseau_. + + + + +FIRE-WALKING, a religious ceremony common to many races. The origin and +meaning of the custom is very obscure, but it is shown to have been +widespread in all ages. It still survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji +Islands, Tahiti, India, the Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is +said Japan. The details of its ritual and its objects vary in different +lands, but the essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests, +fakirs, and devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is +always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with the spring +festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful harvest. Such was the +Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the time of Kublai Khan the Taoist +Buddhists held great festivals to the "High Emperor of the Sombre +Heavens" and walked through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their +priests bearing images of their gods in their arms. Though they were +severely burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed if +they had faith. J.G. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, vol. iii. p. 307) describes +the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien. The chief performers +are labourers who must fast for three days and observe chastity for a +week. During this time they are taught in the temple how they are to +perform their task. On the eve of the festival a huge brazier of +charcoal, often twenty feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of +the great god. At sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A +Taoist priest throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two +exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse the fire +again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The trained performers +then pass through with the image of the god. Frazer suggests that, as +the essential feature of the rite is the carrying of the deity through +the flames, the whole thing is sympathetic magic designed to give to the +coming spring sunshine (the supposed divine emanation), that degree of +heat which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks, +notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and Chota +Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three months in the +year, the priest walks over a narrow trench filled with smouldering wood +ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal +hero Bir by a like performance, and they declare that the walker who is +really "possessed" by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as +observed in the Madras presidency see _Indian Antiquary_, vii. (1878) p. +126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 190 seq. In Fiji the ceremony is +called _vilavilarevo_, and according to an eyewitness a number of +natives walk unharmed across and among white-hot stones which form the +pavement of a huge native oven. In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In +April 1899 an Englishman saw a fire-walk in Tokio (see _The Field_, May +20th, 1899). The fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in +honour of a mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called +_Nistinares_ and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in +the fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine. +Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the +_Nistinares_ (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot embers +and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in the muddy ground +where libations of water have been poured. + +The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged immunity of the +performers from burns. On this point authorities and eyewitnesses differ +greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief was thrown on to the stones +when the first man leapt into the oven, and what remained of it snatched +up as the last left the stones. Every fold that touched the stone was +charred! In some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but +this is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave an +impression that there is something still to be explained in the escape +of the performers from shocking injuries. S.P. Langley, who witnessed a +fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the whole rite as there +practised is a mere symbolic farce (_Nature_ for August 22nd, 1901). + + For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses' reports + _in extenso_, see A. Lang, _Magic and Religion_ (1901). See also Dr + Gustav Oppert, _Original Inhabitants of India_, p. 480; W. Crooke, + _Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, p. 10 + (1896); _Folklore Journal_ for September 1895 and for 1903, vol. xiv. + P. 87. + + + + +FIREWORKS. In modern times this term is principally associated with the +art of "pyrotechny" (Gr. [Greek: pur], fire, and [Greek: technê], art), +and confined to the production of pleasing scenic effects by means of +fire and inflammable and explosive substances. But the history of the +evolution of such displays is bound up with that of the use of such +substances not only for scenic display but for exciting fear and for +military purposes; and it is consequently complicated by our lack of +exact knowledge as to the materials at the disposal of the ancients +prior to the invention of gunpowder (see also the article GREEK FIRE). +For the following historical account the term "fireworks" is therefore +used in a rather general sense. + +_History._--It is usually stated that from very ancient times fireworks +were known in China; it is, however, difficult to assign dates or quote +trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic displays were certainly given in +the Roman circus. While a passage in Manilius,[1] who lived in the days +of Augustus, seems to bear this interpretation, there is the definite +evidence of Vopiscus[2] that fireworks were performed for the emperor +Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,[3] writing +in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set piece, where +whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire were displayed upon the +_pegma_, a species of movable framework employed in the various +spectacles presented in the circus. After the fall of the Western empire +no mention of fireworks can be traced until the Crusaders carried back +with them to Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East, +and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringuccio,[4] writing in 1540, +says that at an anterior period it had been customary at Florence and +Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast of St John or at the +Assumption, and that on these occasions stage properties, including +effigies with wooden bodies and plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty +pedestals, and that these figures gave forth flames, whilst round about +tubes or pipes were erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but +he adds that these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome +when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy, fire +festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England and +France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen Elizabeth,[5] +while De Frezier,[6] writing in 1707, says it was commonly adhered to in +his time, and that on one occasion the king of France himself set a +light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals of these curious rites have +been noted quite recently in Scotland and Ireland.[7] Early use also of +fireworks was made in plays and pageants. Hell or hell's mouth was +represented by a gigantic head out of which flames were made to +issue:[8] in the river procession on the occasion of the marriage of +Henry VII. and Elizabeth (1487) the "Bachelors' Barge" carried a dragon +spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne Boleyn +(1538) "there went before the lord mayor's barge a foyst or wafter full +of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great red dragon that spouted +out wild fyre and round about were terrible monstrous and wild men +casting fire and making a hideous noise."[9] These individuals were +known as "green men." Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic +masks, and carried "fire clubs." They were sometimes employed to clear +the way at processions.[10] + +Soon after the introduction of gunpowder the gunner and fireworker came +into existence; at first they were not soldiers, but civilians who +sometimes exercised military functions, and part of their duties was +intimately connected with the preparation of fireworks both for peace +and war. The emperor Charles V. brought his fireworks under definite +regulations in 1535,[11] and eventually other countries did the same. +The _ignes triumphales_ were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold +poles were erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around +them were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they +presented the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched +dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp welcomed +the archduke of Austria in 1550.[12] Then the "fire combat" came into +fashion. Helmets from which flames would issue were provided for the +performers; there were also swords and clubs that would give out sparks +at every stroke, lances with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck +gave forth a detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons +such as these will be found in Hanzelet's _Recueil de machines +militaires_ (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be somewhat of a +scenic artist who could devise a romantic background and fill it with +shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to make his castle, his +cave or his rocky ravine, and people his stage with distressed damsel, +errant knight or devouring dragon. Furthermore he had to give motion to +the inanimate persons of the drama; thus his dragon would run down an +incline on hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a +rocket.[13] In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the +daughter of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the +king's gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a giant, a +dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted castle, jumbled +up together after the approved fashion of the Spenserian legends.[14] As +time went on a more refined taste rejected the bizarre features of the +old displays, artistic merit began to creep into the designs, and an +effort was made to introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus +Clarmer of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture +of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend, where +Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion, the monster +Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquering Louis XIII.[15] In +the first half of the 17th century many books[16] on fireworks appeared, +which avoided the old grotesque ideas and advocated skill and finesse. +"It is a rare thing," says Nye (1648), "to represent a tree or fountain +in the air." The most celebrated work of them all was the _Great Art of +Artillery_ by Siemienowitz, which was considered important enough to be +translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly eighty +years after it had appeared.[17] The classic façade now came into +fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic figures, and disposed +around were groups of rockets, Roman candles, &c., musket barrels for +projecting stars, and mortars from which were fired shells called +balloons, which were full of combustibles. The figures were carved out +of wood which was soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mâché so +that a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts, removed +from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled with fireworks. + +National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appearance, and +for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over Europe in the +public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph. Representations and +sometimes accounts will be found in the British Museum[18] of the more +important English displays, from the coronation of James II. down to the +peace rejoicings of 1856, during which period national fireworks were +provided by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of +Ranelagh and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private +enterprise, and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs +Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without an official +rival. (J. R. J. J.) + +_Modern Fireworks._--In modern times the art of pyrotechny has been +gradually improved by the work of specialists, who have had the +advantage of being guided by the progress of scientific chemistry and +mechanics. As in all such cases, however, science is useless without the +aid of practical experience and acquired manual dexterity. + +Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with oxygen, and will +do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically as to render the +products of the combination (which may be solid matter or gas) intensely +hot and luminous. This is the general cause of the phenomenon known as +fire. Its special character depends chiefly on the nature of the +substances burned and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to +them. As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted with +about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this oxygen which +supports the combustion of our coal and candles. But it is not often +that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon atmospheric oxygen for his +purposes; for the phenomena of combustion in it are too familiar, and +too little capable of variation, to strike with wonder. Two cases, +however, where he does so may be instanced, viz. the burning of +magnesium powder and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the +imitation of lightning in theatres. Nor does the pyrotechnist resort +much to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may be +produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled with the +gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in anything like its +present form had not certain solid substances become known which, +containing oxygen in combination with other elements, are capable of +being made to evolve large volumes of it at the moment it is required. +The best examples of these solid _oxidizing agents_ are potassium +nitrate (nitre or saltpetre) and chlorate; and these are of the first +importance in the manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these +salts be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity of some +suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder, the resulting mixture +is capable of burning with more or less energy without any aid from +atmospheric oxygen, since each small piece of fuel is in close +juxtaposition to an available and sufficient store of the gas. All that +is required is that the liberation of the oxygen from the solid +particles which contain it shall be started by the application of heat +from without, and the action then goes on unaided. This, then, is the +fundamental fact of pyrotechny--that, with proper attention to the +chemical nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures +(_compositions_ or _fuses_) may be prepared which contain within +themselves all that is essential for the production of fire. + +If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric and chloric +acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped together as oxidizing +agents, most of the other materials used in making firework compositions +may be classed as _oxidizable substances_. Every composition must +contain at least one sample of each class: usually there are present +more than one oxidizable substance, and very often more than one +oxidizing agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the +ingredients of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much +importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of combustion. +The most important oxidizable substances employed are charcoal and +sulphur. These two, it is well known, when properly mixed in certain +proportions with the oxidizing agent nitre, constitute gunpowder; and +gunpowder plays an important part in the construction of most fireworks. +It is sometimes employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but +more commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients and +with other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur, the following +oxidizable substances are more or less employed:--many compounds of +carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c.; certain metallic compounds +of sulphur, such as the sulphides of arsenic and antimony; a few of the +metals themselves, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper. Of +these metals iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the +others. They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings. +They do not contribute much to the burning power of the composition; but +when it is ignited they become intensely heated and are discharged into +the air, where they oxidize more or less completely and cause brilliant +sparks and scintillations. + +Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances, which +neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes employed as +ingredients of the compositions in order to influence the character of +the fire. This may be modified in many ways. Thus the rate of combustion +may be altered so as to give anything from an instantaneous explosion to +a slow fire lasting many minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or +charged with glowing sparks. But the most important characteristic of a +fire--one to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists--is its +_colour_, which may be varied through the different shades and +combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours are imparted +to the flame by the presence in it of the heated vapours of certain +metals, of which the following are the most important:--sodium, which +gives a yellow colour; calcium, red; strontium, crimson; barium, green; +copper, green or blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of +these metals are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are +decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion. Very often +the chlorates and nitrates are employed, as they serve the double +purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting colour to the flame. + +The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great, for the +requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost each size of each +variety, are different. Moreover, every pyrotechnist has his own taste in +the matter of compositions. They are capable, however, of being +classified according to the nature of the work to which they are suited. +Thus there are rocket-fuses, gerbe-fuses, squib-fuses, star-compositions, +&c.; and, in addition, there are a few which are essential in the +construction of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be. +Such are the _starting-powder_, which first catches the fire, the +_bursting-powder_, which causes the final explosion, and the +_quick-match_ (cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of +gunpowder and starch), employed for connecting parts of the more +complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another. Of the +general nature of fuses an idea may be had from the following two +examples, which are selected at hazard from among the numerous recipes +for making, respectively, tourbillion fire and green stars:-- + + _Tourbillion_. _Green Stars_. + Meal gunpowder 24 parts. Potassium chlorate 16 parts. + Nitre 10 " Barium nitrate 48 " + Sulphur 7 " Sulphur 12 " + Charcoal 4 " Charcoal 1 " + Steel filings 8 " Shellac 5 " + Calomel 8 " + Copper sulphide 2 " + +Although the making of compositions is of the first importance, it is +not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do; for the +construction of the _cases_ in which they are to be packed, and the +actual processes of packing and finishing, require much care and +dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard, and are +generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary greatly, according +to the effect which it is desired to produce. The relations of length to +thickness, of internal to external diameter, and of these to the size of +the openings for discharge, are matters of extreme importance, and must +always be attended to with almost mathematical exactness and considered +in connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be used. + +There is one very important property of fireworks that is due more to +the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner in which they are +filled than to the precise chemical character of the composition, i.e. +their power of _motion_. Some are so constructed that the piece is kept +at rest and the only motion possible is that of the flame and sparks +which escape during combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also +fixed, contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary +compositions, balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some kind +of varnish; and these _stars_, as they are called, shot into the air, +one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there with striking +effect. But in many instances motion is imparted to the firework as a +whole--to the case as well as to its contents. This motion, various as +it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two kinds--_rotatory_ motion +round a fixed point, which may be in the centre of gravity of a single +piece or that of a whole system of pieces, and _free ascending_ motion +through the air. In all cases the cause of motion is the same, viz. that +large quantities of gaseous matter are formed by the combustion, that +these can escape only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure +is necessarily exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large gun +is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may be regarded +as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and in them the recoil is +therefore so much greater as to be the most noticeable feature of the +discharge; and it only requires proper contrivances to make the piece +fly through the air like a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis +like a Catherine wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in +pyrotechny than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour. + +The following is a brief description of some of the forms of firework +most employed:-- + + _Fixed Fires._--_Theatre fires_ consist of a slow composition which + may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and lit at + the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured--green, + red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating + buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case, + the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous + fumes. _Bengal lights_ are very similar, but are piled in saucers, + covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match. + _Marroons_ are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind cord + and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a loud + report. They are generally used in _batteries_, or in combination with + some other form of firework. _Squibs_ are straight cylindrical cases + about 6 in. long, firmly closed at one end, tightly packed with a + strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little + bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that the + fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of + course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. _Crackers_ are + characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards + several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine. One + end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a hissing + noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a bend. If + the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at each + report; so that it cannot quite fairly be classed among the fixed + fireworks. _Roman candles_ are straight cylindrical cases filled with + layers of composition and _stars_ alternately. These stars are simply + balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic + filings, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required + size and shape, dusted with gunpowder and dried. They are discharged + like blazing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a + beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of + differently coloured fire in one case. _Gerbes_ are choked cases, not + unlike Roman candles, but often of much larger size. Their fire + spreads like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously + coloured stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. _Lances_ are small + straight cases charged with compositions like those used for making + stars. They are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they + are fixed with wires on suitable wooden frames. They are connected by + _leaders_, i.e. by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they + can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in + detachments, as may be desired. The devices and "set pieces" + constructed in this way are often of an extremely elaborate character; + and they include all the varieties of _lettered designs_, of _fixed + suns_, _fountains_, _palm-trees_, _waterfalls_, _mosaic work_, + _Highland tartan_, _portraits_, _ships_, &c. + + _Rotating Fireworks._--_Pin_ or _Catherine wheels_ are long paper + cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-wire + and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by a pin, + sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the outer primed + end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil causes the + wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with considerable + velocity. _Pastiles_ are very similar in principle and construction. + Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and made to revolve round + its own centre point, it may be used as the engine to drive a wheel or + other form of framework round in a circle. Many varied effects are + thus produced, of which the _fire-wheel_ is the simplest. Straight + cases, filled with some fire-composition, are attached to the end of + the spokes of a wheel or other mechanism capable of being rotated. + They are all pointed in the same direction at an angle to the spokes, + and they are connected together by leaders, so that each, as it burns + out, fires the one next it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant + effects of changing colour are produced; or various fire-wheels of + different colours may be combined, revolving in different planes and + different directions--some fast and some slowly. _Bisecting wheels_, + _plural wheels_, _caprice wheels_, _spiral wheels_, are all more or + less complicated forms; and it is possible to produce, by mechanism of + this nature, a model in fire of the solar system. + + _Ascending Fireworks._--_Tourbillions_ are fireworks so constructed as + to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful + spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the + centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the + composition occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by + six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the + end, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right + and the other to the left; and it is this which imparts the rotatory + motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is + the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the + ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward motion to + the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion; and the + quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that combustion begins at + the two ends simultaneously and does not reach the holes of ascension + till after the rotation is fairly begun. The _sky-rocket_ is generally + considered the most beautiful of all fireworks; and it certainly is + the one that requires most skill and science in its construction. It + consists essentially of two parts,--the body and the head. The body is + a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and is choked at the lower + end, so as to present only a narrow opening for the escape of the + fire. The composition does not fill up the case entirely, for a + central hollow conical bore extends from the choked mouth up the body + for three-quarters of its length. This is an essential feature of the + rocket. It allows of nearly the whole composition being fired at once; + the result of which is that an enormous quantity of heated gases + collects in the hollow bore, and the gases, forcing their way + downwards through the narrow opening, urge the rocket up through the + air. The top of the case is closed by a plaster-of-Paris plug. A hole + passes through this and is filled with a fuse, which serves to + communicate the fire to the head after the body is burned out. This + head, which is made separately and fastened on after the body is + packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber with a conical + top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way through the air and + of holding the _garniture_ of stars, sparks, crackers, serpents, gold + and silver rain, &c., which are scattered by bursting fire as soon as + the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A great variety of + beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of ingenuity in the + choice and construction of this garniture. Many of the best results + have been obtained by unpublished methods which must be regarded as + the secrets of the trade. The _stick_ of the sky-rocket serves the + purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight; and its size must + be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case. In _winged_ + rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act like the + feathers of an arrow. A _girandole_ is the simultaneous discharge of a + large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two hundred), which + either spread like a peacock's tail or pierce the sky in all + directions with rushing lines of fire. This is usually the final feat + of a great pyrotechnic display. + + See Chertier, _Sur les feux d'artifice_ (Paris, 1841; 2nd ed., 1854); + Mortimer, _Manual of Pyrotechny_ (London, 1856); Tessier, _Chimie + pyrotechnique, ou traité pratique des feux colorés_ (Paris, 1858); + Richardson and Watts, _Chemical Technology_, s.v. "Pyrotechny" + (London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, _The Pyrotechnist's Treasury_ + (London, 1878); Websky, _Luftfeuerwerkkunst_ (Leipzig, 1878). + (O. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Manilius, _Astronomica_, lib. v., 438-443. + + [2] Vopiscus, _Carus, Numerianus et Carinus_, ch. xix. + + [3] Claudianus, _De consulatu Manlii Theodori_, 325-330. + + [4] Vanuzzio Biringuccio, _Pyrotechnia_. + + [5] Strutts, _Sports and Pastimes of the English People_. + + [6] De Frezier, _Traité des feux d'artifice_ (1707 and 1747). + + [7] _Notes and Queries_, series 5, vol. ix. p. 140, and series 8, + vol. ii. pp. 145 and 254. + + [8] J.B. Nichols & Sons, _London Pageants_. + + [9] Hall's _Chronicles_. + + [10] J. Bate, _Mysteries of Nature and Art_ (1635). This contains a + picture of a green man. + + [11] _Geschichte des Feuerwerkswesen_ (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee + pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery. + + [12] See "Fairholts' Collection" bequeathed to the Royal Society of + Antiquaries. + + [13] _Journal_ of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. 11. + + [14] Somers' _Tracts_, vol. iii. + + [15] De Frezier. + + [16] Diego Ufano, _Artillery_, in Spanish (1614); Master Gunner + Norton, _The Gunner_ and _The Gunner's Dialogue_ (1628); F. de Malthe + (Malthus), _Artificial Fireworks_, in French and English (1628); + "Hanzelet," _Recueil de plusieurs machines militaires et feux + artificiels pour la guerre et récréation_ (1620 and 1630); + Furttenback, master gunner of Bavaria, _Halinitro Pyrobolio_, in + German (1627); (John Babington Matross, _Pyrotechnia_, 1635); Nye, + master gunner of Worcester, _Art of Gunnery_ (Worcester, 1648); + Casimir Siemienowitz, lieut.-general of the Ordnance to the king of + Poland, _The Great Art of Artillery_, in French (1650). + + [17] Translated by George Shelvocke, 1727, by order of the + surveyor-general of the Ordnance. + + [18] "Crace Collection" in the print-room; the King's Prints and + Drawings in the library. See also "The Connection of the Ordnance + Department with National and Royal Fireworks," _R. A. Journal_, vol. + xxii. No. 11. + + + + +FIRM, an adjective originally indicating a dense or close consistency, +hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This word, in M. Eng. +_ferme_, is derived through the French, from Lat. _firmus_. The medieval +Latin substantive _firma_ meant a fixed payment, either in the way of +rent, composition for periodic payments, &c.; and this word, often +represented by "firm" in translations of medieval documents, has +produced the English "farm" (q.v.). From a late Latin use of _firmare_, +to confirm by signature, _firma_ occurs in many Romanic languages for a +signature, and the English "firm" was thus used till the 18th century. +From a transferred use came the meaning of a business house. In the +Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered into partnership with one +another are called collectively a firm, and the name under which their +business is carried on is called the firm-name. + + + + +FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens. In the Vulgate the word _firmamentum_, +which means in classical Latin a strengthening or support (_firmare_, to +make firm or strong) was used as the equivalent of [Greek: stereôma] +([Greek: stereoein], to make firm or solid) in the LXX., which +translates the Heb. raqiya'. The Hebrew probably signifies literally +"expanse," and is thus used of the expanse or vault of the sky, the verb +from which it is derived meaning "to beat out." In Syriac the verb means +"to make firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. [Greek: stereôma] +and the Lat. _firmamentum_. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the +eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven spheres +of the planets. + + + + +FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. _ferman_, a mandate or patent, cognate +with the Sanskrit _pramana_, a measure, authority), an edict of an +oriental sovereign, used specially to designate decrees, grants, +passports, &c., issued by the sultan of Turkey and signed by one of his +ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's sign-manual and drawn up with +special formalities is termed a _hatti-sherif_, Arabic words meaning a +line, writing or command, and lofty, noble. A written decree of an +Ottoman sultan is also termed an _irade_, the word being taken from the +Arab. _irada_, will, volition, order. + + + + +FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in the reign of +Constantine and his successors. About the year 346 he composed a work +entitled _De erroribus profanarum religionum_, which he inscribed to +Constantius and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still +extant. In the first part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of +worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he +discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries. +The whole tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than +argumentative, and is thus in such sharp contrast with the eight books +on astronomy (Libri VIII. _Matheseos_) bearing the same author's name, +that the two works have usually been attributed to different writers. +Mommsen (_Hermes_ vol. 29, pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the +astronomy--a work interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit--was +composed about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add to +this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a connexion +with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming the same author +for the two books, though it shows that in the 4th century acceptance of +Christianity did not always mean an advance in ethical standpoint. + + The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican + library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been + reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings + of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius. The most correct editions are + those by Conr. Bursian (Leipzig, 1856), and by C. Halm, in his + _Minucius Felix_ (_Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat._ ii.), (Vienna, 1867). The + Neoplatonist work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and has + often been reprinted. For full discussions see G. Ebert, _Gesch. der + chr. lat. Litt._, ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, _Patrologie_, + ed. 1901, p. 354. + + + + +FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of Loire, 8 m. S.W. +of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778. It has important coal mines +known since the 14th century and extensive manufactures of iron and +steel goods, including railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy +woollen hosiery is also manufactured. + + + + +FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north and +Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on Christmas or New +Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be brought the house by +First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is regarded with dread. In +Lancashire a light-haired man is as unlucky as a woman, and it became a +custom for dark-haired males to hire themselves out to "take the New +Year in." In Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first +carol-singer who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire +it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his fairness is +no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always more elaborate than +in England, involving a subsequent entertainment. + + + + +FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF THE. By this name we call the great naval +victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of Admiral +Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 1794. No place name can be given to +it, because the battle was fought 429 m. to the west of Ushant. + +The French people were suffering much distress from the bad harvest of +the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant ships laden with corn +was expected from America. Admiral Vanstabel of the French navy had been +sent to escort it with two ships of the line in December of 1793. He +sailed with his charge from the Chesapeake on the 11th of April 1794. On +the previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet +Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept the +convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel fleet. He +sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail of the line and 15 +smaller vessels, having under his charge nearly a hundred merchant ships +which were to be seen clear of the Channel. On the 4th, when off the +Lizard, the convoy was sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle +ships and 6 or 7 frigates. Two of the line of battle ships were to +accompany them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral +Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to cruise on +the look-out for the French convoy between Cape Ortegal and Belle Isle. +These detachments reduced the force under Lord Howe's immediate command +to 26 of the line and 7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant, +and sent frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to +him that the main French fleet, which was under the command of +Villaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at anchor in +the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which the convoy was +likely to be met with, knowing that if the French admiral came out it +would be to meet the ships with the food and cover them from attack. To +seek the convoy was therefore the most sure way of forcing +Villaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the 18th the British fleet continued +cruising in the Bay of Biscay. On the 19th Lord Howe returned to Ushant +and again reconnoitred Brest. It was then seen that Villaret-Joyeuse had +gone to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had +passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog. On the +19th the French admiral was informed by the "Patriote" (74) that Nielly +had fallen in with, and had captured, the British frigate "Castor" (32), +under Captain Thomas Troubridge, together with a convoy from +Newfoundland. On the same day Villaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch +convoy of 53 sail from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral +Montagu joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had recaptured +part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that Nielly was to join +Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined force would be 9 sail of the +line. Montagu himself had steered to cruise on the route of the convoy +between the 45th and 47th degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to +meet his subordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the +main French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch ships +taken by Villaret-Joyeuse. From them he learnt that on the 19th the +French fleet had been in latitude 47° 46' N. and in longitude 11° 22' N. +and was steering westward. Judging that Montagu was too far to the south +to be in peril from Villaret-Joyeuse, and considering him strong enough +to perform the duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to +pursue the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the weather +hazy. It was not till the 28th of May at 6.30 A.M. that the British +fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47° 34' N. and 13° 39' W. + +The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to windward. +Villaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m. from the British, and +then hauled to the wind on the port tack. It was difficult for the +British fleet to force an action from leeward if the French were +unwilling to engage. Lord Howe detached a light squadron of four ships, +the "Bellerophon" (74), "Russel" (74), "Marlborough" (74), and +"Thunderer" (74) under Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of +the French line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to +windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's ships +began to come up with the last of the French line, the "Révolutionnaire" +(110). A partial action took place which went on till after dark; other +British vessels joined. The "Révolutionnaire" was so damaged that she +was compelled to leave her fleet, and the British "Audacious" (74) was +also crippled and compelled to return to port. The "Révolutionnaire" was +accompanied by another liner. During the night the two fleets continued +on the same course, and next day Howe renewed his attempts to force an +action from leeward. He tacked his fleet in succession--his first ship +tacking first and the rest in order--in the hope that he would be able +to cut through the French rear and gain the weather-gage. +Villaret-Joyeuse then turned all his ships together and again headed in +the same direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer the +British fleet, and another partial action took place between the van of +each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not disposed to charge +home, Howe at noon once more ordered his fleet to tack in succession. +His signal was poorly obeyed by the van, and his object, which was to +cut through the French line, was not at once achieved. But the admiral +himself finally set an example by tacking his flagship, the "Queen +Charlotte" (100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end +of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse, +seeing the peril of the ships in his rear, wore all his ships together +to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable confusion by +these movements, but the British had gained the weather-gage. +Villaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships cut off, but he had +fallen to leeward and the power to force on a battle had passed to Lord +Howe. During the 30th the fleets lost sight of one another for a time. +The French, who had four ships crippled, had been joined by four others, +and were again 26 in number, including the "Patriote." + +The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick weather, +but by the evening the British were close to windward of the French. As +Howe, who had not full confidence in all his captains, did not wish for +a night battle, he waited till the following morning, keeping the French +under observation by frigates. On the 1st of June they were in the same +relative positions, and at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on +the French, throwing his whole line on them at once from end to end, +with orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to place +the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a very bold +departure from the then established methods of fighting, and most +honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had been trained in the old +school. Its essential merit was that it produced a close _mêlée_, in +which the better average gunnery and seamanship of the British fleet +would tell. Lord Howe's orders were not fully obeyed by all his +captains, but a signal victory was won,--six of the French line of +battle ships were taken, and one, the "Vengeur," sunk. The convoy +escaped capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the +20th May was fought, on the following day, and it anchored at Brest on +the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console the French for +their defeat. The failure to stop it was forgotten in England in the +pleasure given by the victory. + + See James's _Naval History_, vol. i. (1837); and Tronde, _Batailles + navales de la France_ (1867). (D. H.) + + + + +FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857- ), British historian, was born at +Sheffield on the 16th of March 1857, and was educated at Clifton College +and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his university he took the Stanhope +prize for an essay on the marquess Wellesley in 1877, became lecturer at +Pembroke College in 1887, and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He +was Ford's lecturer in English history in 1900, and became regius +professor of modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in +1904. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to English +history during the time of the Great Civil War and the Commonwealth; and +although he is somewhat overshadowed by S.R. Gardiner, a worker in the +same field, his books are of great value to students of this period. The +chief of them are: _Life of the Duke of Newcastle_ (1886); _Scotland and +the Commonwealth_ (1895); _Scotland and the Protectorate_ (1899); +_Narrative of General Venables_ (1900); _Oliver Cromwell_ (1900); +_Cromwell's Army_ (1902); and the standard edition of _Ludlow's Memoirs_ +(1894). He also edited the _Clarke Papers_ (1891-1901), and Mrs +Hutchinson's _Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson_ (1885), and wrote an +introduction to the _Stuart Tracts_ (1903), besides contributions to the +_Dictionary of National Biography_. In 1909 he published _The Last Years +of the Protectorate_. + + + + +FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and philanthropist, +was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 1819, the son of a steel +smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his brother, left school to +join their father in the foundry where he was employed, and ten years +later the three together started a six-hole furnace of their own. The +venture proved successful, and besides an extensive home business, they +soon established a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works +were erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards +acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels near +Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance was the principal +feature of their business, and they produced also shot and heavy +forgings. They also installed a plant for the production of steel cores +for heavy guns, and for some time they supplied nearly all the metal +used for gun making by the British government and a large proportion of +that used by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth +became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed "Mark Firth's +Almshouses" at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in 1875, when mayor, he +presented to his native place a freehold park of thirty-six acres. He +founded and endowed Firth College, for lectures and classes in connexion +with the extension of university education, which was opened in 1879. He +died on the 28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeral. + + + + +FIRUZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 72 m. S. of +Shiraz, in 28° 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated in a fertile +plain, 15 m. long and 7 m. broad, well watered by the river Khoja which +flows through it from north to south. The town is surrounded by a mud +wall and ditch. Three or four miles north-west of the town are the ruins +of the ancient city and of a large building popularly known as the +fire-temple of Ardashir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the +gorge through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian +bas-reliefs. + +The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern end, and +according to Persian history it was there that Alexander the Great, when +unable to capture the ancient city, built a dike across the gorge, thus +damming up the water of the river and turning the plain into a lake and +submerging the city and villages. The lake remained until the beginning +of the 3rd century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained +it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gur, and made +it the capital of one of the five great provinces or divisions of Fars. +Firuz (or Peroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's successors, called the +district after his name Firuzabad ("the abode of Firuz"), but the name +of the city remained Gur until Azud ed Dowleh (Adod addaula) (949-982) +changed it to its present name. He did this because he frequently +resided at Gur, and the name meaning also "a grave" gave rise to +unpleasant allusions, for instance, "People who go to Gur (grave) never +return alive; our king goes to Gur (the town) several times a year and +is not dead yet." + +The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat and rice. It is +said that the rice of Firuzabad bears sixty-fold. (A. H.-S.) + + + + +FIRUZKUH, a small province of Persia, with a population of about 5000, +paying a yearly revenue of about £500. Its chief place is a village of +the same name picturesquely situated in a valley of the Elburz, about 90 +m. east of Teheran, at an elevation of 6700 ft. and in 35° 46' N. and +52° 48' E. It has post and telegraph offices and a population of 2500. A +precipitous cliff on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the +ruins of an ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great. + + + + +FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591), German satirist and publicist, was +born, probably at Strassburg (but according to some accounts at Mainz), +in or about the year 1545, and was educated at Worms in the house of +Kaspar Scheid, whom in the preface to his _Eulenspiegel_ he mentions as +his "cousin and preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the +Netherlands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the +degree of _doctor juris_ at Basel. From 1575 to 1581, within which +period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was probably +associated in the business of, his sister's husband, Bernhard Jobin, a +printer at Strassburg, who published many of his books. In 1581 Fischart +was attached, as advocate to the Reichskammergericht (imperial court of +appeal) at Spires, and in 1583, when he married, was appointed _Amtmann_ +(magistrate) at Forbach near Saarbrücken. Here he died in the winter of +1590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names, such as Mentzer, +Menzer, Reznem, Huldrich Elloposkleros, Jesuwalt Pickhart, Winhold +Alkofribas Wüstblutus, Ulrich Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen +Gilt's Mischen; and it is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt +whether some of the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50 +satirical works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic, +among which are--_Nachtrab oder Nebelkräh_ (1570), a satire against one +Jakob Rabe, who had become a convert to the Roman Catholic Church; _Von +St Dominici des Predigermönchs und St Francisci Barfüssers artlichem +Leben_ (1571), a poem with the expressive motto "Sie haben Nasen und +riechen's nit" (Ye have noses and smell it not), written to defend the +Protestants against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that +Luther held communion with the devil; _Eulenspiegel Reimensweis_ +(written 1571, published 1572); _Aller Praktik Grossmutter_ (1572), +after Rabelais's _Prognostication Pantagrueline_; _Flöh Haz, Weiber +Traz_ (1573), in which he describes a battle between fleas and women; +_Affentheuerliche und ungeheuerliche Geschichtschrift vom Leben, Rhaten +und Thaten der ... Helden und Herren Grandgusier Gargantoa und +Pantagruel_, also after Rabelais (1575, and again under the modified +title, _Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung_, 1577); _Neue künstliche +Figuren biblischer Historien_ (1576); _Anmahnung zur christlichen +Kinderzucht_ (1576); _Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich_ (1576, +republished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland), a +poem commemorating the adventure of a company of Zürich arquebusiers, +who sailed from their native town to Strassburg in one day, and brought, +as a proof of this feat, a kettleful of _Hirsebrei_ (millet), which had +been cooked in Zürich, still warm into Strassburg, and intended to +illustrate the proverb "perseverance overcomes all difficulties"; +_Podagrammisch Trostbüchlein_ (1577); _Philosophisch Ehzuchtbüchlein_ +(1578); the celebrated _Bienenkorb des heiligen römischen +Immenschwarms_, &c., a modification of the Dutch _De roomsche +Byen-Korf_, by Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and +reprinted in 1847; _Der heilig Brotkorb_ (1580), after Calvin's _Traité +des reliques_; _Das vierhörnige Jesuiterhütlein_, a rhymed satire +against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems. To Fischart +also have been attributed some "Psalmen und geistliche Lieder" which +appeared in a Strassburg hymn-book of 1576. + +Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also those of +Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He was a lawyer, a +theologian, a satirist and the most powerful Protestant publicist of the +counter-reformation period; in politics he was a republican. Above all, +he is a master of language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His +satire was levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and +private life of his time--at astrological superstition, scholastic +pedantry, ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the +lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the wildest +witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all this he did with a +serious purpose. As a poet, he is characterized by the eloquence and +picturesqueness of his style and the symbolical language he employed. +Thirty years after Fischart's death his writings, once so popular, were +almost entirely forgotten. Recalled to the public attention by Johann +Jakob Bodmer and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his +works have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position in +German literature to be fully understood. + + Freiherr von Meusebach, whose valuable collection of Fischart's works + has passed into the possession of the royal library in Berlin, deals + in his _Fischartstudien_ (Halle, 1879) with the great satirist. + Fischart's poetical works were published by Hermann Kurz in three + volumes (Leipzig, 1866-1868); and selections by K. Goedeke (Leipzig, + 1800) and by A. Hauffen in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ + (Stuttgart, 1893); _Die Geschichtklitterung_ and some minor writings + appeared in Scheible's _Kloster_, vols. 7 and 10 (Stuttgart, + 1847-1848). _Das glückhafft Schiff_ has been frequently reprinted, + critical edition by J. Baechtold (1880). See for further biographical + details, Erich Schmidt in the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, vol. + 7; A.F.C. Vilmar in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedie_; W. + Wackernagel, _Johann Fischart von Strassburg und Basels Anteil an ihm_ + (2nd ed., Basel, 1875); P. Besson, _Étude sur Jean Fischart_ (Paris, + 1889); and A. Hauffen, "Fischart-Studien" (in _Euphorion_, 1896-1909). + + + + +FISCHER, EMIL (1852- ), German chemist, was born at Euskirchen, in +Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852, his father being a merchant +and manufacturer. After studying chemistry at Bonn, he migrated to +Strassburg, where he graduated as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as +assistant to Adolf von Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he +was appointed to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882) +and Würzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A.W. von Hofmann as professor +of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted himself entirely to organic +chemistry, and his investigations are characterized by an originality of +idea and readiness of resource which make him the master of this branch +of experimental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too complex +to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more intricate and +involved the subjects of his investigations the more strongly shown is +the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were, atom from atom, until the +molecule stood revealed, and, this accomplished, the same skill combined +atom with atom until the molecule was regenerated. His _forte_ was to +enter fields where others had done little except break the ground; and +his researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in hand, +and where the solution was not entire, his methods and results almost +always contained the key to the situation. + + In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer, he + published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new compound + of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (q.v.). He + investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, establishing + their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the readiness + with which they entered into combination with other substances, giving + origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds. Of such condensation + products undoubtedly the most important are the hydrazones, which + result from the interaction with aldehydes and ketones. His + observations, published in 1886, that such hydrazones, by treatment + with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded derivatives of indol, + the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent substance of indigo, + were a valuable confirmation of the views advanced by his master, von + Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and the many substances related to + it. Of greater moment was his discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted + with the sugars to form substances which he named osazones, and + which, being highly crystalline and readily formed, served to identify + such carbohydrates more definitely than had been previously possible. + He next turned to the rosaniline dyestuffs (the magenta of Sir W.H. + Perkin), and in collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852), + then at Munich and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since + identified himself mainly with the compounds of this and related + groups, he published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably + established that these dyestuffs were derivatives of triphenyl + methane. Fischer's next research was concerned with compounds related + to uric acid. Here the ground had been broken more especially by von + Baeyer, but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group + (the word _purin_ appears to have been suggested by the phrase _purum + uricum_) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which + established the formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine + and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work in this + field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great series of + papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all referred to a + nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was obtained, but only + after much difficulty; and an immense series of derivatives were + prepared, some of which were patented in view of possible + therapeutical applications.[1] These researches were published in a + collected form in 1907 with the title _Untersuchungen in der + Puringruppe_ (1882-1906). The first stage of his purin work + successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here the + pioneer work was again of little moment, and Fischer may be regarded + as the prime investigator in this field. His researches may be taken + as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled in importance + in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical complexity of these + carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which they could be got into a + manageable form--they generally appeared as syrups--occasioned much + experimental difficulty; but these troubles were little in comparison + with the complications due to stereochemical relations. However, + Fischer synthesized fructose, glucose and a great number of other + sugars, and having showed how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of + the 16 stereoisomeric glucoses, he prepared several stereoisomerides, + thereby completing a most brilliant experimental research, and + simultaneously confirming the van't Hoff theory of the asymmetric + carbon atom (see STEREO-ISOMERISM). The study of the sugars brought in + its train the necessity for examining the nature, properties and + reactions of substances which bring about the decomposition known as + fermentation (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by + ferments and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this + complex subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important + discovery, viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical + constitution of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it + down. The magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by + his collected papers, _Untersuchungen über Kohlenhydrate und Fermente_ + (1884-1908), pp. viii. + 912 (Berlin, 1909). + + From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject of + the proteins, substances which are more directly connected with life + processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a subject + which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework, presents difficulties + which are probably without equal in the whole field of chemistry, + partly on account of the extraordinary chemical complexity of the + substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar manner in which + chemical reactions are brought about in the living organism. But by + the introduction of new methods, Fischer succeeded in breaking down + the complex albuminoid substances into amino acids and other + nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions of most of which have been + solved; and by bringing about the recombination of these units, + appropriately chosen, he prepared synthetic peptides which approximate + to the natural products. His methods led to the preparation of an + octadeca-peptide of the molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any + other synthetic compound; but even this compound falls far short of + the simplest natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from + 2000 to 3000. He considers, however, that the synthesis of more + complex products is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches + made from 1899 to 1906 have been published with the title + _Untersuchungen über Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine_ (Berlin, + 1907). The extraordinary merit of his many researches has been + recognized by all the important scientific societies in the world, and + he was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his + control the laboratory at Berlin became one of the most important in + existence, and has attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant + pupils, many of whom are to be associated with much of the + experimental work indissolubly connected with Fischer. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For a brief review of the pharmacology of purin derivatives see + F. Francis and J.M. Fortescue-Brinkdale, _The Chemical Basis of + Pharmacology_ (1908). + + + + +FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German philosopher, was born +at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of July 1824. After studying +philosophy at Leipzig and Halle, he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg +in 1850. The Baden government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching +owing to his Liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse +considerable sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a +professorship at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the +dignity of his personal character. In 1872, on Zeller's removal to +Berlin, Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history +of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on the 4th of +July 1907. His part in philosophy was that of historian and commentator, +for which he was especially qualified by his remarkable clearness of +exposition; his point of view is in the main Hegelian. His _Geschichte +der neuern Philosophie_ (1852-1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most +accredited modern book of its kind, and he made valuable contributions +to the study of Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lessing, +Schiller and Schopenhauer. + + Some of his numerous works have been translated into English: _Francis + Bacon of Verulam_, by J. Oxenford (1857); _The Life and Character of + Benedict Spinoza_, by Frida Schmidt (1882); _A Commentary on Kant's + Kritik of Pure Reason_, by J.P. Mahaffy (1866); _Descartes and his + School_, by J.P. Gordy (1887); _A Critique of Kant_, by W.S. Hough + (1888); see also H. Falkenheim, _Kuno Fischer und die + litterar-historische Methode_ (1892); and bibliography in J.M. + Baldwin's _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905). + + + + +FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was born in New York +City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father, Nicholas Fish (1758-1833), +served in the American army during the War of American Independence, +rising to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia +College in 1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only +a short time. In 1843-1845 he was a Whig representative in Congress. He +was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor of New York in 1846, and +was defeated by Addison Gardner (Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was +appointed a judge of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected +(November 1847) to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor +of New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States senator in +1851-1857, acting with the Republicans during the last part of his term. +In 1861-1862 he was associated with John A. Dix, William M. Evarts, +William E. Dodge, A.T. Stewart, John Jacob Astor, and other New York +men, on the Union Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to +April 30, 1862) co-operated with the municipal government in the raising +and equipping of troops, and disbursed more than a million dollars for +the relief of New York volunteers and their families. Fish was secretary +of state during President Grant's two administrations (1869-1877). He +conducted the negotiations with Great Britain which resulted in the +treaty of the 8th of May 1871, under which (Article 1) the "Alabama +claims" were referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article +34) was made of the "San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning the Oregon +boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace Conference at +Washington between Spain and the allied republics of Peru, Chile, +Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the formulation (April 12) of a +general truce between those countries, to last indefinitely and not to +be broken by any one of them without three years' notice given through +the United States; and it was chiefly due to his restraint and +moderation that a satisfactory settlement of the "Virginius Affair" was +reached by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was +vice-president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to +1854, and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in +Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893. + +His son, NICHOLAS FISH (1846-1902), was appointed second secretary of +legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was _chargé +d'affaires_ at Berne in 1877-1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882-1886, +after which he engaged in banking in New York City. + + + + +FISH (O. Eng. _fisc_, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch +_visch_, Ger. _Fisch_, Goth. _fisks_, cognate with the Lat. _piscis_), +the common name of that class of vertebrate animals which lives +exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and whose limbs take the +form of fins (see ICHTHYOLOGY). The article FISHERIES deals with the +subject from the economic and commercial point of view, and ANGLING with +the catching of fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the +zodiac known as "the fishes" is treated under PISCES. + +The fish was an early symbol of Christ in primitive and medieval +Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters of the +names and titles of Jesus in Greek, viz. [Greek: Iêsous Christos, Theou +Huios, Sôtêr], Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which together spell +the Greek word for "fish," [Greek: ichthys]. The fish is also said to be +represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at both ends, and formed +by the intersection of two circles. This figure, also known as the +_vesica piscis_, is common in ecclesiastical seals and as a glory or +aureole in paintings of sculpture, surrounding figures of the Trinity, +saints, &c. The figure is, however, sometimes referred to the almond, as +typifying virginity; the French name for the symbol is _Amande +mystique_. + +The word "fish" is used in many technical senses. Thus it is used of the +purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor to the bill-board; of a +piece of wood or metal used to strengthen a sprung mast or yard; and of +a plate of metal used, as in railway construction, for the strengthening +of the meeting-place of two rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but +it is probably an adaptation of the Fr. _fiche_, that which "fixes," a +peg. This word also appears in the English form "fish," in the metal, +pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used for +scoring points, &c., in many games. + + + + +FISHER, ALVAN (1792-1863), American portrait-painter, was born at +Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792. At the age of +eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and subsequently was employed +by the village house painter, but at the age of twenty-two he began to +paint portrait heads, alternating with rural scenes and animals, for +which he found patrons at modest prices. In ten years he had saved +enough to go to Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the +galleries of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognized +group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty, Harding +and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his work in +Boston--perhaps the first joint display by painters ever held in that +city. Though he had considerable talent for landscape, a lack of +patronage for such work caused him to confine himself to portraiture, in +which he was moderately successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the +16th of February 1863. + + + + +FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian, was born at +Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the 10th of August 1827. He graduated at +Brown University in 1847, and at the Andover Theological Seminary in +1851, spent three years in study in Germany, was college preacher and +professor of divinity at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street +professor of ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in +1861-1901, when he was made professor _emeritus_. He was president of +the American Historical Association in 1897-1898. His writings have +given him high rank as an authority on ecclesiastical history. They +include _Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity_ (1865); +_History of the Reformation_ (1873), republished in several revisions; +_The Beginnings of Christianity_ (1877); _Discussions in History and +Theology_ (1880); _Outlines of Universal History_ (1886); _History of +the Christian Church_ (1887); _The Nature and Method of Revelation_ +(1890); _Manual of Natural Theology_ (1893); _A History of Christian +Doctrine_, in the "International Theological Library" (1896); and _A +Brief History of Nations_ (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909. + + + + +FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535), English cardinal and bishop of Rochester, +born at Beverly, received his first education at the collegiate church +there. In 1484 he went to Michael House, Cambridge, where he took his +degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491, and, after filling several offices in +the university, became master of his college in 1499. He took orders; +and his reputation for learning and piety attracted the notice of +Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and +chaplain. In 1501 he became vice-chancellor; and later on, when +chancellor, he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the +beneficent schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and +Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek and +Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his own benefactions +took the form of scholarships, fellowships and lectures. In 1503 he was +the first Margaret professor at Cambridge; and the following year was +raised to the see of Rochester, to which he remained faithful, although +the richer sees of Ely and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated +as one of the English prelates for the Lateran council (1512), but did +not attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at the +legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence of the +brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of display; +and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the cardinal's demand +for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A great friend of Erasmus, whom +he invited to Cambridge, whilst earnestly working for a reformation of +abuses, he had no sympathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he +preached at Paul's Cross (12th of May 1521) at the burning of Luther's +books. Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther, he +joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply to the +scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained the esteem of the +king until the divorce proceedings began in 1527; and then he set +himself sternly in favour of the validity of the marriage. He was Queen +Catherine's confessor and her only champion and advocate. He appeared on +her behalf before the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise +against the divorce that was widely read. + +Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform brought +forward in parliament in 1529 was to put down the only moral force that +could withstand the royal will, he energetically opposed the reformation +of abuses, which doubtless under other circumstances he would have been +the first to accept. In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed +(11th of February 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the +clergy "to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic Church"; +and it was his influence that brought in the saving clause, _quantum per +legem Dei licet_. By listening to the revelations of the "Holy Maid of +Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton (q.v.), he was charged with misprision +of treason, and was condemned to the loss of his goods and to +imprisonment at the king's will, penalties he was allowed to compound by +a fine of £300 (25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April) +to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he was ready +to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the offspring of +Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith, trust and +obedience to any foreign authority or potentate. Refusing to take the +oath, he was committed (15th of April) to the Tower, where he suffered +greatly from the rigours of a long confinement. On the passing of the +Act of Supremacy (November 1534), in which the saving clause of +convocation was omitted, he was attainted and deprived of his see. The +council, with Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of +May 1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of the +church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher, while +driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the +whole Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most +learned and pious bishops of the time. Paul III., who had begun his +pontificate with the intention of purifying the curia, was unaware of +the grave danger in which Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the +king with the bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of +St Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate. Henry, +in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there should be +no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at Westminster (17th +of June 1535) on the charge that he did "openly declare in English that +the king, our sovereign lord, is not supreme head on earth of the Church +of England," and was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a +sentence afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22nd +of June 1535, after saying the _Te Deum_ and the psalm _In te Domine +speravi_. His body was buried first at All Hallows, Barking, and then +removed to St. Peter's _ad vincula_ in the Tower, where it lies beside +that of Sir Thomas More. His head was exposed on London Bridge and then +thrown into the river. As a champion of the rights of conscience, and +as the only one of the English bishops that dared to resist the king's +will, Fisher commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was +beatified by Pope Leo XIII. + + Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the _Opera J. Fisheri quae + hactenus inveniri potuerunt omnia_ (Würzburg, 1595), and some of his + published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra + series. No. 27, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the + P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the main + sources for his biography are _The Life and Death of that renowned + John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London, 1655), by an anonymous + writer, the best edition being that of Van Ortroy (Brussels, 1893); + Bridgett's _Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester_ (London, + 1880 and 1890); and Thureau, _Le bienheureux Jean Fisher_ (Paris, + 1907). (E. Tn.) + + + + +FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON (1841- ), British admiral, +was born on the 25th of January 1841, and entered the navy in June 1854. +He served in the Baltic during the Crimean War, and was engaged as +midshipman on the "Highflyer," "Chesapeake" and "Furious," in the +Chinese War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton, +and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on the 25th of +January 1860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November of the same year. +The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars at sea in which the +British navy had to take a part, after 1860, allowed few officers to +gain distinction by actual services against the enemy. But they were +provided with other ways of proving their ability by the sweeping +revolution which transformed the construction, the armament, and the +methods of propulsion of all the navies of the world, and with them the +once accepted methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a +commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French +"Gloire" had set going the long duel in construction between guns and +armour. He early made his mark as a student of gunnery, and was promoted +commander on the 2nd of August 1869, and post-captain on the 30th of +October 1874. In this rank he was chosen to serve as president of the +committee appointed to revise "The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet." It was +his already established reputation which pointed Captain Fisher out for +the command of H.M.S. "Inflexible," a vessel which, as the +representative of a type, had supplied matter for much discussion. As +captain of the "Inflexible" he took part in the bombardment of +Alexandria (11th July 1882). The engagement was not arduous in itself, +having been carried out against forts of inferior construction, +indifferently armed, and worse garrisoned, but it supplied an +opportunity for a display of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the +midst of a long naval peace. The "Inflexible" took a prominent part in +the action, and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed +in Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and commanded it in +various skirmishes with the enemy. After the Egyptian campaign, he was, +in succession, director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October +1886 to May 1891); A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd +August 1890, at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral +superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord +commissioner of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and +vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the North American +and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he acted as naval expert at the +Hague Peace Conference, and on the 1st of July 1899 was appointed +commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command, +Admiral Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1902, +and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st of August 1903, +from which post he passed to that of first sea lord. Besides holding the +foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and +G.C.B. in 1902. As first sea lord, during the years 1903-1909, Sir John +Fisher had a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures +of naval development and internal reform; and he was also one of the +committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed in 1904 to report +on the measures necessary to be taken to put the administration and +organization of the British army on a sound footing. The changes in +naval administration made under him were hotly canvassed among critics, +who charged him with autocratic methods, and in 1906-1909 with undue +subservience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever the +efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact was undeniable +that for the first time for very many years the navy suffered, as a +service, from the party-spirit which was aroused. It was notorious that +Admiral Lord Charles Beresford in particular was acutely hostile to Sir +John Fisher's administration; and on his retirement in the spring of +1909 from the position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he +put his charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry was +held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its report, +published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty, though it +encouraged the belief that some important suggestions as to the +organization of a naval "general staff" would take effect. On the 9th of +November Sir John Fisher was created a peer as Baron Fisher of +Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired from the Admiralty in January 1910. + + + + +FISHERIES,[1] a general term for the various operations engaged in for +the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man. From time +immemorial fish have been captured by various forms of spears, nets, +hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a historical description of the +methods and appliances that have been used would comprise a considerable +portion of a treatise on the history of man. For the most part the +operations of fishing have been comparable with those of primitive +hunting rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible +account of considerations affecting the supply; when one locality has +been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing pressure +on every source of food, and the enormous improvements in the catching +power of the engines involved, has made some kind of regulation and +control inevitable, with the result that in practically every civilized +country there exists some authority for the investigation and regulation +of fisheries. + +The annexed table shows the department of state and the approximate +expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries of the world. +The figures are only approximate and are based on the expenditure for +1907. In the case of England and Wales the expenditure is not complete, +as under the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast +of England and Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees +with power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number +of districts advantage has been taken of this act. But even with this +addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that undertaken +by most of the countries of northern Europe, although British fisheries +are much more valuable than those of all the rest of Europe together. + + + _Administration of Fisheries._ + + +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+ + | | Norway. | Sweden. | Denmark. | Germany. | Holland. | Belgium. | + +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+ + |Department of State |Trade and |Agriculture.|Agriculture.|Imperial De- |Agriculture.|Agriculture and| + | | Industry and | | | partment of | | Woods and | + | | Agriculture. | | | Interior. | | Forests. | + |Approximate Annual Expenditure--| | | | | | | + | 1. Administration | £15,000 | £5,500 | £10,200 |Conducted by | £12,500 | .. | + | | | | | Maritime | | | + | | | | | States | | | + | 2. Scientific Fishery Research| 5,000 | 4,500 | 6,300 | £27,750 | 2,500 | £1,000 | + +--------------------------------+---------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------+---------------+ + +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+ + | | Canada. | U.S. America. | England and | Scotland. | Ireland. | + | | | | Wales. | | | + +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+ + |Department of State |Marine and |Bureau of Fisheries|Agriculture and|Fishery Board. |Agriculture and | + | | Fisheries.| under Commerce | Fisheries. | | Technical | + | | | and Labour. | | | Instruction. | + |Approximate Annual Expenditure--| | | | | + | 1. Administration | £159,000 |Conducted by | £8,000 | £13,000 | £10,000 | + | | | Costal States | | | | + | 2. Scientific Fishery Research| 48,000 | £141,000 | 14,000 | 800 | .. | + | | | | | (expended | | | + | | | | |through agents)| | | + +--------------------------------+------------+-------------------+---------------+---------------+----------------+ + +The early years of the 20th century witnessed another great expansion of +the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The herring fishery has been +revolutionized partly by the successful introduction of steam drifters, +which have markedly increased the aggregate catching power, and partly +by the prosecution of the fishery on one part or other of the British +coasts during the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish +vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries in +alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost entirely +to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad fleets around all the +coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian drifters carry on their +operations at different seasons of the year from Shetland in the north +(for herrings) to Newlyn in the west (for mackerel). In Scotland the +value of the nets employed on steam drifters has increased from £3000 in +1899 to £61,000 in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has +increased from about four to about five million cwts. during the past +ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings, which reached a +total of two million cwts. for the first time in 1899, has exceeded +three millions in each year from 1902 to 1905. + +In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In 1906 Messrs +Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling fleet of 50 vessels for +working the North Sea grounds, and the delivery of new steam trawlers at +Grimsby was greater than at any previous period, these vessels being +designed more especially to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the +range of which has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About +100 vessels were added to the Grimsby fleet in the course of twelve +months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length and over 20 +ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage, the accommodation both +for fish and crews being considerably in excess of that provided in +vessels of this class hitherto. + +Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief European +countries show the expanse of this industry, and the enormous +preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers are as follows:-- + + Belgium 23 + Denmark 5 + France 224 + Germany 239 + Netherlands 81 + Norway 20 + Portugal 13 + Spain 12-18 + Sweden 11 + Scotland 292 + Ireland 6 + England and Wales 1317 + +A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been manifested in +other maritime countries of Europe, particularly in Germany and Holland, +but the total number of steam trawlers belonging to those countries in +1905 scarcely exceeded the mere additions to the British fishing fleet +in 1906. + +The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be gauged by a +comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries of other European +countries. The following table is based upon official returns and mainly +derived from the _Bulletin Statistique_ of the International Council for +the Study of the Sea. It represents in pounds sterling the value of the +produce of the various national fisheries during the year 1904, except +in the case of France, for which country the latest available figures +are those for 1902. + + _Values in Thousands of £._ + + +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+ + | |Herring.| Cod. |Plaice.| Other | Total. | + | | | | | Fish. | | + +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+ + | British Isles | 1870 |1015 |1100 |5496 | 9,481,000 | + | Norway | 352 | 834 | .. | 443 | 1,629,000 | + | Denmark | 117 | 60 | 171 | 223 | 571,000 | + | Germany | 220 | 64[2]| 40[2]| 512[2]| 836,000 | + | Holland | 575 | 53 | 58 | 311 | 997,000 | + | France (1902) | 635 | 851[3]| .. |3562 | 5,048,000 | + +---------------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+ + +The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief subdivisions of +the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the official returns, +was as follows: + + +------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Fish landed in | Excluding | Including | + | | Shellfish. | Shellfish. | + +------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | England and Wales | £7,200,644 | £7,502,768 | + | Scotland | 2,649,148 | 2,719,810 | + | Ireland | 360,577 | 414,364 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Total |£10,210,369 |£10,636,942 | + +------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + +These figures show an increase of £1,000,000 as compared with the total +value in 1900, and of more than £3,000,000 as compared with 1895 (cf. +Table I. at end). + +In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock, and flat fish +yielded about three-quarters of the total, and the drift fisheries for +herring and mackerel nearly the whole of the remaining quarter. The line +fisheries in England and Wales are now relatively insignificant and +yield only about one-fortieth of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end). + +In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference in the +relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905 herrings and +other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-half of the total, +the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and the line fisheries +one-eighth (cf. Table X.). + + +-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+----------+ + | | Trawl and Line. |Drift and Stake-nets.|Shellfish.| + | Fishery. +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands |Thousands | + | | of cwt. | of £. | of cwt. | of £. | of £. | + +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + |England and Wales, 1905--| | | | | | + | East Coast | 6017 | 4713 | 3042 | 1145 | 202 | + | South Coast | 303 | 245 | 728 | 268 | 64 | + | West Coast | 1002 | 720 | 219 | 111 | 36 | + |Scotland, 1906-- | | | | | | + | East Coast | 2296 | 1202 | 2709 | 819 | 25 | + | Orkney and Shetland | 114 | 42 | 1735 | 642 | 10 | + | West Coast | 148 | 62 | 591 | 210 | 38 | + |Ireland, 1905-- | | | | | | + | North Coast | 9 | 5 | 177 | 70 | 7 | + | East Coast | 79 | 70 | 110 | 32 | 18 | + | South and West Coast | 46 | 35 | 577 | 148 | 28 | + +-------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + +In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly +three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief item +in the south and west, and the herring on the north and east coasts. +The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the trawl fisheries, the +headquarters of which are at Dublin, Howth and Balbriggan on the east, +and at Galway and Dingle on the west coast. + +The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the Scottish +fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly £4,120,000. Upon a moderate +estimate, the total value of the boats and gear employed in the +fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot be less than £12,000,000. + +The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the separate +coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of landings from +the latest data available. + +From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of the east +coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate enormously over +those of the western coasts, whether attention be paid to the drift-net +fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries for bottom fish with +trawls and lines. + +The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supplementary +tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British fishing +industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity. The community at +large has benefited by the more plentiful supply, and the merchant by +the general lowering of prices at the ports of landing (see Tables +I.-IV. at end). But it is to be noted that this wave of prosperity, as +on previous occasions, has been attained by the application of increased +and more powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new +fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase, natural or +artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,--unless perhaps the +abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to the destruction of their +enemies by trawling. British fisheries are still pursued as a form of +hunting rather than of husbandry. In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay +trawling banks were discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1905 rich +plaice grounds in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a +quarter of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England +were caught in waters beyond the North Sea. + +_Table showing, in Thousands of Cwt., the Quantity of Fish landed by +Steam Trawlers on the East Coast of England from Fishing Grounds within +and beyond the North Sea respectively._ + + +-----+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ + | | Within the North Sea. | Beyond the North Sea. | + |Year.+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+ + | |Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.|Cod.|Haddock.|Plaice.|All Kinds.| + +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+ + | 1903| 729| 2301 | 812 | 4776 | 470| 389 | 114 | 1189 | + | 1904| 637| 2032 | 658 | 4228 | 447| 429 | 284 | 1389 | + | 1905| 640| 1560 | 621 | 3739 | 603| 518 | 244 | 1682 | + +-----+----+--------+-------+----------+----+--------+-------+----------+ + +The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have +distinguished since 1903 between the catch of fish within and beyond the +North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers and liners. Neglecting the +catch of the liners as relatively insignificant, and of the sailing +trawlers as relatively small and practically constant during the three +years in question, we see from the board's figures (see table above) +that the total catch of English steam trawlers within the North Sea +during 1904 and 1905 was in each year 500,000 cwt. less than in the year +before, amounting to a gross decrease of more than 25% in 1905 as +compared with 1903, and, in relation to the catching power employed, to +an average decrease of 2½ cwt. per boat per diem. This decrease may be +largely explained by the occurrence in 1903 of one of those periodic +"floods" of small cod and haddock which take place in the North Sea from +time to time; but the steady decline in the number of North Sea voyages +by English steam trawlers--from 29,300 in 1903 to 26,700 in +1905--affords a clear indication of the fact that many of our trawling +skippers are deserting the North Sea for more profitable fishing +grounds. The number of Scottish steam trawlers "employed" at Scottish +North Sea ports has also declined during the same period from 240 in +1903 to 228 in 1905. + +The following table shows the number of British and foreign steam +trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English vessels the +number of fishing voyages made within and beyond the North Sea +respectively:-- + + +-----+-----------+-----------------------+---------+-----------+ + | | |English Steam Trawlers.| | | + | | | Voyages.[4] | | German, | + |Year.| Boats +-----------+-----------+Scottish.| Dutch and | + | |Registered.| Within | Beyond |Employed.| Belgian. | + | | | North Sea.| North Sea.| |Registered.| + +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+ + | 1903| 1060 | 29,328 | 1822 | 240 | 181 | + | 1904| 1049 | 28,589 | 2120 | 233 | 199 | + | 1905| 1064 | 26,670 | 2671 | 228 | 228 | + +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+-----------+ + +Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this withdrawal of +British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled year after +year by increasing numbers of continental fishing boats. The number of +fishing steamers (practically all trawlers) registered at North Sea +ports in Germany and Holland was 159 in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905, +and 330 in 1907. + +It is satisfactory under these circumstances to note the increased +attention which has been paid in recent years to the acquisition of more +exact knowledge upon the actual state of the fisheries and upon the +biological and other factors which influence the supply. + +A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations, both +scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the course of 1902 +under the International Council for the Study of the Sea (see below). +The Fishery Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association for +England were commissioned to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great +Britain, and the English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards +with the means for collecting more adequate statistics. + +Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of fish eggs +have located important spawning grounds of cod, haddock, plaice, sole, +eel, &c.; marking experiments with cod, plaice and eel have thrown much +light upon the migrations of these fishes; and the rate of growth of +plaice, cod and herring has been elucidated in different localities. The +percentage of marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has +been found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a +significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern conditions. +It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock of plaice on the +central grounds of the North Sea is mainly attributable to the excessive +rate of capture of plaice during their annual off-shore migrations from +the coast. On the other hand, it has been shown that the growth-rate of +plaice on the Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or +six-fold in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are +reared,--facts which open up the possibility of increasing the permanent +supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption of some plan of +commercial transplantation (see PISCICULTURE). + +_History._--A brief review may now be given of the history of the +administration of British sea-fisheries since 1860, and of the steps +which have been taken for the attainment of scientific and statistical +information in relation thereto. + +In 1860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley, Mr +(afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Lord +Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the condition of the British +sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise of existing methods of +fishing, and the necessity or otherwise of the existing legislation. The +important report of this commission, issued in 1866, embodied the +following main conclusions and recommendations:--(1) the total supply of +fish obtained upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of +further augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a +wastefully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament which +profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued in the open +sea should be repealed and "unrestricted freedom of fishing be +permitted hereafter"; (4) all fishing boats should be lettered and +numbered as a condition of registration and licence. + +In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by the passing of +the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the registration of fishing boats +were issued by order in council in the following year. (New regulations +were introduced in 1902.) + +In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buckland and Walpole to inquire +into the alleged destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish, +especially by the use of the beam-trawl and ground seine. Their report +is an excellent summary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the +time, and shows how little was then known with regard to the eggs and +spawning habits of our marine food fishes. + +In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dissolved and the +Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter being empowered to +take such measures for the improvement of the fisheries as the funds +under their administration might admit of. Arrangements were made in the +following year with Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the +latter to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of +studies on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed +greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning the +reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act +of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth and St Andrews Bay against +trawlers as an experiment for the purpose of ascertaining the result of +such prohibition on the supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The +treasury also, by a further grant of £3000, enabled the board to +purchase the steam-yacht "Garland" as a means of carrying out regular +experimental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the +results of these experiments have been annually published, and were +summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's report for +1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that "no very marked change took place +in the abundance of food-fishes generally, either in the closed or open +waters of the Firth of Forth or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the +prohibition of trawling. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and +lemon soles, which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in +numbers in all the areas investigated, whether closed or open, while +dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if not quite +universal, increase. + +The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the +presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have now +exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of eggs and fry +for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable; and (2) that +protection of in-shore areas alone is insufficient to check the +impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore. (For critical +examinations of Dr Fulton's account see M'Intosh, _Resources of the +Sea_, London, 1889; Garstang, "The Impoverishment of the Sea," _Journ. +Mar. Biol. Ass._ vol. vi., 1900; and Archer, _Report of Ichthyological +Committee_, Cd. 1312, 1902.) + +A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently established by the +board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen in 1900. + +In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the late earl of +Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints against the practice +of beam-trawling on the part of line and drift-net fishermen. A small +sum of money (£200) was granted to the commission for the purpose of +scientific trawling experiments, which were carried out by Professor +M'Intosh. + +The report of this commission was an important one, and its +recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics for +England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887). + +In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom was +founded for the scientific study of marine zoology and botany, +especially as bearing upon the food, habits and life-conditions of +British food-fishes, crustacea and molluscs. Professor Huxley was its +first president, and Professor Ray Lankester, who initiated the +movement, succeeded him. A large and well-equipped laboratory was +erected at Plymouth, and formally opened for work in 1888. The work of +the association has been maintained by annual grants of £400 from the +Fishmongers' Company and £1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the +subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a half-yearly +journal recording the results of its investigations. + +In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was organized under +the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of that year. The department +publishes annually a return of statistics of sea-fish landed, a report +on salmon fisheries (transferred from the home office), and a report on +sea fisheries. It consists of several inspectors under an assistant +secretary of the board; it has no power to make scientific +investigations or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries. +In 1894 the administration of the acts relating to the registration of +fishing vessels, &c., was transferred to the fisheries department. + +In 1888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the constitution +(by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local fisheries +committees having, within defined limits, powers for the regulation of +coast fisheries in England and Wales. The powers of district committees +were extended under Part II. of the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under +the Fisheries (Shell Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts +have now been created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales. +Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been prohibited in +nearly all the territorial waters of England and Wales, and trawling by +smaller boats has been placed under a variety of restrictions. Local +scientific investigations have been initiated under several of the +committees, especially in Lancashire by Professor Herdman of Liverpool +and his assistants. + +In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the west coast of +Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin Society, with assistance from +the government, and in the hands of Mr E.W.L. Holt led to the +acquisition of much valuable information concerning the spawning habits +of fishes and the distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard. + +In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act of +1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole of the Moray +Firth--including a large tract of extra-territorial waters--against +trawling, in order to test experimentally the effect of protecting +certain spawning grounds in the outer parts of the firth. The closure +has given rise to a succession of protests from the leaders of the +trawling industry in Aberdeen and England. It seems that the difficulty +of policing so large an area, as well as the absence of any power to +enforce the restriction on foreign vessels, have defeated the original +intention; and the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in +deference to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of +whose industry--from economic causes which have been alluded to +above--is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The controversy +has had the effect of causing the transference of a number of English +trawlers to foreign flags, especially the Norwegian. + + _Statistics._--The following tables summarize the official statistics + of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and + Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of + fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries. + + + TABLE I.--_Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and exported + for the United Kingdom._ + + +------+-------------------------+-----------+-------------+ + | Year.| Fish landed | Net | Exports of | + | | (excluding Shell-fish). | Imports. |British Fish.| + |------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+ + | | Cwt. | | | | + | 1890 | 12,774,010 | £6,361,487 |£2,315,572 | £1,795,267 | + | 1895 | 14,068,641 | 7,168,025 | 2,453,676 | 2,282,406 | + | 1900 | 14,671,070 | 9,242,491 | 2,937,486 | 3,000,852 | + | 1905 | 20,164,276 | 10,210,369 | 2,250,259 | 4,164,869 | + +------+------------+------------+-----------+-------------+ + + _Note._--Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly of + salted or cured fish to the value of over £900,000 in 1905) are not + included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports + consist mainly of herrings. + + + TABLE II.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Flat Fishes landed + on the Coasts of England and Wales (all caught with Trawl-nets, except + Halibut in part)._ + + +-----+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ + | | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). | + |Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | | + | +-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+ + | |Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.|Sole.|Turbot.|Brill.|Plaice.|Halibut.| + +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+ + | | | | | | |£ s. | £ s. | £ s. | £ s. | £ s. | + | 1890| 72.1| 51.9 | 15.4 | 623 | 95 |6 7 | 3 13 | 2 8 | 0 19 | 1 10 | + | 1895| 82.8| 77.9 | 19.0 | 789 | 114 |6 16 | 3 17 | 2 11 | 1 1 | 1 15 | + | 1900| 75.3| 60.7 | 20.7 | 752 | 136 |7 11 | 4 3 | 2 14 | 1 4 | 1 14 | + | 1905| 80.1| 89.5 | 22.4 | 1074 | 120 |5 18 | 3 11 | 2 11 | 0 19 | 1 17 | + +-----+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+-----+-------+------+-------+--------+ + + + TABLE III.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fishes, + caught with Trawls and Lines, landed on the Coasts of England and + Wales._ + + +-----+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------+ + | | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). | + |Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | | + | +----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+ + | |Cod.|Haddock.|Hake.|Ling.|Sundries.| Cod.|Haddock.| Hake.| Ling.|Sundries.| + +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+ + | | | | | | |s. d.| s. d. | s. d.| s. d.| s. d. | + | 1890| 363| 1585 | .. | 96 | 1151 |13 10| 9 7 | .. | 14 3| 14 0 | + | 1895| 496| 2433 | 132 | 114 | 1013 |12 5| 9 9 | 16 2| 11 8| 13 7 | + | 1900| 589| 2487 | 233 | 100 | 1190 |14 8| 13 8 | 15 10| 12 10| 14 10 | + | 1905|1423| 2148 | 484 | 165 | 1425 |12 4| 12 5 | 13 4| 11 3| 9 8 | + +-----+----+--------+-----+-----+---------+-----+--------+------+------+---------+ + + + TABLE IV.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes + landed on the Coasts of England and Wales (caught with Drift-, Seine-, + and Stow-nets)._ + + +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ + | | Quantity | Average Price (per Cwt.). | + |Year.| (in Thousands of Cwt.). | | + | +---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+ + | |Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.|Mackerel.|Herring.|Pilchard.|Sprat.| + +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+ + | | | | | | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d.| + | 1890| 509 | 1332 | 61 | 99 | 15 5 | 7 2 | 5 10 | 3 0 | + | 1895| 375 | 1437 | 65 | 91 | 16 3 | 5 10 | 5 3 | 3 1 | + | 1900| 321 | 2425 | 106 | 73 | 15 9 | 7 8 | 4 6 | 4 11 | + | 1905| 682 | 3062 | 169 | 75 | 8 11 | 7 7 | 5 0 | 3 6 | + +-----+---------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+------+ + + + TABLE V.--_Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed on + the Coasts of England and Wales._ + + +-----+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ + | | Number. | Average Price. | + | +----------------+--------+---------+-------------------------+---------+ + |Year.| Thousands. | Mills. |Thousands| Per Hundred. | Per Cwt.| + | | | | of Cwt. | | | + | +----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+ + | |Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.|Sundries.| + +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+ + | | | | | | £. s.| £. s. | s. d. | s. d. | + |1890 | 4808 | 922 | 47.6 | 505 | 1 4 | 4 18 | 6 1 | 5 0 | + |1895 | 4501 | 677 | 25.3 | 590 | 1 4 | 4 8 | 6 2 | 4 11 | + |1900 | 5177 | 654 | 37.8 | 539 | 1 2 | 4 7 | 7 0 | 5 8 | + |1905 | 5106 | 503 | 35.4 | 423 | 1 3 | 4 15 | 5 9 | 5 6 | + +-----+----------------+--------+---------+------+---------+--------+---------+ + + + TABLE VI.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and Shell-fish + landed in Scotland._ + + +-----+----------------------------------------------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+ + | | In Thousands of Cwt. | Cwt. | Number | + | | | | (Thousands). | + |Year.+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+ + | | | | Flounder,| | | | | | | | | | | + | |Herring.|Lemon| Plaice, |Halibut.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Skate.|Mussels.|Crabs.|Lobsters.|Oysters.| + | | |Sole.|and Brill.| | | | | | | | | | | + +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+ + | 1890| 3980 | 17 | 81 | 20 | 449| 170 | 754 | 75 | 54 | 181 | 2882 | 643 | 350 | + | 1895| 4077 | 19 | 80 | 29 | 459| 165 | 1001 | 43 | 59 | 194 | 2548 | 610 | 239 | + | 1900| 3520 | 21 | 102 | 26 | 434| 157 | 761 | 75 | 72 | 143 | 3128 | 680 | 796 | + | 1905| 5343 | 31 | 561 | 36 | 677| 151 | 932 | 184 | 100 | 103 | 1990 | 760 | 218 | + +-----+--------+-----+----------+--------+----+-----+--------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+--------+ + + + TABLE VII.--_Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and + Shell-fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts._ + + +-----+-------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+ + | | In Thousands of Cwt. | Number (Thousands). | + |Year.+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+ + | |Mackerel.|Herring.|Sole.|Turbot.|Cod.|Ling.|Haddock.|Whiting.|Hake.|Oysters.|Crabs.|Lobsters.| + +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+ + | 1890| 502 | 85 | 4.5 | 1.4 |39.6| 14.8| 16.4 | 13.5 | 25.3| 576 | 228 | 238 | + | 1895| 339 | 171 | 1.8 | 1.0 |43.6| 29.7| 30.9 | 11.9 | 18.7| 563 | 240 | 276 | + | 1900| 278 | 284 | 3.1 | 1.5 |33.6| 11.9| 12.4 | 11.9 | 16.3| 236 | 202 | 286 | + | 1905| 505 | 354 | 3.5 | 0.8 |18.6| 9.1| 11.3 | 18.3 | 7.1| 348 | 175 | 236 | + +-----+---------+--------+-----+-------+----+-----+--------+--------+-----+--------+------+---------+ + + _Note._--The Irish statistics of shell-fish are very incomplete, owing + to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for + collecting statistics over large sections of the coast. + + + TABLE VIII.--_Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register + for 1905, omitting 2nd Class Steamers and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or + Navigated by Oars only and Vessels unemployed._ + + +----------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+ + | | England and Wales. | Scotland. | Ireland. | + | Mode of +---------+---------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------+ + | Fishing. |Steamers.| Sailing. |Steamers.| Sailing. |Steamers.| Sailing. | + | | 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| 1st Cl. |1st Cl. 2nd Cl.| + +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+ + |Trawling | 1173 | 904 | 586 | 244 | .. | 68 | 10 | 142 | 283 | + |Drift-nets| 263 | 562 | 539 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + |Lines | 56 | 29 | 685 | 209 | 3403 | 2910 | .. | 229 | 2776 | + |Various | 21 | 215 | 2277 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+ + | Total | 1513 | 1710 | 4087 | 453 | 3403 | 2978 | 10 | 371 | 3059 | + +----------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+ + + _Note._--1st class = steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and + other boats of at least 15 tons registered tonnage (in Scotland + exceeding 30 ft. keel). 2nd class = less than 15 tons tonnage, or from + 18 to 30 ft. keel. + + + TABLE IX.--_Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed and (B) of + other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing._ + + +-----+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | | England and | Scotland. | Ireland. | United | + |Year.| Wales. | | | Kingdom. | + | +--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | A. | B. | A. | B. | A. | B. | A. | B. | + +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | 1890| 32,503 | 9312 | 34,319 | 20,829 | 10,121 | 13,981 | 78,450 | 46,337 | + | 1895| 32,229 | 8995 | 31,044 | 12,329 | 8,692 | 18,218 | 73,090 | 41,230 | + | 1900| 31,589 | 7994 | 27,288 | 10,288 | 8,677 | 18,982 | 68,708 | 37,814 | + | 1905| 34,318 | 8132 | 29,064 | 10,487 | 8,744 | 17,079 | 73,293 | 36,131 | + +-----+--------+------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + + TABLE X.--_Catch and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish landed in + Scotland._ + + +------+----------------------+----------------------+ + | Year.| Line-caught Fish. | Trawled Fish. | + +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + | | Cwt. | | Cwt. | | + | 1890 | 1,577,299 | £591,059 | 291,812 | £203,620 | + | 1895 | 1,479,654 | 548,629 | 531,695 | 291,165 | + | 1900 | 757,416 | 371,173 | 1,077,082 | 703,427 | + | 1905 | 735,654 | 348,610 | 1,745,431 | 948,117 | + +------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+ + +In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took evidence as to +the expediency of adopting measures for the preservation of the +sea-fisheries in the seas around the British Islands, with especial +reference to the alleged wasteful destruction of under-sized fish. They +recommended the adoption of a size-limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice, +and 10 in. for turbot and brill, below which the sale of these fishes +should be prohibited, on the ground that these limits would approximate +to those already adopted by foreign countries. + +In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act +transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish fisheries +to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland. +The department is provided with a steam cruiser, the "Helga," 375 tons, +fully equipped for fishery research, as well as with a floating marine +laboratory. Mr Holt, formerly of the Marine Biological Association, was +appointed to take charge of the scientific work. + +In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons was appointed +to consider and take evidence on the proposals of the Sea Fisheries +Bill, which had been framed in accordance with the recommendations of +the select committee of 1893, but had failed to pass in several sessions +of parliament. Owing to marked divergencies of opinion on the question +whether the low size-limits proposed would be effectual in keeping the +trawlers from working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the +committee reported against the bill, and urged the immediate equipment +of the government departments with means for undertaking the necessary +scientific investigations. + +In 1901 an international conference of representatives of all the +countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at Christiania to +revise proposals which had been drafted at Stockholm in 1899 for a +scientific exploration of these waters in the interest of the fisheries, +to be undertaken concurrently by all the participating countries. The +British government was represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M +G., with Professor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W. +Garstang and Dr H.R. Mill as advisers. The proposals were subsequently +accepted, with some restrictions, and an international council of +management was appointed by the participating governments. The Fishery +Board for Scotland and the Marine Biological Association from England +were commissioned in 1902 to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great +Britain, and a special grant of £5500 per annum was made to each body by +the Treasury for this purpose. Two steamers, the "Huxley" and the +"Goldseeker," were chartered for the investigations and began work in +1902 and 1903 from Lowestoft and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the +work of the first five years were published in 1909. + +In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the Committee on +Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report as to the best means by +which scientific fishery research could be organized and assisted in +relation to the state or local authorities. The committee consisted of +Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P. (chairman), Mr W.F. Archer, Mr Donald +Crawford, Rev. W.S. Green, Professor W.A. Herdman, Hon. T.H.W. Pelham, +Mr S.E. Spring Rice and Professor J.A. Thomson. Sir Herbert Maxwell +resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn up (September +1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff. The committee +recommended the provision of more complete statistics; the provision and +maintenance of five special steamers (where not already existing) to +work in connexion with as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of +the three coasts of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and +Ireland; the provision of three biological assistants at each +laboratory; the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries +committees to expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a +fishery council for England and Wales, and of a conference of +representatives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and +Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade was +transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W.E. Archer, chief inspector +of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of the new Board of +Agriculture and Fisheries. + +In 1907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed to inquire into +the scientific and statistical investigations carried on in relation to +the fishing industry of the United Kingdom. The committee consisted of +Mr H.J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman), Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald +MacLeod, Mr N.W. Helms, M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers +Mitchell, F.R.S., Mr J.S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W.S. Green, Mr R.H. +Rew and Mr L.S. Hewby. This committee reviewed the work that had already +been done and urged its continuation and extension under the direction +of a central council composed of representatives of the government +departments concerned with fishery matters in England, Scotland and +Ireland, with a scientific chairman and director, and further insisted +on the need of international co-operation in the investigations. + +_United States Fisheries._--The administration of the fisheries of the +United States of America is under the control of the several coastal +states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washington, which reports to the +secretary of commerce and labour, conducts a vast amount of scientific +fishery investigation, issues admirable statistical and biological +reports, and conducts on a very large scale work on the replenishment of +the fishing stations by artificial means (see PISCICULTURE). Although in +recent years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support to +the investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an amount +actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great Britain, the +fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds that of Canada. +A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American ships from the +Newfoundland coasts and from those of other British provinces, is landed +at American ports, but as the following recent table shows, it is much +less than that taken from American waters. + + +_Quantities and Values of Fish landed by American Vessels at Boston and +Gloucester, Mass., in 1905._ + + +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+ + | | Quantities. | Value. | + +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+ + |(a) From fishing grounds off U.S. | | | + | coasts | 152,241,139 | £669,640 | + |(b) From fishing grounds off Newfoundland | 17,165,083 | 103,145 | + |(c) From fishing grounds off other | | | + | British provinces | 32,608,343 | 192,517 | + +------------------------------------------+--------------+----------+ + +The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase from year +to year. There has been a decline in some important branches owing to +indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects of civilization on +certain kinds of animal life and in certain restricted areas. Such +diminution has been more than compensated for by growth resulting from +the invasion of new fishing grounds made possible by increase in the +sea-going capacity of the vessels employed, by improvement in the +preservation and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization +of products which until comparatively recently were disregarded or +considered without economic value. The annual value of the water +products taken and sold by the United States fishermen now amounts to +over £11,000,000, and this sum does not include the very large +quantities taken by the fishermen for home consumption or captured by +sportsmen and amateurs. Between two and three hundred thousand persons +make a livelihood by the industry, and the capital involved exceeds +£16,000,000. + +The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output of the +United States industry exceeds the combined output of all other +countries in the world. The most notable feature of this fishery is that +nearly half the total yield now comes from cultivated grounds, so that +the business is being placed on a secure basis. Virginia has now taken +the first rank as an oyster-producing state, oyster farming being now +highly developed with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels. + +The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel, +herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity, the +annual value being between one and two million pounds. The lobster +fishery shows a markedly diminishing yield, the diminution having been +progressive since about 1890, and being attributed to over-fishing and +violation of the restrictive regulations. At present a large part of the +lobsters consumed in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there +is evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural +operations now being carried out. + +The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry of the +country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific and Arctic +oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, uncertain and often +unremunerative. The annual value of the take is now under £200,000. + +The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon, shad, +alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the rivers from the +ocean) has continued to provide an increasing source of income to +fishermen, the combined value of the catch on the Atlantic and Pacific +seaboards now amounting to over £3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of +the Great Lakes yield about £600,000 annually. (W. Ga.; P. C. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For fisheries in the cases of CORAL, OYSTER, PEARL, SALMON, + SPONGES and WHALE, see these articles; for fishing as a sport see + ANGLING. + + [2] Estimated as regards about one-third of the total. + + [3] Including the Newfoundland fishery. + + [4] Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply + London by means of carriers. + + + + +FISHERY (LAW OF). This subject has (1) its international aspect; (2) its +municipal aspect. On the high seas outside territorial waters the right +of fishery is now recognized as common to all nations. Claims were made +in former times by single nations to the exclusive right of fishing in +tracts of open sea; such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the +North Sea, as lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland, +against England in the 17th century, and against England and Holland in +the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing within 15 +German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland. This claim, +however, was always effectively resisted on the ground stated in Queen +Elizabeth's remonstrance to Denmark on the subject in 1602, that "the +law of nations alloweth of fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas +where a nation hath propertie of command." The enunciation of this +principle is to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court +which decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in +1894. (See BERING SEA ARBITRATION; ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.) The +right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be restrained or +regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain has entered into +conventions with other nations with regard to fishing in certain parts +of the sea. The provisions of such conventions are made binding on +British subjects by statutes. + + Instances of these are the conventions of 1818 and 1872 between Great + Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern + coasts of British North America and the United States within certain + limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the + treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France in + 1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining these + countries, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of + the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the Newfoundland + fisheries (see NEWFOUNDLAND); the convention of 1882 between Belgium, + Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and Holland, regarding the + North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between the same parties concerning + the liquor traffic in the North Sea; and the declaration regarding the + same waters made between Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement + of differences between their fishermen subjects in such + extra-territorial waters. At the instance of the Swedish government + the British parliament also passed an act in 1875 to establish a close + time for the seal fishery in the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts + of Greenland. + +Cases have come before British courts with regard to the whale fishery +in northern and southern seas; and the customs proved to exist among the +whaling ships of the nations engaged in a particular trade have been +upheld if known to the parties to the action. In territorial waters, on +the other hand, fishery is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects +of the country owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there +except by convention. + +(a) _Tidal Waters._--In British territorial waters, it may be stated, +as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental to the soil +covered by the waters in which that right is exercised. + + The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and reflows, and + of all estuaries or arms of the sea, is vested in the crown; and + therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale's words, "the right of the + fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally + lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged + in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of + fishing belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland + river." "But," he continues, "though the king is the owner of this + great waste, and as a consequent of his propriety hath the primary + right of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the + common people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein + as a public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their + right be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable + rivers where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a + propriety exclusive of that common liberty." (_De Jure Maris_, ch. + iv.). + +This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the +seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when taken in +territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee, though caught by +another person. These are whales, sturgeons and porpoises; and grampuses +are also sometimes added (whales, porpoises and grampuses being "fishes" +only in a legal sense). In Scotland only whales which are of large size +can be so claimed; but the rights of salmon fishing in the sea and in +public and private rivers, and those of mussel and oyster fishing, +except in private rivers, are _inter regalia_, and are only enjoyable by +the crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was +formerly practised by nets and engines on the shore, and the mussel and +oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the shore, the opinion +was held at one time that angling for salmon was a public right, but the +later decisions have established that the right of salmon fishing by +whatever means is a _jus regale_ in Scotland. In England the crown in +early times made frequent grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal +waters, and instances of such fisheries belonging to persons and +corporations are very common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the +crown declared that "no rivers shall be defended from henceforth, but +such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our grandfather, by +the same places and the same bounds as they were wont to be in his +time"; and thus bound itself not to create a private fishery in any +navigable tidal river. Judicial decision and commentators having +interpreted this statute according to the spirit and not the letter, at +the present day the right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs +to the public, and they can only be excluded by a particular person or +corporation on proof of an exclusive right to fish there not later in +its origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to +prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant's +predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or +prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant may be +presumed. This exclusive right of fishing may be either a franchise +derived from the crown, or may arise by virtue of ownership of the soil +covered by the waters. + + In Lord Hale's words: "Fishing may be of two kinds ordinarily, viz. + fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the soil, + or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the soil + or an interest or propriety of it; or otherwise it is a local fishing + that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil,--such are + _gurgites_, wears, fishing-places, _borachiae_, _stachiae_, which are + the very soil itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such + as these a subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many + religious houses had, or as parcel of or appurtenant to their manors, + as both corporations and others have had; and this not only in + navigable rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and + havens, yea, and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to + the shore. And these kinds of fishings are not only for small + sea-fish, such as herrings, &c., but for great fish, as salmons, and + not only for them but for royal fish.... Most of the precedents + touching such rights of fishing in the sea, and the arms and creeks + thereof belonging by usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the + propriety of the very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some + of them even within parts of the seas" (_De Jure Maris_, ch. v.) + +An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the old case +of _Royal Fishery of the River Bann_ (temp. James I., Davis 655), and +the modern one of _Wilson_ v. _Crossfield_, 1885, 1 T.L.R. 601, where a +right of fishery in gross was established; but the latter kind, as Hale +says, is much more common, and the presumption is always in its favour; +_à fortiori_ where the fishing is proved to have been carried on by +means of engines or structures fixed in the soil. In England the public +have not at common law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal +waters, the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes +incidental to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them, +landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so by +proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed); but statutes +relating to particular parts of the realm, such as Cornwall for the +pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In Scotland a right of salmon +fishing separate from land implies the right of access to and use of the +banks, foreshores or beach for the purposes of the fishing; and so does +white fishing by statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, e.g. +in a public river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to +Irish fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There +is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first taker; +and the custom of the trade decides when a fish is taken or not, e.g. in +the whale fishery the question whether a fish is "loose" or not has come +before English courts. + +(b) _Fresh Waters._---In non-tidal waters in England and Ireland, for +the reason given above, the presumption is in favour of the fishery in +such waters belonging to the owners of the adjacent lands; "fresh waters +of what kind soever do of common right belong to the owners of the soil +adjacent, so that the owners of the one side have of common right the +property of the soil, and consequently the right of fishing _usque ad +filum aquae_, and the owners of the other side the right of soil or +ownership and fishing unto the _filum aquae_ on their side; and if a man +be owner of the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of +the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the extent +of his land in length" (Hale, ch. i.). There is a similar presumption +that the owner of the bed of a river has the exclusive right of fishery +there, and this is so even though he does not own the banks; but these +presumptions may be displaced by proof of a different state of things, +e.g. where the banks of a stream are separately owned the owner of one +bank may show by acts of ownership exercised over the whole stream that +he has the fishery over it all. The crown prerogative of fishery, never +it seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a +subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a subject, +nor has it any right _de jure_ to the soil or fisheries of an inland +lake such as Lough Neagh (_Bristow_ v. _Cormican_, 1878, 3 App. Cas. +641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish in fresh waters by +prescription or otherwise although they are navigable; such a right is +unknown to law, because a profit _à prendre in alieno solo_ is neither +to be acquired by custom nor by prescription under the Prescription Act. +It has been decided that the "dwellers" in a parish cannot acquire such +a right, being of too vague a class; but the commoners in a manor may +have it by custom; and the "free inhabitants of ancient tenements" in a +borough have been held capable of acquiring a right to dredge for +oysters in a fishery belonging to the corporation of the borough on +certain days in each year by giving proof of uninterrupted enjoyment of +it from time immemorial, on the presumption that this was a condition to +which the grant made to the corporation was subject. + +In Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout in private +streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and owners of opposite +banks may fish _usque ad medium filum aquae_; and where two owners own +land round a private loch, both have a common of fishing over it. The +public cannot prescribe for it, for a written title either to adjacent +lands or to the fishery is necessary. A right of way along the bank of a +river or loch does not give it, nor does the right of the public to be +on or at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing +carries with it the right of trout fishing: and eel fishing passes in +the same way. + +In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided into (a) +several (_separalis_), (b) free (_libera_), (c) common of piscary +(_communis_), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction +between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain. +Blackstone's opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in right +of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined to a public +river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil. He is supported by +later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson. On the other hand, the +opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed to this view. "A man may prescribe +to have a several fishery in such a water, and the owner shall not fish +there; but if he claim to have common of fishery or free fishery the +owner of the soil shall fish there" (Co Littl. 122 A); "one man may have +the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the river +and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in that river" +(_De Jure Maris_, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one instance he +distinguished them, in a later case thought that they were "all one." +Later decisions have established the latter view, and it is now settled +that although the owner of the several fishery is prima facie owner of +the soil of the waters, this presumption may be displaced by showing +that the terms of the grant only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and +that the words "sole and exclusive fishery" give a several fishery _in +alieno solo_. In the words of Mr Justice Willes, "the only substantial +distinction is between an exclusive right of fishery, usually called +'several,' and sometimes 'free,' as in 'free warren,' and a right in +common with others, usually called 'common of fishery,' and sometimes +'free,' as in 'free port.' A several fishery means an exclusive right to +fish in a given place, either with or without the property in the soil" +(_Malcolmson_ v. _O'Dea_, 1863, 10 H.L.). A common of piscary, or "a +right to fish in common with certain other persons in a particular +stream," is usually found in manors, the commoners of which may have the +right to enjoy it to an extent sufficient for the sustenance of their +tenements; but they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription, +exclude the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the +soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of "fishery" will +prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered by water +or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery therein; a +several fishery will not merge on being resumed by the crown; and a +fishery situate within a manor is presumed to belong to the owners of +adjacent land, and not to the lord. A several fishery, as already seen, +being an incorporeal hereditament, can only be transferred by deed, and +therefore cannot be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on +proof that the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the +right of fishing in the _locus in quo_ to the knowledge of and without +interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish a title +to a several fishery, a "paper title," i.e. one founded on documentary +evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be supported by evidence of +acts of ownership in recent times, for otherwise it will be presumed +that a person other than the alleged owner is the real owner. If the +waters of a tidal river leave their old channel and flow into another, +the owner of a several fishery in the old channel cannot claim to have +it in the new one; but, on the other hand, the owner of a several +fishery can take advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon +and into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are +ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal or +fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and may do +so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that in navigable +waters he does not interfere with the right of navigation, and that in +navigable and other waters he does not interfere with the fishing rights +of his neighbours or infringe the provisions made by old or modern +statutes as to the methods of taking the fish, e.g. by weirs. These were +forbidden in rivers by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the +seashore by a statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh +waters traceable to a date not later than 25 Edward III. are lawful, for +the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable waters. It +seems, however, that at common law any fixed structures put up by the +owner of a fishery in his part of a river, which at all prevent the free +passage of fish to the waters above or below, give the owners of +fisheries therein a right of action against him. So the grantee of an +exclusive fishery with rod and line in an unnavigable river can prevent +any person from polluting the river higher up and so damaging the +fishery. At common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their +natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they are +caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of salmon by +statute. + +Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in territorial +or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England, the Board of +Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it took it over from the +Board of Trade) power by order to create sea fisheries districts, +comprising any part of the sea within which British subjects have, by +international law, the exclusive right of fishing, and to provide for +the constitution of a local fisheries committee to regulate the sea +fisheries in such district, which can make by-laws for that purpose. It +appoints fishery officers to enforce them, prescribes a close time for +sea fish (which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act), +has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea coast or at +sea beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of summary jurisdiction, +can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or regulate, protect and develop +fisheries for all or any kind of shell fish. Special provision is also +made by statute for the oyster fishery and herring fishery (applicable +also to Scotland), and that of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs +(applicable to all the United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board +can constitute sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to +those in England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea +fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring, mussel +and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of money intended +to relieve local distress and taxation towards the encouragement of sea +fisheries, and marine superintendence and enforcement of Scottish sea +fisheries laws. In Ireland the sea fisheries are under the direction of +the inspectors of Irish fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery +commissioners and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special +statutes, besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom, +deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is also +appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical instruction. +In all three component parts of the United Kingdom there are also +special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater fish: for England, +the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1861-1907, and the Freshwater +Fisheries Acts 1878-1886; for Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those +of 1862-1868, and for trout and freshwater fish those of 1845-1902; for +Ireland, the Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1842-1901. A similar scheme is +adopted in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are +set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish by +fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection and +the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of summary +jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case are--for England the +Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for Scotland the Fishery Board, and +for Ireland the inspectors of fisheries, and in England a certain +official number of conservators on such boards are appointed by the +county councils. The Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the +Board of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders for +the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries within any +area on the application of any board of conservators, or of a county +council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value of private fisheries. +There are also special acts dealing with the fishing in certain rivers, +such as the Thames, Medway, Severn, Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907 +applies, however, to the Esk, but not otherwise to Scotland nor to +Ireland.) Throughout the United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other +explosive substance to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is +prohibited, as it is also in England in any private waters subject to +the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also +forbidden to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish. +Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to kill +fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant it. There +are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the protection of +fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the acts already +mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish. + +Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts 1894-1906 for +sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the colonies), relating to +their registration, carrying official papers, carrying boats in +proportion to their tonnage, the punishment of offences on board, the +wages of their crews, and keeping record of all casualties, punishments +and the like on board. As regards trawlers, especially in the case of +those of 25 tons and upwards, a statutory form of agreement with the +crew is prescribed, as well as accounts of wages and discharges; and +skippers and second hands must have certificates of competency, which +are granted under similar conditions to those required in the case of +sea-going ships and are registered with the Board of Trade. Scottish +fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886 (except as +regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits, dealt with by the +above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868, which applies to all +British fishing boats. Particular lights must be carried by fishing +boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The Cran Measures Act) legalized +the use of cran measures in connexion with trading in fresh herrings in +England and Wales, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries being +empowered to make regulations under the act. + + AUTHORITIES.--Green, _Encyclopaedia of Scots Law_ (Edinburgh, 1896); + Stewart, _Law of Fishing in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1869); Woolrych, + _Waters_ (London, 1851); Paterson, _Fishery Laws of the United + Kingdom_ (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore, _Foreshore_ + (London, 1888); Phillimore, _International Law_ (3rd ed., London, + 1879); Martens, _Causes célèbres du droit des gens_ (Leipzig, 1827); + Selwyn, _Nisi Prius_, _Fishery_ (London, 1869). (G. G. P.*) + + + + +FISHGUARD (_Abergwaun_), a market town, urban district, contributory +parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembrokeshire, Wales, near the +mouth of the river Gwaun, which here flows into Fishguard Bay of St +George's Channel. Pop. (1901) 2002. Its railway station, which is the +chief terminus of the South Wales system of the Great Western railway, +is at the hamlet of Goodwick across the bay, a mile distant to the +south-west. Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save +those of the N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value has long been +recognized. After many years of labour and at a great expenditure of +money the Great Western railway has constructed a fine breakwater and +railway pier at Goodwick across the lower end of the bay, and an +important passenger and goods traffic with Rosslare on the opposite +Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906. + +The importance of Fishguard is due to the local fisheries and the +excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure. The chief +historical interest of the town centres round the so-called "Fishguard +Invasion" of 1797, in which year on the 22nd of February three French +men-of-war with troops on board, under the command of General Tate, an +Irish-American adventurer, appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the +adjoining parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a +body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated, +practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the local +militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and John Campbell, +Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile sailing away towards Ireland. +For many years the castles and prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke +were filled to overflowing with French prisoners of war. Close to the +banks of the Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years +the residence of Richard Fenton (1746-1821), the celebrated antiquary +and historian of Pembrokeshire. + + + + +FISHKILL LANDING, or FISHKILL-ON-THE-HUDSON, a village of Fishkill +township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A., about 58 m. N. of New York +City, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1890) +3617; (1900) 3673, of whom 540 were foreign-born; (1905) 3939; (1910) +3902, of Fishkill township (1890) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905) 13,183; +(1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages of Matteawan +(q.v.), Fishkill and Glenham. Fishkill Landing is served by the New York +Central & Hudson River and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways; +by railway ferry and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the +West Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway to +Matteawan. Four miles farther N. on Fishkill Creek is the village of +Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1905) 579. In this village are +two notable old churches, Trinity (1769), and the First Dutch Reformed +(1731), in which the New York Provincial Congress met in August and +September 1776. At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the +Society of the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manufactures +of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss) and other +machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile. The village of +Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The first settlement in the +township was made about 1690. The township of Fishkill was, like +Newburgh, an important military post during the War of Independence, and +was a supply depot for the northern Continental Army. + + + + +FISK, JAMES (1834-1872), American financier, was born at Bennington, +Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief period in school he ran +away and joined a circus. Later he became a hotel waiter, and finally +adopted the business of his father, a pedlar. He then became a salesman +for a Boston dry goods firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning +for him a share in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts +during the Civil War, and it is said by engaging in cotton smuggling, +he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in +speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York and was +employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew in his war against +Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway, and as a result of the +compromise that was reached he and Jay Gould became members of the Erie +directorate. The association with Gould thus began continued until his +death. Subsequently by a well-planned "raid," Fisk and Gould obtained +control of the road. They carried financial "buccaneering" to extremes, +their programme including open alliance with the Tweed "ring," the +wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges. Their +attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the fateful Black Friday +of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was shot and killed in New York City +by E.S. Stokes, a former business associate, on the 6th of January 1872. + + + + +FISK, WILBUR (1792-1839), American educationist, was born in +Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 1792. He studied at the +university of Vermont in 1812-1814, and then entered Brown University, +where he graduated in 1815. He studied law, and in 1817 came under the +influence of a religious revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the +following year he was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to +the New England conference. His influence with the conference turned +that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral in tendency +to the establishment of secondary schools and colleges. Upon the removal +in 1824 of the conference's academy at New Market, New Hampshire, to +Wilbraham, Massachusetts, Fisk became one of its agents and trustees, +and in 1826 its principal. He drafted the report of the committee on +education to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined +the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president of +Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in 1831 until his +death on the 22nd of February 1839 in Middletown, Connecticut. His +successful administration of the Wesleyan Academy at Wilbraham and of +Wesleyan University were remarkable. He was an able controversialist, +and in the interests of Arminianism attacked both New England Calvinism +and Unitarianism; he published in 1837 _The Calvinistic Controversy_. He +also wrote _Travels on the Continent of Europe_ (1838). + + See _Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk_ (New York, 1842), edited by + Joseph Holdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston, 1890), + in the _American Religious Leaders Series_; also a sketch in _Memoirs + of Teachers and Educators_ (New, York, 1861), edited by Henry Barnard. + + + + +FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901), American historical, philosophical and +scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 30th of +March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July +1901. His name was originally Edmund Fiske Green, but in 1855 he took the +name of a great-grandfather, John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a +grandmother in Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college +he had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed most +boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had studied several +modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in 1863, continuing to study +languages and philosophy with zeal; spent two years in the Harvard law +school, and opened an office in Boston; but soon devoted the greater +portion of his time to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one +year, he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his +graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures at +Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was history tutor; in +1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the Doctrine of Evolution, +afterwards revised and expanded as _Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy_ +(1874); and between 1872 and 1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that +time he devoted himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly +all of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures +or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general title, such +as _Myths and Myth-Makers_ (1872), _Darwinism and Other Essays_ (1879), +_Excursions of an Evolutionist_ (1883), and _A Century of Science_ +(1899). He did much, by the thoroughness of his learning and the lucidity +of his style, to spread a knowledge of Darwin and Spencer in America. His +_Outlines of Cosmic_ _Philosophy_, while Setting forth the Spencerian +system, made psychological and sociological additions of original matter, +in some respects anticipating Spencer's later conclusions. Of one part of +the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of one of his later +books (_Through Nature to God_, 1899): "The detection of the part played +by the lengthening of infancy in the genesis of the human race is my own +especial contribution to the Doctrine of Evolution." In _The Idea of God +as affected by Modern Knowledge_ (1885) Fiske discusses the theistic +problem, and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an +illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great immanent +cause includes and controls both physical and moral forces. More +original, perhaps, is the argument in the immediately preceding work, +_The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of his Origin_ (1884), which is, +in substance, that physical evolution is a demonstrated fact; that +intellectual force is a later, higher and more potent thing than bodily +strength; and that, finally, in most men and some "lower animals" there +is developed a new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line +of thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical that +it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards, and may +or must be enduring, or at its best immortal. + +It is principally, however, through his work as a historian that Fiske's +reputation will live. His historical writings, with the exception of a +small volume on _American Political Ideas_ (1885), an account of the +system of _Civil Government in the United States_ (1890), _The +Mississippi Valley in the Civil War_ (1900), a school history of the +United States, and an elementary story of the American Revolution, are +devoted to studies, in a unified general manner, of separate yet related +episodes in American history. The volumes have not appeared in +chronological order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial +history, as follows: _The Discovery of America, with some Account of +Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest_ (1892, 2 vols.); _Old +Virginia and her Neighbours_ (1897, 2 vols.); _The Beginnings of New +England_; or, _The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and +Religious Liberty_ (1889); _Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America_ +(1899); _The American Revolution_ (1891, 2 vols.); and _The Critical +Period of American History_, 1783-1789 (1888). Of these the most +original and valuable is the _Critical Period_ volume, a history of the +consolidation of the states into a government, and of the formation of +the constitution. (C. F. R.) + + + + +FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN (1865- ), American actress, was born in New +Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As a child she played, under her +mother's name of Maddern, with several well-known actors. In 1882 she +first appeared as a "star," but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske +and was absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared +in _Hester Crewe_, a play written by her husband, and afterwards acted a +number of Ibsen's heroines, and in _Becky Sharp_, a dramatization of +Thackeray's _Vanity Fair_. In 1901 she opened, in opposition to the +American theatrical "trust," an independent theatre in New York, the +Manhattan. She won a considerable reputation in the United States as an +emotional actress. + + + + +FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to designate +an abnormal communication leading either from the surface of the body to +a normal cavity or canal, or from one normal cavity or canal to another. +These communications are the result of disease or injury. They receive +different names according to their situation: _lachrymal fistula_ is the +small opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of +the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; _salivary fistula_ is an +opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; _anal fistula_, or _fistula +in ano_, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the bowel; _urethral +fistula_ is the result of a giving way of the tissues behind a +stricture. These are examples of the variety of the first kind of +fistula; while _recto-vesical fistula_, a communication between the +rectum and bladder, and _vesico-vaginal fistula_, a communication +between the bladder and vagina, are examples of the second. The abnormal +passage may be straight or tortuous, of considerable diameter or of +narrow calibre. Fistulae may be caused by an obstruction of the normal +channel, the result of disease or injury, which prevents, for example, +the tears, saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their +retention gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order that an +exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which bursts, for +example, into the gut or through the skin; the cavity does not close, +and a fistula is the result. The fistulous channel remains open as long +as the contents of the cavity or canal with which it is connected can +pass through it. To obliterate the fistula one must remove the +obstruction and encourage the flow along the natural channel; for +example, one must open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to +reach the nasal cavity, and the _lachrymal fistula_ will close; and so +also in the _salivary_ and _urethral_ fistulae. Sometimes it may be +necessary to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy +material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill up from its +deepest part, as in _anal fistula_; in other cases it may be necessary +to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch them together. + (E. O.*) + + + + +FIT, a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division of a poem, +a canto, in this sense often spelled "fytte." (2) A sudden but temporary +seizure or attack of illness, particularly one with convulsive paroxysms +accompanied by unconsciousness, especially an attack of apoplexy or +epilepsy, but also applied to a transitory attack of gout, of coughing, +fainting, &c., also of an outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper. +In a transferred sense, the word is also used of any temporary or +irregular periods of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions +as "by fits and starts." (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper, +becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications for a +specific purpose, "a fit and proper person"; and also as prepared for, +or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The verb "to fit" is thus +used intransitively and transitively, to be adapted for, to suit, +particularly to be of the right measurement or shape, of a dress, of +parts of a mechanism, &c., and to make or render a thing in such a +condition. Hence the word is used as a substantive. + +The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one in origin, +or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and spelling but with +different origin in each different meaning. In Skeat's _Etymological +Dictionary_ (ed. 1898) (1) and (2) are connected and derived from the +root of "foot," which appears in Lat. _pes_, _pedis_. The evolution of +the word is: step, a part of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word +of Scandinavian origin, with the idea of "knitted together" (cf. Ice. +_fitja_, to knit together, Goth, _fetjan_, to adorn); the ultimate +origin is a Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. "fetch"). The _New +English Dictionary_ suggests that this last root may be the origin of +all the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting; the +early use of "fit" (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed out that +the meanings of "fit," suitable, proper, have been modified by "feat," +which comes through Fr. _fait_, from Lat. _factum_, _facere_, to do, +make. + + + + +FITCH, JOHN (1743-1798), American pioneer of steam navigation, was born +at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January 1743. He was the son of +a farmer, and received the usual common school education. At the age of +seventeen he went to sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a +few voyages and became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a +silversmith. During the War of Independence he was a sutler to the +American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum of money, +with which he bought land in Virginia. He was appointed deputy-surveyor +for Kentucky in 1780, and when returning to Philadelphia in the +following year he was captured by the Indians, but shortly afterwards +regained his liberty. About this time he began an exploration of the +north-western regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district; +and while sailing on the great western rivers, the idea occurred to him +that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured by the sale of his +map to find money for the carrying out of his projects, but was +unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance to the legislatures of +different states, but though each reported in favourable terms of his +invention, none of them would agree to grant him any pecuniary +assistance. He was successful, however, in 1786, in forming a company +for the prosecution of his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a +steam-packet of his invention was launched on the Delaware. His claim to +be the inventor of steam-navigation was disputed by James Rumsey of +Virginia, but Fitch obtained exclusive rights in steam-navigation in New +Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, while a similar privilege was granted +to Rumsey in Virginia, Maryland and New York. A steam-boat built by +Fitch conveyed passengers for hire on the Delaware in the summer of +1790, but the undertaking was a losing one, and led to the dissolution +of the company. In 1793 he endeavoured to introduce his invention into +France, but met with no success. On his return to America he found his +property overrun by squatters, and reaping from his invention nothing +but disappointment and poverty, he committed suicide at Bardstown, +Kentucky, on the 2nd of July 1798. + + He left behind him a record of his adventures and misfortunes, + "inscribed to his children and future posterity"; and from this a + biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia, 1857.) + + + + +FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING (1824-1903), English educationist, second son +of Thomas Fitch, of a Colchester family, was born in Southwark, London, +in 1824. His parents were poor but intellectually inclined, and at an +early age Fitch started work as an assistant master in the British and +Foreign School Society's elementary school in the Borough Road, founded +by Thomas Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous +reading and attending classes at University College; he was made +headmaster of another school at Kingsland; and in 1850 he took his B.A. +degree at London University, proceeding MA. two years later. In 1852 he +was appointed by the British and Foreign School Society to a tutorship +at their Training College in the Borough Road, soon becoming +vice-principal and in 1856 principal. He had previously done some +occasional teaching there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the +Lancasterian system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of +schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which he +was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-1867) on the +Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commissioner (1869), and as an +assistant commissioner under the Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was +transferred in 1877 to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief +inspector, to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief +inspector of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1894. +In the course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique +acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a recognized +authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures and books +having a great influence on the development of education in England. He +was a strong advocate and supporter of the movement for the higher +education of women, and he was constantly looked to for counsel and +direction on every sort of educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe +judgment and amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional +value, and after he retired from official life his services were in +active request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896 he was +knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinctions as the LL.D. +degree from St Andrews University, he was made a chevalier of the French +Legion of Honour in 1889. He was a constant contributor to the leading +reviews; he published an important series of _Lectures on Teaching_ +(1881), _Educational Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and +Colleges_ (1887), and an authoritative criticism of _Thomas and Matthew +Arnold, and their Influence on English Education_ (see also the article +on ARNOLD, MATTHEW) in 1901; and he wrote the article on EDUCATION in +the supplementary volumes (10th edition) of this encyclopaedia (1902). +He died on the 14th of July 1903 in London. A civil list pension was +given to his widow, whom, as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856. + + See also _Sir Joshua Fitch_, by the Rev. A.L. Lilley (1906), + + + + +FITCH, RALPH (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of the earliest +English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and +Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China. In January 1583 he embarked +in the "Tiger" for Tripoli and Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare, +_Macbeth_, Act I. sc. 3), together with J. Newberie, J. Eldred and two +other merchants or employees of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he +reached the Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujah, crossed +southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris to Basra +(May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to trade, while Fitch and +the rest sailed down the Persian Gulf to Ormuz, where they were arrested +as spies (at Venetian instigation, as they believed) and sent prisoners +to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa (September to October). Through the +sureties procured by two Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly of +New College, Oxford, the first Englishman known to have reached India by +the Cape route in 1579) Fitch and his friends regained their liberty, +and escaping from Goa (April 1584) travelled through the heart of India +to the court of the Great Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. In +September 1585 Newberie left on his return journey overland via Lahore +(he disappeared, being presumably murdered, in the Punjab), while Fitch +descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares, Patna, Kuch Behar, +Hugli, Chittagong, &c. (1585-1586), and pushed on by sea to Pegu and +Burma. Here he visited the Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some +distance, acquired a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even +penetrated to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588 he +visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his homeward +travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast, touching at +Cochin and Goa, to Ormuz; next up the Persian Gulf to Basra and up the +Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates, +Aleppo and Tripoli, to the Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the +29th of April 1591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of +the East India Company, who specially consulted him on Indian affairs +(e.g. 2nd of October 1600; 29th of January 1601; 31st of December 1606). + + See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599), vol. ii. part i. pp. + 245-271, esp. 250-268; Linschoten, _Voyages_ (_Itineraris_), part i. + ch. xcii. (vol. ii. pp. 158-169, &c., Hakluyt Soc. edition); Stevens + and Birdwood, _Court Records of the East India Company 1599-1603_ + (1886), esp. pp. 26, 123; _State Papers, East Indies_, &c., + _1513-1616_ (1862), No. 36; Pinkerton, _Voyages and Travels_ + (1808-1814), ix. 406-425. + + + + +FITCHBURG, a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying from about 433 +ft. to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester and about 45 m. W.N.W. +of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,429; (1890) 22,037; (1900) 31,531, of whom +10,917 were foreign-born, including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English +Canadians, 2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg is +traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served by the +Boston & Maine, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by +three interurban electric lines. The city area (27.7 sq.m.) is well +watered, and is very uneven, with hill spurs running in all directions, +affording picturesque scenery. The court house and the post office (in a +park presented by the citizens) are the principal public buildings. +Fitchburg is the seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and +training schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace +library and art building), the Burbank hospital, the Fitchburg home for +old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which is a fine +fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg has large mercantile and +financial interests, but manufacturing is the principal industry. The +principal manufactures are paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen +goods, yarn and silk, machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and +firearms (the Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In +1905 the city's total factory product was valued at $15,390,507, of +which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp product, +$2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and $1,202,421 was the +value of the foundry and machine shop products. The municipality owns +and operates its (gravity) water works system. Fitchburg was included in +Lunenburg until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was +named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure +incorporation; it was chartered as a city in 1872. + + See W.A. Emerson, _Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present_ + (Fitchburg, 1887). + + + + +FITTIG, RUDOLF (1835- ), German chemist, was born at Hamburg on the +6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry at Göttingen, graduating as +Ph.D. with a dissertation on acetone in 1858. He subsequently held +several appointments at Göttingen, being privat docent (1860), and +extraordinary professor (1870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at +Tübingen, and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were +erected from his designs. Fittig's researches are entirely in organic +chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The aldehydes and +ketones provided material for his earlier work. He observed that +aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in neutral, alkaline, and +sometimes acid solution to secondary and tertiary glycols, substances +which he named pinacones; and also that certain pinacones when distilled +with dilute sulphuric acid gave compounds, which he named pinacolines. +The unsaturated acids, also received much attention, and he discovered +the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones. In 1863 he +introduced the reaction known by his name. In 1855 Adolph Wurtz had +shown that when sodium acted upon alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues +combined to form more complex hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method +by showing that a mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar +treatment, yielded homologues of benzene. His investigations on Perkin's +reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be +more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of much +difficulty, and the exact course of the reaction appears to await +solution. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of +coumarin, the odoriferous principle of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's +observation that phenyl isocrotonic acid readily yielded +[alpha]-naphthol by loss of water was of much importance, since it +afforded valuable evidence as to the constitution of naphthalene. They +also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling +point fraction of the coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of +phenanthrene. We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine +to Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its +constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used text-books; +he edited several editions of Wohler's _Grundriss der organischen +Chemie_ (11th ed., 1887) and wrote an _Unorganische Chemie_ (1st ed., +1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been recognized by many scientific +societies and institutions, the Royal Society awarding him the Davy +medal in 1906. + + + + +FITTON, MARY (c. 1578-1647), identified by some writers with the "dark +lady" of Shakespeare's sonnets, was the daughter of Sir Edward Fitton of +Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized on the 24th of June 1578. Her +elder sister, Anne, married John Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth +year. About 1595 Mary Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. +Her father recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys, +comptroller of the queen's household, who promised to defend the +"innocent lamb" from the "wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the +tame beasts of this place." Sir William was fifty and already married, +but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the speedy death of +the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have received considerable +encouragement. There is no hint in her authenticated biography that she +was acquainted with Shakespeare. William Kemp, who was a clown in +Shakespeare's company, dedicated his _Nine Daies Wonder_ to Mistress +Anne (perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, "Maid of Honour to Elizabeth"; +and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous volume, _A +Woman's Woorth defended against all the Men in the World_ (1599). In +1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivities at which William +Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known to have been present; and +shortly afterwards she became his mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke +was sent to the Fleet in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton, +whose child died soon after its birth, appears to have simply been +dismissed from court. Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister, +Lady Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been fixed on Mary +Fitton by George Ormerod, author of _History of Cheshire_, in a MS. +quoted by Mr. T. Tyler (_Academy_, 27th Sept. 1884). Ormerod asserted, +on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter Leycester, that she had two +illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard Leveson, the friend and +correspondent of her sister Anne. He also gives the name of her first +husband as Captain Logher, and her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom +she had a son and daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three +years after his marriage. But Ormerod was mistaken in the order of Mary +Fitton's husbands, for her second husband, Logher, died in 1636. Her own +will, which was proved in 1647, gives her name as "Mary Lougher." In +Gawsworth church there is a painted monument of the Fittons, in which +Anne and Mary are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated +that from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman, which is +of course essential to her identification with the lady of the sonnets, +but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady Newdigate-Newdegate in +her _Gossip from a Muniment Room_ (1897) she has brown hair and grey +eyes. + + The identity of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was challenged by + Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For an answer to their remarks see an + appendix by C.G.O. Bridgeman in the 2nd edition of Lady + Newdigate-Newdegate's book. + + The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the false + mistress of Shakespeare's sonnets rests on a very thin chain of + reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory + that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it of + course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William Archer + (_Fortnightly Review_, December 1897) found some support for Mary + Fitton's identification with the "dark lady" in the fact that Sir + William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three "Wills" + among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpretation, whether + right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:-- + + "Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy 'Will,' + And 'Will' to boot, and 'Will' in overplus." + + Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle will + be found in Mr Thomas Tyler's _Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1890, pp. + 73-92), and in the same writer's _Herbert-Fitton Theory of + Shakespeare's Sonnets_ (1898). + + + + +FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1780-1861), British geologist was born in Dublin +in January 1780. Educated at Trinity College, in that city, he gained +the senior scholarship in 1798, and graduated in the following year. At +this time he began to take interest in geology and to form a collection +of fossils. Having adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 +to Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and +thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in geology +steadily increased. He removed to London in 1809, where he further +studied medicine and chemistry. In 1811 he brought before the Geological +Society of London a description of the geological structure of the +vicinity of Dublin, with an account of some rare minerals found in +Ireland. He took a medical practice at Northampton in 1812, and for some +years the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted +M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of means, he +settled in London, and devoted himself to the science of geology with +such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon became a leading authority, +and in the end, as Murchison said, "one of the British worthies who have +raised modern geology to its present advanced position." His +"Observations on some of the Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford +Oolite, in the South-east of England" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. +iv.) embodied a series of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and +form the classic memoir familiarly known as Fitton's "Strata below the +Chalk." In this great work he established the true succession and +relations of the Upper and Lower Greensand, and of the Wealden and +Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure. He had been +elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the Geological Society +of London 1827-1829. His house then became a meeting place for +scientific workers, and during his presidency he held a conversazione +open on Sunday evenings to all fellows of the Geological Society. From +1817 to 1841 he contributed to the _Edinburgh Review_ many admirable +essays on the progress of geological science; he also wrote "Notes on +the Progress of Geology in England" for the _Philosophical Magazine_ +(1832-1833). His only independent publication was _A Geological Sketch +of the Vicinity of Hastings_ (1833). He was awarded the Wollaston medal +by the Geological Society in 1852. He died in London on the 13th of May +1861. + + Obituary by R.I. Murchison in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. xviii., + 1862, p. xxx. + + + + +FITZBALL, EDWARD (1792-1873), English dramatist, whose real patronymic +was Ball, was born at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, in 1792. His father was a +well-to-do farmer, and Fitzball, after receiving his schooling at +Newmarket, was apprenticed to a Norwich printer in 1809. He produced +some dramatic pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked +success of his _Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber_ +(1820), together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at +the Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in London. +During the next twenty-five years he produced a great number of plays, +most of which were highly successful. He had a special talent for +nautical drama. His _Floating Beacon_ (Surrey theatre, 19th of April +1824) ran for 140 nights, and his _Pilot_ (Adelphi, 1825) for 200 +nights. His greatest triumph in melodrama was perhaps _Jonathan +Bradford, or the Murder at the Roadside Inn_ (Surrey theatre, 12th of +June 1833). He was at one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at +Covent Garden, and afterwards at Drury Lane. He had a considerable +reputation as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years +of his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on the +27th of October 1873. + + His autobiography, _Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author's Life_ (2 + vol., 1859), is a naïve record of his career. Numbers of his plays are + printed in _Cumberland's Minor British Theatre, Dick's Standard Plays_ + and _Lacy's Acting Edition of Plays_. + + + + +FITZGERALD, the name of an historic Irish house, which descends from +Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the Domesday Survey (1086) was +castellan of Windsor and a tenant-in-chief in five counties. From his +eldest son William, known as "de Windsor," descended the Windsors of +Stanwell, of whom Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a +Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIII., which barony is now +vested in the earl of Plymouth, his descendant in the female line. Of +Walter's younger sons, Robert was given by Henry I. the barony of Little +Easton, Essex; Maurice obtained the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of the +great Suffolk abbey of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry +I.'s queen, Adeliza; and Gerald (also a _dapifer_) became the ancestor +of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that Arnulf +de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened his position in +Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince of South Wales, who +bore to him famous children, "by whom the southern coast of Wales was +saved for the English and the bulwarks of Ireland stormed." Of these +sons William, the eldest, was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as +"de Carew," from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke +peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh. The +descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsford, Berks, and +some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the wild claims of Sir Peter +Carew, under Queen Elizabeth, to vast Irish estates, including half of +"the kingdom of Cork," were based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de +Carew's brothers, Reimund "Fitz William" (known as "Le Gros") and +Griffin "Fitz William," took an active part in the conquest of Ireland. + +Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David "Fitz Gerald" became +bishop of St David's (1147-1176), and their daughter Angharat mother of +Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, q.v.), the well-known historian +and the eulogist of his mother's family. A third son, Maurice, obtained +from his brother the stewardship (_dapiferatus_) of St David's, c. 1174, +and having landed in Ireland in 1169, on the invitation of King Dermod, +founded the fortunes of his house there, receiving lands at Wexford, +where he died and was buried in 1176. His eventual territory, however, +was the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which +Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were forced to +give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded him as baron of the +Naas and steward of St David's, but William's granddaughter carried the +Naas to the Butlers and so to the Loundreses. Gerald, a younger son of +Maurice, who obtained lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice "Fitz +Gerald," who held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from 1232 to +1245. In 1234 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal, +Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king against the +Irish, the Welsh, and in Gascony, dying in 1257. He held Maynooth +Castle, the seat of his descendants. + +Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the justiciar +leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son Gerald) and a younger +son Maurice, of whom the latter was justiciar for a year in 1272, while +the former, as heir male and head of the race, inherited the Ophaley +lands, which he is said to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John +"Fitz Thomas," whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle +and town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the heirs +male of his body (May 14th, 1316), Dying shortly after, he was succeeded +by his son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard (de Burgh) the "red earl" of +Ulster, who received the hereditary shrievalty of Kildare in 1317, and +was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar of Ireland for a year. His younger son +Maurice "Fitz Thomas," 4th earl (1331-1390), was frequently appointed +justiciar, and was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl +(1427-1477), who between 1455 and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the +government of Ireland as "deputy," and who founded the "brotherhood of +St George" for the defence of the English Pale. He was also made lord +chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the 8th earl (1477-1513), +called "More" (the Great), was deputy governor of Ireland from 1481 for +most of the rest of his life, though imprisoned in the Tower two years +(1494-1496) on suspicion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while +fighting the Irish as "deputy." Gerald, the 9th earl (1513-1534), +followed in his father's steps as deputy, fighting the Irish, till the +enmity of the earl of Ormonde, the hereditary rival of his house, +brought about his deposition in 1520. In spite of temporary restorations +he finally died a prisoner in the Tower. + +In his anger at his rival's successes the 9th earl had been led, it was +suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in England his son +Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, "Silken Thomas," broke out into open revolt +(1534), and declared war on the government; his followers slew the +archbishop of Dublin and laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made +overtures to the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the +Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege to his +castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by a long struggle +in the field, the earl, deserted by O'Conor, had eventually to surrender +himself to the king's deputy. He was sent to the Tower, where he was +subsequently joined by his five uncles, arrested as his accomplices. +They were all six executed as traitors in February 1537, and acts of +attainder completed the ruin of the family. + +But the earl's half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth was the earl +of Surrey's "fair Geraldine"), a mere boy, had been carried off, and, +after many adventures at home and abroad, returned to England after +Henry VIII.'s death, and to propitiate the Irish was restored to his +estates by Edward VI. (1552). Having served Mary in Wyat's rebellion, he +was created by her earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May +1554, but the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained +under attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion under +Elizabeth and served against the Munster rebels and their Spanish +allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of treason in 1583. +But the acts attainting his family had been repealed in 1569, and the +old earldom was thus regained. In 1585 he was succeeded by his son Henry +("of the Battleaxes"), who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone +rebels in 1597. On the death of his brother in 1599 the earldom passed +to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by +Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the ancestral castle +of Geashill with its territory and was recognized in 1620 as Lady +Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-1660), had his castle of +Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics in 1642, and after its +subsequent occupation by them in 1646 it was finally abandoned by the +family. + +The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful, save for +the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton, which thenceforth became the seat +of the family, until James the 20th earl (1722-1773), who obtained a +viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built Leinster House in Dublin, and +formed a powerful party in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made +lord deputy; in 1760 he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery; +and in 1766 he received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only +Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. His wealth and +connexions secured him a commanding position. Of his younger children +one son was created Lord Lecale; another was the well-known rebel, Lord +Edward Fitzgerald; another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a +daughter was created Baroness Rayleigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke +(1749-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received nearly +£30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1883 the family was +still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Kildare; but, after a tenure of +nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to sell them to the tenants +under the recent Land Purchase Acts. In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b. +1887) succeeded his father Gerald, the 5th duke (1851-1893), as 6th duke +of Leinster. + +The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the earls of Desmond, who +were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent from Maurice, the +founder of the family in Ireland, through a younger son Thomas. It would +seem that Maurice, grandson of Thomas, was father of Thomas "Fitz +Maurice" _Nappagh_ ("of the ape"), justice of Ireland in 1295, who +obtained a grant of the territory of "Decies and Desmond" in 1292, and +died in 1298. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting vast +estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marrying a +daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created earl of +Desmond (i.e. south Munster) on the 22nd of August 1329, and Kerry was +made a palatine liberty for him. The greatest Irish noble of his day, he +led the Anglo-Irish party against the English representatives of the +king, and was attacked as the king's enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He +surrendered in England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually +regained favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died, +however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in turn, Gerald, +the 3rd earl (1359-1398), being appointed justiciar (i.e. viceroy) in +1367, despite his adopting his father's policy which the crown still +wished to thwart. But he was superseded two years later, and defeated +and captured by the native king of Thomond shortly after. Yet his +sympathies were distinctly Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the +south-west of Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native +lines, and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422. His +son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland as deputy from +1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English rule by stubborn +conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptoft, who superseded him, procured his +attainder with that of the earl of Kildare, on the charge of alliance +with the Irish, and he was beheaded on the 14th of February 1468, his +followers in Munster avenging his death by invading the Pale. His +younger son Maurice, earl from 1487 to 1520, was one of Perkin Warbeck's +Irish supporters, and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James +(1520-1529) was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the +French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession reverted +to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man, at whose death there +was a contest between his younger brother Sir John "of Desmond" and his +grandson James, a court page of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured +possession till his death (1536), when his son James succeeded _de +facto_, and _de jure_ on the rightful earl being murdered by the +usurper's younger brother in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains +had by this time classed the earls among them, but although this James +looked to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent a +part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary foes +of his race, he escaped the fate of the Kildare branch and kept Munster +quiet and in order for the English till his death in 1558. His four +marriages produced a disputed succession and a break-up of the family. +His eldest son Thomas "Roe" (the Red) was disinherited, and failed to +obtain the earldom, which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother +Gerald "the rebel earl" (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in his +uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially, the famous +James "Fitz Maurice" Fitz Gerald. Gerald's turbulence and his strife +with the Butlers led to his detention in England (1562-1564) and again +in 1565-1566. In 1567 Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence, +with his brother, Sir John "of Desmond," he was sent to England and the +Tower, and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the +above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas "Roe," had usurped his +position in his absence and induced the natives to choose him as +"captain" or chieftain of Desmond. He formed a strong Irish Catholic +party and broke into revolt in 1569. Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled +again, till crushed by Perrot in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return +would not join James in revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But +Gerald himself, after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1574), +though he soon submitted to the queen's forces. On the continent James +Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France and to +Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory XIII. With the papal +nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in Kerry (June 1579) and +called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond to join him, but the latter +assured the English government of his loyalty, and James was killed in a +skirmish. Yet Desmond was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by +being proclaimed as a traitor (Nov. 1st, 1579), into a miserable +rebellion. His castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a +fugitive, till surprised and beheaded on the 11th of November 1583, +after long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His ruin +is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled policy. +The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres, were +forfeited by act of parliament. + +But the influence of his mighty house was still great among the Irish. +The disinherited Thomas "Roe" left a son James "Fitz Thomas," who, +succeeding him in 1595 and finding that the territory of the earls would +never be restored, assumed the earldom and joined O'Neill's rebellion in +1598, at the head of 8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the +fidelity of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his +kinsman the White Knight, Edmund Fitz Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he had +married, and sent to the Tower. The "sugan" (sham) earl lingered there +obscurely as "James M'Thomas" till his death. In consequence of his +rebellion and the devotion of the Irish to his race, James, son of +Gerald "the rebel earl," who had remained in the Tower since his +father's death (1583), was restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to +Munster in 1600, but he, known as "the queen's earl," could, as a +Protestant, do nothing, and he died unmarried in 1601. The "sugan" +earl's brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into +Spain, and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title and +was known as the Conde de Desmond. He was killed in the service of the +emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin of the earls of Desmond and +of Kildare had never been forgotten, and intermarriage had cemented the +bond. Just before his death the exile wrote as "Desmond _alias_ Gerratt +Fitz Gerald" to his "Most Noble Cosen" the earl of Kildare, that "wee +must not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably +observed betweene our antenates and elders." + +There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also of this +stock, although their actual origin, in the 12th century, is doubtful. +From a very early date they were feudal lords of Kerry, and their +dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry VII. in 1489. The isolated +position of their territory ("Clanmaurice") threw them even more among +the Irish than the earls of Desmond, and they often adopted the native +form of their name, "MacMorrish." Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry +narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct of Thomas +in the rebellion of James "Fitz Maurice" was suspicious, and his sons +joined in that of the earl of Desmond, while he himself was a rebel in +1582. Patrick, his successor (1590-1600), was captured in rebellion +(1587), and when free, joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and +heir Thomas, who continued in the field till he obtained pardon and +restoration in 1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson +withdrew to France with James II., but the next peer became a supporter +of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir William Petty, +and was created earl of Kerry in 1723. From him descend the family of +Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the marquessate of Lansdowne (q.v.) in +1818, and still hold among their titles the feudal barony of Kerry +together with vast estates in that county. + +From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of Desmond's +ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights, Knights of Glin and +Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities having, it is said, been +bestowed upon them by their father, as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Glin +Castle, county Limerick, is still the seat of the (Fitzgerald) Knight of +Glin. Valencia Island is now the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who +received a baronetcy in 1880. + + AUTHORITIES.--Calendars of Irish documents and state papers and Carew + papers; Gilbert's _Viceroys of Ireland_; Lord Kildare's _Earls of + Kildare_; G.E. C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_; Haymond Graves, + _Unpublished Geraldine Documents_; _Annals of the Four Masters_; + Calendar of the duke of Leinster's MSS. in 9th _Report on Historical + MSS._, part ii.; Ware's _Annals_; J.H. Round's "Origin of the + Fitzgeralds" and "Origin of the Carews" in the _Ancestor_; his + "Earldom of Kildare and Barony of Offaley" in _Genealogist_, ix., and + "Barons of the Naas" in _Genealogist_, xv.; and his "Decies and + Desmond" in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xviii. (J. H. R.) + + + + +FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883), English writer, the poet of Omar +Khayyám, was born as EDWARD PURCELL, at Bredfield House, in Suffolk, on +the 31st of March 1809. His father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss +FitzGerald, assumed in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family. From +1816 to 1821 the FitzGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in +the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds. In 1826 he +proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where, some two years later, he +became acquainted with Thackeray and W.H. Thompson. With Tennyson, "a +sort of Hyperion," his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to +live in Paris, but in 1831 was in a farm-house on the battlefield of +Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly stationary and +rustic life, presently moving into his native county of Suffolk, and +never again leaving it for more than a week or two. Until 1835 the +FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; from that year until 1853 the poet +resided at Boulge, near Woodbridge; until 1860 at Farlingay Hall; until +1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own +house hard by, called Little Grange. + +During most of this time FitzGerald gave his thoughts almost without +interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature. He allowed +friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to push on far before him, +and long showed no disposition to emulate their activity. In 1851 he +published his first book, _Euphranor_, a Platonic dialogue, born of +memories of the old happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared +_Polonius_, a collection of "saws and modern instances," some of them +his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics. +FitzGerald began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with +Professor E.B. Cowell at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford in 1853. +In the latter year he issued _Six Dramas of Calderon_, freely +translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in 1856 he +anonymously published a version of the _Salámán and Absál_ of Jámi in +Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with which he has been so closely +identified first occurs in FitzGerald's correspondence--"Hafiz and _Omar +Khayyám_ ring like true metal." On the 15th of January 1859 a little +anonymous pamphlet was published as _The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám_. In +the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular +friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The +publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even (as he +afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls. But in 1860 +Rossetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord Houghton quickly +followed. The _Rubáiyát_ became slowly famous, but it was not until 1868 +that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second and greatly revised +edition. Meanwhile he had produced in 1865 a version of the _Agamemnon_, +and two more plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately +translations of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was +_Readings in Crabbe_, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar's +_Mantic-Uttair_ under the title of _The Bird Parliament_. + +From 1861 onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had centred in the sea. +In June 1863 he bought a yacht, "The Scandal," and in 1867 he became +part-owner of a herring-lugger, the "Meum and Tuum." For some years, +till 1871, he spent the months from June to October mainly in "knocking +about somewhere outside of Lowestoft." In this way, and among his books +and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. On the 14th of June +1883 he passed away painlessly in his sleep. He was "an idle fellow, but +one whose friendships were more like loves." In 1885 a stimulus was +given to the steady advance of his fame by the fact that Tennyson +dedicated his _Tiresias_ to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching +reminiscent verses to "Old Fitz." This was but the signal for that +universal appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English dress, which has +been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years. The melody +of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts he rearranges and +strings together are so profound, and the general atmosphere of poetry +in which he steeps his version is so pure, that no surprise need be +expressed at the universal favour which the poem has met with among +critical readers. But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it +is now probably better known to the general public than any single poem +of its class published since the year 1860, and its admirers have almost +transcended common sense in the extravagance of their laudation. +FitzGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the daughter of Bernard +Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitzGerald as a man practically nothing was +known until, in 1889, Mr W. Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and +literary executor, published his _Letters and Literary Remains_ in three +volumes. This was followed in 1895 by the _Letters to Fanny Kemble_. +These letters constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they +discovered that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic +letter-writer. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived, +FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary +individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English +_belles-lettres_, in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and +1900. + + _The Works of Edward FitzGerald_ appeared in 1887. See also a + chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899); + notes for a bibliography by Col. W.F. Prideaux, in _Notes and Queries_ + (9th series, vol. vi.), published separately in 1901; _Letters and + Literary Remains_ (ed. W. Aldis Wright, 1902-1903); and the _Life of + Edward FitzGerald_, by Thomas Wright (1904), which contains a + bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of sources (vol. i. pp. + xvi.-xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the "English Men of Letters" + series is by A.C. Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was celebrated in + March 1909. See the _Centenary Celebrations Souvenir_ (Ipswich, 1909) + and _The Times_ for March 25, 1909. (E. G.) + + + + +FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1798), Irish conspirator, fifth son of +James, 1st duke of Leinster, by his wife Emilia Mary, daughter of +Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond, was born at Carton House, near +Dublin, on the 15th of October 1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died, +and his widow soon afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended +Lord Edward's early education. Joining the army in 1779, Lord Edward +served with credit in America on the staff of Lord Rawdon (afterwards +marquess of Hastings), and at the battle of Eutaw Springs (8th of +September 1781) he was severely wounded, his life being saved by a negro +named Tony, whom Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his +life. In 1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where his brother, the +duke of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament as +member for Athy. In parliament he acted with the small Opposition group +led by Grattan (q.v.), but took no prominent part in debate. After +spending a short time at Woolwich to complete his military education, he +made a tour through Spain in 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love +for his cousin Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for +New Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major. The +love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young Irishman found +congenial soil in the wild surroundings of unexplored Canadian forests, +and the enthusiasm thus engendered for the "natural" life of savagery +may have been already fortified by study of Rousseau's writings, for +which at a later period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In +February 1789, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically +unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling in with +Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in a subsequent +expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit by the Bear tribe of +Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his way down the Mississippi to +New Orleans, whence he returned to England. + +Finding that his brother had procured his election for the county of +Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independence, Lord Edward +refused the command of an expedition against Cadiz offered him by Pitt, +and devoted himself for the next few years to the pleasures of society +and his parliamentary duties. He was on terms of intimacy with his +relative C.J. Fox, with R.B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs. According +to Thomas Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous +suitors of Sheridan's first wife whose attentions were received with +favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been its limits, a +warm mutual affection subsisted between the two. His Whig connexions +combined with his transatlantic experiences to predispose Lord Edward to +sympathize with the doctrines of the French Revolution, which he +embraced with ardour when he visited Paris in October 1792. He lodged +with Thomas Paine, and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a +convivial gathering on the 18th of November he supported a toast to "the +speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions," and +gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own title--a +performance for which he was dismissed from the army. While in Paris +Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl whom he chanced to see at +the theatre, and who is said to have had a striking likeness to Mrs +Sheridan. Procuring an introduction he discovered her to be a _protégée_ +of Madame de Sillery, comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl, +whose name was Pamela (?1776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is +some evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela was +born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims, the common +belief that she was the daughter of Madame de Genlis herself by Philippe +(Égalité), duke of Orleans, was probably well founded. On the 27th of +December 1792 Fitzgerald and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the +witnesses being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in +January 1793 the couple reached Dublin. + +Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous, and was +finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen, and in the +Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few years previously, +chiefly under the direction of Lord Kenmare, to watch the interests of +the Catholics. French revolutionary doctrines had become ominously +popular, and no one sympathized with them more warmly than Lord Edward +Fitzgerald, who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris, +returned to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively +into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he denounced +in the House of Commons a government proclamation, which Grattan had +approved, in language so violent that he was ordered into custody and +required to apologize at the bar of the House. As early as 1794 the +government had information that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; but +it was not till 1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after +the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795 was avowedly the establishment of +an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald Wolfe Tone was in +Paris endeavouring to obtain French assistance for an insurrection in +Ireland. In the same month Fitzgerald and his friend Arthur O'Connor +proceeded to Hamburg, where they opened negotiations with the Directory +through Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The duke of +York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way through London with +her husband, had told her that "all was known" about his plans, and +advised her to persuade him not to go abroad. The proceedings of the +conspirators at Hamburg were made known to the government in London by +an informer, Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband's +secrets and took an active part in furthering his designs; and she +appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in her, though +there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled prudence. The +result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hoche's abortive expedition to +Bantry Bay in December 1796. In September 1797 the government learnt +from the informer MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing +the conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly maturing. +He was specially concerned with the military organization, in which he +held the post of colonel of the Kildare regiment and head of the +military committee. He had papers showing that 280,000 men were ready to +rise. They possessed some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the +leaders were hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency +and to give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving +dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided in +opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without waiting for +foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates of the bolder course. +His opinions and his proposals for action were alike violent. He was on +intimate terms with apologists for assassination; there is some evidence +that he favoured a project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in +procession to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May +1798. It was probably abhorrence of such measures that converted Thomas +Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer; at all events, by him and +several others the authorities were kept posted in what was going on, +though lack of evidence producible in court delayed the arrest of the +ringleaders. But on the 12th of March 1798 Reynolds' information led to +the seizure of a number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond. +Lord Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them. The +government were anxious to save him from the consequences of his own +folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family, "for God's sake +get this young man out of the country; the ports shall be thrown open, +and no hindrance whatever offered." Fitzgerald with chivalrous +recklessness refused to desert others who could not escape, and whom he +had himself led into danger. On the 30th of March a proclamation +establishing martial law and authorizing the military to act without +orders from the civil magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting +cruelty in several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis. + +The government had now no choice but to secure if possible the person of +Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position more than his abilities +made him the most important factor in the conspiracy. On the 11th of May +a reward of £1000 was offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was +the date fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond's, +Fitzgerald had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a +feather dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in +disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, Ogilvie, and generally +observed less caution than his situation required. The conspiracy was +honeycombed with treachery, and it was long a matter of dispute to whose +information the government were indebted for Fitzgerald's arrest; but it +is no longer open to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was +disclosed by a Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated +reward was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer. On +the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to Murphy's house +with Major H.C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord Edward was discovered in +bed. A desperate scuffle took place, Ryan being mortally wounded by +Fitzgerald with a dagger, while Lord Edward himself was only secured +after Sirr had disabled him with a pistol bullet in the shoulder. He +was conveyed to Newgate gaol, where by the kindness of Lord Clare he was +visited by two of his relatives, and where he died of his wound on the +4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed in 1819) was passed, +confiscating his property; and his wife--against whom the government +probably possessed sufficient evidence to secure a conviction for +treason--was compelled to leave the country before her husband had +actually expired. + +Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward himself, and +whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression on Robert Southey, +repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she married J. Pitcairn, the American +consul. Since her marriage with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved +and esteemed by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her +second marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient +evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct as open +to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately devoted to the +memory of her first husband; and she died in Paris in November 1831. A +portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre. She had three children by Lord +Edward Fitzgerald: Edward Fox (1794-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of +General Sir Guy Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon, +R.N. + +Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome features. His +character and career have been made the subject of eulogies much beyond +their merits. He had, indeed, a winning personality, and a warm, +affectionate and generous nature, which made him greatly beloved by his +family and friends; he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic, +adventurous. But he was entirely without the weightier qualities +requisite for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs. +Hotheaded and impulsive, he lacked judgment. He was as conspicuously +deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratorical genius of +such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of his associates in +conspiracy described him as "weak and not fit to command a sergeant's +guard, but very zealous." Reinhard, who considered Arthur O'Connor "a +far abler man," accurately read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald +as that of a young man "incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank, +energetic, and likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no +experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be chief of a +great party or leader in a difficult enterprise." + + See Thomas Moore, _Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald_ (2 vols., + London, 1832), also a revised edition entitled _The Memoirs of Lord + Edward Fitzgerald_, edited with supplementary particulars by Martin + MacDermott (London, 1897); R.R. Madden, _The United Irishmen_ (7 + vols., Dublin, 1842-1846); C.H. Teeling, _Personal Narrative of the + Irish Rebellion of 1798_ (Belfast, 1832); W.J. Fitzpatrick, _The Sham + Squire, The Rebellion of Ireland and the Informers of 1798_ (Dublin, + 1866), and _Secret Service under Pitt_ (London, 1892); J.A. Froude, + _The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London, + 1872-1874); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth + Century_, vols. vii. and viii. (London, 1896); Thomas Reynolds the + younger, _The Life of Thomas Reynolds_ (London, 1839); _The Life and + Letters of Lady Sarah Lennox_, edited by the countess of Ilchester and + Lord Stavordale (London, 1901); Ida A. Taylor, _The Life of Lord + Edward Fitzgerald_ (London, 1903), which gives a prejudiced and + distorted picture of Pamela. For particulars of Pamela, and especially + as to the question of her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, _Edward and + Pamela Fitzgerald_ (London, 1904); _Memoirs of Madame de Genlis_ + (London, 1825); Georgette Ducrest, _Chroniques populaires_ (Paris, + 1855); Thomas Moore, _Memoirs of the Life of R.B. Sheridan_ (London, + 1825). (R. J. M.) + + + + +FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or REDMOND (d. ca. 1182), surnamed Le Gros, was the +son of William Fitzgerald and brother of Odo de Carew. He was sent by +Strongbow to Ireland in 1170, and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford, +where he was besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and +Ostmen, whom he repulsed. He was Strongbow's second in command, and had +the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the successful +assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitaine to hand over Strongbow's +conquests to Henry II., but was back in Dublin in July 1171, when he led +one of the sallies from the town. Strongbow offended him later by +refusing him the marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de +Quenci, constable of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and +Hervey de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak of +a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned with his +uncle Meiler Fitz Henry, after receiving a promise of marriage with +Basilea. Reinstated as constable he secured a series of successes, and +with the fall of Limerick in October 1175 order was restored. +Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained Raymond's recall on the ground that his +power threatened the royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a +fresh outbreak at Limerick, the earl's troops refusing to march without +him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until the arrival +of William Fitz Aldhelm, to whom he handed over the royal fortresses. He +was deprived of his estates near Dublin and Wexford, but the Geraldines +secured the recall of Fitz Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their +power and influence. In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen, +who was besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to be +1182, is not known. + + + + +FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (10th earl of Kildare), (1513-1537), the eldest +son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of Kildare, was born in London in +1513. He spent much of his youth in England, but in 1534 when his father +was for the third time summoned to England to answer for his +maladministration as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held +at Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the Ormond +faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been executed in +the Tower, and that his son's life was to be attempted. Inflamed with +rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode at the head of his +retainers[1] into Dublin, and before the council for Ireland (the 11th +of June 1534) formally renounced his allegiance to the king and +proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies, including Archbishop John Allen (of +Dublin), who had been set by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took +refuge in Dublin Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was +taken by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by +Fitzgerald's servants in his presence, but whether actually by his +orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope for absolution, but +was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish Church. Leaving part of his +army (with the consent of the citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle, +Fitzgerald himself went against Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and +succeeded at first in making a truce with him. But the citizens of +Dublin now rose against him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of +an English army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Part of the +English army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but +taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir William +Skeffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth ravaged Kildare +and Meath throughout the winter. He had now succeeded to the earldom of +Kildare, his father having died in the Tower on the 13th of December +1534, but he does not seem to have been known by that title. In March +Skeffington stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which +was defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese, +Fitzgerald's foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535, and most +of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved the final blow to the +rebellion. The news of what is known as the "pardon of Maynooth" reached +Fitzgerald as he was returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his +men fell away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail +for Spain. Changing his mind he spent the next few months in raids +against the English and their allies, but his party gradually deserting +him, on the 18th of August 1535 he surrendered himself to Lord Leonard +Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he made some conditions, but what +they were is very uncertain. He was taken to England and placed in the +Tower. In February 1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with +great injustice, seized and brought to England. The six Geraldines were +hanged at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder against +them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the Irish and English +parliaments; but the family estates were restored by Edward VI. to +Gerald, 11th earl of Kildare (stepbrother of Thomas), and the attainder +was repealed by Queen Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances, +youngest daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richard Stanihurst, _Chronicles of Ireland_ (vol. ii. + of _Holinshed's Chronicles_); Sir James Ware, _Rerum Hibernicarum + annales_ (Dublin, 1664); _The Earls of Kildare_, by C.W. Fitzgerald, + duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the + Tudors_ (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); _Calendar State Papers, Hen. + VIII., Irish_; G. E. C.'s _Peerage_; John Lodge, _Peerage of Ireland_, + ed. M. Archdall (1789), vol. i. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of "Silken Thomas," either + from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished + manners. + + + + +FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY (1470-1538), English jurist, was born at +Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford, he was called to the +English bar, and in 1523 became justice of the Court of Common Pleas, +the duties of which office he continued to discharge till within a short +time of his death in 1538. As a judge he left behind him a high +reputation for fairness and integrity, and his legal learning is +sufficiently attested by his published works. + + He is the author of _La Graunde Abridgement_, a digest of important + legal cases written in Old French, first printed in 1514; _The Office + and Authority of Justices of the Peace_, first printed in 1538 (last + ed. 1794); the _New Natura Brevium_ (1534, last ed. 1794), with a + commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbert are sometimes + attributed the _Book of Husbandry_ (1523), the first published work on + agriculture in the English language, and the _Book of Surveying and + Improvements_ (1523) (see AGRICULTURE). + + + + +FITZHERBERT, THOMAS (1552-1640), English Jesuit, was the eldest son and +heir of William Fitzherbert of Swynnerton in Staffordshire, and grandson +of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, judge of the common pleas. He was educated +at Oxford, where, at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy. +On his release he went to London, where he was a member of the +association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits Edmund +Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew to the continent, where +he was active in the cause of Mary, queen of Scots. He married in this +year Dorothy, daughter of Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire. +After the death of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the +recommendation of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king. +He continued his intrigues against the English government, and in 1598 +he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen Elizabeth. +After this he was for a short while in the service of the duke of Feria +at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was ordained priest (1601-1602) +and became agent for the English clergy. He was unpopular with them, +however, owing to his subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the +agency in 1607 owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest +George Birkhead. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was +appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616, and in +1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held this post to within +a year of his death, which occurred at Rome on the 7th of August (O.S.) +1640. + + Father Fitzherbert, who is described as "a person of excellent parts, + a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous spirit," + wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in the + article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the _Dictionary of National + Biography_, together with authorities for his life. + + + + +FITZ NEAL or (FITZ NIGEL), RICHARD (d. 1198), treasurer of Henry II. and +Richard I. of England, and bishop of London, belonged to a great +administrative family whose fortunes were closely linked with those of +Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I. The founder of the family was Roger, +bishop of Salisbury, the great minister of Henry I. Before the death of +that sovereign (1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his +nephew, Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the +whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a partisan of +the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession of her son, Henry +II., who made him at first chancellor and then treasurer. Nigel's son, +Richard, who was born before his father's elevation to the episcopate +(1133), succeeded to the office of treasurer in 1158, and held it +continuously for forty years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant +justices for 1179 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which +he exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of Lincoln, and +was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln among three select +candidates for the vacant see. The king passed him over in favour of +Hugh of Avalon, having resolved on this occasion to make a disinterested +appointment. Richard I., however, rewarded the treasurer's services with +the see of London (1189). + +Richard Fitz Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked the broad +statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he avoided any connexion +with political parties; he is only once mentioned as taking part in a +debate of the Great Council (1193), and then spoke, in his character as +a bishop, to support a royal demand for a special aid. But his work _De +necessariis observantiis Scaccarii dialogus_, commonly called the +_Dialogus de Scaccario_, is of unique interest to the historian. It is +an account, in two books, of the procedure followed by the exchequer in +the author's time. Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm +because, as he explains, the "course" of the exchequer was largely the +creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the Pipe Rolls +the _Dialogus_ furnishes a most faithful and detailed picture of English +fiscal arrangements under Henry II. The speakers in the dialogue are +Richard himself and an anonymous pupil. The latter puts leading +questions which Richard answers in elaborate fashion. The date of the +conversation is given in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks +the date at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178 +or 1179. Soon after the author's death we find it already recognized as +the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was frequently +transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians of every period. +Hence it is the more necessary to insist that the historical statements +which the treatise contains are sometimes demonstrably erroneous; the +author appears to have relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as +the work is only known to us through transcripts, it is possible that +some of the blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected +zeal of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years a +register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three +parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the time when +he wrote the _Dialogus_, but has since disappeared. Stubbs' conjectural +identification of this _Liber tricolumnis_ with the first part of the +_Gesta Henrici_ (formerly attributed to Benedictus Abbas) is now +abandoned as untenable. + + See Madox's edition in his _History of the Exchequer_ (1769); and that + of A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 1902). F. + Liebermann's _Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario_ (Göttingen, + 1875) contains the fullest account of the author. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom of Hereford and +the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in 1071. He did not keep on +good terms with William the Conqueror, and in 1075, disregarding the +king's prohibition, married his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of +Norfolk, at the famous bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two +earls rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west to +join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the +Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought into the +field against him. On the collapse of his confederate's rising, Roger +was tried before the Great Council, deprived of his lands and earldom, +and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; but he was released, with other +political prisoners, at the death of William I. in 1087. + + + + +FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM, Earl of Hereford (d. 1071), was an intimate friend +of William the Conqueror, and the principal agent in preparing for the +invasion of England. He received the earldom of Hereford with the +special duty of pushing into Wales. During William's absence in 1067, +Fitz-Osbern was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from +the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also acted as +William's lieutenant during the rebellions of 1069. In 1070 William sent +him to assist Queen Matilda in the government of Normandy. But Richilde, +widow of Baldwin VI. of Flanders, having offered to marry him if he +would protect her son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fitz-Osbern +accepted the proposal and joined Richilde in Flanders. He was killed, +fighting against Robert, at Cassel in 1071. + + See Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vols. iii. and iv.; Sir James Ramsay, + _Foundations of England_, vol. ii. + + + + +FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM (d. 1196), was a Londoner of good position who had +served in the Third Crusade, and on his return took up the cause of the +poorer citizens against the magnates who monopolized the government of +London and assessed the taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It +is affirmed that he entered on this course of action through a quarrel +with his elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears to be +mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives Fitz Osbert a high +character, and he was implicitly trusted by the poorer citizens. He +attempted to procure redress for them from the king; but the city +magistrates persuaded the justiciar Hubert Walter that Fitz Osbert and +his followers meditated plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were +sent to seize the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St +Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily dragged to +execution at Tyburn. + + + + +FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY (d. 1213), earl of Essex and chief justiciar of +England, began his official career in the later years of Henry II., whom +he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and a justice of the forest. +During Richard's absence on Crusade he was one of the five justices of +the king's court who stood next in authority to the regent, Longchamp. +It was at this time (1190) that Fitz Peter succeeded to the earldom of +Essex, in the right of his wife, who was descended from the famous +Geoffrey de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights +over Walden priory Fitz Peter came into conflict with Longchamp, and +revenged himself by taking an active part in the baronial agitation +through which the regent was expelled from his office. The king, +however, forgave Fitz Peter for his share in these proceedings; and, +though refusing to give him formal investiture of the Essex earldom, +appointed him justiciar in succession to Hubert Walter (1198). In this +capacity Fitz Peter continued his predecessor's policy of encouraging +foreign trade and the development of the towns; many of the latter +received, during his administration, charters of self-government. He was +continued in his office by John, who found him a useful instrument and +described him in an official letter as "indispensable to the king and +kingdom." He proved himself an able instrument of extortion, and +profited to no small extent by the spoliation of church lands in the +period of the interdict. But he was too closely connected with the +baronage to be altogether trusted by the king. The contemporary +_Histoire des ducs_ describes Fitz Peter as living in constant dread of +disgrace and confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured +to act as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his +mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I. (at the +council of St Albans, August 4th, 1213). But Fitz Peter died a few weeks +later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed to Peter des Roches, one of +the unpopular foreign favourites. Fitz Peter was neither a far-sighted +nor a disinterested statesman; but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert +Walter, and maintained the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the +first and second Henries had founded. + + See the original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I. + and John. Also Miss K. Norgate's _Angevin England_, vol. ii. (1887), + and _John Lackland_ (1902); A. Ballard in _English Historical Review_, + xiv. p. 93; H.W.C. Davis' _England under the Normans and Angevins_ + (1905). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +FITZROY, ROBERT (1805-1865), English, vice-admiral, distinguished as a +hydrographer and meteorologist, was born at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the +5th of July 1805, being a grandson, on the father's side, of the third +duke of Grafton, and on the mother's, of the first marquis of +Londonderry. He entered the navy from the Royal Naval College, then a +school for cadets, on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of +September 1824 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in +the "Thetis" frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South +America, under the command of Sir John Phillimore and Captain Bingham, +he was in August 1828 appointed to the "Ganges," as flag-lieutenant to +Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Otway, the commander-in-chief on the South +American station; and on the death of Commander Stokes of the "Beagle," +on the 13th of November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The +"Beagle," a small brig of about 240 tons, was then, and had been for the +two previous years, employed on the survey of the coasts of Patagonia +and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of Commander King in the +"Adventure," and, together with the "Adventure," returned to England in +the autumn of 1830. Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one +of whom died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the +others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a rudimentary +knowledge of religion and of some useful handicrafts; and, as he had +pledged himself to restore them to their native country, he was making +preparations in the summer of the following year to carry them back in a +merchant ship bound to Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to +the "Beagle," to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The +"Beagle" sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying as +a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous naturalist. After +an absence of nearly five years, and having, in addition to the survey +of the Straits of Magellan and a great part of the coast of South +America, run a chronometric line round the world, thus fixing the +longitude of many secondary meridians with sufficient exactness for all +the purposes of ordinary navigation, the "Beagle" anchored at Falmouth +on the 2nd of October 1836. In 1835 Fitzroy had been advanced to the +rank of captain and was now for the next few years principally employed +in reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he was +awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; and in 1839 he +published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative of the voyage of the +"Adventure" and "Beagle," 1826-1830, and of the "Beagle," 1831-1836, +with a third volume by Darwin--a book familiarly known as a record of +scientific travel. Of Fitzroy's work as a surveyor, carried on under +circumstances of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit +that was semi-officially denounced as "shabby," Sir Francis Beaufort, +the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the House of +Commons, 10th of February 1848, that "from the equator to Cape Horn, and +from thence round to the river Plata on the eastern side of America, all +that is _immediately_ wanted has been already achieved by the splendid +survey of Captain Robert Fitzroy." This was written before steamships +made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The survey that +was sufficient then became afterwards very far from sufficient. + +In 1841 Fitzroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of Ipswich, and in +the following year was returned to parliament as member for Durham. +About the same time he accepted the post of conservator of the Mersey, +and in his double capacity obtained leave to bring in a bill for +improving the condition and efficiency of officers in the mercantile +marine. This was not proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the +"voluntary certificate" instituted by the Board of Trade in 1845, and +furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act of 1850. + +Early in 1843 Fitzroy was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of +New Zealand, then recently established as a colony. He arrived in his +government in December, whilst the excitement about the Wairau massacre +was still fresh, and the questions relating to the purchase of land from +the natives were in a very unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were +greedy and unscrupulous; Fitzroy, on the other hand, had made no secret +of his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant elements +agreement was impossible: the settlers insulted the governor; the +governor did not conciliate the settlers, who denounced his policy as +adverse to their interests, as unjust and illegal; colonial feeling +against him ran very high; petition after petition for his recall was +sent home, and the government was compelled to yield to the pressure +brought to bear on it. Fitzroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in +November 1845. + +In September 1848 he was appointed acting superintendent of the +dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the command of the +"Arrogant," one of the early screw frigates which had been fitted out +under his supervision, and with which it was desired to carry out a +series of experiments and trials. When these were finished he applied to +be superseded, on account at once of his health and of his private +affairs. In February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor did +he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by seniority to the +ranks of rear-and vice-admiral on the retired list (1857, 1863). In 1851 +he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1854, after serving +for a few months as private secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then +commander-in-chief of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological +department of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the +peculiar title of "Meteorological Statist." + +From the date of his joining the "Beagle" in 1828 he had paid very great +attention to the different phenomena foreboding or accompanying change +of weather, and his narratives of the voyages of the "Adventure" and +"Beagle" are full of interesting and valuable details concerning these. +Accordingly, when in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal +Society, was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its +newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without hesitation, +nominated Fitzroy, whose name and career became from that time +identified with the progress of practical meteorology. His _Weather +Book_, published in 1863, embodies in broad outline his views, far in +advance of those then generally held; and in spite of the rapid march of +modern science, it is still worthy of careful attention and exact study. +His storm warnings, in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of +empiricism, were gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and +gave a high percentage of correct results. They were continued for +eighteen months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and +though stopped when the department was transferred to the management of +a committee of the Royal Society, they were resumed a few months +afterwards; and under the successive direction of Dr R.H. Scott and Dr +W.N. Shaw, have been developed into what we now know them. But though it +is perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzroy's name has been most +generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of gratitude, not +only for his labours in reducing to a more practical form the somewhat +complicated wind charts of Captain Maury, but also for his great +exertions in connexion with the life-boat association. Into this work, +in its many ramifications, he threw himself with the energy of an +excitable temperament, already strained by his long and anxious service +in the Straits of Magellan. His last years were fully and to an +excessive degree occupied by it; his health, both of body and mind, +threatened to give way; but he refused to take the rest that was +prescribed. In a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence +on the 30th of April 1865. + + Besides his works already named mention may be made of _Remarks on New + Zealand_ (1846); _Sailing Directions for South America_ (1848); his + official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865); and occasional + papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the + Royal United Service Institution. (J. K. L.) + + + + +FITZROY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 2 m. by rail N.E. +of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 31,610. It is a prosperous +manufacturing town, well served with tramways and containing many fine +residences. + + + + +FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT (fl. 1150), son of Nesta, a Welsh princess and +former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable of Cardigan, whom +Robert succeeded in that office, took service with Dermot of Leinster +when that king visited England (1167), In 1169 Robert led the vanguard +of Dermot's Anglo-Welsh auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford, +which he was then allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fitz Gerald. +Taken prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to Henry +II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of Ireland, Hugh de +Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the troubles of 1173, and was +rewarded by receiving, jointly with Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1177). +He had difficulty in maintaining his position and was nearly +overwhelmed by a rising of Desmond in 1182. The date of his death is +uncertain. + + + + +FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM (d. c. 1190), biographer of Thomas Becket and +royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered Becket's service at +some date between 1154 and 1162. The chancellor employed Fitz Stephen in +legal work, made him sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a +confidant. Fitz Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of +Northampton (1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to +the world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined Becket's +household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the tragedy in +Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most valuable among the +extant biographies of his patron. Though he writes as a partisan he +gives a precise account of the differences between Becket and the king. +This biography contains a description of London which is our chief +authority for the social life of the city in the 12th century. Despite +his connexion with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial +preferment from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1171 to +1190, and a royal justice in the years 1176-1180 and 1189-1190. + + See his "Vita S. Thomae" in J.C. Robertson's _Materials for the + History of Thomas Becket_, vol. iii. (Rolls series, 1877). Sir T.D. + Hardy, in his _Catalogue of Materials_, ii. 330 (Rolls series, 1865), + discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W.H. + Hutton, _St Thomas of Canterbury_, pp. 272-274 (1889), gives an + account of the author. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD (d. 1274), London chronicler and merchant, was born +in London on the 9th of August 1201. Both his parents were of German +extraction. The family of his mother migrated to England from Cologne in +the reign of Henry II.; his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of +Bremen who had been attracted to London by the privileges which the +Plantagenets conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in time +to his father's wealth and position. He held an honourable position +among the Hanse traders, and became their "alderman." He was also, as he +tells us himself, alderman of a London ward and an active partisan in +municipal politics. In the Barons' War he took the royal side against +the populace and the mayor Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular party +planned, in 1265, to try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he +was saved by the news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very +day appointed for the trial. Even after the king's triumph Arnold +suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that he should be +unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon the city. He appealed +for help to Henry III., and again to Edward I., with the result that his +liability was diminished. In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to +whose keeping the muniments of the city were entrusted. To this +circumstance we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. _Chronica +Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, which begins at the year 1188 and is continued +to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of curious information. +Though municipal in its outlook, it is valuable for the general history +of the kingdom, owing to the important part which London played in the +agitation against the misrule of Henry III. We have the king's word for +the fact that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is apparent +from the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means blind to +the faults of Henry's government, but preferred an autocracy to the +mob-rule which Simon de Montfort countenanced in London. Arnold died in +1274; the last fact recorded of him is that, in this year, he joined in +a successful appeal to the king against the illegal grants which had +been made by the mayor, Walter Hervey. + + The _Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum_, with the other contents of + Arnold's common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society by T. + Stapleton (1846), under the title _Liber de Antiquis Legibus_. Our + knowledge of Arnold's life comes from the _Chronica_ and his own + biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited in G.H. + Pertz's _Mon. Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, vol. xxviii. See also + J.M. Lappenberg's _Urkundliche Geschichte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu + London_ (Hamburg, 1851). (H. W. C. D) + + + + +FITZWALTER, ROBERT (d. 1235), leader of the baronial opposition against +King John of England, belonged to the official aristocracy created by +Henry I. and Henry II. He served John in the Norman wars, and was taken +prisoner by Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was +implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1212. According to his own +statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest daughter; but +Robert's account of his grievances varied from time to time. The truth +seems to be that he was irritated by the suspicion with which John +regarded the new baronage. Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to +France. He was outlawed, but returned under a special amnesty after +John's reconciliation with the pope. He continued, however, to take the +lead in the baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak +of hostilities was elected "marshal of the army of God and Holy Church" +(1215). To his influence in London it was due that his party obtained +the support of the city and used it as their base of operations. The +famous clause of Magna Carta (§ 39) prohibiting sentences of exile, +except as the result of a lawful trial, refers more particularly to his +case. He was one of the twenty-five appointed to enforce the promises of +Magna Carta; and his aggressive attitude was one of the causes which +contributed to the recrudescence of civil war (1215). His incompetent +leadership made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of +France. He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and was +the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered London. +Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his natural lord, he +served Louis with fidelity until captured at the battle of Lincoln (May +1217). Released on the conclusion of peace he joined the Damietta +crusade of 1219, but returned at an early date to make his peace with +the regency. The remainder of his career was uneventful; he died +peacefully in 1235. + + See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. The _Histoire des + ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre_ (ed. F. Michel, Paris, + 1840) gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K. + Norgate's _John Lackland_ (1902), W. McKechnie's _Magna Carta_ (1905), + and Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. i. ch. xii. (1897), should + also be consulted. + + + + +FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM (1526-1599), lord deputy of Ireland, was the +eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576) of Milton, +Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson of another Sir William +Fitzwilliam (d. 1534), alderman and sheriff of London, who was also +treasurer and chamberlain to Cardinal Wolsey, and who purchased Milton +in 1506. On his mother's side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell, +1st earl of Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to +Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a member of +the Irish House of Commons; and between this date and 1571 he was +(during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, and of his +successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times lord justice of Ireland. In 1571 +Fitzwilliam himself was appointed lord deputy, but like Elizabeth's +other servants he received little or no money, and his period of +government was marked by continuous penury and its attendant evils, +inefficiency, mutiny and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy +quarrelled with the lord president of Connaught, Sir Edward Fitton +(1527-1579), but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He +disliked the expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex; he had a +further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness he was allowed +to resign his office. Returning to England in 1575 he was governor of +Fotheringhay Castle at the time of Mary Stuart's execution. In 1588 +Fitzwilliam was again in Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and +ill he displayed great activity in leading expeditions, and found time +to quarrel with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1599), the new president of +Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later he died +at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne, daughter of Sir +William Sidney, were descended the barons and earls Fitzwilliam. + + See R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol. ii. (1885). + + + + +FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM WENTWORTH FITZWILLIAM, 2ND EARL (1748-1833), +English statesman, was the son of the 1st earl (peerage of the United +Kingdom), who died in 1756. The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed +descent from a natural son of William the Conqueror, and among its +earlier members were a Sir William Fitzwilliam (1460-1534), sheriff of +London, who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in +Northamptonshire, and his grandson Sir William Fitzwilliam (see above). +The latter's grandson was made an Irish baron in 1620; and in later +generations the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and Earl Fitzwilliam +(1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton (1742) and Viscount Milton +and Earl Fitzwilliam (1746), were added. These were all in the English +house of the Fitzwilliams of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the +Irish Fitzwilliams of Meryon, who descended from a member of the English +family who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the 12th +century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam died out +with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these was Richard, 7th +viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam library and a fund for +creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to Cambridge University. + +The 2nd earl inherited not only the Fitzwilliam estates in +Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the marquess of +Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentworth estates in Yorkshire, and +thus became one of the wealthiest noblemen of the day. He had been at +Eton with C.J. Fox, and became an active supporter of the Whig party; +and in 1794, with the duke of Portland, Windham and other "old Whigs" he +joined Pitt's cabinet, becoming president of the council. At the end of +the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy. Fitzwilliam, +however, had set his face against the jobbery of the Protestant leaders, +and threw himself warmly into Grattan's scheme for admitting the +Catholics to political power; and in March 1795 he was recalled, his +action being disavowed by Pitt, the result of a series of +misunderstandings which appeared to Fitzwilliam to give him just cause +of complaint. The quarrel was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam +was appointed lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He +continued to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president +of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in opposition. He +died in February 1833, his son, Charles William Wentworth, the 3rd earl +(1786-1857), and later earls, being notable figures in the politics and +social life of the north of England. + + + + +FIUME (Slav. _Rjeka_, _Rieka_ or _Reka_, Ger. _St Veit am Flaum_), a +royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern extremity +of the Gulf of Quarnero, an inlet of the Adriatic, and on a small stream +called the Rjeka, Recina or Fiumara, 70 m. by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop. +(1900) 38,955; including 17,354 Italians, 14,885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs +and Slovenes), 2482 Hungarians and 1945 Germans. Geographically, Fiume +belongs to Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7 +sq. m., became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque old +town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst; while the modern +town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric light and electric trams, +is crowded into the amphitheatre left between the hills and the shore. +On the north-west there is a fine public garden. The most interesting +buildings are the cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377, +and completed with a modern façade copied from that of the Pantheon in +Rome; the church of St Veit, on the model of Santa Maria della Salute in +Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with offerings from shipwrecked +sailors, and approached by a stairway of 400 steps. In the old town is a +Roman triumphal arch, said to have been erected during the 3rd century +A.D. in honour of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a +theatre and a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian +emperor; a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of +commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an industrial home +for boys; and several large schools, including the marine academy (1856) +and the school of seamanship (1903). Municipal affairs are principally +managed by the Italians, who sympathize with the Hungarians against the +Slavs. + +Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country it was +connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through Karlstadt. It has +two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch of the southern railway from +Vienna to Trieste, the other of the Hungarian state railway from +Karlstadt. There are several harbours, including the _Porto Canale_, for +coasting vessels; the _Porto Baross_, for timber; and the _Porto +Grande_, sheltered by the _Maria Theresia_ mole and breakwater, besides +four lesser moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators. +The development of the _Porto Grande_, originally named the _Porto +Nuovo_, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals as trade +increased. In 1902, arrangements were made for the construction of a new +mole and an enlargement of the quays and breakwater; these works to be +completed within 5 years, at a cost of £420,000. The exports, worth +£6,460,000 in 1902, chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and +horses; the imports, worth £3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine, +rice, fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large +share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-Croat +and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidized by the state. A +steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian emigrants, officially numbered +in 1902 at 7500, passes through Fiume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of +1,963,000 tons, entered at Fiume in 1902; and 11,535, of 1,956,000, +cleared. Foremost among the industrial establishments are Whitehead's +torpedo factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie's paper-mill, the royal tobacco +factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries and rope +manufactories. In 1902 the last shipbuilding yard was closed. The soil +of the surrounding country is stony, but the climate is warm, and wine +is extensively produced. The Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply +of fish, and the tunny trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable +importance. Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort +of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of Veglia and +Cherso. + +Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Liburnian town +_Tersatica_; later it received the name of _Vitopolis_, and eventually +that of _Fanum Sancti Viti ad Flumen_, from which its present name is +derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne in 799, from which time it +probably long remained under the dominion of the Franks. It was held in +feudal tenure from the patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and +afterwards, in 1139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the +end of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts of +Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor Frederick +III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the house of Austria. +From this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by imperial governors. In 1723 +it was declared a free port by Charles VI., in 1776 united to Croatia by +the empress Maria Theresa, and in 1779 declared a _corpus separatum_ of +the Hungarian crown. In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it +was retaken by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the +following year. It was ceded to Hungary in 1822, but after the +revolution of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under +the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian control +in 1870. + + + + +FIVES, a ball-game played by two or four players in a court enclosed on +three or four sides, the ball being struck with the hand, usually +protected by a glove, whence the game is known in America as "handball." +The origin of the game is probably the French _jeu de paume_, tennis +played with the hand, the hand in that case being eventually superseded +by the racquet. Fives and racquets are probably both descended from the +_jeu de paume_, of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may +be derived from _la longue paume_, in which five on a side played, or +from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be made +by the winners (in modern times the game consists of fifteen points). +Fives is played in Great Britain principally at the schools and +universities, although its encouragement is included in the functions of +the Tennis Racquets and Fives Association, founded in 1908. In America +it is much affected for training purposes by professional athletes and +boxers. There are two forms of fives--the Eton game and the Rugby +game--which require separate notice, though the main features of the two +games are the serving of the ball to the taker of the service, the +necessity of hitting the ball before the second bounce, and of hitting +it above a line and within the limits of the court. + +_Eton Fives._--The peculiar features of the Eton court arose from the +fact that in early times the game was played against the chapel-wall, so +that buttresses formed side walls and the balustrade of the chapel-steps +projected into the court, while a step divided the court latitudinally. +These were reproduced in the regular courts, the buttress being known as +the "pepper-box" and the space between it and the step as the "hole." +The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved; +there is no back wall. On the front wall is a ledge, known as the +"line," 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted; 3 ft. +8 in. from the right-hand wall. Four people usually play, two against +two; one of each pair plays in the forward court, the other in the back +court. The server stands on the left of the forward court, his partner +in the right-hand corner of the back court; the taker of the service by +the right wall of the forward court, his partner at the left-hand corner +of the back court. The forward court is known as "on-wall," the other as +"off-wall." The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall, +above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls on +the "off-wall," but the server's object is not, as at tennis and +racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At fives he must +send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed hand-out can refuse +to take any service that he does not like, and if he fails to return the +ball above the line no stroke is counted. After the service has been +returned either of the opponents returns the ball if he can, and so on, +each side and either member of it returning the ball above the line +alternately till one side or the other hits it below the line or out of +court. Only hand-in can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores +a point; if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner +becomes server, unless he has already served in this round, in which +case the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points. If the +score is "13 all," the out side may "set" the game to 5 or 3; i.e. the +game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at "14 all" it may be set to three. +The game and its terminology being somewhat intricate, can best be +learnt in the court. No apparatus is required except padded gloves and +fives-balls, which are covered with white leather tightly stretched over +a hard foundation of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls +are 1¾ in. in diameter and weigh about 1¼ oz. apiece. + +_Rugby Fives_ is much less complicated owing to the simpler form of the +court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, &c., are the same as +in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The courts are larger, +measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may be roofed or open. The +side walls slope from 20 ft. to 12 ft. Some courts have a dwarf back +wall, some have none. The back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in. +in height. In some courts the side walls are plain; in others, where +there is no back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right +angles to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the +_tambour_ of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall +about 10 ft. from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court. +The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its upper +edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly. + +_Handball_, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played in the +United States, is practically identical with fives, though there are +minor differences. The usual American court is about 60 ft. long, 24½ +ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to 33 ft. at the back +wall. The front wall is of brick faced with marble, the sides of cement +and the floor of white pine laid on beams 10 in. apart. These are the +dimensions of the Brooklyn court of the former American champion, Phil +Casey (d. 1904), which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces +constitute a game and gloves are not usually worn. The American ball is +a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a "red ace" +when made of solid red rubber, and "black ace" when made of black +rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his prime about 1855, was the +most celebrated Irish handball player. In his day nearly every village +tavern in Ireland had a court. Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish +championship in 1885, were his most prominent successors. In America +Phil Casey and Michael Egan are the best-known names. + + See A. Tait's _Fives_ in the All England Series: "Fives" in the + _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; and _Official Handball Guide_ in Spalding's + Athletic Library. + + + + +FIX, THÉODORE (1800-1846), French journalist and economist, was born at +Soleure in Switzerland in 1800. His father was a French physician whose +ancestors had been expatriated by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. +At first a land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the _Bulletin +universal des sciences_, to which he contributed most of the +geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the _Revue mensuelle +d'économie politique_, which he edited during the three years of its +existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work, till his essay +on _L'Association des douanes allemandes_ won him a prize from the +Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1840, and also procured +him work on the report on the progress of sciences since the Revolution, +which the Institute was preparing. A few months before his death he +published _Observations sur les classes ouvrières_, in which he argued +against all attempts to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and +attributed the condition of the working classes to their own +thriftlessness and intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st +of July 1846. + + + + +FIXTURES (Lat. _figere_, to fix), in law, chattels which have been so +fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law, "so +annexed to the freehold"), as to become, in contemplation of law, a part +of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction for certain +purposes, between immovables and movables, between real and personal +property, between land and all other things. In the case of fixtures the +question arises under which set of rights they are to fall--under those +of real or of personal property. The general rule of English law is that +everything attached to the land goes with the land--_quicquid plantatur +solo, solo cedit_. This, like many other rules of English law, is all in +favour of the freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large +number of exceptions formulated from time to time by the courts as +occasion arose. + +In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree of annexation +to the land, or to a building which forms part of it. Thus it has been +held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but not fixed to the ground +itself, is not a fixture; and the onus of showing that articles not +otherwise attached to the land than by their own weight have ceased to +be chattels, rests with those who assert the fact. On the other hand, an +article, even slightly affixed to the land, is to be considered part of +it, unless the circumstances show that it was intended to remain a +chattel. The question is one of fact in each case--depending mainly on +the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possibility of +the removal of the article without injury to itself or the freehold. In +certain cases the courts have recognized a constructive annexation, when +the articles, though not fixed to the soil, pass with the freehold as if +they were, e.g. the keys of a house, the stones of a dry wall, and the +detached or duplicate portions of machines. + +Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise--(1) between +landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor, (3) between executor +and remainder-man or reversioner, (4) between seller and buyer. + + 1. At common law, if the tenant has affixed anything to the freehold + during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the permission of + his landlord. But an exception was established in favour of _trade + fixtures_. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that a soap-boiler + might, _during his term_, remove the vats he had set up for trade + purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom, but "by the + common law in favour of trade, and to encourage industry," and it may + be stated as a general rule that things which a tenant has fixed to + the freehold for the purpose of trade or manufacture may be taken away + by him, whenever the removal is not contrary to any prevailing + practice, or the particular terms of the contract of tenancy, and can + be effected without causing material injury to the estate or + destroying the essential character of the articles themselves + (_Lambourn_ v. _M^cLellan_, 1903, 2 Ch. 269). Agricultural tenants are + not entitled, at common law, to remove trade fixtures. But the + Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such a right of removal in the + case of buildings or machinery erected by a tenant at his own + expense, and with his landlord's consent in writing, provided that the + freehold was not injured or that any injury was made good, and that + before removal a month's written notice was given to the landlord, who + had an option of purchase. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883 + the tenant might, under similar conditions, remove fixtures, although + the landlord had not consented to their erection. The Agricultural + Holdings Act 1900 extended this provision to fixtures or buildings + acquired, although not annexed or erected, by the tenant. Similar + rights were created by the Allotments Compensation Act 1887, and by + the Market Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895. All these provisions were + re-enacted by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908. + + Again, _ornamental_ fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and + convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry, + iron-backs to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble + chimney-pieces, are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable + without the landlord's consent. Here again the extent of the privilege + has been a matter of some uncertainty. + + In all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term. If + the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing the + fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a gift of + them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could not be + rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His right to + the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry of the + term, if he still remains in possession; but if he has once left the + premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In one case where + the fixtures had actually been severed from the freehold after the end + of the term, it was held that the tenant had no right to recover them. + + 2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question of + fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person owning + land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures, set up for + the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental objects, the + rule _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_ was in early times somewhat + relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701, it was held + that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the executor; + and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently cut down, + it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming the + executor's right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for life + to the walls of a house for ornament and their better enjoyment as + chattels (_Leigh_ v. _Taylor_, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same has + been held as to statues and bronze groups set on pedestals in the + grounds of a mansion house. + + 3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures + arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to + the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man is + not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to + fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the + preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor's + fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor's fixtures + against the remainder-man. And the result of the cases seems to be + that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life + would be certainly entitled to trade fixtures. Agricultural fixtures + are not removable by the executor of a tenant for life. + + 4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes a + purchase of all the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties is + of great importance. Similar questions may arise in other cases, e.g. + as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged the + fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in the + conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the subject + of a hire purchase agreement (_Reynolds_ v. _Ashby_, 1903, 1 K.B. 87). + Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises. Bills of + sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mortgages, the + possession remaining with the person selling them. To make them valid + they must be registered, and so the question has arisen whether deeds + conveying fixtures ought not to have been registered as bills of sale. + Unless it was the intention of the parties to make the fixtures a + distinct security, it seems that a deed of mortgage embracing them + does not require to be registered as a bill of sale. The question of + what is or is not a fixture must also often be considered in questions + of rating or assessment. + + The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England. The + Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42) and 1900 (as + to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal. The law + of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation sketched in + the article LANDLORD AND TENANT. The French Code Civil recognizes the + right of the usufructuary to remove articles attached by him to the + subject of his estate on the expiry of his term, on making good the + place from which they were taken (Art. 599); and there are similar + provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art. 495), Spain (Arts. 487, + 489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany (Arts. 1037, 1049). + + The law of the United States as to fixtures is substantially identical + with English common law. Constructive, as well as actual, annexation + is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law rule + _quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit_) as regards trade fixtures, and + ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized. + + In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without + modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St Lucia + (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in + substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory + right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and Tenant + Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or + settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 + is in force. + + AUTHORITIES.--English law: Amos and Ferard, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd + ed., London, 1883); Brown, _Law of Fixtures_ (3rd ed., London, 1875); + Ryde, on _Rating_ (2nd ed., London, 1905). Scots Law: Hunter, + _Landlord and Tenant_; Erskine's _Principles_ (20th ed., Edin., 1903). + American Law: Bronson, _Law of Fixtures_ (St Paul, 1904); Reeves, + _Real Property_ (Boston, 1904); _Ruling Cases_ (London and Boston, + 1894-1901), Tit. "Fixtures" (American Notes). (A. W. R.) + + + + +FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS (1819-1896), French physicist, was born +at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819. His earliest work was concerned +with improvements in photographic processes; and then, in association +with J.B.L. Foucault, he engaged in a series of investigations on the +interference of light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results +obtained by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light +(see LIGHT), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity of +electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the condenser as a +means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-coil. Subsequently +he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and applied the phenomena of +interference of light to the measurement of the dilatations of crystals. +He died at Venteuil on the 18th of September 1896. He became a member of +the French Academy in 1860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878. + + + + +FJORD, or FIORD, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long narrow arm of +the sea running far inland, with more or less precipitous cliffs on each +side. These "sea-lochs," as they are sometimes called, present many +peculiar features. They differ entirely from an estuary in the fact that +they are bounded seawards by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and +they deepen inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up +to the surface. They are thus true rock basins drowned in sea-water. It +is pointed out by Dr H.R. Mill that Loch Morar on the west coast of +Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep, with its surface 30 ft. +above sea-level, which is connected with the sea by a short river, is +exactly similar in configuration to Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled +with sea-water which pours over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the +retreating tide; that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill +8 fathoms below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway, +more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum depth of 700 +fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch Morar would become a fjord +if the seaward portion sank below sea-level. The origin of these rock +basins has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon +somewhat similar basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering +of surface rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where +material is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls +in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But investigations in +such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the Yosemite Valley, where there +is frequently a "reversed grade" similar to that near the seaward end of +rock basins and fjords, seem to show, in some cases at least, that such +a formation may be due to the "gouging" effect of a glacier coming down +the valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and the +supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several causes, +but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys. The mass of +sea-water in the depth of the basin is either unaffected by the seasonal +changes in surface temperature, which in Norway penetrate no deeper than +200 fathoms, or else, as in Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water +responds quickly to seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer +penetrates so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months +to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found that +where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the temperature +may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from the surface. When the +surface is warmest, on the other hand, the depths are coldest. + + + + +FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the most +illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that the family +came from Tusculum, where some were still living in the middle of the +1st century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacci the most important were the +following: + +QUINTUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, son of the first of the family, Marcus, who was +consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 264. He especially distinguished +himself during the second Punic War. He was consul four times (237, 224, +212, 209), censor (231) pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (215). +During his first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, +Gauls and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventum, and with +his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege of Capua. The +capture of this place was considered so important that their imperium +was prolonged, but on condition that they should not leave Capua until +it had been taken. Hannibal's unexpected diversion against Rome +interfered with the operations for the moment, but his equally +unexpected retirement enabled Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to +protect the city, to return, and bring the siege to a successful +conclusion. He punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in +excuse that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He was +nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which he was +himself elected (209). He was appointed to the command of the army in +Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further attempts at +rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The chief authority for his +life is the part of Livy dealing with the period (see PUNIC WARS). + +His brother GNAEUS was convicted of gross cowardice against Hannibal +near Herdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile at Tarquinii. His +son, QUINTUS, waged war with signal success against the Celtiberians in +182-181, and the Ligurians in 179. Having vowed to build a temple to +Fortuna Equestris, he dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium +of its marble slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to +restore them, though they were never put back in their places. +Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself. + +MARCUS FULVIUS FLACCUS, grandnephew of the first Quintus, lived in the +times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong supporter. After the death +of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.) he was appointed in his place one of the +commission of three for the distribution of the land. He was suspected +of having had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129), +but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul in 125, he +proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the allies, and to allow +even those who had not acquired it the right of appeal to the popular +assembly against penal judgments. This proposal, though for the time +successfully opposed by the senate, eventually led to the Social War. +The attack made upon the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the +Salluvii (Salyes) afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out +of Rome. After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this +time with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not +remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimates and the +party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities, during which Flaccus +was killed, together with Gracchus and a number of his supporters. It is +generally agreed that Flaccus was perfectly honest in his support of the +Gracchan reforms, but his hot-headedness did more harm than good to the +cause. Cicero (_Brutus_, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate +powers, but a diligent student. + + See Livy, _Epit._ 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5. 1; Vell. Pat. ii. 6; Appian, + _Bell. Civ._ i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 10. 13; also + A.H.J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (1904), and authorities quoted under + GRACCHUS. + + + + +FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846- ), French jurist and historian, was born +at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February 1846, of a family known +at least as early as the 16th century, when Sigismond Flach was the +first professor of law at Strassburg University. G.J. Flach studied +classics and law at Strassburg, and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of +law. In his theses as well as in his early writings--such as _De la +subrogation réelle, La Bonorum possessio_, and _Sur la durée des effets +de la minorité_ (1870)--he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws +by means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time. The +Franco-German War engaged Flach's activities in other directions, and he +spent two years (described in his _Strasbourg après le bombardement_, +1873) at work on the rebuilding of the library and the museum, which had +been destroyed by Prussian shells. When the time came for him to choose +between Germany and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he +completed his scientific training at the École des Chartes and the École +des Hautes Études. Having acted for some time as secretary to Jules +Sénard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he published an +original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as possible resumed +the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant to the jurist Edouard +Laboulaye at the Collège de France, and succeeded him in 1884 in the +chair of comparative legislation. Since 1877 he had been professor of +comparative law at the free school of the political sciences. To qualify +himself for these two positions he had to study the most diverse +civilizations, including those of the East and Far East (e.g. Hungary, +Russia and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other +Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published, +particularly those concerning Ireland: _Histoire du régime agraire de +l'Irlande_ (1883); _Considérations sur l'histoire politique de +l'Irlande_ (1885); and _Jonathan Swift, son action politique en Irlande_ +(1886). + +His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history of ancient +French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded by his friend and +compatriot Ignace Chauffour, aroused his interest by reviving the +question of the origin of the feudal laws, and gradually led him to +study the formation of those laws and the early growth of the feudal +system. His great work, _Les Origines de l'ancienne France_, was +produced slowly. In the first volume, _Le Régime seigneurial_ (1886), he +depicts the triumph of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after +Charlemagne's great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle +of sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the various +functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity disappeared; +and how the only living organisms were vassalage and clientship. The +second volume, _Les Origines communales, la féodalité et la chevalerie_ +(1893), deals with the reconstruction of society on new bases which took +place in the 10th and 11th centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman +_villa_ gave place to the village, with its fortified castle, the +residence of the lord; how new towns were formed by the side of old, +some of which disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations; +and how the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument of +cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism from the +germs of the Gallo-Roman personal _comitatus_; and shows how the bond +that united the different parties was the contract of the fief; and how, +after a slow growth of three centuries, feudalism was definitely +organized in the 12th century. In 1904 appeared the third volume, _La +Renaissance de l'état_, in which the author describes the efforts of the +Capetian kings to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the +whole of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the +imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords of the +kingdom (the "princes," as Flach calls them), whether as allies or foes, +pursued the same end; and how, before the close of the 12th century, the +Capetian kings were in possession of the organs and the means of action +which were to render them so powerful and bring about the early downfall +of feudalism. + +In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals, the author's +theories are not always in complete harmony, nor are they always +presented in a very luminous or coherent manner, but they are marked by +originality and vigour. Flach gave them a solid basis by the wide range +of his researches, utilizing charters and cartularies (published and +unpublished), chronicles, lives of saints, and even those dangerous +guides, the _chansons de geste_. He owed little to the historians of +feudalism who knew what feudalism was, but not how it came about. He +pursued the same method in his _L'Origine de l'habitation et des lieux +habités en France_ (1899), in which he discusses some of the theories +circulated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubainville ville +in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F.C. von Savigny, +Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle ages and the +Renaissance, and produced _Cujas, les glossateurs et les Bartolistes_ +(1883), and _Études critiques sur l'histoire du droit romain au moyen +âge, avec textes inédits_ (1890). + + + + +FLACIUS (Ger. _Flach_; Slav. _Vlakich_), MATTHIAS (1520-1575), surnamed +ILLYRICUS, Lutheran reformer, was born at Albona, in Illyria, on the 3rd +of March 1520. Losing his father in childhood, he was in early years +self-educated, and made himself able to profit by the instructions of +the humanist, Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he +decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His +intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, provincial of the +Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation, who induced him to enter +on a university career, from 1539, at Basel, Tübingen and Wittenberg. +Here he was welcomed (1541) by Melanchthon, being well introduced from +Tübingen, and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In +1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He married in +the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the festivities. He took his +master's degree on the 24th of February 1546, ranking first among the +graduates. Soon he was prominent in the theological discussions of the +time, opposing strenuously the "Augsburg Interim," and the compromise of +Melanchthon known as the "Leipzig Interim" (see ADIAPHORISTS). +Melanchthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade ("aluimus in sinu +serpentem"), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He removed to +Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with Melanchthon was patched +up. On the 17th of May 1557 he was appointed professor of New Testament +theology at Jena; but was soon involved in controversy with Strigel, his +colleague, on the synergistic question (relating to the function of the +will in conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he +unwittingly fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean view of +sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in its substance, +since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure, he left Jena (Feb. +1562) to found an academy at Regensburg. The project was not successful, +and in October 1566 he accepted a call from the Lutheran community at +Antwerp. Thence he was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and +betook himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces +against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received by the +superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an asylum. But here also +his religious views stood in his way; the authorities eventually +ordering him to leave the city by Mayday 1573. Again betaking himself to +Frankfort, the prioress, Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White +Ladies, harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities. He +fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to leave by +Mayday 1575; but death released him on the 11th of March 1575. His first +wife, by whom he had twelve children, died in 1564; in the same year he +remarried and had further issue. His son Matthias was professor of +philosophy and medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the +literary fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over; he +stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church history, +and--if we except, a great exception, the work of Laurentius Valla--of +hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling motive was to prove popery to +be built on bad history and bad exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the +extirpation of bad history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal +interest to all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value +of the principles embodied in Flacius' _Catalogus testium veritatis_ +(1556; revised edition by J.C. Dietericus, 1672) and his _Clavis +scripturae sacrae_ (1567), followed by his _Glossa compendiaria in N. +Testamentum_ (1570). His characteristic formula, "historia est +fundamentum doctrinae," is better understood now than in his own day. + + See J.B. Ritter, _Flacius's Leben u. Tod_ (1725); M. Twesten, _M. + Flacius Illyricus_ (1844); W. Preger, _M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine + Zeit_ (1859-1861); G. Kawerau, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ + (1899). (A. Go.*) + + + + +FLACOURT, ÉTIENNE DE (1607-1660), French governor of Madagascar, was +born at Orleans in 1607. He was named governor of Madagascar by the +French East India Company in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the +French soldiers, who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives +he was less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in +continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he returned +to France. Not long after he was appointed director general of the +company; but having again returned to Madagascar, he was drowned on his +voyage home on the 10th of June 1660. He is the author of a _Histoire de +la grande isle Madagascar_ (1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661). + + See A. Malotet, _Ét. de Flacourt, ou les origines de la colonisation + française à Madagascar (1648-1661)_, (Paris, 1898). + + + + +FLAG (or "FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently +first recorded in English), a piece of bunting or similar material, +admitting of various shapes and colours, and waved in the wind from a +staff or cord for use in display as a standard, ensign or signal. The +word may simply be derived onomatopoeically, or transferred from the +botanical "flag"; or an original meaning of "a piece of cloth" may be +connected with the 12th-century English "flage," meaning a baby's +garment; the verb "to flag," i.e. droop, may have originated in the idea +of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the O. Fr. +_flaguir_, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as soon as men +began to collect together for common purposes some kind of conspicuous +object was used, as the symbol of the common sentiment, for the rallying +point of the common force. In military expeditions, where any degree of +organization and discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be +necessary to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep +in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In addition, it +cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents have often served, by +reminding men of past resolves, past deeds and past heroes, to arouse to +enthusiasm those sentiments of _esprit de corps_, of family pride and +honour, of personal devotion, patriotism or religion, upon which, as +well as upon good leadership, discipline and numerical force, success in +warfare depends. + +_History._--Among the remains of the people which has left the earliest +traces of civilization, the records of the forms of objects used as +ensigns are frequently to be found. From their carvings and paintings, +supplemented by ancient writers, it appears that several companies of +the Egyptian army had their own particular standards. These were formed +of such objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the +minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred animals, +boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king's name, fan and +feather-shaped symbols, were raised on the end of a staff as standards, +and the office of bearing them was looked upon as one of peculiar +privilege and honour (Fig. 1). Somewhat similar seem to have been the +customs of the Assyrians and Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by +Layard and others at Nineveh, only two different designs have been +noticed for standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on +a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite directions +(Fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and peace which were +attached to the yoke of Darius's chariot. They are borne upon and +attached to chariots; and this method of bearing such objects was the +custom also of the Persians, and prevailed during the middle ages. That +the custom survived to a comparatively modern period is proved from the +fact that the "Guns," which are the "standards" of the artillery, have +from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours prescribed +by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol of authority. In +days comparatively recent there was a "flag gun," usually the heaviest +piece, which emblemized authority and served also as the "gun of +direction" in the few concerted movements then attempted. No +representations of Egyptian or Assyrian naval standards have been found, +but the sails of ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices, +another custom which survived into the middle ages. + +In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the emblem is +frequently ornamented immediately below with flag-like streamers. +Rabbinical writers have assigned the different devices of the different +Jewish tribes, but the authenticity of their testimony is extremely +doubtful. Banners, standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the +Bible. "Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard, +with the ensign of their father's house" (Num. ii. 2). "Who is she that +looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, +terrible as an army with banners?" (Cant. vi. 10. See also Num. ii. 10, +x. 14; Ps. xx. 5, lx. 4; Cant. ii. 4; Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer. +iv. 21). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Egyptian Standards.] + +The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the sun, as +their divinity, was also represented upon their standards, which appear +to have been formed of some kind of textile, and were guarded with the +greatest jealousy by the bravest men of the army. The Carian soldier who +slew Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of +carrying a golden cock at the head of the army, it being the custom of +the Carians to wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North +American Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of +eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other +semi-savage peoples. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Assyrian Standards.] + +The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early times; +afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems or letters chosen for +their particular associations--the Athenians the olive and the owl, the +Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the +Messenians their initial M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was +placed on the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians +carried a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon +was the military sign of many peoples--of the Chinese, Dacians and +Parthians among others--and was probably first used by the Romans as the +ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Roman Standards.] + +The question of the _signa militaria_ of the Romans is a wide and very +important one, having direct bearing on the history of heraldry, and on +the origin of national, family and personal devices. With them the +custom was reduced to system. "Each century, or at least each maniple," +says Meyrick, "had its proper standard and standard-bearer." In the +early days of the republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence +probably came the name _manipulus_ (Lat. _manus_, a hand). The forms of +standards in later times were very various; sometimes a cross piece of +wood was placed at the end of a spear and surmounted by the figure of a +hand in silver, below round or oval discs, with figures of Mars or +Minerva, or in later times portraits of emperors or eminent generals +(Fig. 3). Figures of animals, as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were +borne, and it was not till a later period that the eagle became the +special standard of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Gaius Marius +who, in his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should +only have the eagle for their standard; "for before that time the eagle +marched foremost with four others--wolves, minotaurs, horses and +bears--each one in its proper order. Not many years passed before the +eagle alone began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left +behind in the camp. But Marius rejected them altogether, and since this +it is observed that scarcely is there a camp of a legion wintered at any +time without having a pair of eagles." + +The _vexillum_, which was the cavalry flag, is described by Livy as a +square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed crosswise to the +end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval _gonfalon_. Examples of +these vexilla are to be seen on various Roman coins and medals, on the +sculptured columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus. +The _labarum_, which was the imperial standard of later emperors, +resembled in shape and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk richly +embroidered with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum +from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags, that is +to say, by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff. After +Constantine, the labarum bore the monogram of Christ (fig. 5, A). It is +supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval days was often +attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop, was derived from +the labarum of the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great. The +Roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples at +Rome; and the reverence of this people for their ensigns was in +proportion to their superiority to other nations in all that tends to +success in war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to +be cast into the ranks of the enemy, to add zeal to the onset of his +soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps the most +sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier swore by his ensign. + +Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for standards, +and was often appended as ornament to those of other material, it was +probably not until the middle ages that it became the special material +of military and other ensigns; and perhaps not until the practice of +heraldry had attained to definite nomenclature and laws does anything +appear which is in the modern sense a flag. + +Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In Bede's +description of the interview between the heathen king Æthelberht and the +Roman missionary Augustine, the followers of the latter are said to have +borne banners on which silver crosses were displayed. The national +banner of England for centuries--the red cross of St George--was a +religious one; in fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been +sought to give sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be +traced to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme of +France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the legend runs that +King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops to battle against the enemy +in 1219, saw at a critical moment a cross in the sky. This was at once +taken as an answer to his prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It +was forthwith adopted as the Danish flag and called the "Dannebrog," +i.e. the strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag +undoubtedly dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is +therefore the oldest now in existence. + +The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin upon their +standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally in the keeping of the +monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the right to take this blue flag +into battle with them was claimed by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore +this banner against Alaric in 507, for victory was promised him by a +verse of the Psalms which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered +the church of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the +battle of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At what +precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply the banner of +the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de St Martin as the sacred +banner of all France is not known. Probably, however, it gradually +became the national flag after the kings of France had transferred the +seat of government to Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was +held in high honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in +the abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals of +the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his +quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., le Gros, bore this banner from +the abbey to battle, in 1124. He is credited with having been the first +French king to have taken the banner to war, and it appeared for the +last time on the field of fight at Agincourt in 1415. The accounts also +of its appearance vary considerably. Guillaume Guiart, in his +_Chronicle_ says:-- + + "Oriflambe est une bannière + De cendal voujoiant et simple + Sans portraiture d'autre affaire." + +It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst an +English authority states "the celestial auriflamb, so by the French +admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner." The _Chronique +de Flandres_ describes it as having three points with tassels of green +silk attached. The banner of William the Conqueror was sent to him by +the pope, and the early English kings fought under the banners of Edward +the Confessor and St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St +Andrew and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united +kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron saints they +severally were. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4--Pennons and Standards from the Bayeux Tapestry.] + +The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest of England, +contains abundant representations of the flags of the period borne upon +the lances of the knights of William's army. They appear small in size, +and pointed, frequently indented into three points and bearing pales, +crosses and roundels. One, a Saxon pennon, is triangular, and roundly +indented into four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed, +and bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent the +raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. 4). In all, +thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights are represented +in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight have triple points, +whilst others have two, four or five. The devices on these pennons are +very varied and distinctive, although the date is prior to the period in +which heraldry became definitely established. In fact, the flags and +their charges are probably not really significant of the people bearing +them; for, even admitting that personal devices were used at the time, +the figures may have been placed without studied intention, and so give +the general figure only of such flags as happened to have come under the +observation of the artists. The figures are probably rather ornamental +and symbolic than strictly heraldic,--that is, personal devices, for the +same insignia do not appear on the shields of the several bearers. The +dragon standard which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold; +but similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which fact +has induced a writer in the _Journal of the Archaeological Association_ +(vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of the Saxons they +represent only trophies torn from the shields of the Normans, and that +they are not ensigns at all. Standards in form much resembling these +dragons appear on the Arch of Titus and the Trajan column as the +standards of barbarians. + +At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard was formed of +the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the top and bearing three +sacred banners, dedicated severally to St Peter, St John of Beverley and +St Wilfrid of Ripon, the whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle. +Representations of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons are found on +seals of as early date as the Norman era, and the warriors in the first +crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the three points +with the three roundels and cross, which so often appear on these +banners, have some reference to the faith of the bearers in the Trinity +and in the Crucifixion, for in contemporary representations of Christ's +resurrection and descent into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with +cross above. The triple indentation so common on the flags of this +period has been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable +ordinaries--the pile. The "pile," it may be explained, is in the form +of a wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies the +central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle chief. It +may, however, issue from any other extremity of the shield, and there +may be more than one. More secular characters were, however, not +uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order for a "dragon to be made in +fashion of a standard of red silk sparkling all over with fine gold, the +tongue of which should be made to resemble burning fire and appear to be +continually moving, and the eyes of sapphires or other suitable stones." +_The Siege of Carlaverock_, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th century, +describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the knights at the +siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the writer says:-- + + "En sa bannière trois luparte + De or fin estoient mis en rouge;" + +and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may be +supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one of Sir +Christopher Barker's heraldic collection, Harl. 4632) gives drawings of +the standards of English kings from Edward III. to Henry VIII., which +are roughly but artistically coloured. + +The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle ages were the +pennon, the banner and the standard. The "guydhommes" or "guidons," +"banderolls," "pennoncells," "streamers" or pendants, may be considered +as minor varieties. The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign, +sometimes pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the +end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart from the +knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged with his personal +armorial bearings so displayed that they stood in true position when he +couched his lance for action. A MS. of the 16th century (Harl. 2358) in +the British Museum, which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape +and bearings of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes, +pennoncells, &c., says "a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made +round at the end, and conteyneth the armes of the owner," and warns that +"from a standard or streamer a man may flee but not from his banner or +pennon bearing his arms." + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--A, Labarum from medallion of Constantine; B, +Medieval Pennon; C. Medieval Banner; D., Standard of Henry V.] + +A pennoncell (or penselle) was a diminutive pennon carried by the +esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on any special +occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state funerals. For +instance, we find "XII. doz. penselles" amongst the items that figured +at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in 1554, and in the description of +the lord mayor's procession in the following year we read of "ij goodly +pennes (state barges) deckt with flages and stremers, and a m (1000) +penselles." Amongst the items that ran the total cost of the funeral of +Oliver Cromwell up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of +thirty dozen of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a +dozen, and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a +dozen. + +The banner was, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag, though +at a later date it is often found greater in length than in depth, +precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of to-day. In +some very early examples it is found considerably longer in the depth on +the staff than in its outward projection from the staff. The banner was +charged in a manner exactly similar to the shield of the owner, and it +was borne by knights banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough +guide it may be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of +a king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount +or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to display the +armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the right to carry it, it is +evident that the square form was the most convenient and akin to the +shield of primal heraldry. In fact, flags were originally heraldic +emblems, though in modern devices the strict laws of heraldry have often +been departed from. + +The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary knights, +and they could be created on the field of battle only. To create a +knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief in person tore off the +fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight, thus turning it roughly +into the square flag or banner, and so making the knight a banneret. The +date in which this dignity originated is uncertain, but it was probably +about the period of Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a +banneret by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the +3rd of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the reign of +Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the Scottish king, at +the battle of Durham. In more modern times Captain John Smith, of Lord +Bernard Stuart's troop of the King's Guards, who saved the royal banner +from the parliamentary troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by +Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights banneret ceased +until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen in 1743, when the +dignity was again conferred. It is true, however, that, when in 1763 Sir +William Erskine presented to George III. sixteen stands of colours +captured by his regiment [now the 15th (king's) Hussars] at Emsdorf, he +was raised to the dignity of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was +not performed on the field of battle, the creation was considered +irregular, and his possession of the rank was not generally recognized. + +The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it also denoted +that he who bore it was the leader of a military force, large or small +according to his degree or estate. It was, in fact, the battle flag of +the leader who controlled the particular force that followed it into the +fight. Every baron who in time of war had furnished the proper number of +men to his liege was entitled to charge with his arms the banner which +they followed. There could indeed be at present found no better +representative of the medieval "banner" than what we now term the "royal +standard"; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of the +United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other royal and +imperial standards have now become "standards," inasmuch as they are +to-day used for display in the same fashion, and for the same purposes +as was the "standard" of old. The "gonfalon" or "gonfannon" was a battle +flag differing from the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to +the pole but hung from it crosswise, and was not always square in shape +but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The gonfalon was +in action borne close to the person of the commander-in-chief and +denoted his position. In certain of the Italian cities chief magistrates +had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon, and for this reason were known +as "gonfaloniere." + +The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering +towards the fly (the "fly" is that portion of the flag farther from the +pole, the "hoist" the portion of the flag attached to the pole), the +edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with the ends split and +rounded off. The shape was not, however, by any means uniform during +the middle ages nor were there any definite rules as to its charges. It +varied in size according to the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS. +mentioned above says of the royal standard of that time--"the Standard +to be sett before the king's pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in +battayle; to be in length eleven yards." A MS. of the time of Henry VII. +gives the following dimensions for standards: "The King's had a length +of eight yards; that of a duke, seven; a marquis, six and a half; an +earl, six; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five; a knight +banneret, four and a half; and a knight four yards." The standard was, +in fact, from its size, and as its very name implies, not meant to be +carried into action, as was the banner, but to denote the actual +position of its possessor on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the +tilting ground, and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his +following when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle. +It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner was the +rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its uses are now +fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the "banner" which has +now become the "royal standard," and which floats over the palace where +the king is in residence, is hoisted at the saluting point when he +reviews his troops, and is broken from the mainmast of any ship in his +navy the moment that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition +of the standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George +conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately contiguous to +the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided fesse-wise by two +or more stripes of colours exactly as the heraldic "ordinary" termed +"fesse" crosses the shield horizontally. The colours used as stripes, as +also those used in the fringe or bordering of the standard, were those +which prevailed in the arms of the bearer or were those of his livery. +The standard here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours +white and blue, a white antelope standing between two red roses, and in +the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the Harleian MS. +above mentioned: "Every standard and guidon to have in the chief the +cross of St George, the beast or crest with his devyce and word, and to +be slitt at the end." The motto indeed usually figured on most +standards, though occasionally it was missing. An excellent type of the +old standard is that of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion, +the crescent, and the fetterlock--all badges of the family--whilst, as +tokens of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan and +Fitzpayne, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were respectively +displayed. There was also the historic Percy motto, _Espérance en Dieu_. +No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess more than one banner, since +it displayed his heraldic arms, which were unchangeable. A single +individual, however, might possess two or three standards since this +flag displayed badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto +that he could at any time change. For example, the standards of Henry +VII., mostly green and white--the colours of the Tudor livery--had in +one "a red firye dragon," in another "a donne kowe," in a third "a +silver greyhound and two red roses." The standard was always borne by an +eminent person, and that of Henry V. at Agincourt is supposed to have +been carried upon a car that preceded the king. At Nelson's funeral his +banner and standard were borne in the procession, and around his coffin +were the banderolls--square, bannerlike flags bearing the various arms +of his family lineage. Nelson's standard bore his motto, _Palmam qui +meruit ferat_, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the union +of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick, the medieval +England having expanded into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and +Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke of Wellington we find amongst +the flags his personal banner and standard, and ten banderolls of the +duke's pedigree and descent. + +The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. _Guyd-homme_, was somewhat +similar to the standard, but without the cross of St George, rounded at +the end, less elongated and altogether less ornate. It was borne by a +leader of horse, and according to a medieval writer "must be two and a +half yards or three yards long, and therein shall no armes be put, but +only the man's crest, cognisance, and devyce." + +The streamer, so called in Tudor days but now better known as the +pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering flag, which it was directed +"shall stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle, and therein be +put no armes, but the man's cognisance or devyce, and may be of length +twenty, thirty, forty or sixty yards, and is slitt as well as a guidon +or standard." Amongst the fittings of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl +of Warwick, to France in the reign of Henry VII. was a "grete stremour +for the shippe xl yardes in length viij yardes in brede." In the hoist +was "a grete bere holding a raggid staffe," and the rest of the fly +"powdrid full of raggid staves." + +NATIONAL FLAGS.--_British._ The royal standard of England was, when it +was hoisted on the Tower on the 1st of January 1801, thus heraldically +described:--"Quarterly; first and fourth, gules, three lions passant +gardant, in pale, or, for England; second, or, a lion rampant, gules, +within a double tressure flory counter flory of the last, for Scotland; +third, azure, a harp or, stringed argent, for Ireland." The present +standard connects in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror. +These were two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same +until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for leopards, +and a third added. The next change that took place was in the reign of +Edward III. when the royal arms were for the first time quartered; +_fleurs-de-lis_ in the first and fourth quarters, and the three lions of +England in the second and third. The _fleurs-de-lis_ were assumed in +token of the monarch's claim to the throne of France. In the "coats" of +Edward III. and the two monarchs that succeeded him, the _fleurs-de-lis_ +were powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. the _fleurs-de-lis_ +were reduced in number to three, and the "coat" so devised remained the +same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion of Scotland and the +Irish harp were added to the flag on the accession of James I., and the +flag then had the French and English arms quartered in the first and +fourth quarters, the lion of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the +second quarter, and the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the +third quarter. With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to +which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until the +accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart standard a +central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen Anne made further +alterations; the first and fourth quarters were subdivided, the three +lions of England being in one half, the lion of Scotland in the other. +The _fleurs-de-lis_ were in the second quarter; the Irish harp in the +third. Under George I. and George II. the first, second and third +quarters remained the same, the arms of Hanover being placed in the +fourth quarter, and this continued to be the royal standard until 1801, +when the standard was rearranged as first described with the addition of +the Hanoverian arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the +accession of Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the +flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however, that +in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in the chapel of +St George at Windsor, the ordinary "winged woman" form of the harp in +the Irish third quartering is altered to a harp of the old Irish +pattern. At King Edward's accession this banner replaced that of Queen +Victoria which for sixty-two years had hung in this, the chapel of the +order of the Garter. + +Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of the lord high +admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly the royal standard as +deputy of the sovereign. When royalty ceased to be, a new flag was +devised by the council of state for the Commonwealth, which comprised +the "arms of England and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red +flag within a compartment." In other words, it was a red flag containing +two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white +ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the shields +was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these flags is still in +existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept in a wooden chest which +was taken out of a Spanish galleon at Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke +in 1704. When Cromwell became protector of the commonwealth of England, +Scotland and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This +had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters, the cross +of St Andrew, a white saltire on a blue ground, in the second, and the +Irish harp in the third. His own arms--a lion on a black shield--were +imposed on the centre of the flag. No one but royalty has a right to fly +the royal standard, and though it is constantly seen flying for purposes +of decoration its use is irregular. There has, however, always been one +exception, namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command +of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard. For +example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the "Ark Royal" when +he defeated the Spanish Armada; the duke of Buckingham flew it as lord +high admiral in the reign of Charles I., and the duke of York fought +under it when he commanded during the Dutch Wars. + +The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack, in which are +combined in union the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick. St +George had long been a patron saint of England, and his banner, argent, +a cross gules, its national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the +patron saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the +national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns James I. +issued a proclamation ordaining that "henceforth all our subjects of +this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and the members thereof, shall +bear in their main-top the red cross commonly called St George's cross, +and the white cross commonly called St Andrew's cross, joined together +according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral +to be published to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects +of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont, and +our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white cross only as +they were accustomed." This was the first Union Jack, as it is generally +termed, though strictly the name of the flag is the "Great Union," and +it is only a "Jack" when flown on the jackstaff of a ship of war. +Probably the name of the Stuart king "Jacques," which James I. always +signed, gave the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was +hoisted. At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being +dissolved, the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of +St George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became +protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the +Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original union flag +was restored, and continued as described until the year 1801, when, on +the legislative union with Ireland, the cross of St Patrick, a saltire +gules, on a field argent, was incorporated in the union flag. To so +combine these three crosses without losing the distinctive features of +each was not easy; each cross must be distinct, and retain equally +distinct its fimbriation, or bordering, which denotes the original +ground. In the first union flag, the red cross of St George with the +white fimbriation that represented-the original white field was simply +imposed upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To +place the red saltire of St Patrick on the white saltire of St Andrew +would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the red saltire have +its proper bordering denoting its original white field; even were the +red saltire narrowed in width the portion of the white saltire that +would appear would not be the St Andrew saltire, but only the +fimbriation appertaining to the saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty +has been got over by making the white broader on one side of the red +than the other. In fact, the continuity of direction of the arms of the +St Patrick red saltire has been broken by its portions being removed +from the centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew's saltire. +Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distinguished +from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white fimbriation. + +The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns, and is +flown by representatives of the empire all the world over. It flies from +the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy. With the Irish harp on a +blue shield displayed in the centre, it is flown by the lord-lieutenant +of Ireland. When flown by the governor-general of India the star and +device of the order of the Star of India are borne in the centre. +Colonial governors fly it with the badge of their colony displayed in +the centre. Diplomatic representatives use it with the royal arms in the +centre. As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and +headquarters, and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at +the mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the fleet. + +Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours, and +flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will here be +only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty flags. + +The origin of the three ensigns--the red, white, and blue--had its +genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as prevailed in +the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides the admiral in supreme +command, a vice-admiral as second in command, and a rear-admiral as +third in command, each controlling his own particular group or squadron. +These were designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost +invariably being commanded by the admiral, the vice-admiral taking the +van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron. In order that any vessel in +any group could distinguish its own admiral's ship, the flagships of +centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain red, white, or blue +flag, and so came into being those naval ranks of admiral, vice-admiral, +and rear-admiral of the red, white, and blue which continued down to as +late as 1864. As the admiral in supreme command flew the union at the +main, there was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until +November 1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy +as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so that each +individual ship in the squadron should be distinguishable as well as the +flagships, each vessel carried a large red, white, or blue flag +according as to whether she belonged to the centre, van, or rear, each +flag having in the left-hand upper corner a canton, as it is termed, of +white bearing the St George's cross. These flags were called ensigns, +and it is, of course, due to the fact that the union with Scotland was +for the time dissolved that they bore only the St George's cross. Even +when the restoration of the Stuarts restored the _status quo_ the cross +of St George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered +until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland passed +the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined the Union, the +flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All these three ensigns +belonged to the royal navy, and continued to do so until 1864, but as +far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile marine were instructed to fly +the red ensign. As ironclads replaced the wooden vessels and fleets +became smaller the inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest, +and in 1864 the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral, +vice-admiral, and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use of the +red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as its distinctive +flag. The mercantile marine retained the red ensign which they were +already using, whilst the blue ensign was allotted to vessels employed +on the public service whether home or colonial. + +The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal navy. It +should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion except by a ship (or +shore establishment) of the royal navy, with but one exception. By a +grant of William IV. dating from 1829 vessels belonging to the Royal +Yacht Squadron, the chief of all yacht clubs, are allowed to fly the +white ensign. From 1821 to 1829 ships of the squadron flew the red +ensign, as that of highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant +ships, they then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more +distinctive. Some few other yacht clubs flew it until 1842, when the +privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some oversight the +order was not conveyed to the Royal Western of Ireland, whose ships flew +the white ensign until in 1857 the usage was stopped. Since that date +the Royal Yacht Squadron has alone had the privilege. Any vessel of any +sort flying the white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a +grave offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His +Majesty's service, the colours seized, the vessel reported to the +authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or both. +The penalty incurred is £500 fine for each offence, as laid down in the +73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In 1883 Lord Annesley's +yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, was detained at the +Dardanelles in consequence of her flying the white ensign of the royal +navy which brought her under the category of a man-of-war, and no +foreign man-of-war is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first +obtaining an imperial _irade_. Since then owners belonging to the +squadron have been warned that they must either sail their ships through +the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British owned, or +obtain imperial permission if they wish to display the white ensign. + +Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer from the +maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a pennant, is flown only +by ships in commission; it is, in fact, the sign of command, and is +first hoisted when a captain commissions his ship. The pennant, which +was really the old "pennoncell," was of three colours for the whole of +its length, and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and +so continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however, the +pennant is a long white streamer with the St George's cross in the inner +portion close to the mast. Pennants have been carried by men-of-war from +the earliest times, prior to 1653 at the yard-arm, but since that date +at the maintopgallant masthead. + +The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service other than +the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal naval reserve. It +is flown also by certain authorized vessels of the British mercantile +marine, the conditions governing this privilege being that the captain +and a certain specified portion of the officers and crew shall belong to +the ranks of the royal naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to +British government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed +in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow anchor +in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade has in the fly +the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph branch of the post-office +shows in the fly a device representing Father Time with his hour-glass +shattered by lightning; the ordnance department displays upon the fly a +shield with a cannon and cannon balls upon it. Certain yacht clubs are +also authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign. +Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinctive +badge of the club. Consuls-general, consuls and consular agents also +have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing badge in their +case being the royal arms. + +The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant +service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen Anne in +1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order of Queen Anne +directed that merchant vessels should fly a red flag "with a Union Jack +described in a canton at the upper corner thereof next the staff," and +this is probably the first time that the term "Union Jack" was +officially used. In some cases those yacht clubs which fly the red +ensign change it slightly from that flown by the merchant service, for +they are allowed to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial +merchantmen usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they +have a warrant of authorization from the admiralty, they can use the +ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly. + +In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they are purely +maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured in the breach than +in the observance, the only flag that a private individual or a +corporation has a right to display on shore is the national flag, the +Union Jack, in its plain condition and without any emblazonment. + +There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of brief notice. +These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the master of Trinity +House. The admiralty flag is a plain red flag with a clear anchor in the +centre in yellow. In a sense it is a national flag, for the sovereign +hoists it when afloat in conjunction with the royal standard and the +Union Jack. It would appear to have been first used by the duke of York +as lord high admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had +the royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of commissioners +was appointed to execute the office of lord high admiral this was the +flag adopted, and in 1691 we find the admiralty, minuting the navy +board, then a subordinate department, "requiring and directing it to +cause a fitting red silk flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be +provided against Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this +board." In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable +in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It was thus +made into a "foul anchor," the thing of all others that a sailor most +hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord at the time, the +earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The anchor retained its +unseamanlike appearance, and was not "cleared" till 1815, and even to +this day the buttons of the naval uniform bear a "foul anchor." The +"anchor" flag is solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does +not carry the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the +royal standard, the union or an admiral's flag, but on two occasions it +has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1719 the earl of Berkeley, +who at the time was not only first lord of the admiralty, but +vice-admiral of England, obtained the special permission of George I. to +hoist it at the main instead of the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr +Childers, then first lord, accompanied by some members of his board, +went on board the "Agincourt" he hoisted the admiralty flag and took +command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons, thus +superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who at the time +were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly necessary to add that +throughout the navy there was a very distinct feeling of dissatisfaction +at the innovation. When the admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it +is hoisted at the fore, his own standard being of course at the main, +and the union at the mizzen. + +The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross of St +George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on the waves in +each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a precisely similar device +and surmounted by a lion. + +The sign of a British admiral's command afloat is always the same. It is +the St George's cross. Of old it was borne on the main, the fore, or the +mizzen, according as to whether the officer to whom it pertained was +admiral, vice-admiral, or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded +wooden ships, and a single pole mast took the place of the old three +masts, a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day +the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George's cross. +When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the white ground in +the upper canton next to the staff; if flown by a rear-admiral there is +a red ball in both the upper and lower cantons. As nowadays most +battleships have two masts, the admiral's flag is hoisted at the one +which has no masthead semaphore. The admiral's flag is always a square +one, but that of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St +George's cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain; if of +the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next to the +staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails in most navies, +though very often a star takes the place of the ball. In some cases, +however, the indications of rank are differently shown. For instance, +both in the Russian and Japanese navies the distinction is made by a +line of colour on the upper or lower edges of the flag. + +The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the mother +country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony being placed in +the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or in the fly if it be +the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are shown in the Plate, where +the blue ensign illustrated is that of New Zealand, the device of the +colony being the southern cross in the fly. Precisely the same flag, +with a large six-pointed star, emblematic of the six states immediately +under the union, forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of +Australia. The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the +device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion. As the +lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty, flies the +Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy of India flies the +same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the order of the Star of +India, so too colonial governors or high commissioners fly the union +flag with the arms of the colony they preside over on a white shield in +the centre and surrounded by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the +wreath, however, is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special +emblem of the Dominion. + +_French._--To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have historical +events caused so much change in the standards and national ensigns of a +country as in the case of France. The oriflamme and the Chape de St +Martin were succeeded at the end of the 16th century, when Henry III., +the last of the house of Valois, came to the throne, by the white +standard powdered with _fleurs-de-lis_. This in turn gave place to the +famous tricolour. The tricolour was introduced at the time of the +Revolution, but the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed +question. Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag +the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme, and the +white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are said to be those +of the city of Paris. Yet again, other authorities assert that the flag +is copied from the shield of the Orleans family as it appeared after +Philippe Égalité had knocked off the _fleurs-de-lis_. The tricolour is +divided vertically into three parts of equal width--blue, white and red, +the red forming the fly, the white the middle, and the blue the hoist of +the flag. During the first and second empires the tricolour became the +imperial standard, but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the +eagle, whilst all three stripes were richly powdered over with the +golden bees of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of +France. + +_American._--Before the Declaration of Independence the flags of those +colonies which now form the United States of America were very various. +In the early days of New England the Puritans objected to the red cross +of St George, not from any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a +conscientious objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the +year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish their +vessels from those of England and of each other. In the early stages of +the revolution each state adopted a flag of its own; thus, that of +Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South Carolina displayed a rattlesnake, +New York had a white flag with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white +flag with a blue anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of +Independence, and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter +underwent many changes in the manner of their arrangement before taking +the position at present established. In 1775 a committee was appointed +to consider the question of a single flag for the thirteen states. It +recommended that the union be retained in the upper corner next to the +staff, the remainder of the field of the flag to be of thirteen +horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white. This flag, +curiously enough, was precisely the same as the flag of the old +Honourable East India Company. On the 14th of June 1777 congress +resolved "that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, +alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a +blue field, representing a new constellation." This was the origin of +the national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were +unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven white and +six red stripes, and at other times seven red and six white, and it was +not for some considerable time that it was authoritatively laid down +that the latter arrangement was the one to be adopted. It has also been +held that the stars and stripes of the American national flag, as well +as the eagle, were suggested by the crest and arms of the Washington +family. The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a +raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two horizontal red +bars, and above these a row of three red stars. This might, by a stretch +of imagination, be supposed to have inspired the original idea of the +flag which was that each state in the Union should be represented in the +national flag by a star and stripe. Naturally other states coming into +the Union expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and +Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes were +changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other states +joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars and stripes. +It was, however, found objectionable to be constantly altering the +national flag, and in the year 1818 it was determined to go back to the +original thirteen stripes, but to place a star for each state in the +blue union canton in the top corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the +stars always show the exact number of states that are in the Union, +whilst the stripes denote the original number of the states that formed +the union.[1] The presidential flag of the president of the United +States is an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield +displaying stripes, and above the national motto _E pluribus unum_, and +a design of the stars of the original thirteen states of the union. + +_Other Countries._--The most general and important of the various +national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line representing +Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the Union Jack (the national +flag), the white ensign of the royal navy, the blue ensign of government +service, and the red ensign of the commercial marine, colonial flags +being shown in the case of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese +flags shown are the man-of-war ensign--a rising sun, generally known as +the sun-burst--and the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red +ball is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white +field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum on a red +field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should invariably have +sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler character than that of +Europe, and is practically limited to the employment of "Mon," which +correspond very nearly to the "crests" of European heraldry. The great +families of Japan possess at least one, and in many cases even three, +"Mon." The imperial family use two, the one _Kiku no go Mon_ (the august +chrysanthemum crest) and _Kiri no go Mon_ (the august Kiri crest). The +first represents the sixteen-petalled chrysanthemum, and, although the +use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge is not necessarily confined +to the imperial family, they alone have the right to use the +sixteen-petalled form. If used by any other family, or society or +corporation, it must be with a number of petals less or more than +sixteen. The second imperial "Mon" is composed of three leaves and three +flower spikes of the Kiri (_Paulownia imperialis_). This, however, is +not displayed as an official emblem, that being reserved for the +chrysanthemum. The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example, +the chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri "Mon" +adorns the harness of the emperor's horses. It is very probable that the +chrysanthemum crest did not originally represent the chrysanthemum +flower at all but the sun with sixteen rays, and it will be noticed that +in the "sun-burst" flag the sun's rays are sixteen in number. The use of +the number sixteen is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas. + + The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next + depicted. The "iron cross" in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic + Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five + centuries black and white have been the Hohenzollern colours, and the + first verse of the German war song, _Ich bin ein Preusse_, runs:-- + + "I am a Prussian! Know ye not my banner? + Before me floats my flag of black and white! + My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner, + So say these colours floating in your sight." + + The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is emblematic + of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with the red and + white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League. This flag came + into being when the North German Confederacy was established (November + 25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-Prussian War. + + The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white border + displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four + quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the + cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown, + and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the + four arms of the crown are the legend _Gott mit uns_ 1870. The United + States flag and the tricolour of France have already been fully dealt + with, and in both countries the one flag is common to both men-of-war + and ships of the mercantile marine. + + The next depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile marine + flags of the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the latter the introduction + of the green half stripe denotes the combination of the Austrian red, + white and red with the Hungarian red, white and green. The shields + with which the flag is charged contain respectively the arms of + Austria and of Hungary. The former shield only is borne on the + man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of the ancient + dukes of Austria, which dates back to the year 1191. The Austrian + imperial standard has, on a yellow ground, the black double-headed + eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed shields bearing + the arms of the provinces of the empire. The flag is bordered all + round, the border being composed of equal-sided triangles with their + apices alternately inwards and outwards, those with their apices + pointing inwards being alternately yellow and white, the others + alternately scarlet and black. + + The green, white and red Italian tricolour was adopted in 1805, when + Napoleon I. formed Italy into one kingdom. It was adopted again in + 1848 by the Nationalists of the peninsula, accepted by the king of + Sardinia, and, charged by him with the arms of Savoy, it became the + flag of a united Italy. The man-of-war flag is precisely similar to + that of the mercantile marine, except that in the case of the former + the shield of Savoy is surmounted by a crown. The royal standard is a + blue flag. In the centre is a black eagle crowned and displaying on + its breast the arms of Savoy, the whole surrounded by the collar of + the Most Sacred Annunziata, the third in rank of all European orders. + In each corner of the flag is the royal crown. + + For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are + parti-coloured. It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the + arms of Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same + both in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal + standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the + royal arms, as shown in the national flag. + + In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours, and + here again the arrangement differs from that generally used. The navy + flag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below. To be + correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each of + the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central yellow + stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing the arms + of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown. In the + mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon, and is + one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds being + divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above in the + upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal standards + that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarterings of + the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as much an + anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day to be + quartered with the _fleur-de-lis_. In all, the quarterings displayed + are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy, + Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The flag is usually + depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We believe, however, + that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre of which the + quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted by a crown and + encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden Fleece. + + The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour of + white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white and + red, and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by Peter + the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the flag then + stood it was simply the Dutch ensign reversed. Later, to make it more + distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places, leaving the + tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian navy is the + blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew is the patron + saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial standard is of a + character akin to that of Austria; the ground is yellow, and the + centre bears the imperial double-headed eagle, a badge that dates back + to 1472, when Ivan the Great married a niece of Constantine + Palaeologus and assumed the arms of the Greek empire. On the breast of + the eagle is an escutcheon charged with the emblem of St George and + the Dragon on a red ground, and this is surrounded by the collar of + the order of St Andrew. On the splayed wings of the eagle are small + shields bearing the arms of the various provinces of the empire. + + The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes + vertical, with the blue stripe forming the fly. The Servian flag is a + horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the + lower white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the + royal arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro + is a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the + lowermost white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white, + green and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war + ensign there is a canton in the upper corner of the hoist in which is + a golden lion on a red ground. + + The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat similar + in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already alluded + to, and it is shown in our illustration as flown by the Danish navy. + The mercantile marine flag is precisely similar, but rectangular + instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yellow cross on + a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as in the + Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but pointed, + thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the mercantile + marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated from Denmark in + 1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it, and the arms of + Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this was found to + resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross with a white border + was substituted for the white cross. This, it will be seen, is the + Danish flag with a blue cross imposed upon the white one. For a + man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of Sweden in shape; + that is to say, converted from the rectangular into the three-pointed + design. While Sweden and Norway remained united the flag of each + remained distinct, but each bore in the top canton of the hoist a + union device, being the combination of the Norwegian and Swedish + national colours and crosses. In each of the three above nationalities + the flag used for a royal standard is the man-of-war flag with the + royal arms imposed on the centre of the cross. + + The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the + hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the + Netherlands is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre + and blue below. In both countries the same flag is common to both navy + and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard + the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black, yellow + and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of Brabant, + and were adopted in 1831 when the monarchy was founded. The original + Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its independence were + orange, white and blue, the colours of the house of Orange, and when + and how the orange became red is not quite clear, though it was + certainly prior to 1643. + + The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag shown in + our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria, and were + adopted in 1832, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected to the throne + of Greece. The stripes are nine in number--five blue and four + white--with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton bearing a + white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy is similar + to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception that it has + the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross. The royal + standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre of which the + royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar to that in the + Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are not of equal + length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag. + + The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for it + was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1339, and probably + considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss + confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each case + the flag has its stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance, + is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red, + black and white, &c., &c. + + The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by Mahomet + II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally they were the + symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and were adopted by the + Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always been the special emblem of + Constantinople, and even now in Moscow and elsewhere the crescent + emblem and the cross may be seen combined in Russian churches, the + crescent badge, of course, indicating the Byzantine origin of the + Russian church. The symbol originated at the time of the siege of + Constantinople by Philip the father of Alexander the Great, when a + night attempt of the besiegers to undermine the walls was betrayed by + the light of a crescent moon, and in acknowledgment of their escape + the Byzantines raised a statue to Diana, and made her badge the symbol + of the city. Both the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the + same, but the imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in + its centre the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known + as the "Tughra," and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of + khan, and the epithet _al-Muzaffar Daima_, which means "the ever + victorious." The origin of the "Tughra" is that the sultan Murad I., + who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open + hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and + third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth + finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the scribes + wrote in the name of Murad, his title, and the epithet above quoted. + The "Tughra" dates from the latter part of the 14th century. The + smaller characters in the "Tughra" change, of course, on the accession + of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the device always + remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left denoting the + thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little finger made + impression, and three upright lines indicating the other fingers. + + The Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the crescent + and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where they use an + ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate having + the British union in the centre of the red field. + + The Persian flag is white with a border, green on the upper edge of + the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge. + On the white ground are the lion and sun. + + The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of Korea, + a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue, the + colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely as if + two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue, were + united to form a complete circle. + + The Chinese flag is a yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the + dragon devouring the sun. As at present used, it is a square flag, but + an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with + the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red + with a yellow ball in the centre. + + Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar + inasmuch as it is the only national flag which carries a motto. + + Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in the + case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe with + the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war ensign. + + The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when used + by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central white + stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same. + + The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the + mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of the + state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner near + the hoist, as in the naval flag. + + The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and vessels + in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of the + president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the centre of + the flag. + + The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the + mercantile marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged + on the central stripe with the Peruvian arms as shown in our + illustration. In fact, in nearly every case with the South American + republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the war + navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is used + in the same way as a presidential flag. + + In nearly every case the flags of the lesser American republics are + tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no means + such combinations as would meet with the approval of European heralds. + All flag devising should be in accordance with heraldic laws, and one + of the most important of these is that colour should not be placed on + colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry being the equivalent of + gold and white of silver. Hence, properly devised tricolours are such + as, for example, those of France, where the red and blue are divided + by white, or Belgium, where the black and red are divided by yellow. + On the other hand, the yellow, blue, red of Venezuela is heraldically + an abomination. + +_Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses._--Flags, the manufacture, of which +is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made from bunting, a +very light, tough and durable woollen material. The regulation bunting +as used in the navy is made in 9 in. widths, and the flag classes in +size according to the number of breadths of bunting of which it is +composed. The great centre of the manufacture of flags, as far as the +royal navy is concerned, is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and Jacks +are made in different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by +16½ ft. in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft. +wide. + +The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be either square +or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this latter dimension that +is used in the navy and generally. + +Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see SIGNAL), and here it will +only be necessary to make brief allusion to some international customs +with regard to the use of flags to indicate certain purposes. For long a +blood-red flag has always been used as a symbol of mutiny or of +revolution. The black flag was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate; +to-day, in the only case in which it survives, it is flown after an +execution to indicate that the requirements of the law have been duly +carried out. All over the world a yellow flag is the signal of +infectious illness. A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on +board suffering from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious +malady, and it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This +flag is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is +universally used as a flag of truce. + +At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the flag of one +country is placed over that of another the victory of the former is +denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an insult to hoist the flag +of one friendly nation above that of another. If such were done by +mistake, say in "dressing ship" for instance, an apology would have to +be made. This custom of hoisting the flag of the vanquished beneath that +of the victor is of comparatively modern date, as up to about a century +ago the sign of victory was to trail the enemy's flag over the taffrail +in the water. Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff, +and this is often seen when the allied forces of two or more powers are +in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour and respect +a flag is "dipped." Ships at sea salute each other by "dipping" the +flag, that is to say, by running it smartly down from the masthead, and +then as quickly replacing it. When troops parade before the sovereign +the regimental flags are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying +half-mast high is the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to +make the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national +ensign reversed, that is to say, upside down. If it is wished to +accentuate the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag +into a "weft," that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of +showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval works +written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the "weft" +mentioned as a method of showing distress. + +We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting +nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many other +purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held on board any +ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court is sitting, its +hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun. In a fleet in company +the ship that has the guard for the day flies it. With a white border it +forms the signal for a pilot, and in this case is known as a Pilot Jack. +In all combinations of signalling flags which denote a ship's name the +Union Jack forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor +or soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours at his +funeral. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _Flags: Some Account of their History and Uses_, by + A. MacGeorge (1881); _National Banners: Their History and + Construction_, by W. Bland (1892) (one of a series of Heraldic Tracts, + 1850-1892, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9; this pamphlet gives the + design of the national banners of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick, + and illustrates and tells the story of the composition of the three + flags into the great union flag, commonly known as the Union Jack); + _Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions_, by Rear-Admiral S. + Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise, historical and + narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; _A History of the + Flag of the United States_ (Boston, 1872), by G.H. Preble; _Flags of + the World: Their History, Blazonry and Associations_, by Edward Hulme, + F.L.S., F.S.A. (1897), a most complete monograph on the subject, + illustrated with a very complete series of plates; _Admiralty Book of + Flags of all Nations_, printed for H.M. Stationery office, 1889, kept + up to date by the publication periodically of Errata, officially + issued under an admiralty covering letter; _Flags of Maritime + Nations_, prepared by the Bureau of Equipment department of the navy, + printed by authority (Washington, 1899). The last two works have no + letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale, delineations of all + the flags at present used officially by all nations. Between the two + there are no discrepancies, and the delineation of a flag taken from + either may be assumed as absolutely correct. Both are respectively the + guides for flag construction in the royal navy and the United States + navy. (H. L. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 the number of + stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus: 8, 7, + 8, 7, 8, 8 = 46. + + + + +FLAGELLANTS (from Lat. _flagellare_, to whip), in religion, the name +given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged, by way of +discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a form of exalted +devotion, occurs in almost all religions. According to Herodotus (ii. +40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient Egyptians to beat themselves +during the annual festival in honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta +children were flogged before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood +flowed (Plutarch, _Instit. Laced._ 40). At Alea, in the Peloponnese, +women were flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The +priests of Cybele, or _archigalli_, submitted to the discipline in the +temple of the goddess (Plutarch, _Adv. Colot._ p. 1127; Apul., _Metam._ +viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were flogged by the celebrants +to avert sterility or as a purificatory ceremony (W. Mannhardt, _Mythol. +Forsch._, Strassburg, 1884, p. 72 seq.). + +Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according to Buxtorf +(_Synagoga judaica_, Basel, 1603), was one of the ceremonies of the day +of the Great Pardon. In the Christian church flagellation was originally +a punishment, and was practised not only by parents and schoolmasters, +but also by bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St +Augustine, _Ep. 159 ad Marcell._; cf. _Conc. Agd._ 506, can. ii.). +Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the _libri +poenitentiales_ as a very efficacious means of penance. In the 11th +century this new form of devotion was extolled by some of the most +ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west, such as Abbot Popon +of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so called from his practice of +wearing next his skin an iron _lorica_, or cuirass of thongs), and +especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani. Damiani advocated the substitution +of flagellation for the recitation of the penitential psalms, and drew +up a scale according to which 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten +psalms, and 15,000 to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers +exemplified their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gained +great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six days. The +custom of collective flagellation was introduced into the monastic +houses, the ceremony taking place every Friday after confession. + +The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with characteristic rigour, +and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan, St Anthony of +Padua, preaching the praises of this means of penance. It is incorrect, +however, to suppose that St Anthony took any part in the creation of the +flagellant fraternities, which were the result of spontaneous popular +movements, and later than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri, +a monk of Perugia, to whom the foundation of these strange communities +has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant brotherhood +in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were distributed over the +greater part of northern Italy. The contagion spread very rapidly, +extending as far as the Rhine provinces, and, across Germany, into +Bohemia. Day and night, long processions of all classes and ages, headed +by priests carrying crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in +double file, reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies +with leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns, and +especially Uberto Pallavicino at Milan, expelled the flagellants with +threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders of the 14th +century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and the Black Death, which +had spread over the greater part of Europe, produced a condition of +ferment and mystic fever which was very favourable to a recrudescence of +morbid forms of devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state +of religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between the +papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the spring of 1349 +bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary, began their propaganda in +the south of Germany. Each band was under the command of a leader, who +was assisted by two lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was +enjoined upon every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants +paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed to accept +board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted 33½ days, during which +they flogged themselves with thongs fitted with four iron points. They +read letters which they said had fallen from heaven, and which +threatened the earth with terrible punishments if men refused to adopt +the mode of penance taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they +incited the populations of the towns through which they passed against +the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propaganda. Many +towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite of discouragement, they +spread from Poland to the Rhine, and penetrated as far as Holland and +Flanders. Finally, a band of 100 marched from Basel to Avignon to the +court of Pope Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by +several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a menace to +the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement published a bull +commanding the bishops and inquisitors to stamp out the growing heresy, +and in pursuance of the pope's orders numbers of the sectaries perished +at the stake or in the cells of the inquisitors and the episcopal +justices. In 1389 the leader of a flagellant band in Italy called the +_bianchi_ was burned by order of the pope, and his following dispersed. +In 1417, however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded the +cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council of Constance, +and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson (_Epistola ad +Vincentium_), who declared that the flagellants were showing a tendency +to slight the sacramental confession and penance, were refusing to +perform the _cultus_ of the martyrs venerated by the church, and were +even alleging their own superiority to the martyrs. + +The justice of Gerson's protest was borne out by events. In Germany, in +1414, there was a recrudescence of the epidemic of flagellation, which +then became a clearly-formulated heresy. A certain Conrad Schmidt placed +himself at the head of a community of Thuringian flagellants, who took +the name of Brethren of the Cross. Schmidt gave himself out as the +incarnation of Enoch, and prophesied the approaching fall of the Church +of Rome, the overthrow of the ancient sacraments, and the triumph of +flagellation as the only road to salvation. Numbers of Beghards joined +the Brethren of the Cross, and the two sects were confounded in the +rigorous persecution conducted in Germany by the inquisitor Eylard +Schöneveld, who almost annihilated the flagellants. This mode of +devotion, however, held its ground among the lower ranks of Catholic +piety. In the 16th century it subsisted in Italy, Spain and southern +France. Henry III. of France met with it in Provence, and attempted to +acclimatize it at Paris, where he formed bands divided into various +orders, each distinguished by a different colour. The king and his +courtiers joined in the processions in the garb of penitents, and +scourged themselves with ostentation. The king's encouragement seemed at +first to point to a successful revival of flagellation; but the practice +disappeared along with the other forms of devotion that had sprung up at +the time of the league, and Henry III.'s successor suppressed the Paris +brotherhood. Flagellation was occasionally practised as a means of +salvation by certain Jansenist convulsionaries in the 18th century, and +also, towards the end of the 18th century, by a little Jansenist sect +known as the Fareinists, founded by the brothers Bonjour, _curés_ of +Fareins, near Trévoux (Ain). In 1820 a band of flagellants appeared +during a procession at Lisbon; and in the Latin countries, at the season +of great festivals, one may still see brotherhoods of penitents +flagellating themselves before the assembled faithful. + + For an account of flagellation in antiquity see S. Reinach, _Cultes, + mythes et religions_ (vol. i. pp. 173-183, 1906), which contains a + bibliography of the subject. For a bibliography of the practice in + medieval times, see M. Röhricht, "Bibliographische Beiträge zur Gesch. + der Geissler" in _Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_, i. 313. + (P. A.) + + + + +FLAGELLATA, the name given to the Protozoa whose dominant phase is a +"flagellula," or cell-body provided with one, few or rarely many long +actively vibratile, cytoplasmic processes. Nutrition is variable:--(1) +"Holozoic"; food taken in by ingestion, by amoeboid action either +unspecialized or at one or more well-defined oral spots, or through an +aperture (mouth); (2) "Saprophytic"; food taken in in solution through +the general surface of the body; (3) "Holophytic"; food-material formed +in the coloured plasm by fixation of carbon from the medium, with +liberation of oxygen, in presence of light, as in green plants. Fission +in the "active" state occurs and is usually longitudinal. Multiple +fission rarely occurs save in a sporocyst, and produces microzoospores, +which in some cases may conjugate with others as isogametes or with +larger forms (megagametes). "Hypnocysts" to tide over unfavourable +conditions are not infrequent, but have no necessary relation to +reproduction. Many have a firm pellicle which may form a hard shell: +again a distinct cell-wall of chitin or cellulose may be formed: +finally, an open cup, "theca," of firm or gelatinous material may be +present, with or without a stalk: such a cup and stalk are often found +in colonial species, and are subject to much the same conditions as in +Infusoria. The nucleus is simple in most cases; but in Haemoflagellates +it is connected with a second nucleus, which again is in immediate +relation with the motile apparatus; the former is termed the +"tropho-nucleus," the latter the "kineto-nucleus." + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flagellata. + + 1. _Chlamydomonas pulvisculus_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_) + free-swimming individual. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = starch corpuscle. + d = cellulose investment. + e = stigma (eye-spot). + + 2. Resting stage of the same, with fourfold division of the + cell-contents. Letters as before. + + 3. Breaking up of the cell-contents into minute biflagellate + swarm-spores, which escape, and whose history is not further known. + + 4. _Syncrypta volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). A colony enclosed by + a common gelatinous test c. + a = stigma. + b = vacuole (non-contractile). + + 5. _Uroglena volvox_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). Half of a large + colony, the flagellates embedded in a common jelly. + + 6. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_). + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = starch grain. + d = eye-spot. + + 7. _Chlorogonium euchlorum_, Ehr. (_Chlamydomonadidae_). Copulation of + two liberated microgonidia. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + d = eye-spot (so-called). + + 8. Colony of _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). + + 9. _Haematococcus palustris_, Girod (= _Chlamydococcus_, Braun, + _Protococcus_, Cohn), one of the _Chrysomonadidae_; ordinary + individual with widely separated test. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = amylon nucleus (pyrenoid). + + 10. Dividing resting stage of the same, with eight fission products in + the common test e. + + 11. A microgonidium of the same. + + 12. _Phalansterium consociatum_, Cienk. (_Choanoflagellata_); × 325. + Disk-like colony. + + 13. _Euglena viridis_, Ehr.; × 300 (_Euglenidae_). + a = pigment spot (stigma). + b = clear space. + c = paramylum granules. + d = chromatophor (endochrome + plate). + 14. _Gonium pectorale_, O. F. Müller (_Volvocineae_). Colony seen from + the flat side; × 300. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = amylon nucleus. + + 15. _Dinobryon sertularia_, Ehr. (_Chrysomonadidae_). + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = amylon nucleus. + d = free colourless flagellates, probably not belonging to + Dinobryon. + e = stigma (eye-spot). + f = chromatophors. + + 16. _Peranema trichophorum_, Ehr. (Peranemidae), creeping individual + seen from the back; × 140. + c = pharynx. + d = mouth. + + 17. Anterior end of _Euglena acus_, Ehr., in profile. + a = mouth. + b = vacuoles. + c = pharynx. + d = stigma (eye-spot). + e = paramylum-body. + f = chlorophyll corpuscles. + + 18. Part of the surface of a colony of _Volvox globator_, L. + (_Volvocidae_), showing the intercellular connective fibrils. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = starch granule. + + 19. Two microgametes (spermatozoa) of _Volvox globator_, L. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + + 20. Ripe asexually produced daughter-individual of _Volvox minor_, + Stein, still enclosed in the cyst of the partheno-gonidium. + a = young, partheno-gonidia. + + 21. 22. _Trypanosoma sanguinis_, Gruby (_Haematoflagellates_), from + the blood of _Rana esculenta_. + a = nucleus; × 500. + + 23-26. Reproduction of _Bodo caudatus_, Duj. (_Bodonidae_), after + Dallinger and Drysdale:--23, fusion of several individuals + (plasmodium); + + 24, encysted fusion-product dividing into four; 25, later into eight; + 26, cyst filled with swarm-spores. + + 27. _Distigma proteus_, Ehbg., O.F. Müller (_Euglenidae_); × 440. + Individual with the two flagella, and strongly contracting hinder + region of the body. + + 28. The same devoid of flagella. + c, c = the two dark pigment spots (so-called eyes) near the mouth. + + 29. _Oicomonas termo_ (_Monas termo_) Ehr. (one of the + _Oicomonadidae_). + c = food-ingesting vacuole. + d = food-particle; × 440. + + 30. The food-particle d has now been ingested by the vacuole. + + 31. _Oicomonas mutabilis_, Kent (_Oicomonadidae_), with adherent stalk. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = food-particle in food vacuole. + + 32, 33. _Cercomonas crassicauda_, Duj. (_Oicomonadidae_), showing two + conditions of the pseudo-podium-protruding tail. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuoles. + c = mouth.] + +As reserves the protoplasm may contain oil, starch, paramylum, leucosin +(a substance soluble in water, and of doubtful composition), proteid +granules. In the holophytic forms the cytoplasm contains specialized +parts of more or less definite form, known generally as "plastids" or +"chromatophores" impregnated with a lipochrome pigment, whether green +(chlorophyll), yellow or brown (diatomin or some allied pigment), or +again red (chlorophyll with phycoerythrin). In the active condition of +such coloured holophytic forms there is usually at least one anterior +"eye-spot," of a refractive globule embedded behind in a collection of +red pigment granules. The single anterior "flagellum tractellum" of so +many of the larger forms acts by the bending over of its free end in +consecutive meridians, so as to describe a hollow cone with its apex +backwards: we may imitate this by bending the head of a slender sapling +round and round while it is implanted in the soil; and the result is to +push the water backwards, or in other words to pull the body forwards, +the whole rotating on its longitudinal axis as it moves on (Y. Delage). +An anterior lateral trailing flagellum may modify this axial rotation, +and help in steering. When the animal is at rest--attached by its base +or with its body so curved as to resist onward motion--the current +produced by the tractellum will bring suspended particles up against the +protoplasm at its base of insertion. As noted by E.R. Lankester, the +posterior flagellum of many Haemoflagellates, like that of the +spermatozoon of Metazoa, propels the cell by a sculling motion behind; +he terms it a "pulsellum." Such flagellar motion is distinct from that +of cilia, which always move backwards and forwards, with a swift +downstroke and a slower recovery in the same plane; though where the +flagella are numerous they may behave in this way, and indeed flagella +agree with cilia in being mere vibratory extensions of cytoplasm. +Symmetrically placed flagella may have a symmetrical reciprocating +motion like that of cilia. + +Many of the Flagellata are parasitic (some haematozoic); the majority +live in the midst of putrefying organic matter in sea and fresh waters, +but are not known to be active as agents of putrefaction. Dallinger and +Drysdale have shown that the spores of _Bodo_ and others will survive an +exposure to a higher temperature than do any known Schizomycetes +(Bacteria), viz. 250° to 300° Fahr., for ten minutes, although the +adults are killed at 180°. + +The Flagellata are for the most part very minute; the Protomastigopoda +rarely exceeding 20 µ in length. The Euglenaceae contain the largest +species, up to 130 µ in length, exclusive of the flagellum. + +Our classification is modified from those of Senn (in Engler and Prantl, +_Pflanzenfamilien_) and Hartog (in _Cambridge Natural History_). + + + I. RHIZOFLAGELLATA (PANTOSTOMATA) + + Food taken in by pseudopodia at any part of the body. + + Order 1.--HOLOMASTIGACEAE. Body homaxial with uniform flagella. + _Multicilia_ (Cienkowski); _Grassia_ (Fisch, in frog's blood and + gastric mucus). + + Order 2.--RHIZOMASTIGACEAE. Flagellum 1, 2 or few, diverging from + anterior end. _Mastigamoeba_ (F.E. Schulze). + + + II. EUFLAGELLATA + + Food taken in at one or more definite mouth-spots, or by a true mouth, + or by absorption; or nutrition holophytic. + + Order 1.--PROTOMASTIGACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple, one or more, + or absent; either holozoic, ingesting food by a mouth-spot (or 2 or + more), saprophytic, or parasitic. + + Family 1.--OICOMONADIDAE. Flagellum 1, sometimes with a tail-like + posterior prominence passing into a temporary flagellum, but without + other cytoplasmic processes. _Oicomonas_ (Kent); _Cercomonas_ + (Dujardin) (Fig. 1, 32, 33); _Codonoeca_ (James-Clark), with a + gelatinous theca. + + Family 2.--BICOECIDAE. Differs from _Oicomonadidae_ in a unilateral + proboscidiform process next the flagellum; often thecate and + stalked, forming branched colonies, like Choanoflagellates in habit. + _Bicoeca_ (J.-Cl.), _Poteriodendron_. + + Family 3.--CHOANOFLAGELLIDAE (Choanoflagellata, Kent; + Craspedomonadina, Stein). As in previous families, but with + flagellum surrounded by an obconical or cylindrical rim of + cytoplasm, at the base of which is the ingestive area. The cells of + this group have the morphology of the flagellate cells (choanocytes) + of sponges. They are often colonial, and in the gelatinous colony of + _Proterospongia_, the more internal cells (Fig. 2, 15) pass into a + definite "reproductive state." Many stalked forms are epizoic on + Entomostracan Crustacea. + + (a) Naked forms often stalked: _Monosiga_ (Kent), stalked + solitary; _Codosiga_ (Kent) (Fig. 2, 3), stalked social; + _Desmarella_ (Kent), unstalked, and _Astrosiga_ (Kent), stalked, + form floating colonies. + + (b) Forms enclosed in a vase-like shell: _Salpingoeca_ (J.-Cl.); + (Fig. 2, 1, 6, 7) recalling the habit of _Monosiga_ and _Cod + siga_; _Polyoeca_ forming a branched free swimming colony. + + (c) Forms surrounded by a gelatinous sheath: _Proterospongia_ + (Kent) (Fig. 2, 15); _Phalansterium_ (Cienk.) (Fig. 1, 12), has a + slender cylindrical collar, and a branching tubular stalk. + + Family 4.--HAEMOFLAGELLIDAE. Forms with a complex nuclear apparatus, + and a muscular undulating membrane with which one or two flagella + are connected, parasitic in Metazoa (often in the blood). + _Trypanosoma_ (Gruby) (Fig. 1, 21, 22), _Herpetomonas_(Kent), + _Treponema_ (Vuillemin)(= _Spirochaete_, auctt., nec. Ehrbg.). + + Family 5.--AMPHIMONADIDAE. Flagella 2 anterior, both directed + forward, equal and similar; in stalk sheath, &c., often recalling + Choanoflagellata, _Amphimonas_ (Kent), _Diplomitus_ (Kent); + _Spongomonas_ (St.), with thick branching gelatinous sheath. + + Family 6.--MONADIDAE. Flagella 2 (3), anterior all directed + forwards, one long the other (or 2) accessory, short. + + _Monas_ (St.); _Anthophysa_ (Bory) (Fig. 2, 12, 13), with the stalk + composed of the accumulation of faeces at the hinder end of the + cells of the colony. + + Family 7.--BODONIDAE. Flagella 2 (or 3) 1 anterior, the other (1 or + 2) antero-lateral and trailing or becoming fixed at the end to form + a temporary anchor. + + _Bodo_ (Ehrb.) (figs. 1, 23-26 and 2, 10). _B. lens_ is the "hooked" + and _B. saltans_ the "springing monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale; + _Dallingeria_ (Kent) with a pair of antero-lateral flagella; _Costia + necatrix_ (Leclerq) is also 3-flagellate; causes destructive + epidemics in fish-hatcheries. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flagellata. + + 1. _Salpingoeca fusiformis_, S. Kent (Choanoflagellata). The + protoplasmic body is drawn together within the goblet-shaped shell, + and divided into numerous spores. + + 2. Escape of the spores of the same as monoflagellate and + swarm-spores. + + 3. _Codosiga umbellata_, Tatem (Choanoflagellata); adult colony formed + by dichotomous growth. + + 4. A single zooid of the same. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = the characteristic "collar" of naked streaming protoplasm. + + 5. _Hexamita inflata_, Duj.(_Distomatidae_); normal adult. + + 6, 7 _Salpingoeca urceolata_, S Kent (_Choanoflagellata_)--6, with + collar extended; 7, with collar retracted within the stalked cup. + + 8 _Polytoma uvella_, Mull. sp. (_Chlamydomonadidae_). + + 9. _Lophomonas blattarum_, Stein (_Trichonymphidae_) from the + intestine of _Blatta orientalis_. + + 10. _Bodolens_, Mull. (_Bodonidae_), the wavy filament is a + tractellum, the straight one is a trailing thread. + + 11. _Tetramitus sulcatus_, Stein (_Tetramitidae_) + + 12. _Anthophysa vegetans_, O.F. Müller (_Monadidae_). A typical, + erect, shortly-branching colony stock with four terminal + monad-clusters. + + 13. Monad cluster of the same in optical section, showing the + relation of the individual monads or flagellate zooids to the stem d. + + 14. _Tetramitus rostratus_, Perty (_Tetramitidae_). + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + + 15. _Proterospongia Haeckeli_, Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata); A + social colony of about forty flagellate zooids. + a = nucleus. + b = contractile vacuole. + c = amoebiform cell sunk within the colonial gelatinous test + compared by S. Kent to a mesoderm cell of the sponges. + d = similar cell reproducing by transverse fission. + e = normal cells, with their collars contracted. + f = substance of test. + g = individual reproducing by multiple fission, producing + microzoospores, comparable to the spermatozoa of sponges.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. + + 1. _Trichonympha agilis_, Leidy, from gut of White Ant (Termite). + + 2. _Opalina ranarum_, Purkinje parasitic in frog rectum multinucleate + adult. + + 3, 4. Binary fissions of same, 1-nucleat individual at final stage of + fission. + + 5. Same encysted dejected from rectum to be swallowed by tadpole. + + 6. Young 1-nucleate individual emerged from cyst, destined to grow, + proliferating its nuclei to adult form. + a = nucleus. + b = food (?) particles in Fig. 1.] + + Family 8.--TETRAMITIDAE. Body pyriform, the pointed end posterior; + flagella 4 anterior. + + _Tetramitus_ (Perty) (_T. calycinus_ of Kent, Fig. 2, 11, 14), is + the "calycine monad" of Dallinger and Drysdale; _Trichomonas_, + Donné, possesses a longitudinal undulating membrane, and is an + innocuous human parasite; it is possibly related to Haemoflagellates + on one hand and to _Trichonymphidae_ on the other. + + Family 9.--DISTOMATIDAE. Mouth-spots two, or one, with a distinct + construction; flagella symmetrically arranged; nucleus bilobed or + geminate. _Hexamitus_ (Duj.) (Fig. 2, 5), saprophytic and parasitic; + _Trepomonas_ (Duj.), freshwater; _Megastoma_ (Grassi) (= _Lamblia_ + of Blanchard), with constricted mouth-spot and blepharoplast + (kineto-nucleus) parasitic in the small intestine of Mammals, + including Man. + + Family 10.--TRICHONYMPHIDAE. Flagella numerous, sometimes + accompanied by one or more undulating membranes; cytoplasm highly + differentiated; contractile vacuole absent; all parasitic in insects + (all except _Lophomonas_ in Termites--the so-called White Ants.) + + _Lophomonas_(St.) (Fig. 2, 9); parasitic in the cockroach; + _Dinenympha_ (Leidy), _Pyrsonympha_ (Leidy); _Trichenympha_ (Leidy) + (Fig. 3, 1). + + Family 11.--OPALINIDAE. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform. + uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small, + numerous, uniform. + + Only genus, _Opalina_ (Purkinje and Valentin) (Fig. 3, 2-6), in + bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an aberrant + ciliate, but E.R. Lankester expressed doubts as to its position in + the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia). + + Order 2.--CHRYSOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple (in fresh-water + forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always present; reserves + fat. + + Family 1.--CHRYSOMONADIDAE. Body naked, often amoeboid in active + state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gelatinous investment, + a firm cuticle, or silicified shell; reserves fat or leucosin + (starch in _Zooxanthella_); eye-spot present. _Chromulina_ (Cienk.) + often forms a golden scum on tanks; _Chrysamoeba_ (Klebs); + _Hydrurus_ (Agardh), theca of colony forming branching tubes, + simulating a yellow Conferva in mountain torrents; _Dinobryon_ + (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 8, 15); _Stylochrysalis_ (St.); _Uroglena_ (Ehrb.); + _Syncrypta_ (Ehrb.), and _Synura_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 5) form floating + spherical colonies; _Zooxanthella_ (Brandt), symbiotic as "yellow + cells" in Radiolaria _Foraminifera_, _Millepora_, and many + Actinozoa. + + Family 2.--COCCOLITHOPHORIDAE. Body invested in a spherical test + strengthened by calcareous elements, tangential circular plates, + "coccoliths," "discoliths," "cyatholiths," or radiating rods + "rhabdoliths." These are often found in Foraminiferal ooze and its + fossil condition, chalk; when coherent as in the complete test, they + are known as "coccospheres" and "rhabdospheres." _Coccolithophora_ + (Lohmann), _Rhabdosphaera_ (Haeckel). + + Order 3.--CRYPTOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole (in freshwater forms) + simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or absent; reserves + starch; holophytic or saprophytic. _Cryptomonas_ (Ehrb.); _Paramoeba_ + (Greeff) has yellow plastids and shows two cycles, in the one + amoeboid, finally encysting to produce a brood of flagellulae; in the + other flagellate, and multiplying by longitudinal fission (it differs + from _Mastigamoeba_ in possessing no flagellum in the amoeboid state, + though it takes in food amoeba-fashion); _Chilomonas_ (Ehrb.). + + Order 4.--CHLOROMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a complex of + variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids discoid + chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil; eye-spot absent even in active + state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior blind + tubular depression simulating a pharynx. _Coelomonas_ (St.), + _Vacuolaria_ (Cienk.). + + Order 5.--EUGLENACEAE. Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or more + accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface by a canal + ("pharynx") in which are planted one or two strong flagella; pellicle + strong often striated; nucleus large, chromatophores green, complex or + absent; reserves paramylum granules of definite shape, and oil; + nutrition variable; body stiff or "metabolic," never amoeboid. Among + the true Flagellates these are the largest, few being below 40 µ and + several attaining 130 µ in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum). + Encysted condition common; the green forms sometimes multiply in this + state and simulate unicellular Algae. + + Family 1.--EUGLENIDAE. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition + saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1) Chromatophore + large; eye-spot conspicuous. _Euglena_ (Ehrb.) (Fig. 1, 13, 17), + with flexible cuticle and metabolic movements (this is probably + Priestley's "green matter" through which he obtained oxygen gas)--a + very common genus; _Colacium_ (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic + on Copepoda, which it colours green; _Eutreptia_ (Perty), + biflagellate; _Ascoglena_ (St.); _Trachelomonas_ (Ehrb.), with a + hard brown cuticle; _Phacus_ (Nitszche), with a firm rigid pellicle, + often symmetrically flattened; _Cryptoglena_ (Ehbg.). (2) + Chromatophores absent. _Astasia_ (Duj.), body metabolic; _Menoidium_ + (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat inflected and crescentic; + _Sphenomonas_ (Stein), with a short accessory trailing flagellum in + front peeled; _Distigma_ (Ehbg.) (Fig. 1, 27, 28), very metabolic, + with two unequal flagella and two dark pigment spots. + + Family 2.--PERANEMIDAE. Bilaterally symmetrical, often creeping, + pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like skeleton, sometimes + protrusible; nutrition saprophytic and holozoic. _Peranema_ (Ehbg.) + and _Urceolus_ (Mereschowsky), uni-flagellate creeping, very + metabolic. _Petalomonas_ (St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep + ventral groove, not metabolic; _Heteronema_ (Duj.) and + _Tropidoscyphus_ (St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing + flagellum; _Anisonema_ (Duj.) and _Entosiphon_ (St.), with the + trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much longer. + + Order 6.--VOLVOCACEAE. Contractile vacuole simple anterior; cell + always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous) perforated + by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior flagella; + reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present, except in + _Polytoma_, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutrition usually + holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic. Brood-division in + active state common, radial. + + Family 1.--CHLAMYDOMONADIDAE. Cell-wall firm not gelatinous, rarely + forming colonies. Fore-end of the body with two or four (seldom + five) flagella. Almost always green in consequence of the presence + of a very large single chromatophore. Generally a delicate + shell-like envelope of membranous consistence. 1 to 2 simple + contractile vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one + eye-speck. Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may + produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may occur in the + swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more continuous fission + microgametes of various sizes are formed. Conjugation is frequent. + + Genera.--_Chlorangium_ (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll; + _Chlorogonium_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 6, 7); _Polytoma_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 2, 8); + _Chlamydomonas_ (Ehr.) (Fig. 1, 1, 2, 3); _Haematococcus_ (Agardh) (= + _Chlamydococcus_, A. Braun, Stein); _Protococcus_ (Conn, Huxley and + Martin); _Chlamydomonas_ (Cienkowski), causes red snow and "bloody + rain"; _Carteria_ (Diesing), quadri-flagellate; _Spondytomorum_ + (Ehrb.), forming floating colonies; _Coccomonas_ (St.); _Phacotus_ + (Perty); _Zoochlorella_ (Brandt), is the name given to undetermined + Chlamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state within and in + symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the freshwater sponge, + _Ephydatia_, _Hydra viridis_, and to the Turbellarian, _Convoluta + viridis_ (in which last species the active form has been recognized as + a _Carteria_). + + Family 2.--VOLVOCIDAE. Cell-wall gelatinous; always associated in + colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number of individuals united to + form a colony varies very much, as does the shape of the colony. + Reproduction by the continuous division of all or of only certain + individuals of the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter + colony (from each such individual). In some, probably in all, at + certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct sexual + colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation of the + colonies and of the copulating cells as male and female. The result + of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also called zygote or + oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a time develops itself into + one or more new colonies. + + Genera.--_Gonium_ (O.F. Müller) (Fig. 1, 14); _Stephanosphaera_ + (Cohn); _Pandorina_ (Bory de Vine); _Eudorina_ (Ehr.); _Volvox_ + (Ehr.)(Fig. 1, 18, 20). + + The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one of + the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In some + families of Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid, fuse, + encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop simply + to the parental form (Fig. 1, 23 to 26). In the _Chlamydomonadidae_ a + single adult individual by division produces small individuals, + so-called "microgametes." These conjugate with one another or with + similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chlorogonium, Fig. + 1, 7); or more rarely in certain genera a microgamete conjugates with + an ordinary individual megagamete. The result in either case is a + "zygote," a cell formed by fusion of two which divides in the usual + way to produce new individuals. The microgamete in this case is the + male element and equivalent to a spermatozoon; the megagamete is the + female and equivalent to an egg-cell. The zygote is a "fertilized + egg," or oosperm. In some colony-building forms we find that only + certain cells produce by division microgametes; and, regarding the + colony as a multicellular individual, we may consider these cells as + testis-cells and their microgametes as spermatozoa. + + CYSTOFLAGELLATA(RHYNCHOFLAGELLATA of E.R. Lankester) and + DINOFLAGELLATA are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata; but, + following O. Bütschli, we describe them separately; the three groups + being united into his MASTIGOPHORA. + + _Further Remarks on the Flagellates._--Besides the work of special + Protozoologists, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Bütschli, F. v. Stein, F. + Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, &c., the Flagellates have been a favourite + study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite N. + Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W.C. Williamson, W. Zopf, P.A. Dangeard, G. + Klebs, G. Senn, F. Schütt; the reason for this is obvious. They + present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera to + the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex + colonies of _Proterospongia_ and _Volvox_. By some they are regarded + as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa--a position which may + perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa; but they seem + undoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagellates and to Cystoflagellates, as + well as to Sporozoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the only + distinction between the _Chlamydomonadidae_ and the true green Algae + or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting + condition, or are held together by gelatinization of the older + cell-walls (_Palmella_ state), they round off and separate, while the + latter divide by a "party wall" so as to give rise either to a + cylindrical filament when the partitions are parallel and the axis of + growth constant (_Conferva_ type), or to a plate of tissue when the + directions alternate in a plane. The same holds good for the + Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae, so that these little groups are + included in all text-books of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores + of the Zoosporous Phycomycetes (Chytrydiaceae, Peronosporaceae, + Saprolegniaceae) have the characters of the _Bodonidae_. Thus in two + directions the Flagellates lead up to undoubted Plants. Probably also + the Chlamydomonads have an ancestral relation to the Conjugatae in the + widest sense, and the Chrysomonadaceae to the Diatomaceae; both groups + of obscure affinity, since even the reproductive bodies have no + special organs of locomotion. For these reasons the Volvocaceae, + Chloromonadaceae, Chrysomonadaceae and Cryptomonadaceae have been + united as Phytoflagellates; and the Euglenaceae might well be added to + these. It is easy to understand the relation of the saprophytic and + the holophytic Flagellates to true plants. The capacity to absorb + nutritive matter in solution (as contrasted with the ingestion of + solid matter) renders the encysted condition compatible with active + growth, and what in holozoic forms is a true hypnocyst, a state in + which all functions are put to sleep, is here only a rest from active + locomotion, nutrition being only limited by the supply of nutritive + matter from without, and--in the case of holophytic species--by the + illumination: this latter condition naturally limits the possible + growth in thickness in holophytes with undifferentiated tissues. The + same considerations apply indeed to the larger parasitic organisms + among Sporozoa, such as Gregarines and Myxosporidia and + Dolichosporidia, which are giants among Protozoa. + + LITERATURE.--W.S. Kent, _Manual of the Infusoria_, vol. i. Protozoa + (1880-1882); O. Bütschli, _Die Flagellaten_ (in Bronn's _Thierreich_, + vol. i. Protozoa, 1885); these two works contain full bibliographies + of the antecedent authors. See also J. Goroschankin (on + Chlamydomonads) in _Bull. Soc. Nat._ (Moscow, iv. v., 1890-1891); G. + Klebs, "Flagellatenstudien" in _Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool._ lv. (1892); + Doflein, _Protozoen als Krankheitserreger_ (1900); Senn, + "Flagellaten," in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, 1 Teil, Abt. + 1a (1900); R. Francé, _Der Organismus der Craspedomonaden_ (1897); + Grassi and Sandias, "Trichonymphidae," in _Quart. J. Micr. Sci._ + xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzenberger, "Opa inidae" in _Arch. Protist_, iii. + (1903); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol. i. + (1906). (M. Ha.) + + + + +FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of _flute-à-bec_ with a new fingering, +invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and in vogue in +England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. +The instrument is described and illustrated by Mersenne,[1] who states +that the most famous maker and player in his day was Le Vacher. The +flageolet differed from the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in +front and two thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in +front and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived in the +French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in small +orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the holes was as +follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near mouthpiece; 2 and 3, +finger-holes stopped by the left hand; 4, finger-hole stopped by right +hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back; 6, hole near the open end. According to +Dr Burney (_History of Music_) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur +Juvigny, who played it in the _Ballet comique de la Royne_, 1581. Dr +Edward Browne,[2] writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June +1673, relates, "We have with us here one ... and Mr Hadly upon the +flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to invent large ones +and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever upon any other +instrument." About the same time was published Thomas Greeting's +_Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet_ +(London, 1675 or 1682), a rare book of which the British Museum does not +possess a copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the +beginning of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and +triple flageolets.[3] The three tubes were bored parallel through one +piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which was common to all +three. The lowest notes of the respective tubes were [Musical notes: D B +G] + +The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval Fr. +_flajol_, the primitive whistle-pipe. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237. + + [2] See Sir Thomas Browne's Works, vol. i. p. 206. + + [3] See Capt. C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical + Instruments_ (London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also _Complete + Instructions for the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1825); and _The + Preceptor, or a Key to the Double Flageolet_ (London, 1815). + + + + +FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the symbol of +authority of an admiral. + + + + +FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTE CHARLES JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870), +French general and statesman, son of Alexandre Sébastien de Flahaut de +la Billarderie, comte de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793, +and his wife Adélaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza (q.v.), was born +in Paris on the 21st of April 1785. Charles de Flahaut was generally +recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talleyrand, +with whom he was closely connected throughout his life. His mother took +him with her into exile in 1792, and they remained abroad until 1798. He +entered the army as a volunteer in 1800, and received his commission +after the battle of Marengo. He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was +wounded at the battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne +Poniatowski, Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became intimate. +After the battle of Friedland he received the Legion of Honour, and +returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in 1808, and then in +Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka had established herself in +Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by this time entered on his liaison +with Hortense de Beauharnais, queen of Holland. The birth of their son +was registered in Paris on the 21st of October 1811 as Charles Auguste +Louis Joseph Demorny, known later as the due de Morny. Flahaut fought +with distinction in the Russian campaign of 1812, and in 1813 became +general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and, after the battle +of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon's abdication in 1814 he +submitted to the new government, but was placed on the retired list in +September. He was assiduous in his attendance on Queen Hortense until +the Hundred Days brought him into active service again. A mission to +Vienna to secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was +present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon II. on the +throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand's influence, but was +placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected to retire to +Germany, and thence to England, where he married Margaret, daughter of +Admiral George Keith Elphinstone, Lord Keith, and after the latter's +death Baroness Keith in her own right. The French ambassador opposed the +marriage, and Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter, +Emily Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. The Flahauts +returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the count +the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of France. He +remained intimately associated with Talleyrand's policy, and was, for a +short time in 1831, ambassador at Berlin. He was afterwards attached to +the household of the duke of Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador +to Vienna, where he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and +retired from the army. After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 he was again +actively employed, and from 1860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court of +St James's. He died on the 1st of September 1870. The comte de Flahaut +is perhaps better remembered for his exploits in gallantry, and the +elegant manners in which he had been carefully trained by his mother, +than for his public services, which were not, however, so inconsiderable +as they have sometimes been represented to be. + + See A. de Haricourt, _Madame de Souza et sa famille_ (1907). + + + + +FLAIL (from Lat. _flagellum_, a whip or scourge, but used in the Vulgate +in the sense of "flail"; the word appears in Dutch _vlegel_, Ger. +_Flegel_, and Fr. _fléau_), a farm hand-implement formerly used for +threshing corn. It consists of a short thick club called a "swingle" or +"swipple" attached by a rope or leather thong to a wooden handle in such +a manner as to enable it to swing freely. The "flail" was a weapon used +for military purposes in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as +a threshing-flail but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It +also took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end +swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was known as the +"morning star" or "holy water sprinkler." During the panic over the +Popish plot in England from 1678 to 1681, clubs, known as "Protestant +flails," were carried by alarmed Protestants (see GREEN RIBBON CLUB). + + + + +FLAMBARD, RANULF, or RALPH (d. 1128), bishop of Durham and chief +minister of William Rufus, was the son of a Norman parish priest who +belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating at an early age to England, +the young Ranulf entered the chancery of William I. and became +conspicuous as a courtier. He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed +him Flambard in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but he +acquired the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played +an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey. In that +record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as holding land +both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death of the old king he +became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London, under whom he had formerly +served in the chancery. But early in the next reign Ranulf returned to +the royal service. He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he +seems in that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the +custodian of the great seal. But he is also called treasurer; and there +can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a fiscal character. +His name is regularly connected by the chroniclers with the ingenious +methods of extortion from which all classes suffered between 1087 and +1100. He profited largely by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king +a large proportion of the ecclesiastical preferments which were +illegally kept vacant, and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of +Durham (1099). His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of +Henry I., by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry. +A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard soon +succeeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London. A popular +legend represents the bishop as descending from the window of his cell +by a rope which friends had conveyed to him in a cask of wine. He took +refuge with Robert Curthose in Normandy and became one of the advisers +who pressed the duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger +brother; Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the +administration of the see of Lisieux. After the victory of Tinchebrai +(1106) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with Henry, and +was allowed to return to his English see. At Durham he passed the +remainder of his life. His private life was lax; he had at least two +sons, for whom he purchased benefices before they had entered on their +teens; and scandalous tales are told of the entertainments with which he +enlivened his seclusion. But he distinguished himself, even among the +bishops of that age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but +completed the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilef, +had begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the priory of +Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch, Hampshire. As a +politician he ended his career with his submission to Henry, who found +in Roger of Salisbury a financier not less able and infinitely more +acceptable to the nation. Ranulf died on the 5th of September 1128. + + See Orderic Vitalis, _Historia ecclesiastica_, vols. iii. and iv. (ed. + le Prévost, Paris, 1845); the first continuation of Symeon's _Historia + Ecclesiae Dunelmensis_ (Rolls ed., 1882); William of Malmesbury in the + _Gesta pontificum_ (Rolls ed., 1870); and the _Peterborough Chronicle_ + (Rolls ed., 1861). Of modern writers E.A. Freeman in his _William + Rufus_ (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account. See also T.A. Archer + in the _English Historical Review_, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs's + _Constitutional History of England_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); J.H. + Round's _Feudal England_ (London, 1895). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a promontory on the Yorkshire coast of England, +between the Filey and Bridlington bays of the North Sea. It is a lofty +chalk headland, and the resistance it offers to the action of the waves +may be well judged by contrast with the low coast of Holderness to the +south. The cliffs of the Head, however, are pierced with caverns and +fringed with rocks of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata +is seen at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on +the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54° 7' N., 0° 5' W. + + + + +FLAMBOYANT STYLE, the term given to the phase of Gothic architecture in +France which corresponds in period to the Perpendicular style. The word +literally means "flowing" or "flaming," in consequence of the +resemblance to the curved lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest +examples of flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of +the Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the +enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the foliations +resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form and hence the term +flowing tracery. In the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley, +dating from 1320 and 1330, are the earliest examples in England; in +France its first employment dates from about 1460, and it is now +generally agreed that the flamboyant style was introduced from English +sources. One of the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in +France is that known as "interpenetration," in which the base mouldings +of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which the +faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was in a sense a +_tour de force_ of French masons, was carried to such an extent that in +a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating the base-mould would be +found to be those of a diagonal buttress situated 20 to 30 ft. above it. +It was not limited, however, to internal work; in late 15th and early +16th century ecclesiastical architecture it is found on the façades of +some French cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in +later times. + + + + +FLAME (Lat. _flamma_; the root _flag_-appears in _flagrare_, to burn, +blaze, and Gr. [Greek: phlégein]). There is no strict scientific +definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be +regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in consequence +of chemical action. It is well known that the luminosity of gases can be +induced by the electrical discharge, and with rapidly alternating +high-tension discharges in air an oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced +which is long and flickering, can be blown out, yields nitrogen +peroxide, and is in fact indistinguishable from an ordinary flame except +by its electrical mode of maintenance. The term "flame" is also applied +to solar protuberances, which, according to the common view, consist of +gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even with the restricted +definition given above, difficulties present themselves. It is found, +for example, with a hydrogen flame that the luminosity diminishes as the +purity of the hydrogen is increased and as the air is freed from dust, +and J.S. Stas declared that under the most favourable conditions he was +only able, even in a dark room, to localize the flame by feeling for it, +an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum of the +flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand, there are many +examples of chemical combination between gases where the attendant +radiation is below the pitch of visibility, as in the case of ethylene +and chlorine. It will be obvious from these facts that a strict +definition of flame is hardly possible. The common distinction between +luminous and non-luminous flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and +only corresponds to a rough estimate of the degree of luminosity. + +The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may be +liberated during combination or decomposition. A single substance like +gun-cotton, which is highly endothermic and gives gaseous products, will +produce a bright flame of decomposition if a single piece be heated in +an evacuated flask. Combination is the more common case, and this means +that we have two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed _en +masse_ before combination, the one which flows as a current into the +other is called conventionally the "combustible," but the simple +experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show the unreality of +this distinction between combustible and supporter of combustion, which, +in fact, is only one of the many partial views that are explained and +perhaps justified by the dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry. + +Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most interesting, it +will be well to consider simpler flames first in order to discuss some +fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon flames the complexity of the +combustible, its susceptibility to change by heating, and the +possibilities of fractional oxidation, create special difficulties. In +the flame of hydrogen and oxygen or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have +simpler conditions, though here, too, things may be by no means so +simple as they seem from the equations 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O and 2CO + O2 = +2CO2. The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well known, +and the molecular transactions may in reality be complicated. We shall, +however, assume for the sake of clearness that in these cases we have a +simple reaction taking place throughout the mass of flame. There are +various ways in which a pair of gases may be burned, and these we shall +consider separately. Let us first suppose the two gases to have been +mixed _en masse_ and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If +the mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which vary for +each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light is applied, +and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame may be very slow in its +progress or it may attain a velocity of the order of one or two thousand +metres per second. Until comparatively recent times great +misunderstanding prevailed on this subject. The slow rate of movement of +flame in short lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity +of explosion, but more recent researches by M.P.E. Berthelot, E. +Mallard and H.L. le Chatelier and H.B. Dixon have shown that a +distinction must be made between the slow _initial rate of inflammation_ +of gaseous mixtures and the _rapid rate of detonation_, or rate of the +_explosive wave_, which in many cases is subsequently set up. We shall +here deal only with the slow movements of flame. The development of a +flame in such a gaseous mixture requires that a small portion of it +should be raised to a temperature called the _temperature of ignition_. +Here again considerable misunderstanding has prevailed. The temperature +of ignition has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical +combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at which +combination has reached a certain rate. The combination of hydrogen and +oxygen begins at temperatures far below that of ignition. It may indeed +be supposed that the combination occurs with extreme slowness even at +ordinary temperatures, and that as the temperature is raised the +velocity of the reaction increases in accordance with the general +expression according to which an increase of 10°C. will approximately +double the rate. However that may be, it has been proved experimentally +by J.H. van't Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination of +hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below the +temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be greatly influenced +by the solid surfaces which are present; thus in a plain glass vessel +the combination only began to be perceptible at 448°, whilst in a +silvered glass vessel it would be detected at 182°C. + +The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances, including +ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the application of heat to a +combustible mixture as resulting in an increase of the rate of +combination locally. Let us suppose that we are dealing with a stratum +of the mixture in small contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature +of the first section _a_°C., an increased rate of combination is set up. +The heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduction +and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite suffice to +raise the adjacent section of the mixture to _a_°C. The combination in +that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in the first one, and +so evidently the impulse to combination will go on abating as we pass +along the stratum. Suppose now we start again and heat the first section +of the mixture to a temperature _c_°C., such that the rate of +combination is very rapid and the heat developed by combination suffices +to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to a temperature higher +than _c_°C. The rate of combination will then be greater than in the +first section, and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the +same way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum +temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a temperature +of _b_°C. between _a_° and _c_° which will satisfy this condition, that +the heat which results from the combination stimulated in the first +section just suffices to raise the temperature of the second section to +_b_°. This temperature _b_° is the temperature of ignition of the +mixture; so soon as it is attained by a portion of the mixture the +combustion becomes self-sustaining and flame spreads through the +mixture. Ignition temperature may be defined briefly as the temperature +at which the initial loss of heat due to conduction, &c., is equal to +the heat evolved in the same time by the chemical reaction (van't Hoff). +From the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition +will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the proportions +of the same gases are varied, and also when the pressure is varied. We +can see also that outside certain limiting proportions a mixture of +gases will have no practicable ignition temperature, that is to say, the +cooling effect of the gas which is in excess will carry off so much heat +that no attainable initial heating will suffice to set up the +transmission of a constant temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and +air, mixtures containing less than 5 and more than 72% of hydrogen are +not inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us to +understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric spark may +not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will indeed take place in +the path of the spark, but the amount of it is not sufficient to meet +the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It must be added that the theory of +ignition temperatures given above does not explain all the observed +facts. F. Emich states that the inflammability of gaseous mixtures is +not necessarily greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions +theoretically required for complete combination, and the influence of +foreign gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence of +a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence on the +ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of ethylene to +hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a mixture of methane and +air is raised to its ignition temperature a sensible interval (about 10 +seconds) elapses before inflammation occurs. + +The rate at which a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases which has +been ignited depends on the proportions in which the gases are mixed. +Fig. 1 (Bunte) represents this relationship for several common gases. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rates of inflammation of combustible gases with +air.] + +If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the production of a +steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and ignited at the end; it +is obvious that the velocity of efflux must be greater than the initial +rate of inflammation of the mixture, for otherwise the mixture would +fire back down the tube. If the velocity of efflux be considerably +greater than the rate of inflammation, the flame will be separated from +the end of the tube, and only appear as a flickering crown where the +velocity and inflammability of the issuing gas have been diminished by +admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux the flame +will be blown out. J.B.A. Dumas used to show the experiment of blowing +out a candle with electrolytic gas. A steady flame formed by burning a +ready-made gaseous mixture at the end of a tube of circular section has +the form shown in fig. 2. The small internal cone marks the lower +limiting surface of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the +velocity of efflux is just equal to the velocity of inflammation, and +its conical form is explained by the fact that the rate of efflux of gas +is greatest in the vertical axis of the tube where the flow is not +retarded by friction with the walls, as well as by the further fact that +the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards, the inflammation +proceeding directly against it. The flame, it will be seen, is of +considerable thickness. If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen, +or carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious features of +structure beyond those shown in the figure; that is to say, the shaded +region of burning gas has the appearance of homogeneity and uniform +colour which might be expected to accompany a uniform chemical +condition. Some admixture of the external air will, of course, take +place, especially in the upper parts of the flame, and detectable +quantities of oxides of nitrogen may be found in the products of +combustion, but this is an inconsiderable feature. The flame just +described is essentially that of a blowpipe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of allowing one +gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases as before, hydrogen +or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find again that the flame is conical +in form and uniform in colour, but in this case, if the velocity of +efflux be not immoderate, the burning gas only extends over a +comparatively thin shell, limited on the inside by the pure combustible +and on the outside by a mixture of the products of combustion with +oxygen. The combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with +the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of gas to be +burned through as it ascends. The core of unburned gas thus becomes +thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a point. The external +surface of a flame of this kind will for the same consumption of gas be +larger than that of a flame where the ready-made mixture of gases is +used. If a jet of one gas be sent with a sufficient velocity into +another, turbulent admixture takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame +of uniform colour is obtained. + +A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one gas, mixed +with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient for complete +combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the second. This is the case +with what are generally known as atmospheric burners, of which the +Bunsen burner is the prototype. The development of a flame of this kind +can be well studied in the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon +monoxide is fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the +burner-tube being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a +cork. The flame consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now the +air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same blue +colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered through the +air-valve ("primary" air) has become mixed with the carbon monoxide and +so oxidizes its quota in an internal cone, the rest of the carbon +monoxide (diluted now, of course, with carbon dioxide and nitrogen) +wandering into the external atmosphere to burn (with "secondary" air) in +a second cone. The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent +thermal effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If +the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion can +take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement of the inner +cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of inflammation of the +mixture, and the inner cone (which only maintains its stability because +the rate of efflux of the mixture is greater than the velocity of +inflammation) contracts, and will, as the proportion of primary air is +increased, soon evince a tendency to enter the burner-tube. At this +stage an interesting phenomenon is to be noticed. When we have reached +the point of aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture +just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the +burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion checks the +suction flow of air through the valve at the base of the burner, whilst +it does not appreciably check the pressure flow of the carbon monoxide +through the gas nozzle. The result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor +in air, and therefore of low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when +the descending disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the +disk returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The +full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated. +This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely long if +the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant. With still +more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires back to the burner +nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have enough air entering to +produce a flame of the blast blowpipe type, namely, one where the carbon +monoxide mixed with an _excess_ of primary air burns with a single cone +in a steady flame. + +By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells a two-coned +flame of the kind described may be resolved into its components. The +apparatus is like a half-extended telescope made of two glass tubes, and +it is evident that the velocity of a mixture of gases flowing through it +must be greater in the narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of +the narrower tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at +the end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a +certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and attach +itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs when the +velocity of inflammation is just greater than the upward velocity of the +gaseous stream in the wide tube and less than the upward velocity in the +narrow tube. If the outer tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame +burns at the end of the inner tube; if the outer tube be slid up again, +it detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus has +been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in various +flames. + +_Temperature of Flames._--The term "flame-temperature" is used very +vaguely and has no clear meaning unless qualified by some description. +It is least ambiguous when used in reference to flames where the +combining gases are mixed in theoretical proportions before issuing from +the burner. The flame in such a case has considerable thickness and +uniformity, and, though the temperature is not constant throughout, +flames of this type given by different combustibles admit of comparison. +In other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop +large regions of unburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how +temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas-flame will not, from +the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient temperature +for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum wire may be melted at the +edge of the lower part of such a flame. The maximum temperature of the +flame is therefore not in any serious sense an available temperature. It +will suffice to point out here that in order to burn a gas so that it +may have the highest available temperature, we must burn it with the +smallest external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the +combining gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner. +Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the Bunsen type, +and arrange matters so that a large amount of primary air is supplied. +It is in this direction that modern improvements have been made with a +view to obtaining hot flames for heating the Welsbach mantle. The Kern +burner, for example, employs the principle of the Venturi tube. Where +much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being well +mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be produced with a +great tendency to light back. The burner head is therefore usually +provided with a mixing chamber and the mixture issues through a slit or +a mesh. A great many modified Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim +in all of them being to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness +with the smallest attainable external surface. + +To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have been +employed. The method of calculation, based on the supposition that the +whole heat of combustion is localized in the product (or products) of +combustion and heats it to a temperature depending on its specific heat, +cannot be applied in a simple way. Apart from the assumption (which +there is reason to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy +assumes the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change +of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation +and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of temperature +must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules and not to a single +one, and therefore any influence which means delay in combination will +result in reduction of temperature by radiation and conduction. It can +hardly be maintained that in the present state of knowledge we have the +requisite data for the calculation of flame temperature, though good +approximations may be made. Many attempts have been made to determine +flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples and by radiation +pyrometers. The couple most employed is that known as H.L. le +Chatelier's, consisting of two wires, one of platinum and the other an +alloy of 90% platinum and 10% of rhodium. When all possible precautions +are taken it is possible by means of such thermo-couples to measure +local flame temperatures with a considerable degree of accuracy. +Subjoined are some results obtained at different times and by different +observers with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames:-- + + Coal gas in Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896) 1770° C. + " " " " (Berkenbusch, 1899) 1830° + " " " " (White & Traver, 1902) 1780° + " " " " (Féry, 1905) 1871° + +The following are given by Féry:-- + + Acetylene 2548° C. + Alcohol 1705° + Hydrogen (in air) 1900° + Oxy-hydrogen 2420° + Oxy-coal gas blowpipe 2200° + +_Source of Light in Flames._--We may consider first those flames where +solid particles are out of the question; for example, the flame of +carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the luminosity was due to the +thermal glow of the highly heated product of combustion has been +challenged independently by a number of observers, and the view has been +advanced that the emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a +kind of discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules. E. +Wiedemann proposed the name "chemi-luminescence" for radiation of this +kind. The fact is that colourless gases cannot be made to glow by any +purely thermal heating at present available, and products of combustion +heated to the average temperature of the flames in which they are +produced are non-luminous. On the other hand, it must be remembered that +in a mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules are +engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination, and that the +energy liberated in such individual transactions, if localized +momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules a unique condition +of temperature far transcending that of the average, and the +distribution of heat in a flame would be very different from that +existing in the same mixture of gases heated from an external source to +the same average temperature. The view advocated by Smithells is that in +the chemical combination of gases the initial phase of the formation of +the new molecule is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and +that the damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the +source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat. This, it +will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view. + +The view of Sir H. Davy that "whenever a flame is remarkably brilliant +and dense it may always be concluded that some solid matter is produced +in it" can be no longer entertained. The flames of phosphorus in oxygen +and of carbon disulphide in nitric oxide contain only gaseous products, +and Frankland showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide +became highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frankland +was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames is +associated with high density of the gases, and he does not draw a +distinction in this respect between high density due to high molecular +weight and high density due to the close packing of lighter molecules. +The increased luminosity of a compressed flame is not difficult to +understand from the kinetic theory of gases, but no explanation has +appeared of the luminosity considered by Frankland to be due merely to +high molecular weight. It is possible that the electron theory may +ultimately afford a better understanding of these phenomena. + +_Structure of Flame._--The vagueness of the term structure, as applied +to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting accounts which are +current as to the number of differentiated parts in different flames. +Unless this term is restricted to sharp differences in appearance, there +is no limit to the number of parts which may be selected for mention. +The flame of carbon monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before +it issues from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure, +but is a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity--a hollow cone if +the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas not +immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have a slit or +two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas to spread each +other out. Such a flame has but one single distinct feature, and this is +not surprising, as there is no reason to suppose that there is any +difference in the chemical process or processes that are occurring in +different quarters of the flame. The amount of materials undergoing this +transformation in different parts of the flame may and does vary; the +gases become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular +vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a variation in the +intensity of the light in different quarters, but the differences +induced are not sharp or in any proper sense structural. A flame of this +kind may develop a secondary feature of structure. If carbon monoxide be +burnt in oxygen which is mixed or combined with another element there +may be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in +air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a greenish +cast, apparently associated with the combination of nitrogen with oxygen +(H.B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being strongly heated begins to +dissociate into carbon and carbon dioxide; if the unburnt carbon +monoxide within a flame of that gas were so highly heated by its own +burning walls as to reach the temperature of dissociation, we might +expect to see a special feature of structure due to the separated +carbon. Such a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached. + +Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published in reference +to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is of peculiar +interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists of an almost crimson +shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue. Investigations have shown +that these two colours correspond to two steps in the progress of the +combustion, in the first of which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized +to carbon monoxide and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to +carbon dioxide. + +The inversion of combustion may bring new features of structure into +existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt in oxygen no solid +carbon can be found in the flame, but when a jet of oxygen is burnt in +cyanogen solid carbon separates on the edge of the flame. + +_Hydrocarbon Flames._--As already stated the flames of carbon compounds +and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more studied than any +other kind, as is natural from their common use and practical +importance. The earliest investigations were made with coal gas, +vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite and complex nature of these +substances led to difficulties and confusion in the interpretation of +results. One such difficulty may be illustrated by the fact, often +overlooked, that when a mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the +individual component gases will separate spontaneously in accordance +with their diffusibilities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer +edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind. + +The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of course on the +manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme cases are (i.) when the +issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the burner with sufficient air +for complete combustion, as in the blast blowpipe, in which case we have +a sheet of blue undifferentiated flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to +find all the air it requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate +stage is when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with +a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame is +produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already been +discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one kind of flame +into the others can be effected gradually, and this is seen with +particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene vapour admixed with +gradually increasing quantities of air. The key to the explanation of +the structure of an ordinary luminous flame, such as that of a candle, +is to be found, according to Smithells, by observing the changes +undergone by a well-aerated Bunsen flame as the "primary" air is +gradually cut off by closing the air-ports at the base of the burner. It +is then seen that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the +two recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst the +appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes increasingly +emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper part of the blue +sheath. There are thus three recognizable features of structure in an +ordinary luminous flame, each region being as it were a mere shell and +the interior of the flame filled with gas which has not yet entered into +active combustion. If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary +luminous flame are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the +chemistry of a Bunsen flame may be appropriately considered first. What +happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen burner? The +air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete combustion so +that the inner cone of the flame may be considered as air burning in an +excess of coal gas. What will be the products of this combustion? This +question has been answered at different times in very different ways. +There are many conceivable answers: part of the hydrocarbon might be +wholly oxidized and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air +and burn as the outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has +been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner cone +whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidized and the carbon set free or +oxidized to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon might be oxidized to +carbon dioxide or monoxide and the hydrogen set free. There might of +course be other intermediate kinds of action. Now it is important at +this point to insist upon a distinction between what can be found by +direct analysis as to the products of partial combustion, and what can +be imagined or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of +which the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We shall +consider only in the first instance what substances are found by +analysis. Earlier experiments on the Bunsen burner in which coal gas was +used, and the gases withdrawn directly from the flame by aspiration, +gave no very clear results, but the introduction of the cone-separating +apparatus and the use of single hydrocarbons led to more definite +conclusions. The analysis of the inter-conal gases from an ethylene +flame gave the following numbers:--carbon dioxide = 3.6; water = 9.5; +carbon monoxide = 15.6; hydrocarbons = 1.3; hydrogen = 9.4; nitrogen = +60.6. + +It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a +considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst practically +all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide. As the gases have +cooled down before analysis and as the reaction CO + H2O<-->CO2 + H2 is +reversible, it may be objected that the inter-conal gases may have a +composition when they are hot very different from what they show when +cold. Experiments made to test this question have not sustained the +objection. Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons have +made it appear undesirable to use the expression "preferential +combustion" or "selective combustion" in connexion with the facts just +stated; but for the purpose of describing in brief the chemistry of a +hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say that in the inner cone of a +Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon monoxide are the result of the limited +oxidation, and that the combustion of these gases with the external air +generates the outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the +limited oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable work +has been carried out by W.A. Bone and his collaborators. Different +hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen have been circulated continuously through +a vessel heated to various temperatures, beginning with that (about 250° +C.) at which the rate of oxidation is easily appreciable. Proceeding in +this way, Bone, without effecting a complete transformation of the +hydrocarbon into partially oxidized substances, has isolated large +quantities of such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a +hydrocarbon involves nothing in the nature of a selective or +preferential oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He +maintains that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which +oxygen enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule, +forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are alcohols and +aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and ethylene with an equal +volume of oxygen would be represented as follows:-- + + Stage 1. Stage 2. + + CH3·CH3 ----> CH3·CH2OH ----> CH3·CH(OH)2 + Ethane. Ethyl alcohol. _____/\______ + ____/\____ / CH3·CHO+H2O \ + / C2H4+H2O \ Acetaldehyde. + / 2C+2H2+H2O \ ____/\_____ + / CH4+CO \ + / C+2H2+CO \ + CH2 : CH2 ---> CH2 : CHOH -----> / HO·CH : CH·OH \ + ____/\____ ______/\_______ + Ethylene. / C2H2+H2O \ / 2CH2O=2CO+2H2 \ + / 2C+H2+H2O \ Formaldehyde. + +The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high temperature +is so great that, when the supply of oxygen is sufficient to carry the +oxidation as far as the second stage, practically no decomposition of +the monohydroxy molecule formed in the first stage occurs. This is +especially the case with unsaturated hydrocarbons. + +As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential carbon +oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture of equal +volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb. In such a case a +lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a black cloud of carbon +particles and considerable condensation of water. About 10% of methane +is also found. It is impossible within the limits of this article to +give a more extended account of these later researches on the oxidation +of hydrocarbons. They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of +carbon and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the +combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view that +hydrogen is the more oxidizable element, and the inference from the +behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own volume of oxygen, viz. +that carbon is the more oxidizable element in hydrocarbons, are not in +harmony with experimental facts. + +The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is due "to the +deposition of solid charcoal" was first put forward by Sir Humphry Davy +in 1816. In explaining the origin of this charcoal, Davy used somewhat +ambiguous language, stating that it "might be owing to a decomposition +of a part of the gas towards the interior of the flame where the air was +in smallest quantity." This statement was interpreted commonly as +implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential combustion of +the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was given explicitly by +Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy's view with regard to this part of +the theory, his conclusion that finely divided carbon was the cause of +luminosity in hydrocarbon flames was not questioned until 1867, when E. +Frankland, in connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained +that the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important degree +to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of dense +hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced against this view the +most decisive is furnished by the optical test first used by J.L. Soret. +If the image of the sun be focussed upon the glowing part of a +hydrocarbon flame the scattered light is found to be polarized, and it +is indisputable that the luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of +finely divided solid matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by +H.H.C. Bunte to be 0.1 milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft. +per hour) is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy's +original view may be said to be now universally accepted. + +The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a hydrocarbon +flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is set free. The +fact-that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in absence of air will +deposit carbon has long been known and is daily evident in the operation +of coal-gas making, when gas carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the +highly-heated crown of the retorts. There is no difficulty in supposing +therefore that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon +within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls of the +flame. Many experiments might be adduced to confirm this view. It is +sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire be so disposed in a +small flame as to make a girdle within the blue walls towards the base, +the withdrawal of heat is rapid enough to prevent the maintenance of a +temperature sufficient to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright +luminosity disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed +through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral gas such as +nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of the burning gas and +the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great that the temperature of +separation is not attained, no carbon is separated and the flame +consists of a single blue shell. + +Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon becomes +separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to trace the +processes by which the carbon becomes separated in the case of a given +hydrocarbon. According to M.P.E. Berthelot, who made prolonged and +elaborate researches on the pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons, +these compounds only liberate carbon by a process of the continual +coalescence of hydrocarbon molecules with the elimination of hydrogen, +until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly +distinguishable from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot of +flames. + +V.B. Lewes, on the other hand, basing his conclusions on a study of the +thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on temperature measurements of +flames and analysis of their gases, has more recently developed a theory +of flame luminosity in which the formation and sudden exothermic +decomposition of acetylene are regarded as the essential incidents +productive of carbon separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed +the evidence on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained +no adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but as it has +not been formally disavowed by the author and has found its way into +some text-books, it is mentioned here. + +W.A. Bone and H.F. Coward (_Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1908) published the +results of a very careful study of the decomposition of hydrocarbons +when heated in a stationary condition and when continually circulated +through hot vessels. Their results disclose once more the great +difficulty of tracing the processes of decomposition and of arriving at +a generalization of wide applicability, but they appear to be conclusive +against the views both of Berthelot and of Lewes. + +They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons can be +adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations owing to the +complexity of the changes which really take place. Methane, which is the +most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears to be resolved at high +temperatures directly into carbon and hydrogen, but the phenomenon is +dependent mainly on surface action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene +undergo decomposition throughout the body of the gas (loc. cit. p. 1197 +et seq.). + + "In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the + _primary_ effect of high temperature is to cause an elimination of + hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond + between the carbon atoms, giving rise to (in the event of dissolution) + residues such as : CH2 and [·:] CH. These residues, which can only + have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (a) form H2C : + CH2 and HC [·:] CH, as the result of encounters with other similar + residues, or (b) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen, or + (c) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in + hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simultaneously + in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent on the + temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present. The whole + process may be represented by the following scheme, the dotted line + indicating the tendency to dissolve a bond between the carbon atoms + which becomes actually effective at higher temperatures:-- + + H·:H + -------- / (a) C2H4 + H2 + H·C·:C·H = [2(:CH2) + H2] = < (b) 2C + 2H2 + H2 + H·:H \ (c) plus H2 = 2CH4 + + H·:H / (a) C2H2 + H2 + -------- = [2(·:CH) + H2] = < (b) 2C + H2 + H2 + H·C·:C·H \ (c) _plus_ 2H2 = CH4. + + "In the ease of acetylene, the main primary change may be either one + of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature, and + if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down across + the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to 2([·:]CH), + and that these residues are subsequently either resolved into carbon + and hydrogen or "hydrogenized" according to circumstances, thus:-- + + H·C·:C·H = [2(·:CH)] = / (a) 2C + H2 + \/ \ (b) _plus_ 3H2 = 2CH4. + Polymerization. + + "Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of polymerization + at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas initially + heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decomposition of + another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an extent dependent + on temperature." + +We may describe briefly the view to which we are led as to the genesis +of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame:-- + +The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wick, let us suppose, +in a cylindrical column. This column is not sharply marked off from the +air but is so penetrated by it that we must suppose a gradual transition +from the pure hydrocarbon in the centre of column to the pure air on the +outside. Let us take a thin transverse slice of the flame, near the +lower part of the wick or close to the burner tube. At what lateral +distance from the centre will combustion begin? Clearly, where enough +oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combustion as +takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This then defines the +blue region. Outside this the combustion of the carbon monoxide, +hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which pass from the blue region takes +place in a faintly luminous fringe. These two layers form a sheath of +active combustion, surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed +hydrocarbons in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise +and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They are +accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the higher parts of +the flame, giving the region of bright yellow luminosity. There remains +a central core in which neither is there any oxygen for combustion nor a +sufficiently high temperature to cause carbon separation. This +constitutes the dark interior region of the flame. We thus account for +the different parts of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the +bright blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst the +pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame. The flame also +is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing explanation is therefore +not quite complete. Let us suppose that the changes have gone on in the +small section of the flame exactly as described and consider how the +processes will differ in parts above this section. The central core of +unburned gases will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new +cylindrical column which will undergo changes just as the original one, +leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other words, +each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller diameter. This +gives us the conical form of the flame. Again, the higher we ascend the +flame the greater proportionally is the amount of separated carbon, for +we have not only the heat of laterally outlying combustion to effect +decomposition, but also that of the lower parts of the flame. The lower +part of a luminous flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than +the upper. Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion +we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in the +upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades away. The +luminous fringe would, however, be continued, for the separated hydrogen +has still to burn. In this way then we may reasonably account for the +existence, position and relative sizes of the four regions of an +ordinary luminous flame. (A. S.) + + + + +FLAMEL, NICOLAS (c. 1330-1418), reputed French alchemist and scrivener +to the university of Paris, was born in Paris or Pontoise about 1330, +and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the bulk of his property to the +church of Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, where he was buried. During his +life he contributed freely to charitable and religious purposes from the +considerable wealth he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or, +as some surmise without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or +money lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a document +purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in Waite's _Lives +of the Alchemystical Philosophers_, London, 1888), there fell into his +hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book on alchemy by Abraham +the Jew, which taught in plain words the transmutation of metals. It did +not, however, explain the _materia prima_, but merely figured or +depicted it, and for more than 20 years Flamel strove in vain to find +out the secret. Then, returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with +a Christian Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after +three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the _materia prima_, +thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into both silver and +gold. But this fantastic story was disposed of by the facts, derived +from parish records, set forth in Vilain's _Essai sur l'histoire de +Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie_, 1758, and his _Histoire critique de Nicolas +Flamel et de Pernelle sa femme, recueillie d'actes anciens qui +justifient l'origine et la médiocrité de leur fortune contre les +imputations des alchimistes_, 1761. + + A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibliothèque, _Le Trésor de + philosophie_, professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with + his own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises + bearing his name, such as the _Sommaire philosophique de Nicolas + Flamel_, published in 1561 in a collection of alchemist treatises + entitled _Transformation métallique_, are certainly spurious. + + + + +FLAMEN (from _flare_, "to blow up" the altar fire), a Roman sacrificial +priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.) maximus, and +were consecrated to the service of some particular deity. The highest in +rank were the _flamen Dialis_, _flamen Martialis_ and _flamen +Quirinalis_, who were always selected from among the patricians. Their +institution is generally ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens +was raised from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled +_majores_, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were called +_minores_, as connected with less important deities, and were chosen +from the plebs. Towards the end of the republic the number of the lesser +flamens seems to have diminished. The flamens were held to be elected +for life, but they might be compelled to resign office for neglect of +duty, or on the occurrence of some ill-omened event (such as the cap +falling off the head) during the performance of their rites. The +characteristic dress of the flamens in general was the _apex_, a white +conical cap, the _laena_ or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official +insignia of the _flamen Dialis_ (of Jupiter), the highest of these +priests, were the white cap (_pileus, albogalerus_), at the top of which +was an olive branch and a woollen thread; the _laena_, a thick woollen +_toga praetexta_ woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a rod to +keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice. He was +never allowed to appear without these emblems of office, every day being +considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his office he was entitled +to a seat in the senate and a curule chair. The sight of fetters being +forbidden him, his toga was not allowed to be tied in a knot but was +fastened by means of clasps, and the only kind of ring permitted to be +worn on his finger was a broken one. If a person in fetters took refuge +in his house he was immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal +on his way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself at +his feet he was respited for that day. The _flamen Dialis_ was not +allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even touch a +horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the consulship), to +swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch anything unclean, or to look +upon people working. His marriage, which was obliged to be performed +with the ceremonies of _confarreatio_ (q.v.), was dissoluble only by +death, and on the death of his wife (called _flaminica Dialis_) he was +obliged to resign his office. The _flaminica Dialis_ assisted her +husband at the sacrifices and other religious duties which he performed. +She wore long woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her +hair being plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (_tutulus_); +and shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband, +she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens was the +offering of daily sacrifices; on the 1st of October the three major +flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to _Fides Publica_ (the +Honour of the People). Some of the municipal towns in Italy had flamens +as well as Rome. + +We may mention, as distinct from the above, the _flamen curialis_, who +assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the religious affairs of +each curia (q.v.); the flamens of various sacerdotal corporations, such +as the Arval Brothers; the _flamen Augustalis_, who superintended the +worship of the emperor in the provinces. + + See Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885), pp. 326-336, + 473; H. Dessau, in _Ephemeris epigraphica_, iii. (1877); and the + exhaustive article by C. Jullian in Daremberg and Saglio, + _Dictionnaire des antiquités_. + + + + +FLAMINGO (Port. _Flamingo_, Span. _Flamenco_), one of the tallest and +most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright flame-coloured or +scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known by its classical name +_Phoenicopterus_, as an inhabitant of most of the countries bordering +the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos have a very wide distribution, and the +sole genus comprises only a few species. _Ph. roseus_ or _antiquorum_, +white, with a rosy tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the +remiges are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde +Islands to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards +through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as _P. minor_. _P. ruber_, +entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the +Galapagos; _P. chilensis_ s. _ignipalliatus_, from Peru to Patagonia, +more resembles the classical species; while _P. andinus_, the tallest of +all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the elevated +desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and Argentina. Fossil +remains of flamingos have been described from the Lower Miocene of +France as _P. croizeti_, and from the Pliocene of Oregon. From the +Mid-Miocene to the Oligocene of France are known several species of +_Palaelodus_, _Elornis_ and _Agnopterus_, which have relatively shorter +legs, longer toes and a complicated hypotarsus, and represent an earlier +family, less specialized although not directly ancestral to the +flamingos. _Palaelodidae_ and _Phoenicopteridae_ together form the +larger group Phoenicopteri. These are in many respects exactly +intermediate between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact +that T.H. Huxley preferred to keep them separate as _Amphimorphae_. +However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos obviously +reveal themselves as much nearer related to the _Ciconiae_, especially +to _Platalea_ and _Ibis_, than to the Anseres. This is the opinion +arrived at by W.F.R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringer and Gadow, while others +prefer the goose-like voice and the webbed toes as reliable characters. +(For a detailed analysis of this instructive question see Bronn's +_Thierreich_, Aves Syst. p. 146.) + +[Illustration: The Flamingo.] + +The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small aquatic +invertebrate animals which live in the mud of lagoons, for instance +Mollusca, but also of Confervae and other low salt-water algae. Whilst +feeding, the bird wades about, stirs up the mud with its feet, and, +reversing the ordinary position of its head so as to hold the crown +downwards and to look backwards, sifts the mud through its bill. This is +abruptly bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather +flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished with +numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and large tongue, act +like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the considerable movability of +the upper jaw. Then the bird erects its long neck to swallow the +selected food. When flying, flamingos present a striking and beautiful +sight, with legs and neck stretched out straight, looking like white and +rosy or scarlet crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock +of these sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with +their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceivable +position. + +The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat conical +structure rising above the water according to the depth, of which the +cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as often happens, the +water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher. On the top is a shallow +cup for the reception of the one or two eggs, which have a bluish-white +shell with chalky incrustation. Of course the hen sits with her legs +doubled up under her, as does any other long-legged bird. It seems +strange that many ornithologists should have given credence to W. +Dampier's statement of the mode of incubation (_New Voyage round the +World_, ed. 2, i. p. 71, London, 1699): "And when they lay their eggs, +or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock, but close +by it with their legs on the ground and in the water, resting themselves +against the hillock, and covering the hollow nest upon it with their +rumps," &c. P.S. Pallas (_Zoograph. Rosso-Asiatica_, ii. p. 208) tried +to improve upon this by stating that the standing bird leans upon the +nest with its breast! The young, which are hatched after about four +weeks' incubation, look very different from the adult. The small bill is +still quite straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered +with a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour. +These _neossoptiles_ or first feathers bear no resemblance to those of +the Anseriform birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills, the +young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking extent, but +they leave the nest soon after their birth to shift for themselves like +ducks and geese. (H. F. G.) + + + + +FLAMINIA, VIA, an ancient high road of Italy, constructed by C. +Flaminius during his censorship (220 B.C.). It led from Rome to +Ariminum, and was the most important route to the north. We hear of +frequent improvements being made in it during the imperial period. +Augustus, when he instituted a general restoration of the roads of +Italy, which he assigned for the purpose among various senators, +reserved the Flaminia for himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except +the Pons Mulvius, by which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built +by M. Scaurus in 109 B.C.), and an unknown Pons Minucius. Triumphal +arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at Ariminum, +the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian constructed a new +tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, modern Furlo, in A.D. 77 (see +CALES), and Trajan, as inscriptions show, repaired several bridges along +the road. + +The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable remains of its +pavement being extant in the modern high road, passing slightly E. of +the site of the Etruscan Falerii, through Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it +crossed the Nar by a splendid four-arched bridge to which Martial +alludes (_Epigr._ vii. 93, 8), one arch of which and all the piers are +still standing; and went on, followed at first by the modern road to +Sangemini which passes over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past +Carsulae to Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more +circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted, passing by +Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which a branch diverged to +Perusia), and increasing the distance by 12 m. The road thence went on +to Nuceria (whence a branch road ran to Septempeda and thence either to +Ancona or to Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed +the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus standing +at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to Cales (where it turned +N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa to Forum Sempronii +(Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae, when it reached the coast of the +Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W. through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total +distance from Rome was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer. +The road gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd +century A.D. onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was at +first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under Augustus it had +formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after Constantine was +always administered with Picenum. (T. As.) + + + + +FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS (c. 228-174 B.C.), Roman general and +statesman. He began his public life as a military tribune under M. +Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse. In 199 he was quaestor, +and the next year, passing over the regular stages of aedile and +praetor, he obtained the consulship. + +Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the rising school +of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow patriotism of which Cato +was the type, the disciples of Greek culture, and the advocates of a +wide imperial policy. His winning manners, his polished address, his +knowledge of men, his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge +of Greek, all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in +the East. Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct of the +war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years, Rome had as +yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him. Flamininus modified +both the policy and tactics of his predecessors. After an unsuccessful +attempt to come to terms, he drove the Macedonians from the valley of +the Aous by skilfully turning an impregnable position. Having thus +practically made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece, +where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean League (q.v.) +at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis, the tyrant of +Sparta, entered into an alliance with Rome; Acarnania and Boeotia +submitted in less than a year, and, with the exception of the great +fortresses, Flamininus had the whole of Greece under his control. The +demand of the Greeks for the expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from +Demetrias, Chalcis and Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of +Greece, was refused, and negotiations were broken off. Hostilities were +renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the field supported by +nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae the Macedonian phalanx and +the Roman legion for the first time met in open fight, and the day +decided which nation was to be master of Greece and perhaps of the +world. It was a victory of superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman +army was retiring in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip +in person, when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged +the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights. Before +the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon them, and a massacre +rather than a fight ensued. This defeat was turned into a general rout +by a nameless tribune, who collected twenty companies and charged in the +rear the victorious Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left +the Roman right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome, but +Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands. Philip lost all +his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedonian kingdom almost +entire. He was required to reduce his army, to give up all his decked +ships except five, and to pay an indemnity of 1000 talents (£244,000). +Ten commissioners arrived from Rome to regulate the final terms of +peace, and at the Isthmian games a herald proclaimed to the assembled +crowds that "the Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having +conquered King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek states +which had been subject to the king henceforward free and independent." +Flamininus's last act before returning home was characteristic. Of the +Achaeans, who vied with one another in showering upon him honours and +rewards, he asked but one personal favour, the redemption of the Italian +captives who had been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic +War. These, to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of +his departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his +triumph. + +In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochus III. the Great, +Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the civil representative of +Rome. His personal influence and skilful diplomacy secured the wavering +Achaean states, cemented the alliance with Philip, and contributed +mainly to the Roman victory at Thermopylae (191). In 183 he undertook +an embassy to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up +Hannibal, who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is +known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, his end was +peaceful and happy. + +There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a genuine love of +Greece and its people. To attribute to him a Machiavellian policy, which +foresaw the overthrow of Corinth fifty years later and the conversion of +Achaea into a Roman province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more +force in the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from +seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek states of +that period, whose only hope of peace and safety lay in submitting to +the protectorate of the Roman republic. But if the event proved that the +liberation of Greece was a political mistake, it was a noble and +generous mistake, and reflects nothing but honour on the name of +Flamininus, "the liberator of the Greeks." + + His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by F.D. + Gerlach (1871); see also Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. iii. + chs. 8, 9. + + + + +FLAMINIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general, of plebeian family. +During his tribuneship (232 B.C.), in spite of the determined opposition +of the senate and his own father, he carried a measure for distributing +among the plebeians the _ager Gallicus Picenus_, an extensive tract of +newly-acquired territory to the south of Ariminum (Cicero, _De +senectute_, 4, _Brutus_, 14). As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting +gratitude of the people of his province (Sicily) by his excellent +administration. In 223, when consul with P. Furius Philus, he took the +field against the Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his +agrarian law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at +first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate. Reinforced +by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the banks of the Addua. +He had previously been recalled by the optimates, but ignored the order. +The victory seems to have been due mainly to the admirable discipline +and fighting qualities of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a +triumph only after the decree of the senate against it had been +overborne by popular clamour. During his censorship (220) he strictly +limited the freedmen to the four city tribes (see COMITIA). His name is +further associated with two great works. He erected the Circus Flaminius +on the Campus Martius, for the accommodation of the plebeians, and +continued the military road from Rome to Ariminum, which had hitherto +only reached as far as Spoletium (see FLAMINIA, VIA). He probably also +instituted the "plebeian" games. In 218, as a leader of the democratic +opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the measure +brought in by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which prohibited senators +and senators' sons from possessing sea-going vessels, except for the +transport of the produce of their own estates, and generally debarred +them from all commercial speculation (Livy xxi. 63). His effective +support of this measure vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius +with his own order, and secured his second election as consul in the +following year (217), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus +at the Trebia. He hastened at once to Arretium, the termination of the +western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the Apennines, +but was defeated and killed at the battle of the Trasimene lake (see +PUNIC WARS). + +The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.)--no +friendly critics--shows that Flaminius was a man of ability, energy and +probity. A popular and successful democratic leader, he cannot, however, +be ranked among the great statesmen of the republic. As a general he was +headstrong and self-sufficient and seems to have owed his victories +chiefly to personal boldness favoured by good fortune. + +His son, GAIUS FLAMINIUS, was quaestor under P. Scipio Africanus the +elder in Spain in 210, and took part in the capture of New Carthage. +Fourteen years later, when curule aedile, he distributed large +quantities of grain among the citizens at a very low price. In 193, as +praetor, he carried on a successful war against the insubordinate +populations of his recently constituted province of Hispania Citerior. +In 187 he was consul with M. Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the +warlike Ligurian tribes. In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia +connecting Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he +founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life is the +portion of Livy dealing with the history of the period. + + + + +FLAMSTEED, JOHN (1646-1719), English astronomer, was born at Denby, near +Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a +maltster, he was educated at the free school of Derby, but quitted it +finally in May 1662, in consequence of a rheumatic affection of the +joints, due to a chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved +of no avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be "stroked" by Valentine +Greatrakes, but "found not his disease to stir." Meanwhile, he solaced +his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Beginning with J. +Sacrobosco's _De sphaera_, he read all the books on the subject that he +could buy or borrow; observed a partial solar eclipse on the 12th of +September 1662; and attempted the construction of measuring instruments. +A tract on the equation of time, written by him in 1667, was published +by Dr John Wallis with the _Posthumous Works_ of J. Horrocks (1673); and +a paper embodying his calculations of appulses to stars by the moon, +which appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ (iv. 1099), signed +_In Mathesi a sole fundes_, an anagram of "Johannes Flamsteedius," +secured for him, from 1670, general scientific recognition. + +On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became acquainted with +Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name at Jesus college, and took, +four years later, a degree of M.A. by letters-patent. An essay composed +by him in 1673 on the true and apparent diameters of the planets +furnished Newton with data for the third book of the _Principia_, and he +fitted numerical elements to J. Horrocks's theory of the moon. In 1674, +and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas Moore, governor +of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in a private observatory at +Chelsea, but the plan was anticipated by the determination of Charles +II. to have the tables of the heavenly bodies corrected, and the places +of the fixed stars rectified "for the use of his seamen," and Flamsteed +was appointed "astronomical observator" by a royal warrant dated 4th of +March 1675. His salary of £100 a year was cut down by taxation to £90; +he had to provide his own instruments, and to instruct, into the +bargain, two boys from Christ's hospital. Sheer necessity drove him, in +addition, to take many private pupils; but having been ordained in 1675, +he was presented by Lord North in 1684 to the living of Burstow in +Surrey; and his financial position was further improved by a small +inheritance on his father's death in 1688. He now ordered, at an expense +of £120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began to observe +systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). +The latter part of Flamsteed's life passed in a turmoil of controversy +regarding the publication of his results. He struggled to withhold them +until they could be presented in a complete form; but they were urgently +needed for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a +public servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting of his +lunar theory upon "places of the moon" reluctantly doled out from +Greenwich, led the movement for immediate communication; whence arose +much ill-feeling between him and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince +George of Denmark undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the +Royal Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed, +protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only partially +through the press when the prince died, on the 28th of October 1708, and +its completion devolved upon a board of visitors to the observatory +endowed with ample powers by a royal order of the 12th of December 1712. +As the upshot, the _Historia coelestis_, embodying the first Greenwich +star-catalogue, together with the mural arc observations made 1689-1705, +was issued under Edmund Halley's editorship in 1712. Flamsteed denounced +the production as surreptitious; he committed to the flames three +hundred copies, of which he obtained possession through the favour of +Sir Robert Walpole; and, in defiance of bodily infirmities, vigorously +prosecuted his designs for the entire and adequate publication of the +materials he continued to accumulate. They were but partially executed +when he died on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his +monumental work, _Historia coelestis Britannica_ (3 vols. folio, 1725), +was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by Abraham +Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of Flamsteed's +observations at Derby and Greenwich; the third contained the _British +Catalogue_ of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous errors in this valuable record +having been detected by Sir William Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up +a list of 560 stars observed, but not catalogued, while 111 of those +catalogued proved to have never been observed (_Phil. Trans._ lxxxvii. +293; see also F. Baily, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, iv. 129). The +appearance of the _Atlas coelestis_, corresponding to the _British +Catalogue_, was delayed until 1729. A portrait of Flamsteed, painted by +Thomas Gibson in 1712, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society. The +extent and quality of his performance were the more remarkable +considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened means, and +the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable in private life, he +was highly susceptible in professional matters, and hence failed to keep +on terms with his contemporaries. + + Francis Baily's _Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed_ (1835) is the + leading authority for his life. It comprises an autobiographical + narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of + Flamsteed's letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the _British + Catalogue_, besides authoritative and detailed introductory + discussions. Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame + for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W. Whewell + vindicated his character in _Flamsteed and Newton_ (1836). + + See also _General Dictionary_, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied + by James Hodgson, Flamsteed's nephew-in-law; _Biographia Britannica_, + iii. 1943 (1750); S. Rigaud's _Correspondence of Scientific Men_; + Cunningham's _Lives of Eminent Englishmen_, iv. 366 (1835); Mark + Noble's Continuation of James Granger's Biog. _Hist. of England_, ii. + 132; R. Grant's _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, p. 467; W. Whewell's + _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii. 162; J.S. Bailly's _Hist. de + l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 423, 589, 650; J. Delambre's _Hist. de + l'astronomie au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 93; _Observatory_, xv. 355, 379, + 382. (A. M. C.) + + + + +FLANDERS (Flem. _Vlaanderen_), a territorial name for part of the +Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges and the +immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries it was gradually +extended to the whole of the coast region from Calais to the Scheldt. In +the middle ages this was divided into two parts, one looking to Bruges +as its capital, and the other to Ghent. The name is retained in the two +Belgian provinces of West and East Flanders. + +1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and its +coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for a little +over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns of the +province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulers. Agriculture is the +chief occupation of the population, and the country is under the most +careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration of the foreign observer +for the Belgian system of market gardening is not diminished on learning +that the subsoil of most of this tract is the sand of the "dunes." +Fishing employs a large proportion of the coast population. The area of +West Flanders is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1263 sq. m. In +1904 the population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m. + +2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western province, and +extends northwards to the neighbourhood of Antwerp. It is still more +productive and richer than Western Flanders, and is well watered by the +Scheldt. The district of Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory +of man, is supposed to be the most productive district of its size in +Europe. The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St +Nicolas, Alost, Termonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is given at +749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,073,507, +showing an average of 916 per sq. m. + +_History._--The ancient territory of Flanders comprised not only the +modern provinces known as East and West Flanders, but the southernmost +portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland and a considerable district in +north-western France. In the time of Caesar it was inhabited by the +Morini, Atrebates and other Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that +followed the land was repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally +became a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the +Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun (843) +made the line of division between the kingdom of East Francia +(Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the kingdom of West Francia +(Neustria) under Charles the Bald. In virtue of this compact Flanders +was henceforth attached to the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus +acquired a position unique among the provinces of the territory known in +later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that +northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the emperor Lothaire +(855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called Lotharingia or +Lorraine. + +The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record is +Baldwin, surnamed _Bras-de-fer_ (Iron-arm). This man, a brave and daring +warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with the king's daughter +Judith, the youthful widow of two English kings, married her, and fled +with his bride to Lorraine. Charles, though at first very angry, was at +last conciliated, and made his son-in-law margrave (_Marchio Flandriae_) +of Flanders, which he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at +this time continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was +entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the west +Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders. He was the +first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date early in the 10th +century exchanged the title of margrave for that of count. His son, +Baldwin II.--the Bald--from his stronghold at Bruges maintained, as did +his father before him, a vigorous defence of his lands against the +incursions of the Northmen. On his mother's side a descendant of +Charlemagne, he strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by +marrying Aelfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918 +his possessions were divided between his two sons Arnulf the Elder and +Adolphus, but the latter survived only a short time and Arnulf succeeded +to the whole inheritance. His reign was filled with warfare against the +Northmen, and he took an active part in the struggles in Lorraine +between the emperor Otto I. and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the +government in the hands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the +count of Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very +short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial progress +of the country, establishing the first weavers and fullers at Ghent, and +instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges and other places. + +On Baldwin III.'s death in 961 the old count resumed the control, and +spent the few remaining years of his life in securing the succession of +his grandson Arnulf II.--the Younger. The reign of Arnulf was terminated +by his death in 989, and he was followed by his son Baldwin IV., named +_Barbatus_ or the Bearded. This Baldwin fought successfully both against +the Capetian king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found +himself obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the +burgraveship of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count of +Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of the French +crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish history as Crown Flanders +(_Kroon-Vlaanderen_), the German fiefs as Imperial Flanders +(_Rijks-Vlaanderen_). Baldwin's son--afterwards Baldwin V.--rebelled in +1028 against his father at the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter +of Robert II. of France; but two years later peace was sworn at +Oudenaarde, and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036. +Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the people the +surname of _Débonnaire_. He was an active enterprising man, and greatly +extended his power by wars and alliances. He obtained from the emperor +Henry IV. the territory between the Scheldt and the Dender as an +imperial fief, and the margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become +that the Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060 was +appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see FRANCE). Before +his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda (d. 1083) sharing the +English throne with William the Conqueror, his eldest son Baldwin of +Mons in possession of Hainaut in right of his wife Richilde, heiress of +Regnier V. (d. 1036) and widow of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (see +HAINAUT), and his second son Robert the Frisian regent (_voogd_) of the +county of Holland during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude +of Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. 1061), Robert had married +(see HOLLAND). On his death in 1067 his son Baldwin of Mons, already +count of Hainaut, succeeded to the countship of Flanders. Baldwin V. had +granted to Robert the Frisian on his marriage in 1063 his imperial +fiefs. His right to these was disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out +between the two brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert +now claimed the tutelage of Baldwin's children and obtained the support +of the emperor Henry IV., while Richilde, Baldwin's widow, appealed to +Philip I. of France. The contest was decided at Ravenshoven, near +Cassel, on the 22nd of February 1071, where Robert was victorious. +Richilde was taken prisoner and her eldest son Arnulf III. was slain. +Robert obtained from Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and +from Henry IV. the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders. + +The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut (see +HAINAUT), which was thus after a brief union separated from Flanders. +Robert died in 1093, and was succeeded by his son Robert II., who +acquired great renown by his exploits in the first crusade, and won the +name of the Lance and Sword of Christendom. His fame was second only to +that of Godfrey of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1100. He +fought with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English, +and was drowned in 1111 by the breaking of a bridge. His son and +successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also fought against +the English in France. He died at the age of twenty-seven from the wound +of an arrow, in 1119, leaving no heir. He nominated as his successor his +cousin Charles, son of Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adela, daughter of +Robert the Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and +to promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname of "the +Good." His determination to enforce the right made him many enemies, and +he was foully murdered on Ash Wednesday, 1127, at Bruges. He died +childless, and there were no less than six candidates to the countship. +The contest lay between two of these, William Clito, son of Robert of +Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders, +and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother Gertrude was a daughter of +Robert the Frisian. William Clito, through the support of Louis of +France, was at first accepted by the Flemish nobles as count, but he +gave offence to the communes, who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued +and William was killed before Alost. Thierry then became count without +further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Good, Marguerite +of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise and prudent prince, +encouraging the growth of popular liberty and of commerce. In 1146 he +took part in the second crusade and distinguished himself by his +exploits. In 1157 he resigned the countship to his son Philip of Alsace +and betook himself once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East +twenty years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in his own +land. + +Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did much to promote +the growth of the municipalities for which Flanders was already becoming +famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, Lille and Douai under him made much +progress as flourishing industrial towns. He also conferred rights and +privileges on a number of ports, Hulst, Nieuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel, +Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the development of +the communes and "free towns," Philip sternly repressed any spirit of +independence or attempted uprisings against his authority. This count +was a powerful prince. He acted for a time as regent in France during +the minority of his godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his +niece Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third +crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence in 1191. + +As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of Hainaut, who +had married Philip's sister Margaret. The countships of Flanders and +Hainaut were thus united under the same ruler. Baldwin did not obtain +possession of Flanders without strong opposition on the part of the +French king, and he was obliged to cede Artois, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin +and a great part of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Matilda of +Portugal, the widow of Philip of Alsace, to retain certain towns in +right of her dowry. Margaret died in 1194 and Baldwin the following +year, and their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both countships. +Baldwin IX. is famous in history as the founder of the Latin empire at +Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria in 1206. The emperor's two +daughters were both under age, and the government was carried on by +their uncle Philip, marquess of Namur, whom Baldwin had appointed regent +on his departure to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his +charge, and he allowed his nieces to fall into the hands of Philip +Augustus, who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to his +nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to the French +king's supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted as governor in the name of +his wife, joined himself to the confederacy formed by Germany, England, +and the leading states of the Netherlands against Philip Augustus. +Ferdinand was, however, taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of +Bouvines (1214) and was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre. +The countess Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and +courage. On Ferdinand's death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died in +1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities by her +younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly known amongst her +contemporaries as "Black Meg" (_Zwarte Griet_). Margaret had been twice +married. Her first husband was (1212) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the +first of Hainaut's nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally +destined for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by +Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with the result +that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him. She married in second +wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre. Two sons were the issue of the +first marriage, three sons and three daughters of the second. + +When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and Hainaut, she +wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknowledged as her successor. +John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly protested against this and was +supported by the French king. A civil war ensued, which ended in a +compromise (1246), the succession to Flanders being granted to William +of Dampierre, that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however, +ruled with a strong hand for many years and survived both her sons, +dying at the age of eighty in 1280. On her death her grandson, John II. +of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut: Guy of Dampierre, her second son by +her second marriage, count of Flanders. + +The two counties were once more under separate dynasties. The government +of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was the interest of the Flemish +weavers to be on good terms with England, the wool-producing country, +and Guy entered into an alliance with Edward I. against France. This led +to an invasion and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his +sons and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris, and +Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though in the principal +towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a powerful French +faction--known as _Leliaerts_ (adherents of the lily)--the arbitrary +rule of the French governor and officials stirred up the mass of the +Flemish people to rebellion. The anti-French partisans (known as +_Clauwaerts_) were strongest at Bruges under the leadership of Peter de +Conync, master of the cloth-weavers, and John Breydel, master of the +butchers. The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May 19th, 1302), +and on the following 11th of July a splendid French army of invasion was +utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was concluded in 1305, but owing +to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading Flemish nobles being in the hands +of the French king, on terms very disadvantageous to Flanders. Very +shortly afterwards the aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair. +Robert of Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties +with France during the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a +stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence. +Robert was succeeded in 1322 by his grandson Louis of Nevers. Louis had +been brought up at the French court, and had married Margaret of France. +His sympathies were entirely French, and he made use of French help in +his contests with the communes. + +Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the status of +a French province. In his time the long contest between Flanders and +Holland for the possession of the island of Zeeland was brought to an +end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March 1323, by which West Zeeland +was assigned to the count of Holland, the rest to the count of Flanders. +The latter part of the reign of Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the +successful revolt of the Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to +great material prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE, +JACOB VAN). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in his +contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while Louis of +Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle of Crécy +(1346). He was followed in the countship by his son Louis II. of Mâle. +The reign of this count was one long struggle with the communes, headed +by the town of Ghent, for political supremacy. Louis was as strong in +his French sympathies as his father, and relied upon French help in +enforcing his will upon his refractory subjects, who resented his +arbitrary methods of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon +them by his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with +their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their opposition +to the count's despotism, they would have proved successful, but Ghent +and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out into open feud. The power of +Ghent reached its height under Philip van Artevelde (see ARTEVELDE, +PHILIP VAN) in 1382. He defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made +_ruward_ of Flanders. But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular +party was called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382 +Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at +Roosebeke and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years later, +leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in 1369 Philip the +Bold, duke of Burgundy. + +Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian domain, which in +the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret's grandson, had absorbed almost +the whole of the Netherlands (see BURGUNDY; NETHERLANDS). The history of +Flanders as a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of +the countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts from time to +time of great towns against the exactions even of these powerful +princes, but they were in vain. The conquest and humiliation of Bruges +by Philip the Good in 1440, and the even more relentless punishment +inflicted on rebellious Ghent by the emperor Charles V. exactly a +century later are the most remarkable incidents in the long-continued +but vain struggle of the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their +privileges. The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of +Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders and its rich +commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished to them no small part +of their resources, but for this very reason, while fostering the +development of Flemish industry and trade, they were the more determined +to brook no opposition which sought to place restrictions upon their +authority. + +The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of Dutch +Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders. Albert and Isabel +on their accession to the sovereignty of the southern Netherlands in +1599 found "the great cities of Flanders and Brabant had been abandoned +by a large part of their inhabitants; agriculture hardly in a less +degree than commerce and industry had been ruined." In 1633 with the +death of Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty +of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known as States +(or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces +(1648). By a succession of later treaties--of the Pyrenees (1659), +Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nijmwegen (1679) and others--a large slice of +the southern portion of the old county of Flanders became French +territory and was known as French Flanders. + +From 1795 to 1814 Flanders, with the rest of the Belgic provinces, was +incorporated in France, and was divided into two departments--_département +de l'Escaut_ and _département de la Lys_. This division has since been +retained, and is represented by the two provinces of East Flanders and +West Flanders in the modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of +Flanders was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second son, +Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1905). (G. E.) + + + + +FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864), French painter, was born at Lyons +in 1809. His father, though brought up to business, had great fondness +for art, and sought himself to follow an artist's career. Lack of early +training, however, disabled him for success, and he was obliged to take +up the precarious occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the +second of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third +son Paul (b. 1811) ranking as one of the leaders of the modern landscape +school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest, passed the greater +part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he died. After studying +for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte and Paul, who had long determined on +the step and economized for it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to +place themselves under the tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to +enter the atelier of Ingres, who became not only their instructor but +their friend for life. At first considerably hampered by poverty, +Hippolyte's difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832, +the Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the "Recognition of +Theseus by his Father." This allowed him to study five years at Rome, +whence he sent home several pictures which considerably raised his fame. +"St Clair healing the Blind" was done for the cathedral of Nantes, and +years after, at the exhibition of 1855, brought him a medal of the first +class. "Jesus and the Little Children" was given by the government to +the town of Lisieux. "Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck +with Blindness," and "Euripides writing his Tragedies," belong to the +museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in 1838 he soon +received a commission to ornament the chapel of St John in the church of +St Séverin at Paris, and reputation increased and employment continued +abundant for the rest of his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above, +and others of a similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits. +The works, however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his +monumental decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those +executed in the following churches:--in the sanctuary of St Germain des +Prés at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same church (1846-1848), +in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1848-1849), of St Vincent de Paul at +Paris (1850-1854), in the church of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave +of St Germain des Prés (1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was +elected to the Académie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health, +rendered worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts +of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of smallpox at +Rome on the 21st of March 1864. As might naturally be expected in one +who looked upon painting as but the vehicle for the expression of +spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too little pride in the technical +qualities of his art. There is shown in his works much of that austerity +and coldness, expressed in form and colour, which springs from a faith +which feels itself in opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life. +He has been compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long +processions of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity +of souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted +life which shines from the work of the early master. + + See Delaborde, _Lettres et pensées de H. Flandrin_ (Paris, 1865); + Beulé, _Notice historique sur H. F._ (1869). + + + + +FLANNEL, a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight and fineness, made +usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of the word is uncertain, but +in the 16th century flannel was a well-known production of Wales, and a +Welsh origin has been suggested. The French form _flanelle_ was used +late in the 17th century, and the Ger. _Flanell_ early in the 18th +century. Baize, a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, is said to +have been first introduced to England about the middle of the 16th +century by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture of +flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases, +deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture of silk +or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become the +predominant factor. Formerly a short staple wool of fine quality from a +Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was principally in favour with the +flannel manufacturers of Rochdale, who also used largely the wool from +the Norfolk breed, a cross between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In +Wales the short staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in +Ireland that of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the +New Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively employed, and +English wools are not commonly used alone. Over 2000 persons are +employed in flannel manufacture in Rochdale alone, which is the historic +seat of the industry, and a good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen +Valley district, Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch +of the flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and +Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation, and make +an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There are also flannel +manufactories in Ireland. + +A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain. The +following table gives the quantities exported during three years:-- + + 1904. 1905. 1906. + Yards 9,758,300 9,220,500 8,762,200 + +In 1877 the export was 9,273,429 yds., so it appears that this trade has +varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel are not very large. + +Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture of cotton, +but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something to limit the +indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the development of the +flannel trade has been checked by the great increase in the production +of flannelettes, the better qualities of which have become formidable +competitors with flannel. There must, however, be a regular and large +demand for flannel while theory and experience confirm its value as a +clothing particularly suitable for immediate contact with the body. + + + + +FLANNELETTE, a cotton cloth made to imitate flannel. The word seems to +have been first used in the early 'eighties, and there is a reference in +the _Daily News_ of 1887 to "a poverty-stricken article called +flannelette." Now it is used very extensively for underclothing, night +gear, dresses, dressing-gowns, shirts, &c. It is usually made with a +much coarser weft than warp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained +by the raising or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing +processes. Some kinds are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may +be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is +required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed, and also in +woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any heavy or coarse cotton +cloth can be made into flannelette. It is now largely used by the poorer +classes of the community, and the flimsier kinds have been a frequent +source of accident by fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in +a fair quality, a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented +under the title of "Non-flam," has been made with fire-resisting +properties, but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in +the lower and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the +continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great +Britain. + + + + +FLASK, in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for carrying +liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applications in current +usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood, formerly of horn, used for +carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-necked, round-bodied glass vessel, +usually covered with plaited straw or maize leaves, containing olive or +other oil or Italian wines--it is often known as a "Florence flask": +similarly shaped vessels are used for experiments, &c., in a +laboratory; (3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine +or other liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster, +usually covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance, +and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup. "Flask" +is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or case to contain part +of the mould. The word "flagon," which is by derivation a doublet of +"flask," is usually applied to a larger type of vessel for holding +liquor, more particularly to a type of wine-bottle with a short neck and +circular body with flattened sides. The word is also used of a +jug-shaped vessel with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be +decanted from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped +vessel to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the +chalice. "Flask" (in O. Eng. _flasce_ or _flaxe_) is represented both in +Teutonic and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in Med. +Lat. _flasco_, _flasconis_, whence come Ital. _fiascone_, O. Fr. +_flascon_ (mod. _flacon_), adapted in the Eng. "flagon." Another Lat. +form is _flasca_, this gave a Fr. _flasque_, which in the sense of +"powder flask" remained in use till later than the 16th century. In +Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the common one for +"bottle," so in Ger. _Flasche_, Dutch _flesch_, &c. If the word is of +Romanic origin it is probably a metathesized form of the Lat. +_vasculum_, diminutive of _vas_, vessel. There is no very satisfactory +etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin; the New English Dictionary +considers a connexion with "flat" probable phonetically, but finds no +evidence that the word was used originally for a flat-shaped vessel. + + + + +FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. _flet_, an obsolete word of Teutonic +origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term commonly used as an +adjective, signifying level in surface, level with the ground, and so, +figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate, tasteless, dull; or, by another +transference, downright; or, in music, below the true pitch. In a +substantival form, the term is used in physical geography for a level +tract. + +The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a self-contained +residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the term _flatted house_ +is still used), consisting of a suite of rooms which form a portion, +usually on a single floor, of a larger building, called the tenement +house, the remainder being similarly divided. The approach to it is over +a hall, passage and stairway, which are common to all residents in the +building, but from which each private flat is divided off by its own +outer door (Clode, _Tenement Houses and Flats_, pp. 1, 2). + +There is in England a considerable body of special law applicable to +flats. The following points deserve notice:--(i.) The occupants of +distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into flats are generally, +and subject, of course, to any special terms in their agreements, not +lodgers but tenants with exclusive possession of separate +dwelling-houses placed one above the other. They are, therefore, liable +to distress by the immediate landlord, and each flat is separately +rateable, though as a general rule by the contract of tenancy the rates +are payable by the landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes are +exempt from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878 (see +_Grant_, v. _Langston_, 1900, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue Act 1903 +(s. 11), provision is made for excluding from assessment or for +assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate dwellings +at rents not exceeding £60 a year. It appears that tenants of a flat +would not come within the meaning of "lodger" for the purposes of the +Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871. (ii.) The owner of an upper storey, +without any express grant or enjoyment for any given time, has a right +to the support of the lower storey (_Dalton_ v. _Angus_, 1881, 6 A.C. +740, 793). The owner of the lower storey, however, so long as he does +nothing actively in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to +repair, in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation +upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of the owner +of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in law entitled to +enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing the necessary +repairs. It appears, however, that there is an implied obligation by the +landlord to the tenants to keep the common stair and the lift or +elevator in repair, and, for breach of this duty, he will be liable to +a third party who, while visiting a tenant in the course of business, is +injured by its defective condition (_Miller_ v. _Hancock_, 1893, 2 Q.B. +177). No such liability would be involved in a mere licence to the +tenants to use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of +their flats. (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the +rent abates _pro tanto_ and an apportionment is made; _pari ratione_, +where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether (Clode, p. +14); unless the tenant has entered into an express and unqualified +agreement to pay rent, when he will remain liable till the expiration of +his tenancy. (iv.) Where the agreements for letting the flats in a +single building are in common form, an agreement by the lessor not to +depart from the kind of building there indicated may be held to be +implied. Thus an injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion +into a club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in +residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an +agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules suitable only +for residential purposes (_Hudson_ v. _Cripps_, 1896, 1 Ch. 265). (v.) +The porter is usually appointed and paid by the landlord, who is liable +for his acts while engaged on his general duties; while engaged on any +special duty for any tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who +is liable for his conduct within the scope of his employment. + +In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors and lessees of +flats, or--as they are called--"flatted houses," spring partly from the +exclusive possession by each lessee of his own flat, partly from the +common interest of all in the tenement as a whole. The "law of the +tenement" may be thus summed up. The _solum_ on which the flatted house +stands, the area in front and the back ground are presumed to belong to +the owner of the lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally, +subject to the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury +to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external +walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat; but the +other owners can prevent operations on them which would endanger the +security of the building. The roof and uppermost storey belong to the +highest owner or owners, but he or they may be compelled to keep them in +repair and to refrain from injuring them. The gables are common to the +owner of each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner +of the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building have +cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the stability of +the building. The floor and ceiling of each flat are divided in +ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle of the joists; they +may be used for ordinary purposes, but may not be weakened or exposed to +unusual risk from fire. The common passages and stairs are the common +property of all to whose premises they form an access, and the walls +which bound them are the common property of those persons and of the +owners on their farther side. + +In the United States the term "apartment-house" is applied to what in +England are called flats. The general law is the same as in England. The +French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that where the different storeys +of a house belong to different owners the main walls and roof are at the +charge of all the owners, each one in proportion to the value of the +storey belonging to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible +for his own flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the +staircase which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning +from where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and so +on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (Art. +664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471). + + AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH LAW: Clode, _Law of Tenement-Houses and Flats_ + (London, 1889); Daniels, _Manual of the Law of Flats_ (London, 1905). + SCOTS LAW: Erskine, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed., + Edinburgh, 1903); Bell, _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (10th ed., + Edinburgh, 1899). AMERICAN LAW: Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and + London, 1897). FOREIGN LAWS: Burge, _Foreign and Colonial Laws_ (2nd + ed., London, 1906). (A. W. R.) + + + + +FLATBUSH, formerly a township of Kings county, Long Island, New York, +U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894, and after the 1st of January 1898 a +part of the borough of Brooklyn, New York City. The first settlement +was made here by the Dutch about 1651, and was variously called +"Midwout," "Midwoud" and "Medwoud" (from the Dutch words, _med_, +"middle" and _woud_, "wood") for about twenty years, when it became more +commonly known as Vlachte Bos (_vlachte_, "wooded"; _bos_, "plain") or +Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the present name. Farming was +the chief occupation of the early settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776 +the village was occupied by General Cornwallis's division of the +invading force under Lord Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous +battle of Long Island (or "battle of Flatbush," as it is sometimes +called), "Flatbush Pass," an important strategic point, was vigorously +defended by General Sullivan's troops. + + + + +FLAT-FISH (_Pleuronectidae_), the name common to all those fishes which +swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill, plaice, flounder, +sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the bottom, and in some kinds +is the right, in others the left, is generally colourless, and called +"blind," from the absence of an eye on this side. The opposite side, +which is turned upwards and towards the light, is variously, and in some +tropical species even vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this +side of the head. All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more +strongly developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these +fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are symmetrical +like other fishes. + +Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes, the +question has been to determine which group of Teleosteans may be +regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old notion that they +are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was the result of the artificial +classification of the past and is now generally abandoned. The condition +of the caudal fin, which in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that +of ordinary Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing +the idea of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the +Anacanthini, and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks +against such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as +noticed in the article DORY, that considerable, deep-seated resemblances +exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the more generalized of the +Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish from the Upper Eocene, +_Amphistium paradoxum_, evidently allied to the Zeidae, appears to +realize in every respect the prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they +had assumed the asymmetry which characterizes them as a group. In +accordance with these views the flat-fishes are placed by G.A. Boulenger +in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called _Zeorhombi_. The +three families included in that division can be traced back to the Upper +Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably be found in the Upper +Cretaceous associated with the _Berycidae_, to which they will no doubt +prove to be related. The very young are transparent and symmetrical, +with an eye on each side, and swim in a vertical position. As they grow, +the eye of one side moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes +the upper eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the +frontal region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the +profile, temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some of +the less modified genera, such as _Psettodes_; in other genera, the +dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the migration takes +place, and the eye, passing between the frontal bone and the tissues +supporting the fin, appears to make its way from side to side through +the head, as was believed by some of the earlier observers. + +About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a few species +allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters of South America, +West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago, whilst a few others, such as the +English flounder, ascend streams, though still breeding in the sea. They +range from the Arctic Circle to the southern coasts of the southern +hemisphere and may occur at great depths. (G. A. B.) + + + + +FLATHEADS, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan stock. They +formerly occupied the mountains of north-western Montana and the country +around. They have always been friendly to the whites. Curiously enough +they have not the custom, so general among American tribes, of +flattening the heads of their infants. Father P.J. de Smet in 1841 +founded among them a mission which proved the most successful in the +north-west. With the Pend d'Oreille tribe and some Kutenais they are on +a reservation in Montana, and number a few hundreds. + + + + +FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880), French novelist, was born at Rouen on the +12th of December 1821. His father, of whom many traits are reproduced in +Flaubert's character of Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at +Rouen; his mother was connected with some of the oldest Norman families. +He was educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840, +when he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at +school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age of +eleven. Flaubert in his youth "was like a young Greek," full of vigour +of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and +apparently without any species of ambition. He loved the country, and +Paris was extremely distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of +Victor Hugo, and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees +and Corsica. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time in sombre dreams, +living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left quite alone +through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline, Flaubert +gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law together, to make a home +for her at Croisset, close to Rouen. This estate, a house in a pleasant +piece of ground which ran down to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for +the remainder of his life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations +with the poetess, Mlle Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved, +and according to M. Émile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode +of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. His +principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with whom he travelled +in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in 1849. Greece and Egypt made +a profound impression upon the imagination of Flaubert. From this time +forth, save for occasional visits to Paris, he did not stir from +Croisset. + +On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the composition of +_Madame Bovary_. He had hitherto scarcely written anything, and had +published nothing. The famous novel took him six years to prepare, but +was at length submitted to the _Revue de Paris_, where it appeared in +serial form in 1857. The government brought an action against the +publisher and against the author, on the charge of immorality, but both +were acquitted; and when _Madame Bovary_ appeared in book-form it met +with a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in 1858, +and now settled down to the archaeological studies which were required to +equip him for _Salammbô_, which, however, in spite of the author's +ceaseless labours, was not finished until 1862. He then took up again the +study of contemporary manners, and, making use of many recollections of +his youth and childhood, wrote _L'Éducation sentimentale_, the +composition of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869. +Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert had been +comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather around him. He felt +the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly that the break-up of his health +has been attributed to it; he began to suffer greatly from a distressing +nervous malady. His best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal +misunderstanding; in 1872 he lost his mother, and his circumstances +became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by his niece, Mme +Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of friendship with George Sand, +with whom he carried on a correspondence of immense artistic interest, +and occasionally he saw his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daudet, +Tourgenieff, the Goncourts; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's +life from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, to +work with the same intensity and thoroughness. _La Tentation de +Saint-Antoine_, of which fragments had been published as early as 1857, +was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In that year he was +subjected to a disappointment by the failure of his drama _Le Candidat_. +In 1877 Flaubert published, in one volume, entitled _Trois contes, Un +Coeur simple, La Légende de Saint-Julien-l'Hospitalier and Hérodias_. +After this something of his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the +remainder of his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the +futility of human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he +left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering _Bouvard et +Pécuchet_ (posthumously printed, 1881), which, by a curious irony, he +believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly and prematurely aged +since 1870, and he was quite an old man when he was carried off by a +stroke of apoplexy at the age of only 58, on the 8th of May 1880. He died +at Croisset, but was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. +A beautiful monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of Rouen +in 1890. + +The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. He was +shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed from silence to +an indignant and noisy flow of language. The same inconsistencies marked +his physical nature; he had the build of a guardsman, with a magnificent +Viking head, but his health was uncertain from childhood, and he was +neurotic to the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by +misanthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the "bourgeois" began in +his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania. He despised his +fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, their contempt for +beauty, with a passionate scorn which has been compared to that of an +ascetic monk. Flaubert's curious modes of composition favoured and were +emphasized by these peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, +sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never +satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for +the best turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It +cannot be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His private +letters show that he was not one of those to whom easy and correct +language is naturally given; he gained his extraordinary perfection with +the unceasing sweat of his brow. One of the most severe of academic +critics admits that "in all his works, and in every page of his works, +Flaubert may be considered a model of style." That he was one of the +greatest writers who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and +his greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour and +exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other writer, not of +France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields admission to the inexact, +the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary +methods of composition. He never allowed a _cliché_ to pass him, never +indulgently or wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which +"almost" expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost +equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous propriety +of his style has been helpful to later writers of both schools, of every +school. The absolute exactitude with which he adapts his expression to +his purpose is seen in all parts of his work, but particularly in the +portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree +and manner in which, since his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, +form an interesting chapter of literary history. The publication of +_Madame Bovary_ in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than +admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the +beginning of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. +Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to crowd out +all others. At the time of his death he was famous as a realist, pure +and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary +influence over É. de Goncourt, Alphonse Daudet and M. Zola. But even +since the decline of the realistic school Flaubert has not lost +prestige; other facets of his genius have caught the light. It has been +perceived that he was not merely realistic, but real; that his +clairvoyance was almost boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more +clearly than the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who +must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at large, +because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of perfect +expression, were always before him, and because he hated the lax +felicities of improvization as a disloyalty to the most sacred +procedures of the literary artist. + + His _Oeuvres complètes_ (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original + manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the + two plays, _Le Candidat_ and _Le Château des coeurs_. Another edition + (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert's correspondence with + George Sand was published in 1884 with an introduction by Guy de + Maupassant. Other posthumous works are _Par les champs et par les + grèves_ (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany; and four volumes of + _Correspondance_ (1887-1893). See also Paul Bourget, _Essais de + psychologie contemporaine_ (1883); Émile Faguet, _Flaubert_ (1899); + Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_ (1878); Émile Zola, _Les + Romanciers naturalistes_ (1881); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du + lundi_, vol. xiii., _Nouveaux lundis_, vol. iv.; and the _Souvenirs + littéraires_ (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp. (E. G.) + + + + +FLAVEL, JOHN (c. 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine, was born at +Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, probably in 1627. He was the elder son of +Richard Flavel, described in contemporary records as "a painful and +eminent minister." After receiving his early education, partly at home +and partly at the grammar-schools of Bromsgrove and Haslar, he entered +University College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he obtained +a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the vicar he was +appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he removed in 1656 to Dartmouth. +He was ejected from his living by the passing of the Act of Uniformity +in 1662, but continued to preach and administer the sacraments privately +till the Five Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away. +He then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth, where he +laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four times. He was a +vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without a play of fine fancy. + + His principal works are his _Navigation Spiritualized_ (1671); _The + Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons_ (1672); _The Method of Grace_ + (1680); _Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man_ (1698); _A + Token for Mourners_; _Husbandry Spiritualized_ (1699). Collected + editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles + Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection. + + + + +FLAVIAN I. (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was born about 320, +most probably in Antioch. He inherited great wealth, but resolved to +devote his riches and his talents to the service of the church. In +association with Diodorus, afterwards bishop of Tarsus, he supported the +Catholic faith against the Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius +as bishop of Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside +the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion; and, +according to Theodoret, it was in these meetings that the practice of +antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services of the church. +When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch in 361 he raised Flavian +to the priesthood, and on the death of Meletius in 381 Flavian was +chosen to succeed him. The schism between the two parties was, however, +far from being healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt +refused to acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme +Eustathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius, still +exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the death of +Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor, but after the +death of Evagrius (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in preventing his receiving +a successor, though the Eustathians still continued to hold separate +meetings. Through the intervention of Chrysostom, soon after his +elevation to the patriarchate of Constantinople (398), and the influence +of the emperor Theodosius, Flavian was acknowledged in 399 as legitimate +bishop of Antioch by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was +not finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is +venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint. + + See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article "Flavianus + von Antiochien" by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's _Real-encyklop._ (ed. 3). + For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack's, _Hist. of Dogma_, iv. + 95. + + + + +FLAVIAN II. (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was chosen by the +emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most probably in 498. He +endeavoured to please both parties by steering a middle course in +reference to the Chalcedon (q.v.) decrees, but was induced after great +hesitation to agree to the request of Anastasius that he should accept +the Henoticon, or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing +so, while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of +Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Anastasius, who in 511 +found in the riots which were occurring between the rival parties in the +streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing Flavian, and banishing him to +Petra, where he died in 518. Flavian was soon after his death enrolled +among the saints of the Greek Church, and after some opposition he was +also canonized by the Latin Church. + + + + +FLAVIAN (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent of the +Antiochene school, succeeded Proclus in 447. He presided at the council +which deposed Eutyches (q.v.) in 448, but in the following year he was +deposed by the council of Ephesus (the "robber synod"), which reinstated +Eutyches in his office. Flavian's death shortly afterwards was +attributed, by a pious fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of his +theological opponents. The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a +martyr, and in the Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of +February. + + + + +FLAVIGNY, a town of eastern France, in the department of Côte-d'Or, +situated on a promontory overlooking the river Ozerain, 33 m. W.N.W. of +Dijon by road. Pop. (1906) 725. Among its antiquities are the remains of +an abbey of the 8th century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the +manufacture of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as +the 17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th centuries, +containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine rood-screen (early +16th century). A Dominican convent, some old houses and ancient gateways +are also of interest. About 3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont +Auxois, the probable site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in A.D. 52 +defeated the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been +erected on the summit of the height. Numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman +period have been discovered on the hill. + + + + +FLAVIN (Lat. _flavus_, yellow), the commercial name for an extract or +preparation of quercitron bark (_Quercus tinctoria_), which is used as a +yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered bark (see QUERCITRON). + + + + +FLAX. The terms flax or lint (Ger. _Flachs_, Fr. _lin_, Lat. _linum_) +are employed at once to denote the fibre so called, and the plant from +which it is prepared. The flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_) belongs to +the natural order _Linaceae_, and, like most plants which have been long +under cultivation, it possesses numerous varieties, while its origin is +doubtful. As cultivated it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a +height of from 20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly +lance-shaped leaves, branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet +ending in a bright blue flower. The flowers are regular and symmetrical, +having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin, five +petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing five +distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five cells, each +of which is again divided into two, thus forming ten divisions, each of +which contains a single seed. The seeds of the flax plant, well known as +linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy and of a bright greenish-brown +colour. They are oval in section, but their maximum contour represents +closely that of a pear with the stalk removed. The contents are of an +oily nature, and when liquefied are of great commercial value. + +The earliest cultivated flax was _Linum angustifolium_, a smaller plant +with fewer and narrower leaves than _L. usitatissimum_, and usually +perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by the inhabitants of +the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild in south and west Europe +(including England), North Africa, and western Asia. The annual flax +(_L. usitatissimum_) has been cultivated for at least four or five +thousand years in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the +districts included between the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the +Black Sea. This annual flax appears to have been introduced into the +north of Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by the +western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoenicians; lastly, +into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after their separation from the +European Aryans. (De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_.) + +The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most ancient of +all textile industries, very distinct traces of their existence during +the stone age being preserved to the present day. "The use of flax," +says Ferdinand Keller (_Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_, translated by +J.E. Lee), "reaches back to the very earliest periods of civilization, +and it was most extensively and variously applied in the lake-dwellings, +even in those of the stone period. But of the mode in which it was +planted, steeped, heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we +can form no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by +the settlers in its cultivation.... Rough or unworked flax is found in +the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what are technically called +heads, and, as much attention was given to this last operation, it was +perfectly clean and ready for use." As to its applications at this early +period, Keller remarks: "Flax was the material for making lines and nets +for fishing and catching wild animals, cords for carrying the +earthenware vessels and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly +imagine how navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings +themselves be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the +erection of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to +whatever people these monuments may belong, would be altogether +impracticable without the use of strong ropes." + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flax Plant (_Linum usitatissimum_).] + +_Manufacture._--That flax was extensively cultivated and was regarded as +of much importance at a very early period in the world's history there +is abundant testimony. Especially in ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a +most important place, linen having been there not only generally worn by +all classes, but it was the only material the priestly order was +permitted to wear, while it was most extensively used as wrappings for +embalmed bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are +told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph "in vestures of fine linen" (Gen. xlii. +42), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail destroyed the flax and +barley crops, "for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled" +(Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous pictorial representations of flax +culture and preparation exist to the present day on the walls of tombs +and in Egypt. Sir J. G. Wilkinson in his description of ancient Egypt +shows clearly the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing +flax. "At Beni Hassan," he says, "the mode of cultivating the plant, in +the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much resembling our +salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and making them into +ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of cloth are distinctly pointed +out." The preparation of the fibre as conducted in Egypt is illustrated +by Pliny, who says: "The stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed +by the heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon them, +for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind, becoming loose +is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated. They are then taken out +and repeatedly turned over in the sun until perfectly dried, and +afterwards beaten by mallets on stone slabs. That which is nearest the +rind is called _stupa_ ['tow'], inferior to the inner fibres, and fit +only for the wicks of lamps. It is combed out with iron hooks until the +rind is all removed. The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality. +Men are not ashamed to prepare it" (Pliny, _N.H._ xix. 1). For many +ages, even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax +occupied the foremost place in the commercial world, being sent into all +regions with which open intercourse was maintained. Among Western +nations it was, without any competitor, the most important of all +vegetable fibres till towards the close of the 18th century, when, after +a brief struggle, cotton took its place as the supreme vegetable fibre +of commerce. + +Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture resting upon a +moist subsoil. It does well to succeed oats or potatoes, as it requires +the soil to be in fresh condition without being too rich. Lands newly +broken up from pasture suit it well, as these are generally freer from +weeds than those that have been long under tillage. It is usually +inexpedient to apply manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency +of this is to produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of +the fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason it +must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall, +slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been ploughed in +autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with the grubber, harrow +and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained. On the smooth surface the +seed is sown broadcast by hand or machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per +acre, and covered in the same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable +immediately to hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove +all stones and clods, and to secure a uniform close cover of plants. +When these are about 2 to 3 in. long the crop must be carefully +hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and hence the +importance of sowing the crop on land as free as possible from weeds of +all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind, move slowly on hands and +knees, and should remove every vestige of weed in order that the flax +plants may receive the full benefit of the land. When flax is cultivated +primarily on account of the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before +the capsules are quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from +a green to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have +become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height. + +The various operations through which the crop passes from this point +till flax ready for the market is produced are--(1) Pulling, (2) +Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling, (6) Scutching. + +_Pulling_ and _rippling_ may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is always +pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it cut or shorn +like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in dry clear weather; +and care is to be taken in this, as in all the subsequent operations, to +keep the root-ends even and the stalks parallel. At the same time it is +desirable to have, as far as possible, stalks of equal length +together,--all these conditions having considerable influence on the +quality and appearance of the finished sample. As a general rule the +removal of the "bolls" or capsules by the process of rippling +immediately follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the +field; but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the +Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop is made up into sheaves, +dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the early part of +the next ensuing season. The best rippler, or apparatus for separating +the seed capsules from the branches, consists of a kind of comb having, +set in a wooden frame, iron teeth made of round-rod iron 3/16ths of an +inch asunder at the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in. +long, to allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The +points should begin to taper 3 in, from the top. A sheet or other cover +being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the middle of it, +and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with the machine between +them, work at the same time. It is unadvisable to ripple the flax so +severely as to break or tear the delicate fibres at the upper part of +the stem. The two valuable commercial products of the flax plant, the +seeds and the stalk, are separated at this point. We have here to do +with the latter only. + +_Retting_ or _rotting_ is an operation of the greatest importance, and +one in connexion with which in recent years numerous experiments have +been made, and many projects and processes put forth, with the view of +remedying the defects of the primitive system or altogether supplanting +it. From the earliest times two leading processes of retting have been +practised, termed respectively water-retting and dew-retting; and as no +method has yet been introduced which satisfactorily supersedes these +operations, they will first be described. + +_Water-retting._--For this--the process by which flax is generally +prepared--pure soft water, free from iron and other materials which +might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much impregnated with +lime is also specially objectionable. The dams or ponds in which the +operation is conducted are of variable size, and usually between 4 and 5 +ft. in depth. The rippled stalks are tied in small bundles and packed, +roots downwards, in the dams till they are quite full; over the top of +the upper layer is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with +the grassy side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to +keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a process of +fermentation should immediately be set up, which soon makes itself +manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles. After a few days the +fermentation subsides; and generally in from ten days to two weeks the +process ought to be complete. The exact time, however, depends upon the +weather and upon the particular kind of water in which the flax is +immersed. The immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies +in deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain under +water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed "over-retting," +a condition which increases the amount of codilla in the scutching +process; whilst "under-retting" leaves part of the gummy or resinous +matter in the material, which hinders the subsequent process of +manufacture. As the steeping is such a critical operation, it is +essential that the stalks be frequently examined and tested as the +process nears completion. When it is found that the fibre separates +readily from the woody "shove" or core, the beets or small bundles are +ready for removing from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly +and equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes from a +week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the fibres may spin +equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is necessary to turn the +material over several times during the process. It is ready for +gathering when the core cracks and separates easily from the fibre. At +this point advantage is taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax, +which is now ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stooking +and stacking it for some time before it is taken to the scutching mill. + +_Dew-retting_ is the process by which all the Archangel flax and a large +portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are prepared. By this method +the operation of steeping is entirely dispensed with, and the flax is, +immediately after pulling, spread on the grass where it is under the +influence of air, sunlight, night-dews and rain. The process is tedious, +the resulting fibre is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly +liable to undergo heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of +the flax) if exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little +access of air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in +structure, although in all probability water-retting would result in a +fibre as good or even better in quality. + +The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb, is +that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence of heat and +moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular substance--pectose +or an analogue of that body--into pectin and pectic acid. The former, +being soluble, is left in the water; but the latter, an insoluble body, +is in part attached to the fibres, from which it is only separated by +changing into soluble metapectic acid under the action of hot alkaline +ley in the subsequent process of bleaching. + +To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the primitive +fashions above described, although numerous and persistent attempts have +been made to improve upon it, or to avoid the process altogether. The +uniform result of all experiments has only been to demonstrate the +scientific soundness of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all +the proposed improvements of recent times seek to obviate the +tediousness, difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on +in the open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention +was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by Mr James +Lee. He proposed to separate the fibre by purely mechanical means +without any retting whatever; but after the Irish Linen Board had +expended many thousands of pounds and much time in making experiments +and in erecting his machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete +failure. About the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a +process of "cottonizing" flax--a method of proceeding which had been +suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen's process +consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours in a weak +solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about two hours in a +similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution containing 5% of +carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed in a vat containing water +acidulated with ½% of sulphuric acid. The action of the acid on the +carbonate of soda with which the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre +to split up into a fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to +manufacture in the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax +into bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recommend +it to public acceptance; and Claussen's process therefore remains only +as an interesting and suggestive experiment. + +The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto endured the +test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm position as a distinct +improvement, is the warm-water retting patented in England in 1846 by an +American, Robert B. Schenck. For open pools and dams Schenck substitutes +large wooden vats under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in +an upright position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and +maintained at a temperature of from 75° to 95° F. during the whole time +the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fermentation is set up, +gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently becoming very +repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy scum over the surface +of the water. The whole process occupies only from 50 to 60 hours. A +still further improvement, due to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at +this point, which consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are +taken out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a stream of pure +water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is all the slimy +glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but the subsequent +processes of breaking and scutching are much facilitated. + +A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Watt of Glasgow in +1852, and subsequently modified and improved by J. Buchanan. The system +possessed the advantages of rapidity, being completed in about ten +hours, and freedom from any noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh, +ill-spinning fibre, and consequently failed to meet the sanguine +expectations of its promoters. + +In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Michael Andrews, secretary +of the Belfast Flax Supply Association, made some suggestions and +experiments which deserve close attention. In a paper contributed to the +International Flax Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details +regarding an experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of +imitating by artificial means the best results obtained by the ordinary +methods. In brief, Mr Andrews' method consists in introducing water at +the proper temperature into the retting vat, and maintaining that +temperature by keeping the air of the chamber at a proper degree of +heat. By this means the flax is kept at a uniform temperature with great +certainty, since even should the heat of the air vary considerably +through neglect, the water in the vat only by slow degrees follows such +fluctuations. "It may be remarked," says Mr Andrews, "that the +superiority claimed for this method of retting flax over what is known +as the 'hot-water steeping' is uniformity of temperature; in fact the +experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control can be exercised +over the means adopted to produce the artificial climate in which the +vats containing the flax are situated." + +Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtaining a quick +and practical method of retting flax. The one by Messrs Doumer and +Deswarte appears to have been well received in France, but in Ireland +the invention of Messrs Loppens and Deswarte has recently received the +most attention. The apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the +partition being perforated. The flax is placed in the upper chamber and +covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other. +Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately under the +perforated partition. As the tank fills, the water enters the upper +chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams, the latter being +prevented from rising too high. The soluble substances are dissolved by +the water, and the liquid thus formed being heavier than water, sinks to +the bottom of the tank where it is allowed to escape through an outlet. +By this arrangement the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh +water, a condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids, +in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow, and hence +the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the operation is +completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the flax remains on +the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly before being removed to +dry. + +The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, and +the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly made some experiments +with this method, and the following extract from the Association's +report for 1905 shows the success which attended their efforts:-- + + "By desire of the department (which has taken up the position of an + impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was + divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Millisle by the + patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to Courtrai + and steeped in the Lys. Both lots when retted and scutched were + examined by an inspector of the department and by several flax + spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced superior to + the other".... + + "To summarise results up to date-- + + 1. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in the field + in Ireland. + + 2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality. + + 3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Deswarte's patent) is at + least equal to the Lys, as to quality and yield of fibre produced." + +Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to expect +further attempts with the same object of supplanting the ordinary +steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical or other method would +probably be the means of reviving the flax industry in the remote parts +of the British Isles. + +_Scutching_ is the process by which the fibre is freed from its woody +core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-retted flax two +operations are required, first breaking and then scutching, and these +are done either by hand labour or by means of small scutching or lint +mills, driven either by water or steam power. Hand labour, aided by +simple implements, is still much used in continental countries; also in +some parts of Ireland where labour is cheap or when very fine material +is desired; but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these +being more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks +between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these rollers, +of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, are sometimes arranged to work +alternately forwards and backwards in order to thoroughly break the +woody material or "boon" of the straw, while the broken "shoves" are +beaten out by suspending the fibre in a machine fitted with a series of +revolving blades, which, striking violently against the flax, shake out +the bruised and broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching +machines and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view +of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of fibre, both +in respect of cleanness and in producing the least proportion of codilla +or scutching tow. + +The celebrated Courtrai flax of Belgium is the most valuable staple in +the market, on account of its fineness, strength and particularly bright +colour. There the flax is dried in the field, and housed or stacked +during the winter succeeding its growth, and in the spring of the +following year it is retted in crates sunk in the sluggish waters of the +river Lys. After the process has proceeded a certain length, the crates +are withdrawn, and the sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter +once more tied up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to +complete the retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably +practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in cones, +instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored for some time +previous to undergoing the operation of scutching. In all operations the +greatest care is taken, and the cultivators being peculiarly favoured as +to soil, climate and water, Courtrai flax is a staple of unapproached +excellence. + + An experiment made by Professor Hodges of Belfast on 7770 lb. of + air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling he separated + 1946 lb. of bolls which yielded 910 lb. of seed. The 5824 lb. (52 cwt.) + of flax straw remaining lost in steeping 13 cwt., leaving 39 cwt. of + retted stalks, and from that 6 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lb. (702 lb.) of finished + flax was procured. Thus the weight of the fibre was equal to about 9% + of the dried flax with the bolls, 12% of the boiled straw, and over + 16% of the retted straw. One hundred tons treated by Schenck's method + gave 33 tons bolls, with 27.50 tons of loss in steeping; 32.13 tons + were separated in scutching, leaving 5.90 tons of finished fibre, with + 1.47 tons of tow and pluckings. The following analysis of two + varieties of heckled Belgian flax is by Dr Hugo Müller (Hoffmann's + _Berichte über die Entwickelung der chemischen Industrie_):-- + + Ash 0.70 1.32 + Water 8.65 10.70 + Extractive matter 3.65 6.02 + Fat and wax 2.39 2.37 + Cellulose 82.57 71.50 + Intercellular substance and pectose bodies 2.74 9.41 + + According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner (_Die Rohstoffe des + Pflanzenreiches_), the fibre ranges in length from 20 to 140 + centimetres, the length of the individual cells being from 2.0 to 4.0 + millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0.012 and 0.025 mm., + the average being 0.016 mm. + +Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement both in the +growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till comparatively recent +times, the whole industry was conducted only on a domestic scale has had +much influence. At no very remote date it was the practice in Scotland +for every small farmer and cotter not only to grow "lint" or flax in +small patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven, +bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own premises, +and all by members or dependents of the family. The same practice +obtained and still largely prevails in other countries. Thus the flax +industry was long kept away from the most powerful motives to apply to +it labour-saving devices, and apart from the influence of scientific +inquiry for the improvement of methods and processes. As cotton came to +the front, just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving +were being introduced, the result was that in many localities where flax +crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually drooped and +ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by degrees ceased to be a +domestic industry, and began to centre in and become the characteristic +factory employment of special localities, which depended, however, for +their supply of raw material primarily on the operations of small +growers, working, for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote +thinly populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the +preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day, not +come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities) of +scientific knowledge and experience. + +_Cultivation._--The approximate number of acres (1905) under cultivation +in the principal flax-growing countries is as follows:-- + + Russia 3,500,000 acres. + Caucasia 450,000 " + Austria 175,000 " + Italy 120,000 " + Poland 95,000 " + Rumania 80,000 " + Germany 75,000 " + France 65,000 " + Belgium 53,000 " + Hungary 50,000 " + Ireland 46,000 " + Holland 38,000 " + +Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably the combined +quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned countries, the quality +of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is cultivated in the Russian +provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia, Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod, +Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka, Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or +Jaroslav, while the bulk of the material is exported through the Baltic +ports. Riga and St Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal +ports, but flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau, +Narva and Königsberg. Sometimes it is exported from Archangel, but this +port is frost-bound for a great period of the year; moreover, most of +the districts are nearer to the Baltic. + + + _The following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the + Change in Price of a few well-known Varieties._ + + +---------------+----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | Dec. | Dec. | Dec. | Dec.| Dec. | Dec.| Dec.| Dec.| Dec.| Dec.| + | | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. |1900.| 1901. |1902.|1903.|1904.|1905.|1906.| + | +----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + |Riga-- | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ | + | SPK | 23½ |21 to 22 |28 to 32 | 42 |28 to 32| 32 | 39 | 33 | 35 | 32 | + | XHDX | 27 | 26½ |32½ to 33 | 43½ | 34 | 35 | 42 | 34 | 36 | 33 | + | W |16 to 16¼ |15½ to 16 |22½ to 24 | 31 |18 to 19| 22 | 29 | 23 | 24 | 24 | + |St Petersburg--| | | | | | | | | | | + | Bajetsky |28 to 29 |26 to 27 |32 to 32½| 46 | 37 | 33 | 49 | 36 | 42 | 38 | + | Jaropol |24 to 25 |23 to 23½| 30 | 42 | 32 | 30 | 42 | 33 | 35 | 33 | + |Tows-- | | | | | | | | | | | + | Mologin |24 to 24¼ |23 to 23½|24½ to 25 | 31½ | 32 | 32 | 42 | 32 | 34 | 32½ | + | Novgorod |23½ to 24 | 23[1] |26 to 26½| 33 | 31½ | 32½ | 41 | 31½ | 37 | 34½ | + | | [1] | | [1] | | | | | | | | + |Archangel-- | | | | | | | | | | | + | ½ and ½ tow | 25 |24 to 24½|26 to 27 | 32 | 31 | 32 | 41 | 31½ | 32½ | 31 | + | 2nd Codilla | 25 |24 to 24 |25½ to 26 | 32 | 31 | 32 | 41 | 32 | 33 | 31 | + +---------------+----------+----------+----------+-----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as the district +in which it is grown, and it is further classified by special marks. +The following names amongst others are given to the fibre:--Archangel, +Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobusher, Dunaberg, Fabrichnoi, Fellin, +Gjatsk, Glazoff, Griazourtz, Iwashkower, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol, +Jaroslav, Kama, Kashin, Königsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns, +Krasnoholm, Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Malmuish, +Marienberg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky, Nolinsk, Novgorod, +Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy, Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel, +Riga, Rjeff, St Petersburg, Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk, +Sytcheffka, Taroslav. Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni, +Vologda, Werro, Wiasma, Witebsk. + +These names indicate the particular district in which the flax has been +grown, but it is more general to group the material into classes such as +Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs, Wracks, Drieband, Zins, Ristens, +Pernau, Archangel, &c. + + The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one or + other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not + necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October 1906 + quotations appeared as under:-- + + Livonian basis K £26 to £27 per ton, + Hoffs " HD £21 to £22 " + Pernau. " D £28 to £28: 10 " + Dorpat " D £32 to £32: 10 " + cleaned. + + It will, of course, be understood that the base mark is subject to + variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and + demand. + + The marks in the Crown flaxes have the following signification:-- + + K means Crown and is usually the base mark. + H " Light and represents a rise of about £1 + P " Picked " " " £3 + G " Grey " " " £3 + S " Superior " " " £4 + W " White " " " £4 + Z " Zins " " " £10 + + Each additional mark means a rise in the price, but it must be + understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two + letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more, since + every mark has not the same value. + + If we take £25 as the value of the base mark, the value per ton for + the different groups would be:-- + + K £25 HSPK £33 + HK £26 GSPK £35 + PK £28 WSPK £36 + HPK £29 ZK £35 + GPK £31 HZK £36 + SPK £32 GZK £38, &c. + + The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H is for Hoffs, D + for Drieband, P for picked, F for fine, S for superior, and R for + Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before, after or + in both places. With £20 as base mark we have:-- + + HD £20 per ton. + PHD £23 " " + FPHD £26 " " + SFPHD £29 " " + XHDX £32 " " + XRX £35 " " + + Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named; + + W, Wrack flax. PD, Picked Dreiband flax. + PW, Picked wrack flax. LD, Livonian Dreiband. + WPW, White picked wrack. PLD, Picked Livonian Dreiband. + GPW, Grey picked wrack flax. SD, Slanitz Dreiband. + D, Dreiband (Threeband). PSD, Picked Slanitz Dreiband. + + The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped from Riga + either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slanitz or Wiasma Slanitz, + showing from what district they come, as there are differences in the + quality of the produce of each district. The lowest quality of Riga + flax is marked DW, meaning Dreiband Wrack. + + Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is imported + is Pernau, where the marks in use are comparatively few. The leading + marks are:-- + + LOD, indicating Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband). + OD, " Ordinary Dreiband. + D, " Dreiband. + HD, " Light Dreiband. + R, " Risten. + G, " Cut. + M, " Marienburg. + + Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter being + the best. + + Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Petersburg, + the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th + Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. 2, while all the Archangel + flax is dew-retted. + + Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered from + the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this quantity + a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom. The Chief + British ports for the landing of flax are:--Belfast, Dundee, Leith, + Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the chief centres + of the flax industry. + + The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast Flax + Supply Association, shows the quantities received from all sources + into the different parts of the United Kingdom:-- + + +-------+------------+------------+-------------+ + | | Imports to | Imports to | Imports to | + | Year. | the United | Ireland. | England and | + | | Kingdom. | | Scotland. | + +-------+------------+------------+-------------+ + | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | + | 1895 | 102,622 | 33,506 | 67,116 | + | 1896 | 95,199 | 36,650 | 58,549 | + | 1897 | 98,802 | 37,715 | 61,087 | + | 1898 | 97,253 | 34,440 | 62,813 | + | 1899 | 99,052 | 40,145 | 58,907 | + | 1900 | 71,586 | 31,563 | 40,023 | + | 1901 | 75,565 | 28,785 | 46,780 | + | 1902 | 73,611 | 29,727 | 43,884 | + | 1903 | 94,701 | 38,168 | 56,533 | + | 1904 | 74,917 | 33,024 | 41,893 | + | 1905 | 90,098 | 40,063 | 50,035 | + +-------+------------+------------+-------------+ + + The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland is considerable, but the + acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864 it + reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it fell to 251,433. + After 1869 it declined, there being 229,252 acres in flax crop that + year, and only 122,003 in 1872. From this year to 1889 it fluctuated + considerably, reaching 157,534 acres in 1880 and dropping to 89,225 + acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage was above + 108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000, while the + average in 1903, 1904 and 1905 was a little over 45,000 acres. + (T. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] 8 and 2, which means 80% of one quality and 20% of another. + Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not unusual to have + quotations for flaxes containing four different kinds. + + + + +FLAXMAN, JOHN (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughtsman, was born on +the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary residence of his parents at +York. The name John was hereditary in the family, having been borne by +his father after a forefather who, according to the family tradition, +had fought on the side of parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled +as a carrier or farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the +father of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder +and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New Street, +Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was See, and John was +their second son. Within six months of his birth the family returned to +London, and in his father's back shop he spent an ailing childhood. His +figure was high-shouldered and weakly, the head very large for the body. +His mother having died about his tenth year, his father took a second +wife, of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and that +she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother. Of regular +schooling the boy must have had some, since he is reputed as having +remembered in after life the tyranny of some pedagogue of his youth; but +his principal education he picked up for himself at home. He early took +delight in drawing and modelling from his father's stock-in-trade, and +early endeavoured to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the +light of translations from classic literature. + +Customers of his father took a fancy to the child, and helped him with +books, advice, and presently with commissions. The two special +encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney, and a cultivated +clergyman, Mr Mathew, with his wife, in whose house in Rathbone Place +the young Flaxman used to meet the best "blue-stocking" society of those +days, and, among associates of his own age, the artists Blake and +Stothard, who became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to +work with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve +years old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal, and +became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society of Artists; +at fifteen he won a second prize from the Society of Arts and began to +exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the second year of its existence. +In the same year, 1770, he entered as an Academy student and won the +silver medal. But all these successes were followed by a discomfiture. +In the competition for the gold medal of the Academy in 1772, Flaxman, +who had made sure of victory, was defeated, the prize being adjudged by +the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor named +Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement, and indeed seemed +to have had a wholesome effect in curing the successful lad of a +tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency which made Thomas Wedgwood say +of him in 1775: "It is but a few years since he was a most supreme +coxcomb." + +He continued to ply his art diligently, both as a student in the schools +and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy, occasionally also +attempting diversions into the sister art of painting. To the Academy he +contributed a wax model of Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax +(1771); a terracotta bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History +(1772); a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During +these years he received a commission from a friend of the Mathew family, +for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work of this class he +could, of course, make no regular livelihood. The means of such a +livelihood, however, presented themselves in his twentieth year, when he +first received employment from Josiah Wedgwood and his partner Bentley, +as a modeller of classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental +vessels and medallion portraits, in those varieties of "jasper" and +"basalt" ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the +manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention. In the same +year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from New Street, Covent Garden, +to a more commodious house in the Strand (No. 420). For twelve years, +from his twentieth to his thirty-second (1775-1787), Flaxman subsisted +chiefly by his work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the +minute refinements of figure outline and modelling which these +manufacturers aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities +best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the gifts of +an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long upon such a minor +and half-mechanical art of household decoration; but the beauty of the +product it would be idle to deny, or the value of the training which the +sculptor by this practice acquired in the delicacies and severities of +modelling in low relief and on a minute scale. + +By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another branch of his +profession, which was in the future to furnish his chief source of +livelihood, viz. the sculpture of monuments for the dead. Three of the +earliest of such monuments by his hand are those of Chatterton in the +church of St Mary Redcliffe at Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in +Gloucester cathedral (1784), and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in +the cathedral at Chichester (1785). During the rest of Flaxman's career +memorial bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of his +industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches throughout the +length and breadth of England, and in them the finest qualities of his +art are represented. The best are admirable for pathos and simplicity, +and for the alliance of a truly Greek instinct for rhythmical design and +composition with that spirit of domestic tenderness and innocence which +is one of the secrets of the modern soul. + +In 1782, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married to Anne +Denman, and had in her the best of helpmates until almost his life's +end. She was a woman of attainments in letters and to some extent in +art, and the devoted companion of her husband's fortunes and of his +travels. They set up house at first in Wardour Street, and lived an +industrious life, spending their summer holidays once and again in the +house of the hospitable poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five +years, in 1787, they found themselves with means enough to travel, and +set out for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice. +Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman's residence in +Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than in the shape of +correspondence. He soon ceased modelling himself for Wedgwood, but +continued to direct the work of other modellers employed for the +manufacture at Rome. He had intended to return after a stay of a little +more than two years, but was detained by a commission for a marble group +of a Fury of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with +circumstances of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious +Comte-Évêque, Frederick Hervey, earl of Bristol and bishop of Derry. He +did not, as things fell out, return until the summer of 1794, after an +absence of seven years,--having in the meantime executed another ideal +commission (a "Cephalus and Aurora") for Mr Hope, and having sent home +models for several sepulchral monuments, including one in relief for the +poet Collins in Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord +Mansfield in Westminster Abbey. + +But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and European fame +was not his work in sculpture proper, but those outline designs to the +poets, in which he showed not only to what purpose he had made his own +the principles of ancient design in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but +also by what a natural affinity, better than all mere learning, he was +bound to the ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the _Iliad_ +and _Odyssey_ were commissioned by Mrs Hare Naylor; those for Dante by +Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer; they were all engraved by +Piroli, not without considerable loss of the finer and more sensitive +qualities of Flaxman's own lines. + +During their homeward journey the Flaxmans travelled through central and +northern Italy. On their return they took a house, which they never +afterwards left, in Buckingham Street, Fitzroy Square. Immediately +afterwards we find the sculptor publishing a spirited protest against +the scheme already entertained by the Directory, and carried out five +years later by Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of +art with the spoils of conquered Europe. + +The record of Flaxman's life is henceforth an uneventful record of +private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious industry, +with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not loud but +loudest in the mouths of those whose praise was best worth +having--Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a son of Hayley's, +who presently afterwards sickened and died. In 1797 he was made an +associate of the Royal Academy. Every year he exhibited work of one +class or another: occasionally a public monument in the round, like +those of Paoli (1798), or Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, +of Sir William Jones for St Mary's, Oxford (1797-1801), of Nelson or +Howe for St Paul's; more constantly memorials for churches, with +symbolic Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both +commonly in low relief [Miss Morley, Chertsey (1797), Miss Cromwell, +Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802), and many more]; +and these pious labours he would vary from time to time with a classical +piece like those of his earliest predilection. Soon after his election +as associate, he published a scheme, half grandiose, half childish, for +a monument to be erected on Greenwich Hill, in the shape of a Britannia +200 ft. high, in honour of the naval victories of his country. In 1800 +he was elected full Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to +Paris to see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself +according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next event which +makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a chair specially +created for him by the Royal Academy--the chair of Sculpture: this took +place in 1810. We have ample evidence of his thoroughness and +judiciousness as a teacher in the Academy schools, and his professorial +lectures have been often reprinted. With many excellent observations, +and with one singular merit--that of doing justice, as in those days +justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval +schools--these lectures lack point and felicity of expression, just as +they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are somewhat +heavy reading. The most important works that occupied Flaxman in the +years next following this appointment were the monument to Mrs Baring in +Micheldever church, the richest of all his monuments in relief +(1805-1811); that for the Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, +which is the next richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's +(1807), to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and +Beckett for Leeds (1811); to Lord Cornwallis for Prince of Wales's +Island (1812); and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813). At this time +the antiquarian world was much occupied with the vexed question of the +merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman was one of those whose evidence +before the parliamentary commission had most weight in favour of the +purchase which was ultimately effected in 1816. + +After his Roman period he produced for a good many years no outline +designs for the engraver except three for Cowper's translations of the +Latin poems of Milton (1810). Other sets of outline illustrations drawn +about the same time, but not published, were one to the _Pilgrim's +Progress_, and one to a Chinese tale in verse, called "The Casket," +which he wrote to amuse his womenkind. In 1817 we find him returning to +his old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the +happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs to Hesiod, +excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Immediately +afterwards he was much engaged designing for the goldsmiths--a +testimonial cup in honour of John Kemble, and following that, the great +labour of the famous and beautiful (though quite un-Homeric) "Shield of +Achilles." Almost at the same time he undertook a frieze of "Peace, +Liberty and Plenty," for the duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at +Woburn, and an heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord +Egremont's house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is +shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed to Rees's +_Encyclopaedia_ (1819-1820). + +In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis six years +earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the sculptor's own +sister,, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house, and his industry was +scarcely at all relaxed. In 1822 he delivered at the Academy a lecture +in memory of his old friend and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then +lately dead; in 1823 he received from A.W. von Schlegel a visit of which +that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring soon after +this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work and exhibition, but +on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cold in church, and died four days +later, in his seventy-second year. Among a few intimate associates, he +left a memory singularly dear; having been in companionship, although +susceptible and obstinate when his religious creed--a devout +Christianity with Swedenborgian admixtures--was crossed or slighted, yet +in other things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of +modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true friend +and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit. + +Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or of his age, +which in England offered neither training nor much encouragement to a +sculptor, that he is weakest when he is most ambitious, and most +inspired when he makes the least effort; but so it is. Not merely does +he fail when he seeks to illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival +the tumultuousness of Michelangelo--to be intense or tumultuous he was +never made; but he fails, it may almost be said, in proportion as his +work is elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as it is +partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures, the "St +Michael" at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably composed from +all points of view; but it lacks fire and force, and it lacks the finer +touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like the diploma piece of the +"Apollo" and "Marpessa" in the Royal Academy compares with it +favourably. This is one of the very few things which he is recorded to +have executed in the marble entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he +entrusted the finishing work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his +employ, and was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they +imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked at the +Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman's complicated monuments in +the round, such as the three in Westminster Abbey and the four in St +Paul's, there is scarcely one which has not something heavy and +infelicitous in the arrangement, and something empty and unsatisfactory +in the surface execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in +relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The truth is +that he did not thoroughly understand composition on the great scale and +in the round, but he thoroughly understood relief, and found scope in it +for his remarkable gifts of harmonious design, and tender, grave and +penetrating feeling. But if we would see even the happiest of his +conceptions at their best, we must study them, not in the finished +marble but rather in the casts from his studio sketches (marred though +they have been by successive coats of paint intended for their +protection) of which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the +Flaxman gallery at University College And the same is true of his +happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-known +relief of "Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury." Nay, going farther +back still among the rudiments and first conceptions of his art, we can +realize the most essential charm of his genius in the study, not of his +modelled work at all, but of his sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of +these the principal public collections are at University College, in the +British Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are +dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the excellence +of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus and Hesiod, in all +cases save when the designer aims at that which he cannot hit, the +terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman at his best it is necessary +to be acquainted not only with the original studies for such designs as +these (which, with the exception of the Hesiod series, are far finer +than the engravings), but still more with those almost innumerable +studies from real life which he was continually producing with pen, tint +or pencil. These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor's notes +in existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and +expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that struck his +fancy. There are groups of Italy and London, groups of the parlour and +the nursery, of the street, the garden and the gutter; and of each group +the artist knows how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual +secret, expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art of +sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and balancings of +the various figures in any given group, and not less happily the charm +of the affections which link the figures together and inspire their +gestures. + + The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various + biographical and other publications; the principal are the + following:--An anonymous sketch in the _European Magazine_ for 1823; + an anonymous "Brief Memoir," prefixed to _Flaxman's Lectures_ (ed. + 1829, and reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan + Cunningham's _Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters_, &c., vol. + iii.; notices in the _Life of Nollekens_, by John Thomas Smith; in the + _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the + _Diaries and Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson_ (London, 1869), the + latter an authority of great importance; in the _Lives_ of Stothard, + by Mrs Bray, of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and + of Blake, by Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated + essays, principally on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the + _Art Journal_ for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G.F. Teniswood; _Essays in + English Art_, by Frederick Wedmore; _The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 + plates, with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and + Genius of Flaxman_, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article + "Flaxman" in the _Dictionary of National Biography_. (S. C) + + + + +FLEA (0. Eng. _fléah_, or _fléa_, cognate with _flee_, to run away from, +to take flight), a name typically applied to _Pulex irritans_, a +well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other mammals, +remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly cosmopolitan. In +ordinary language the name is used for any species of _Siphonaptera_ +(otherwise known as _Aphaniptera_), which, though formerly regarded as a +suborder of _Diptera_ (q.v.), are now considered to be a separate order +of insects. All _Siphonaptera_, of which more than 100 species are +known, are parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species +belong to the family _Pulicidae_, of which _P. irritans_ may be taken as +the type; but the order also includes the _Sarcopsyllidae_, the females +of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the _Ceratopsyllidae_, +or bat-fleas. + +Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body, small and +indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae situated in +cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes, which are always +minute and sometimes absent. The structure of the mouth-parts is +different from that seen in any other insects. The actual piercing +organs are the mandibles, while the upper lip or labrum forms a sucking +tube. The maxillae are not piercing organs, and their function is to +protect the mandibles and labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of +the host. Maxillary and labial palpi are also present, and the latter, +together with the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum. + +Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis. The +footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very active; they feed upon +almost any kind of waste animal matter, and when full-grown form a +silken cocoon. The human flea is considerably exceeded in size by +certain other species found upon much smaller hosts; thus the European +_Hystrichopsylla talpae_, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small +mammals, attains a length of 5½ millimetres; another large species +infests the Indian porcupine. Of the _Sarcopsyllidae_ the best known +species is the "jigger" or "chigoe" (_Dermatophilus penetrans_), +indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West Africa +during the second half of last century. Since then this pest has spread +across the African continent and even reached Madagascar. The +impregnated female jigger burrows into the feet of men and dogs, and +becomes distended with eggs until its abdomen attains the size and +appearance of a small pea. If in extracting the insect the abdomen be +ruptured, serious trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At +least four species of fleas (including _Pulex irritans_) which infest +the common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the active +agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human beings. + (E. E. A.) + + + + +FLÈCHE (French for "arrow"), the term generally used in French +architecture for a spire, but more especially employed to designate the +timber spire covered with lead, which was erected over the intersection +of the roofs over nave and transepts; sometimes these were small and +unimportant, but in cathedrals they were occasionally of large +dimensions, as in the flèche of Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly +100 ft. high; this, however, is exceeded by the example of Amiens +cathedral, which measures 148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its +finial. + + + + +FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT (1632-1710), French preacher and author, bishop of +Nîmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse, on the 10th of June +1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by his uncle, Hercule Audiffret, +superior of the Congrégation des Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered +the order. On the death of his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the +strictness of its rules, and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to +writing poetry. His French poems met with little success, but a +description in Latin verse of a tournament (_carrousel, circus regius_), +given by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He +subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefèvre de Caumartin, +afterwards _intendant_ of finances and counsellor of state, whom he +accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (q.v.), where the king had ordered the +_Grands Jours_ to be held (1665), and where Caumartin was sent as +representative of the sovereign. There Fléchier wrote his curious +_Mémoires sur les Grand Jours tenus à Clermont_, in which he relates, in +a half romantic, half historical form, the proceedings of this +extraordinary court of justice. In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured +for him the post of _lecteur_ to the dauphin. The sermons of Fléchier +increased his reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest +pitch by his funeral orations. The most important are those on Madame de +Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership of the Academy, the +duchesse d'Aiguillon (1675), and, above all, Marshal Turenne (1676). He +was now firmly established in the favour of the king, who gave him +successively the abbacy of St Séverin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the +office of almoner to the dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of +Lavaur, from which he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nîmes. The edict +of Nantes had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were +still very numerous at Nîmes. Fléchier, by his leniency and tact, +succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even gained +the esteem of those who declined to change their faith. During the +troubles in the Cévennes (see HUGUENOTS) he softened to the utmost of +his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed himself so indulgent even +to what he regarded as error, that his memory was long held in +veneration amongst the Protestants of that district. It is right to add, +however, that some authorities consider the accounts of his leniency to +have been greatly exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond +what the edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of +February 1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which +Fléchier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust and +sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal Bourdaloue in +earnestness of thought and vigour of expression; nor can he rival the +philosophical depth or the insinuating and impressive eloquence of +Massillon. But he is always ingenious, often witty, and nobody has +carried farther than he the harmony of diction, sometimes marred by an +affectation of symmetry and an excessive use of antithesis. His two +historical works, the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more +remarkable for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive +insight. + + The last complete edition of Fléchier's works is by J.P. Migne (Paris, + 1856); the _Mémoires sur les Grands Jours_ was first published in 1844 + by B. Gonod (2nd ed. as _Mém. sur les Gr. J. d'Auvergne_, with notice + by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M. Chéruel, 1862). His chief works + are: _Histoire de Théodose le Grand_, _Oraisons funèbres_, _Histoire + du Cardinal Ximénès_, _Sermons de morale_, _Panégyriques des saints_. + He left a _portrait_ or _caractère_ of himself, addressed to one of + his friends. The _Life of Theodosius_ has been translated into English + by F. Manning (1693), and the "Funeral Oration of Marshal Turenne" in + H.C. Fish's _History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence_ (ii., 1857). + On Fléchier generally see Antonin V.D. Fabre, _La Jeunesse de + Fléchier_ (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, _Fléchier, orateur_ (1886); A. + Delacroix, _Hist, de Fléchier_ (1865). + + + + +FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED (1820-1899), German +philologist and critic, was born at Wolfenbüttel on the 23rd of +September 1820. He was educated at the Helmstedt gymnasium and the +university of Göttingen. After holding several educational posts, he was +appointed in 1861 to the vice-principalship of the Vitzthum'sches +Gymnasium at Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died +on the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeisen is chiefly known for his labours +on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these authors he was +unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-long friend and a worker +in the same field. His chief works are: _Exercitationes Plautinae_ +(1842), one of the most masterly productions on the language of Plautus; +"Analecta Plautina," printed in _Philologus_, ii. (1847); _Plauti +Comoediae_, i., ii. (1850-1851, unfinished), introduced by an _Epistula +critica ad F. Ritschelium_; _P. Terenti Afri Comoediae_ (new ed., 1898). +In his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance with +the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin language and +metre. He attached great importance to the question of orthography, and +his short treatise _Fünfzig Artikel_ (1861) is considered most valuable. +Fleckeisen also contributed largely to the _Jahrbücher fur Philologie_, +of which he was for many years editor. + + See obituary notice by G. Götz in C. Bursian's _Biographisches + Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde_ (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener + in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (where the date of birth is given + as the 20th of September). + + + + +FLECKNOE, RICHARD (c. 1600-1678?), English dramatist and poet, the +object of Dryden's satire, was probably of English birth, although there +is no corroboration of the suggestion of J. Gillow (_Bibliog. Dict. of +the Eng. Catholics_, vol. ii., 1885), that he was a nephew of a Jesuit +priest, William Flecknoe, or more properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few +known facts of his life are chiefly derived from his _Relation of Ten +Years' Travels in Europe, Asia, Affrique and America_ (1655?), +consisting of letters written to friends and patrons during his travels. +The first of these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to +escape the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Béatrix de +Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him to Rome to +secure the legalization of her marriage. There in 1645 Andrew Marvell +met him, and described his leanness and his rage for versifying in a +witty satire, "Flecknoe, an English Priest at Rome." He was probably, +however, not in priest's orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in +1648 crossed the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a +detailed description. On his return to Europe he entered the household +of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back to England. +His royalist and Catholic convictions did not prevent him from writing a +book in praise of Oliver Cromwell, _The Idea of His Highness Oliver_ ... +(1659), dedicated to Richard Cromwell. This publication was discounted +at the restoration by the _Heroick Portraits_ (1660) of Charles II. and +others of the Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalking +horse from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in _Mac Flecknoe_ +(1682). The opening lines run:-- + + "All human things are subject to decay. + And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey. + This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young + Was called to empire, and had governed long; + In prose and verse was owned, without dispute, + Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute." + +Dryden's aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe's affectation of +contempt for the players and his attacks on the immorality of the +English stage. His verse, which hardly deserved his critic's sweeping +condemnation, was much of it religious, and was chiefly printed for +private circulation. None of his plays was acted except _Love's +Dominion_, announced as a "pattern for the reformed stage" (1654), that +title being altered in 1664 to _Love's Kingdom_, with a _Discourse of +the English Stage_. He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the +actors whom he would have selected for the parts, had the plays been +staged. Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and is +said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted with the +nobility than with the muses. He died probably about 1678. + + A _Discourse of the English Stage_, was reprinted in W.C. Hazlitt's + _English Drama and Stage_ (Roxburghe Library, 1869); Robert Southey, + in his _Omniana_ (1812), protested against the wholesale depreciation + of Flecknoe's works. See also "Richard Flecknoe" (Leipzig, 1905, in + _Munchener Beiträge zur ... Philologie_), by A. Lohr, who has given + minute attention to his life and works. + + + + +FLEET, a word in all its significances, derived from the root of the +verb "to fleet," from O. Eng. _fleotan_, to float or flow, which +ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in Gr. [Greek: +pleein], to sail, and Lat. _pluere_, to rain; cf. Dutch _vliessen_, and +Ger. _fliessen_. In English usage it survives in the name of many +places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream in +London that formerly ran into the Thames between the bottom of Ludgate +Hill and the present Fleet Street. From the idea of "float" comes the +application of the word to ships, when in company, and particularly to a +large number of warships under the supreme command of a single officer, +with the individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and +subordinate command. The distinction between a fleet and a squadron is +often one of name only. In the British navy the various main divisions +are or have been called fleets and squadrons indifferently. The word is +also frequently used of a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is +also applied to a row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original +meaning of the word "flowing" comes the adjectival use of the word, +swift, or speedy; so also "fleeting," of something evanescent or fading +away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time. + + + + +FLEET PRISON, an historic London prison, formerly situated on the east +side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from the Fleet stream, +which flowed into the Thames. Concerning its early history little is +known, but it certainly dated back to Norman times. It came into +particular prominence from being used as a place of reception for +persons committed by the Star Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and +persons imprisoned for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It +was burnt down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was +destroyed in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782. In +pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842), by which +the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen's Bench prisons were consolidated into +one under the name of Queen's prison, it was finally closed, and in 1844 +sold to the corporation of the city of London, by whom it was pulled +down. The head of the prison was termed "the warden," who was appointed +by patent. It became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to +"farm out" the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which +made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted on +prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly evil repute, +by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid, with another, the sum of +£5000 to John Huggins for the wardenship. He was guilty of the greatest +extortions upon prisoners, and, in the words of a committee of the House +of Commons appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the +kingdom, "arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into +dungeons, and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most +barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of the laws +of this kingdom." He was committed to Newgate, and an act was passed to +prevent his enjoying the office of warden or any other office +whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the Fleet were the limits within +which particular prisoners were allowed to reside outside the prison +walls on observing certain conditions. + +_Fleet Marriages._--By the law of England a marriage was recognized as +valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by a person in holy orders, +even if those orders were not of the Church of England. Neither banns +nor licence were necessary, and the time and place were alike +immaterial. Out of this state of the marriage law, in the period of +laxness which succeeded the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable +clandestine marriages. They were contracted at first to avoid the +expenses attendant on the public ceremony, but an act of 1696, which +imposed a penalty of £100 on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted +another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or licence, +acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned for debt in the +Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors, for they had "neither +liberty, money nor credit to lose by any proceedings the bishop might +institute against them." The earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage +is 1613, while the earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in +1674, but it was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or +licence that they began to be clandestine. Then arose keen competition, +and "many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the neighbourhood +fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or houses as a chapel," +and employed touts to solicit custom for them. The scandal and abuses +brought about by these clandestine marriages became so great that they +became the object of special legislation. In 1753 Lord Hardwicke's Act +(26 Geo. ii. c. 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity, +that banns should be published according to the rubric, or a licence +obtained, and that, in either case, the marriage should be solemnized in +church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must be by +the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect of putting a +stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England was concerned, +and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna Green (q.v.). + +The _Fleet Registers_, consisting of "about two or three hundred large +registers" and about a thousand rough or "pocket" books, eventually came +into private hands, but were purchased by the government in 1821, and +are now deposited in the office of the registrar-general, Somerset +House. Their dates range from 1686 to 1754. In 1840 they were declared +not admissible as evidence to prove a marriage. + + AUTHORITIES.--J.S. Burn, _The Fleet Registers; comprising the History + of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and Marriage-house + Keepers_, &c. (London, 1833); J. Ashton, _The Fleet: its River, Prison + and Marriages_ (London, 1888). + + + + +FLEETWOOD, CHARLES (d. 1692), English soldier and politician, third son +of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, and of Anne, +daughter of Nicholas Luke of Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into +Gray's Inn on the 30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great +Rebellion, like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished +themselves in the field, he joined Essex's life-guard, was wounded at +the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and fought at +Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of the court of wards, +and in 1646 became member of parliament for Marlborough. In the dispute +between the army and parliament he played a chief part, and was said to +have been the principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at +Holmby, but he did not participate in the king's trial. In 1649 he was +appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as +lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell's campaign in +Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next year he was +elected a member of the council of state, and being recalled from +Scotland was entrusted with the command of the forces in England, and +played a principal part in gaining the final triumph at Worcester. In +1652 he married [1] Cromwell's daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and +was made commander-in-chief in Ireland, to which title that of lord +deputy was added. The chief feature of his administration, which lasted +from September 1652 till September 1655, was the settlement of the +soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of the +original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed also great +severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic priests, and favoured +the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan sects to the disadvantage of the +moderate Presbyterians, exciting great and general discontent, a +petition being finally sent in for his recall. + +Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell's policy. He +supported his assumption of the protectorate and his dismissal of the +parliaments. In December 1654 he became a member of the council, and +after his return to England in 1655 was appointed one of the +major-generals. He approved of the "Petition and Advice," only objecting +to the conferring of the title of king on Cromwell, became a member of +the new House of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell's foreign policy +in Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the +Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell's death, +naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said that Cromwell +had in fact so nominated him. He, however, gave his support to Richard's +assumption of office, but allowed subsequently, if he did not instigate, +petitions from the army demanding its independence, and finally +compelled Richard by force to dissolve parliament. His project of +re-establishing Richard in close dependence upon the army met with +failure, and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of +May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the committee of +safety and of the council of state, and one of the seven commissioners +for the army, while on the 9th of June he was nominated +commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his power was undermined and +was attacked by parliament, which on the 11th of October declared his +commission void. The next day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of +the parliament and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk's +approach from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order. While +hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on the point +of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th of December restored +the Rump, when he was deprived of his command and ordered to appear +before parliament to answer for his conduct. The Restoration therefore +took place without him. He was included among the twenty liable to +penalties other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding +any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he survived +till the 4th of October 1692. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a + third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward + Hartopp. + + + + +FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM (1656-1723), English divine, was descended of an +ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the Tower of London on New +Year's Day 1656. He received his education at Eton and at King's +College, Cambridge. About the time of the Revolution he took orders, and +was shortly afterwards made rector of St Austin's, London, and lecturer +of St Dunstan's in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in 1702, and +in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from which he was +translated in 1714 to that of Ely. He died at Tottenham, Middlesex, on +the 4th of August 1723. Fleetwood was regarded as the best preacher of +his time. He was accurate in learning, and effective in delivery, and +his character stood deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal +administration he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a +zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite of his +Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance brought him +into conflict with the tory ministry of 1712 and with Swift, but he +never entered into personal controversy. + + His principal writings are---_An Essay on Miracles_ (1701); _Chronicum + preciosum_ (an account of the English coinage, 1707); and _Free + Sermons_ (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary, + the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last was + condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384 of _The + Spectator_, circulated more widely than ever. A collected edition of + his works, with a biographical preface, was published in 1737. + + + + +FLEETWOOD, a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of the Wyre, 230 m. N.W. +by N. from London, the terminus of a joint branch of the London & +North-Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891) 9274; +(1901) 12,082. It dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir +Peter Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward views, +especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine, but the neighbouring +country is flat and of little interest. The two railways jointly are the +harbour authority. The dock is provided with railways and machinery for +facilitating traffic, including a large grain elevator. The shipping +traffic is chiefly in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers +serve Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other +ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there are +salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant promenade, with +other appointments of a watering-place. There are also barracks with a +military hospital and a rifle range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one +of the principal public schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall +was the seat of Sir Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of +the school on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided +into classical and modern sides, with a special department for +preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A number of +entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships tenable at the +universities are offered annually. The number of boys is about 350. + + + + +FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT (1855-1886), German traveller in West Africa, was +born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna, Russia. After receiving a +commercial education he obtained in 1875 a position in Lagos, West +Africa. In 1879 he ascended the Benue river some 125 m. above the +farthest point hitherto reached. His careful survey of the channel +secured him a commission from the German African Society to explore the +whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba, and then +visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct from the sultan for his +intended expedition to Adamawa. This expedition was undertaken in 1882, +and on the 18th of August in that year Flegel discovered the source of +the Benue at Ngaundere. In 1883-1884 he made another journey up the +Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed. After a +short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in April 1885 with a +commission from the German African Company and the Colonial Society to +open up the Niger-Benue district to German trade. This expedition had +the support of Prince Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to +obtain for Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of +influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger Company). +Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue to Yola, but was +unable to accomplish his mission. He returned to the coast and died at +Brass, at the mouth of the Niger, on the 11th of September 1886. (See +further GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE.) + + Flegel wrote _Lose Blatter aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaafreunde_ + (Hamburg, 1885), and _Vom Niger-Benue. Briefe aus Afrika_ (edited by + K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890). + + + + +FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT (1801-1888), German Orientalist, was born +at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of February 1801. From 1819 to 1824 he +studied theology and oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently +continuing his studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of +oriental languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till +his death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda's +_Historia ante-Islamica_ (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi's _Commentary on +the Koran_ (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue of the oriental MSS, in +the royal library at Dresden (1831); published an edition and German +translation of Ali's _Hundred Sayings_ (1837); the continuation of +Babicht's edition of _The Thousand and One Nights_ (vols. ix.-xii., +1842-1843); and an edition of Mahommed Ibrihim's _Persian Grammar_ +(1847). He also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS. +at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the 10th of February +1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members of the French +Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the German _Ordre pour le +mérite_. + + + + +FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640), German poet, was born at Hartenstein in the +Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October 1609, the son of the village +pastor. At the age of fourteen he was sent to school at Leipzig and +subsequently studied medicine at the university. Driven away by the +troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he was fortunate enough to become +attached to an embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of +Holstein-Gottorp to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous traveller +Adam Olearius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned to Reval, and +here Fleming, having become betrothed, determined to settle as a +physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure a doctor's diploma, but +died suddenly at Hamburg on his way home on the 2nd of April 1640. + +Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Fleming is distinguished +from most of his contemporaries by the ring of genuine feeling and +religious fervour that pervades his lyric poems, even his occasional +pieces. In the sonnet, his favourite form of verse, he was particularly +happy. Among his religious poems the hymn beginning "In allen meinen +Taten lass ich den Höchsten raten" is well known and widely sung. + + Fleming's _Teutsche Poëmata_ appeared posthumously in 1642; they are + edited by J.M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek des litterarischen + Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, contains Fleming's Latin + poems). Selections have been edited by J. Tittmann in the second + volume of the series entitled _Deutsche Dichter des siebzehnten + Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Österley (Stuttgart, 1885). A + life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ense's _Biographische + Denkmale_, Bd. iv. (Berlin, 1826). See also J. Straumer, _Paul + Flemings Leben und Orientreise_ (1892); L.G. Wysocky, _De Pauli + Flemingi Germanice scriptis et ingenio_ (Paris, 1892). + + + + +FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and founder of Lincoln +College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in Yorkshire. He was descended from +a good family, and was educated at University College, Oxford. Having +taken his degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next +year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he became an +ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some of high rank, to the +side of the reformer, and incurring the censure of Archbishop Arundel. +He afterwards became one of Wycliffe's most determined opponents. Before +1415 he was instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire, and in +1420 he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1429 he attended the +councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope, Martin V., +made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native country, and in +eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this occasion that he was named +chamberlain to the pope. To Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution +of the decree of the council for the exhumation and burning of +Wycliffe's remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it +on Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the appointment. +In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence empowering him to found a +college at Oxford for the special purpose of training up disputants +against Wycliffe's heresy. He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January +1431. Lincoln College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its +endowments were afterwards augmented by various benefactors. + + + + +FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827- ), Canadian engineer and publicist, was +born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of January 1827, but emigrated +to Canada in 1845. Great powers of work and thoroughness in detail +brought him to the front, and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of +the Dominion government. Under his control was constructed the +Intercolonial railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific. After his +retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian and +Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning throughout +the world, and the construction of a state-owned system of telegraphs +throughout the British empire. After years of labour he saw the first +link forged in the chain, in the opening in 1902 of the Pacific Cable +between Canada and Australia. Though not a party man he strongly +advocated Federation in 1864-1867, and in 1891 vehemently attacked the +Liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States. He +took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became chancellor of +Queen's University, Kingston. + + He published _The Intercolonial: a History_ (Montreal and London, + 1876); _England and Canada_ (London, 1884); and numerous _brochures_ + and magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects. + + + + +FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1544-1613), English judge, was born at Newport, +Isle of Wight, in April 1544, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn +in 1574. He represented Winchester in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when +he was returned for Southampton. In 1594 he was appointed recorder of +London, and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon. +This office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603. In 1604 +he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided over many +important state trials. In 1607 he was promoted to the chief justiceship +of the king's bench, and was one of the judges at the trial of the +_post-nati_ in 1608, siding with the majority of the judges in declaring +that persons born in Scotland after the accession of James I. were +entitled to the privileges of natural-born subjects in England. He was +praised by his contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his "great +judgments, integrity and discretion." He died on the 7th of August 1613 +at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire. + + See Foss, _Lives of the Judges_. + + + + +FLEMISH LITERATURE. The older Flemish writers are dealt with in the +article on DUTCH LITERATURE; after the separation of Belgium, however, +from the Netherlands in 1830 there was a great revival of Flemish +literature. The immediate result of the revolution was a reaction +against everything associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard +the French language as the speech of liberty and independence. The +provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the +Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois. For some +years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems[1] (1793-1846) had been advocating +the claims of the Flemish language. He had done his best to allay the +irritation between Holland and Belgium and to prevent a separation. As +archivist of Antwerp he made use of his opportunities by writing a +history of Flemish letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies +had made it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he +settled at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish. He +edited old Flemish classics, _Reinaert de Vos_ (1836), the rhyming +Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c., and gathered round +him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the chevalier Philipp Blommaert +(1809-1871), Karel Lodewijk Ledeganck (1805-1847), Fr. Rens (1805-1874), +F.A. Snellaert (1809-1872), Prudens van Duyse (1804-1859), and others. +Blommaert, who was born at Ghent on the 27th of August 1809, founded in +1834 in his native town the _Nederduitsche letteroefeningen_, a review +for the new writers, and it was speedily followed by other Flemish +organs, and by literary societies for the promotion of Flemish. In 1851 +a central organization for the Flemish propaganda was provided by a +society, named after the father of the movement, the "Willemsfonds." The +Catholic Flemings founded in 1874 a rival "Davidsfonds," called after +the energetic J.B. David (1801-1866), professor at the university of +Louvain, and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium (_Vaderlandsche +historie_, Louvain, 1842-1866). As a result of this propaganda the +Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in law, and in +administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools in 1883. Finally in +1886 a Flemish Academy was established by royal authority at Ghent, +where a course in Flemish literature had been established as early as +1854. + +The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified by the +appearance (1837) of _In't Wonderjaar_ 1566 (In the Wonderful year) of +Hendrik Conscience (q.v.), who roused national enthusiasm by describing +the heroic struggles of the Flemings against the Spaniards. Conscience +was eventually to make his greatest successes in the description of +contemporary Flemish life, but his historical romances and his popular +history of Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which +had been started by professors and scholars. + +The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best known of whose +poems are those on the "three sister cities" of Bruges, Ghent and +Antwerp (_Die drie zustersteden, vaderlandsche trilogie_, Ghent, 1846), +in which he makes an impassioned protest against the adoption of French +ideas, manners and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The +book speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who was a +magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish. Jan Theodoor +van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a volunteer in the campaign +of 1830, settled down as a clerk in Antwerp, and became one of the +hottest champions of the Flemish movement. He wrote a series of +political and satirical songs, admirably suited to his public. The +romantic and sentimental poet, Jan van Beers (q.v.), was typically +Flemish in his sincere and moral outlook on life. Prudens van Duyse, +whose most ambitious work was the epic _Artavelde_ (1859), is perhaps +best remembered by a collection (1844) of poems for children. Peter +Frans Van Kerckhoven (1818-1857), a native of Antwerp, wrote novels, +poems, dramas, and a work on the Flemish revival (_De Vlaemsche +Beweging_, 1847). + +Antwerp produced a realistic novelist in Jan Lambrecht Damien Sleeckx +(1818-1901). An inspector of schools by profession, he was an +indefatigable journalist and literary critic. He was one of the founders +in 1844 of the _Vlaemsch België_, the first daily paper in the Flemish +interest. His works include a long list of plays, among them _Jan Steen_ +(1852), a comedy; _Grétry_, which gained a national prize in 1861; _De +Visschers van Blankenberg_ (1863); and the patriotic drama of _Zannekin_ +(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to the +idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete in his +methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of carefully +observed detail. He was particularly successful in describing the life +of the shipping quarter of his native town. Among his novels are: _In't +Schipperskwartier_ (1856), _Dirk Meyer_ (1860), _Tybaerts en K^ie_ +(1867), _Kunst en Liefde_ ("Art and Love," 1870), and _Vesalius in +Spanje_ (1895). His complete works were collected in 17 vols. +(1877-1884). + +Jan Renier Snieders (1812-1888) wrote novels dealing with North Brabant; +his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by writing historical +novels in the manner of Conscience, but his later novels are satires on +contemporary society. A more original talent was displayed by Anton +Bergmann (1835-1874), who, under the pseudonym of "Tony," wrote _Ernest +Staas, Advocat_, which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in +1874. In the same year appeared the _Novellen_ of the sisters Rosalie +(1834-1875) and Virginie Loveling (b. 1836). These simple and touching +stories were followed by a second collection in 1876. The sisters had +published a volume of poems in 1870. Virginie Loveling's gifts of fine +and exact observation soon placed her in the front rank of Flemish +novelists. Her political sketches, _In onze Vlaamsche gewesten_ (1877), +were published under the name of "W.G.E. Walter." _Sophie_ (1885), _Een +dure Eed_ (1892), and _Het Land der Verbeelding_ (1896) are among the +more famous of her later works. Reimond Stÿns (b. 1850) and Isidoor +Teirlinck (b. 1851) produced in collaboration one very popular novel, +_Arm Vlaanderen_ (1884), and some others, and have since written +separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling, is a disciple of +Zola. _Het Recht van den Sterkste_ ("The Right of the Strongest," 1893) +is a picture of vagabond life in Flanders; _Schoppenboer_ ("The Knave of +Spades," 1898) deals with brutalized peasant life; and _Sursum corda_ +(1895) describes the narrowness and religiosity of village life. + +In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed translation of +_Reinaert_ (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888), &c., produced a +social epic in three parts, _Drie menschen van in de wieg tot in het +graf_ ("Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave," 1861), in which he +propounded radical and humanitarian views. The songs of Julius Vuylsteke +(1836-1903) are full of liberal and patriotic ardour; but his later life +was devoted to politics rather than literature. He had been the leading +spirit of a students' association at Ghent for the propagation of +"_flamingant_" views, and the "Willemsfonds" owed much of its success to +his energetic co-operation. His _Uit het studenten leven_ appeared in +1868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of Mme van Ackere +(1803-1884), _née_ Maria Doolaeghe, were modelled on Dutch originals. +Joanna Courtmans (1811-1890), née Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her +tales than her poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales +are sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets were +Emmanuel Hiel (q.v.), author of comedies, opera libretti and some +admirable songs; the abbé Guido Gezelle (1830-1899), who wrote religious +and patriotic poems in the dialect of West Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck +(b. 1838), who attempted a great epic subject in _Menschdon Verlost_ +(1872); J.M. Dautzenberg (1808-1869), author of a volume of charming +_Volksliederen_. The best of Dautzenberg's work is contained in the +posthumous volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort +(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs from +Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The _Makamen en Ghazelen_ +(1866), adapted from Rückert's version of Hariri, and other volumes by +"Jan Ferguut" (J.A. van Droogenbroeck, b. 1835) show a growing +preoccupation with form, and with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b. +1840), they prepare the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of +the younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is the +leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and became professor +in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp. He introduced something of +the ideas and methods of contemporary French writers into Flemish verse; +and explained his theories in 1898 in an _Inleiding tot de Poëzie_. +Among Pol de Mont's numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards +are _Claribella_ (1893), and _Iris_ (1894), which contains amongst other +things a curious "_Uit de Legende van Jeschoea-ben-Jossef_," a version +of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant. + +Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent (_Gent van den +vroegsten Tijd tot heden_, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter (b. 1834), and +of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839), curator of the Plantin +museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe (b. 1846). + + See Ida van Düringsfeld, _Von der Schelde bis zur Maas_. _Das geistige + Leben der Vlamingen_ (Leipzig, 3 vols., 1861); J. Stecher, _Histoire + de la littérature néerlandaise en Belgique_ (1886); _Geschiedenis der + Vlaamsche Letterkunde van het jaar 1830 tot heden_ (1899), by Theodoor + Coopman and L. Scharpé; A. de Koninck, _Bibliographie nationale_ (3 + vols., 1886-1897); and _Histoire politique et littéraire du mouvement + flamand_ (1894), by Paul Hamelius. The _Vlaamsche Bibliographie_, + issued by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Frans de Potter, contains a + list of publications between 1830 and 1890; and there is a good deal + of information in the excellent _Biographisch woordenboeck der Noord- + en Zuid- Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (1878) of Dr W.J.A. Huberts and + others. (E. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Max Rooses, _Keus van Dicht- en Prozawerken van J.F. + Willems_, and his _Brieven_ in the publications of the Willemsfonds + (Ghent, 1872-1874). + + + + +FLENSBURG (Danish, _Flensborg_), a seaport of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the Flensburg Fjord, 20 +m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction of the main line Altona-Vamdrup +(Denmark), with branches to Kiel and Glücksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,922. The +principal public buildings are the Nikolai Kirche (built 1390, restored +1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval +church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the +exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineering, +navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery contains the +remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle of Idstedt (25th +of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument, erected by the Danes to +commemorate their victory, was removed to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a +busy centre of trade and industry, and is the most important town in +what was formerly the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent +wharves, does a large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards, +breweries, distilleries, cloth and paper factories, glass-works, +copper-works, soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade +with the West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous +development of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in +the Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries. + +Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It attained +municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged by the Swedes +after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under Danish rule, of +Schleswig. + + See Holdt, _Flensburg fruher und jetzt_ (1884). + + + + +FLERS, a manufacturing town of north-western France, in the +arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, on the Vère, 41 m. +S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (1906) 11,188. A modern church +in the Romanesque style and a restored château of the 15th century are +its principal buildings. There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, a communal college and a branch of the Bank of +France. Flers is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region +which includes the towns of Condé-sur-Noireau and La Ferté-Macé. +Manufactures are very important, and include, besides cotton and linen +fabrics, of which the annual value is about £1,500,000, drugs and +chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, flour mills and +dyeworks. + + + + +FLETA, a treatise, with the sub-title _seu Commentarius juris +Anglicani_, on the common law of England. It appears, from internal +evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward I., about the year +1290. It is for the most part a poor imitation of Bracton. The author is +supposed to have written it during his confinement in the Fleet prison, +hence the name. It has been conjectured that he was one of those judges +who were imprisoned for malpractices by Edward I. Fleta was first +printed by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685). + + + + +FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845- ), American ethnologist, was born in +Boston, Massachusetts, in 1845. She studied the remains of Indian +civilization in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, became a member of the +Archaeological Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with +the Omahas as a representative of the Peabody Museum of American +Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she was appointed +special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes, in 1884 prepared and +sent to the New Orleans Exposition an exhibit showing the progress of +civilization among the Indians of North America in the quarter-century +previous, in 1886 visited the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands +on a mission from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United +States special agent in the distribution of lands among the Winnebagoes +and Nez Percés. She was made assistant in ethnology at the Peabody +Museum in 1882, and received the Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president +of the Anthropological Society of Washington and of the American +Folk-Lore Society, and vice-president of the American Association for +the Advancement of Science; and, working through the Woman's National +Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans to +Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In 1888 she published +_Indian Education and Civilization_, a special report of the Bureau of +Education. In 1898 at the Congress of Musicians held at Omaha during the +Trans-Mississippi Exposition she read "several essays upon the songs of +the North American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of +Omaha Indians ... sang their native melodies." Out of this grew her +_Indian Story and Song from North America_ (1900), illustrating "a stage +of development antecedent to that in which culture music appeared." + + + + +FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish politician, was the +son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1625-1664), and was born at +Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet, +afterwards bishop of Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of +Saltoun, he completed his education by spending some years in travel and +study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament which +met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher was a +fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced by John +Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of Charles II. in +Scotland, and his successor, the duke of York, afterwards King James +II.; but he left Scotland about 1682, subsequently spending some time in +Holland as an associate of the duke of Monmouth and other malcontents. + +Although on grounds of prudence Fletcher objected to the rising of 1685, +he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England, but left the army after +killing one of the duke's trusted advisers. This incident is thus told +by Sir John Dalrymple: + + "Being sent upon an expedition, and not esteeming times of danger to + be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the horse of a + country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood ready equipt for + its master. The master hearing this ran in a passion to Fletcher, gave + him opprobrious language, shook his cane and attempted to strike. + Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality, yet having been + accustomed to foreign services both by sea and land in which he had + acquired high ideas of the honour of a soldier and a gentleman and of + the affront of a cane, pulled out his pistol and shot him dead on the + spot. The action was unpopular in countries where such refinements + were not understood. A clamour was raised against it among the people + of the country, in a body they waited upon the duke with their + complaints; and he was forced to desire the only soldier and almost + the only man of parts in his army, to abandon him." + +Another, but less probable account, represents Fletcher as quitting the +rebel army because he disapproved of the action of Monmouth in +proclaiming himself king. + +His history during the next few years is rather obscure. He probably +travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks in Hungary; and having +in his absence lost his estates and been sentenced to death, he joined +William of Orange at the Hague, and returned to Scotland in 1689 in +consequence of the success of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were +restored to him; and he soon became a leading member of the "club," an +organization which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland, +and in general an active opponent of the English government. In 1703, at +a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher again became a +member of the Scottish parliament. The failure of the Darien expedition +had aroused a strong feeling of resentment against England, and Fletcher +and the national party seized the opportunity to obtain a greater degree +of independence for their country. + +His attitude in this matter, and also to the proposal for the union of +the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third edition of +the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_:-- + + "The thought of England's domineering over Scotland was what his + generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppression which + Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his learned and + elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted courage and + pathetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union, he performed + essential service. He got the act of security passed, which declared + that the two crowns should not pass to the same head till Scotland was + secured in her liberties civil and religious. Therefore Lord Godolphin + was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war after the queen's + demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some of the articles, and + indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as the act of security + was his own work, he had all the merit of that important transaction." + +Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired from public +life. Employing his abilities in another direction, he did a real, if +homely, service to his country by introducing from Holland machinery for +sifting grain. He died unmarried in London in September 1716. + +Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher's integrity, but he was +also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as "a Scotch gentleman +of great parts and many virtues, but a most violent republican and +extremely passionate." In appearance he was "a low, thin man, of a brown +complexion; full of fire; with a stern, sour look." Fletcher was a fine +scholar and a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford +bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his time. His +chief works are: _A Discourse of Government relating to Militias_ +(1698); _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698); and +_An Account of a Conversation concerning a right regulation of +Governments for the common good of Mankind_ (1704). In Two Discourses he +suggests that the numerous vagrants who infested Scotland should be +brought into compulsory and hereditary servitude; and in _An Account of +a Conversation_ occurs his well-known remark, "I knew a very wise man +so much of Sir Christopher's (Sir C. Musgrave) sentiment, that he +believed if a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not +care who should make the laws of a nation." + + _The Political Works of Andrew Fletcher_ were published in London in + 1737. See D.S. Erskine, 11th earl of Buchan, _Essay on the Lives of + Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792); J.H. Burton, + _History of Scotland_, vol. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905); and A. Lang, + _History of Scotland_, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907). + + + + +FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611), English author, son of Richard Fletcher, +vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and father of the poets Phineas and Giles +Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549. He was educated at Eton and at +King's College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1569. He was a +fellow of his college, and was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had +married Joan Sheafe of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr +Bridgwater, chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for +Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland, Germany +and Holland, and in 1588 was sent to Russia to the court of the czar +Theodore with instructions to conclude as alliance between England and +Russia, to restore English trade, and to obtain better conditions for +the English Russia Company. The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey, +had already obtained large concessions through the favour of the +protector, Boris Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he +found that Godunov's interest was alienated, and that the Russian +government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The envoy was badly +lodged, and treated with obvious contempt, and was not allowed to +forward letters to England, but the English victory over the Armada and +his own indomitable patience secured among other advantages for English +traders exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from +the infliction of torture. Fletcher's treatment at Moscow was later made +the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth. He returned to +England in 1589 in company with Jerome Horsey, and in 1591 he published +_Of the Russe Commonwealth, Or Maner of Government by the Russe Emperour +(commonly called The Emperour of Moskovia) with the manners and fashions +of the people of that Countrey_. In this comprehensive account of +Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare, church and +manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to arrange his material +during the return journey, doubtless received some assistance from the +longer experience of his travelling companion, who also wrote a +narrative of his travels, published in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (1626). +The Russia Company feared that the freedom of Fletcher's criticisms +would give offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage +their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was not reprinted +in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from a copy of the +original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an introduction by Mr +Edward A. Bond. + +Fletcher was appointed "Remembrancer" to the city of London, and an +extraordinary master of requests in 1596, and became treasurer of St +Paul's in 1597. He contemplated a history of the reign of Queen +Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord Burghley he suggested that it might +be well to begin with an account from the Protestant side of the +marriage of Henry VIII. and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties +prevented the execution of this plan. He had become security to the +exchequer for the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of +London, who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprisonment by +the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually in prison in 1601, +when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous letter to Burghley from which it +may be gathered that his prime offence had been an allusion to Essex's +disgrace as being the work of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed +in 1610 to negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the "Eastland Merchants," +and he died next year, and was buried on the 11th of March in the parish +of St Catherine Colman, London. + + _The Russe Commonwealth_ was issued in an abridged form in _Hakluyt's + Principal Navigations, Voyages_, &c. (vol. i. p. 473, ed. of 1598), a + somewhat completer version in _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (pt. iii. ed. + 1625), also as _History of Russia_ in 1643 and 1657. Fletcher also + wrote _De literis antiquae Britanniae_ (ed. by Phineas Fletcher, + 1633), a treatise on "The Tartars," printed in _Israel Redux_ (ed. by + S(amuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost tribes of + Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and _Licia, or + Poemes of Love in Honour of the admirable and singular vertues of his + Lady, to the imitation of the best Latin Poets ... whereunto is added + the Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third_ (1593). This series of + love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was published anonymously. + Most critics, with the notable exception of Alexander Dyce (Beaumont + and Fletcher, _Works_, i. p. xvi., 1843) have accepted it as the work + of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence afforded in the first of the + _Piscatory Eclogues_ of his son Phineas, who represents his father + (Thelgon), as having "raised his rime to sing of Richard's climbing." + + See E.A. Bond's Introduction to the Hakluyt Society's edition; also Dr + A.B. Grosart's prefatory matter to _Licia_ (_Fuller Worthies Library_, + Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of Phineas + Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher's letters relative to the + college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved in the + Lansdowne MSS. (xxiii. art. 18 et seq.), and are translated in + Grosart's edition. + + + + +FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623), English poet, younger son of the +preceding, was born about 1584. Fuller in his _Worthies of England_ says +that he was a native of London, and was educated at Westminster school. +From there he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. +degree in 1606, and became a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was +reader in Greek grammar (1615) and in Greek language (1618). In 1603 he +contributed a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to _Sorrow's Joy_. +His great poem of _Christ's Victory_ appeared in 1610, and in 1612 he +edited the _Remains_ of his cousin Nathaniel Pownall. It is not known in +what year he was ordained, but his sermons at St Mary's were famous. +Fuller tells us that the prayer before the sermon was a continuous +allegory. He left Cambridge about 1618, and soon after received, it is +supposed from Francis Bacon, the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk +coast, where "his clownish and low-parted parishioners ... valued not +their pastor according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy +and hastened his dissolution." (Fuller, _Worthies of England_, ed. 1811, +vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, _The Reward of the Faithful_, appeared +in the year of his death (1623). + +The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is _Christ's +Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and after Death_ (1610). +An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page illustrative engravings by +George Tate. It is in four cantos and is epic in design. The first +canto, "Christ's Victory in Heaven," represents a dispute in heaven +between Justice and Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ's life on earth; +the second, "Christ's Victory on Earth," deals with an allegorical +account of the Temptation; the third, "Christ's Triumph over Death," +treats of the Passion; and the fourth, "Christ's Triumph after Death," +treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes with an +affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher (q.v.) as +"Thyrsilis." The metre is an eight-line stanza owing something to +Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and the stanza concludes with +a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit which nearly every verse +embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his brother Phineas, to whom he was +deeply attached, was a close follower of Spenser. In his very best +passages Giles Fletcher attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear +of Milton, who did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the +_Christ's Victory and Triumph_ in his _Paradise Regained_. Fletcher +lived in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and +Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion with the +sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away by his theme and +forgets to be ingenious, he attains great solemnity and harmony of +style. His descriptions of the Lady of Vain Delight, in the second +canto, and of Justice and of Mercy in the first, are worked out with +much beauty of detail into separate pictures, in the manner of the +_Faerie Queene_. + + Giles Fletcher's poem was edited (1868) for the _Fuller Worthies + Library_, and (1876) for the _Early English Poets_ by Dr A.B. Grosart. + It is also reprinted for _The Ancient and Modern Library of + Theological Literature_ (1888), and in R. Cattermole's and H. + Stebbing's _Sacred Classics_ (1834, &c.) vol. 20. In the library of + King's College, Cambridge, is a MS. _Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica + Lamentationum Jeremiae_. + + + + +FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (1729-1785), English divine, was born at Nyon in +Switzerland on the 12th of September 1729, his original name being DE LA +FLÉCHIÈRE. He was educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to +a clerical one, went to Lisbon and enlisted. An accident prevented his +sailing with his regiment to Brazil, and after a visit to Flanders, +where an uncle offered to secure a commission for him, he went to +England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutor in a +Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of the new Methodist +preachers, and in 1757 took orders, being ordained by the bishop of +Bangor. He often preached with John Wesley and for him, and became known +as a fervent supporter of the revival. Refusing the wealthy living of +Dunham, he accepted the humble one of Madeley, where for twenty-five +years (1760-1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and zeal. +Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood Wesley and his +work, yet he never wrote or said anything inconsistent with his own +Anglican position. In theology he upheld the Arminian against the +Calvinist position, but always with courtesy and fairness; his +resignation on doctrinal grounds of the superintendency (1768-1771) of +the countess of Huntingdon's college at Trevecca left no unpleasantness. +The outstanding feature of his life was a transparent simplicity and +saintliness of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his +godliness is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the +words "Mark the perfect man." Southey said that "no age ever provided a +man of more fervent piety or more perfect charity, and no church ever +possessed a more apostolic minister." His fame was not confined to his +own country, for it is said that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a +character as perfect as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of +Madeley. He died on the 14th of August 1785. + + Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836. The + chief of them, written against Calvinism, are _Five Checks to + Antinomianism_, _Scripture Scales to weigh the Gold of Gospel Truth_, + and the _Portrait of St Paul_. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L. + Tyerman (1882); F.W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt (1902); also C.J. + Ryle, _Christian Leaders of the 18th Century_, pp. 384-423 (1869). + + + + +FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650), English poet, elder son of Dr Giles +Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed above, was born at +Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptized on the 8th of April 1582. He was +admitted a scholar of Eton, and in 1600 entered King's College, +Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1604, and M.A. in 1608, and was one of +the contributors to _Sorrow's Joy_ (1603). His pastoral drama, +_Sicelides or Piscatory_ (pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance +before James I., but only produced after the king's departure at King's +College. He had been ordained priest and before 1611 became a fellow of +his college, but he left Cambridge before 1616, apparently because +certain emoluments were refused him. He became chaplain to Sir Henry +Willoughby, who presented him in 1621 to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk, +where he married and spent the rest of his life. In 1627 he published +_Locustae, vel Pietas Jesuitica_. _The Locusts or Apollyonists_, two +parallel poems in Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. Dr +Grosart saw in this work one of the sources of Milton's conception of +Satan. Next year appeared an erotic poem, _Brittains Ida_, with Edmund +Spenser's name on the title-page. It is certainly not by Spenser, and is +printed by Dr Grosart with the works of Phineas Fletcher. _Sicelides_, a +play acted at King's College in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632 +appeared two theological prose treatises, _The Way to Blessedness_ and +_Joy in Tribulation_, and in 1633 his _magnum opus, The Purple Island_. +The book was dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included his +_Piscatorie Eclogs and other Poetical Miscellanies_. He died in 1650, +his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December of that year. +_The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man_, is a poem in twelve cantos +describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological structure of the human +body and the mind of man. The intellectual qualities are personified, +while the veins are rivers, the bones the mountains of the island, the +whole analogy being worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of +Spenser is preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his +moral aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the _Faerie +Queene_. What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses +in human interest and action. The chief charm of the poem lies in its +descriptions of rural scenery. The _Piscatory Eclogues_ are pastorals +the characters of which are represented as fisher boys on the banks of +the Cam, and are interesting for the light they cast on the biography of +the poet himself (Thyrsil) and his father (Thelgon). The poetry of +Phineas Fletcher has not the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother +Giles. The mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more +far-fetched, but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor +music. + + A complete edition of his works (4 vols.) was privately printed by Dr + A.B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869). + + + + +FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK, SEIGNEUR DE (1491-1537), marshal +of France and historian, was the son of Robert II. de la Marck; duke of +Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the +celebrated William de la Marck, "The Wild Boar of the Ardennes." A +fondness for military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years, +and at the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed +in charge of the count of Angoulême, afterwards King Francis I. In his +twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d'Amboise, but after +three months he quitted his home to join the French army in the +Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself into Verona, then +besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was protracted, and being +impatient for more active service, he rejoined the army. He then took +part in the relief of Mirandola, besieged by the troops of Pope Julius +II., and in other actions of the campaign. In 1512 the French being +driven from Italy, Fleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body of +10,000 men, in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy +in 1513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara. But the +French were defeated, and Fleuranges narrowly escaped with his life, +having received more than forty wounds. He was rescued by his father and +sent to Vercellae, and thence to Lyons. Returning to Italy with Francis +I. in 1515, he distinguished himself in various affairs, and especially +at Marignano, where he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so +powerfully to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with +his own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called home by the +news of his father's illness. In 1519 he was sent into Germany on the +difficult errand of inducing the electors to give their votes in favour +of Francis I.; but in this he failed. The war in Italy being rekindled, +Fleuranges accompanied the king thither, fought at Pavia (1525), and was +taken prisoner with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the +defection of his father, Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into +confinement in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this +imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed his enforced +leisure in writing his _Histoire des choses mémorables advenues du règne +de Louis XII et de François I, depuis 1499 jusqu'en l'an 1521_. In this +work he designates himself _Jeune Adventureux_. Within a small compass +he gives many curious and interesting details of the time, writing only +of what he had seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was +first published in 1735, by Abbé Lambert, who added historical and +critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections. The +last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active service was at +the defence of Péronne, besieged by the count of Nassau in 1536. In the +following year he heard of his father's death, and set out from Amboise +for his estate of La Marck; but he was seized with illness at +Longjumeau, and died there in December 1537. + + See his own book in the _Nouvelle Collection des mémoires pour servir + à l'histoire de France_ (edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. Poujoulat, + series i. vol. v. Paris, 1836 seq.). + + + + +FLEUR-DE-LIS (Fr. "lily flower"), an heraldic device, very widespread in +the armorial bearings of all countries, but more particularly associated +with the royal house of France. The conventional fleur-de-lis, as Littré +says, represents very imperfectly three flowers of the white lily +(_Lilium_) joined together, the central one erect, and each of the +other two curving outwards. The fleur-de-lis is a common device in +ancient decoration, notably in India and in Egypt, where it was the +symbol of life and resurrection, the attribute of the god Horus. It is +common also in Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the +conventional fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or +white iris--the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare--or an arrow-head, a +spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the evil eye, +&c. In Roman and early Gothic architecture the fleur-de-lis is a +frequent sculptured ornament. As early as 1120 three fleurs-de-lis were +sculptured on the capitals of the Chapelle Saint-Aignan at Paris. The +fleur-de-lis was first definitely connected with the French monarchy in +an _ordonnance_ of Louis le Jeune (c. 1147), and was first figured on a +seal of Philip Augustus in 1180. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry +dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became a very +common charge in France, England and Germany, where every gentleman of +coat-armour desired to adorn his shield with a loan from the shield of +France, which was at first _d'azur, semé de fleurs de lis d'or_. In +February 1376 Charles V. of France reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis +to three--in honour of the Trinity--and the kings of France thereafter +bore _d'azur, à trois fleurs de lis d'or_. Tradition soon attributed the +origin of the fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish +monarchy, and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an +angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation for this +legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William Newton +(_Display of Heraldry_, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was the figure of +a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre at the proclamation +of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the true origin of the fleur-de-lis +as a conventional decoration, it is demonstrably far older than the +Frankish monarchy, and history does not record the reason of its +adoption by the royal house of France, from which it passed into common +use as an heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the +Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman states +by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged to defend the +patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the church. Another order +of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII. in 1816, in memory of the silver +fleurs-de-lis which the comte d'Artois had given to the troops in 1814 +as decorations; it was abolished by the revolution of 1830. + +[Illustration: Middle Ages. 17th century. 18th and 19th centuries.] + + + + +FLEURUS, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau, 5 m. N.E. of +Charleroi, famous as the scene of several battles. The first of these +was fought on August 19/29, 1622, between the forces of Count Mansfeld +and Christian of Brunswick and the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter +being defeated. The second is described below, and the third and fourth, +incidents of Jourdan's campaign of 1794, under FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY +WARS. The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms the battlefield +of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. + +[Illustration: Map of Fleurus 1690.] + +The second battle was fought on the 1st of July 1690 between 45,000 +French under François-Henri de Montgomery-Bouteville, duke of Luxemburg, +and 37,000 allied Dutch, Spaniards and Imperialists under George +Frederick, prince of Waldeck. The latter had formed up his army between +Heppignies and St Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a +double barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a +village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army exactly. +But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard from Velaine, decided, +after a cursory survey of the ground, to attack the front and both +flanks of the Allies' position at once--a decision which few, if any, +generals then living would have dared to make, and which of itself +places Luxemburg in the same rank as a tactician as his old friend and +commander Condé. The left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of +woods, houses and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect +with the frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop +Waldeck's right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of cavalry and +some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep round the enemy's left by +way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes, concealed by the high-standing +corn. At 8 o'clock the frontal attack began by a vigorous artillery +engagement, in which the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns, +held their own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been +absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy already +formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second line back to oppose +them, but while he was doing so the French leader filled up the gap +between himself and the frontal assailants by posting infantry around +Wagnelée, and also guns on the neighbouring hill whence their fire +enfiladed both halves of the enemy's army up to the limit of their +ranging power. At 1 P.M. Luxemburg ordered a general attack of his whole +line. He himself scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the +Dutch infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded. The +left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and in their +first charge lost their leader, Lieutenant-General Jean Christophe, +comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers in the service. But +Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary success, sent a portion of +his right wing towards St Amand, where it merely shared the fate of his +left, and the day was decided. Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14 +battalions of infantry (English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck +could do no more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the +Spaniards at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the +infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them--the French cavalry, +eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest. Then slowly and in +perfect order, they retired into the broken ground above Mellet, where +they were in safety. The French slept on the battlefield, and then +returned to camp with their trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost +some 2500 killed, amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of +artillery, the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg +was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-Dame. But +the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV. ordered Luxemburg to +keep in line with other French armies which were carrying on more or +less desultory wars of manoeuvre on the Meuse and Moselle. + + + + +FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BÉNARD] (1750-1822), French actor, was born at +Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, and began his stage apprenticeship +at Nancy, where his father was at the head of a company of actors +attached to the court of King Stanislaus. After four years in the +provinces, he came to Paris in 1778, and almost immediately was made +_sociétaire_ at the Comédie Française, although the public was slow to +recognize him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1793 Fleury, like +the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of the +presentation of Laya's _L'Ami des lois_, and, when liberated, appeared +at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the rehabilitated +Comédie Française. After forty years of service he retired in 1818, and +died on the 3rd of March 1822. He was notoriously illiterate, and it is +probable that the interesting _Mémoire de Fleury_ owes more to its +author, Lafitte, than to the subject whose "notes and papers" it is said +to contain. + + + + +FLEURY, ANDRÉ HERCULE DE (1653-1743), French cardinal and statesman, was +born at Lodève (Hérault) on the 22nd of June 1653, the son of a +collector of taxes. Educated by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the +priesthood, and became in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi, +almoner to Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of +Fréjus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined him to seek a +position at court. He became tutor to the king's great-grandson and +heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of ambition, he acquired over the +child's mind an influence which proved to be indestructible. On the +death of the regent Orleans in 1723 Fleury, although already seventy +years of age, deferred his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment +of Louis Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present +at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and on +Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired from court. +Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the 11th of July 1726 took +affairs into his own hands, and secured the exile from court of Bourbon +and of his mistress Madame de Prie. He refused the title of first +minister, but his elevation to the cardinalate in that year secured his +precedence over the other ministers. He was naturally frugal and +prudent, and carried these qualities into the administration, with the +result that in 1738-1739 there was a surplus of 15,000,000 livres +instead of the usual deficit. In 1726 he fixed the standard of the +currency and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment +thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced labour +from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though at the cost of +rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen years of his orderly +government the country found time to recuperate its forces after the +exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent, +and the general prosperity rapidly increased. Internal peace was only +seriously disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise +against the Jansenists. He imprisoned priests who refused to accept the +bull _Unigenitus_, and he met the opposition of the parlement of Paris +by exiling forty of its members. + +In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance of peace, +which was shared by Sir Robert Walpole, and therefore led to a +continuance of the good understanding between France and England. It was +only with reluctance that he supported the ambitious projects of +Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain, in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the +succession of Don Carlos to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had +economized in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was +forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled by public +opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.'s father-in-law Stanislaus +Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish crown on the death of +Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-Austrian candidate; but the +despatch of a French expedition of 1500 men to Danzig only served to +humiliate France. Fleury was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic +measures; he concluded a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and +sent two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the Rhine +and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty of Vienna +(1735-1738). France had joined with the other powers in guaranteeing the +succession of Maria Theresa under the Pragmatic sanction, but on the +death of Charles VI. in 1740 Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an +excuse for repudiating his engagements, when he found the party of war +supreme in the king's counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian +campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian general +Königsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury disavowed his own +letter, and died a few days after the French evacuation of Prague on the +29th of January 1743. He had enriched the royal library by many valuable +oriental MSS., and was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of +Science, and the Academy of Inscriptions. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F.J. Bataille, _Éloge historique de M. le Cardinal A. + H. de Fleury_ (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, _Oraison + funèbre de S.E. Mgr. le Cardinal A. H. Fleury_ (Paris, 1743); P. + Vicaire, _Oraison funèbre du Cardinal A. H. de Fleury_ (Caen, 1743); + M. van Hoey, _Lettres et négotiations pour servir à l'histoire de la + vie du Cardinal de Fleury_ (London, 1743); _Leben des Cardinals A. H. + Fleury_ (Freiburg, 1743); F. Morénas, _Parallèle du ministère du + Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury_ (Avignon, 1743); + _Nachrichten von dem Leben und der Verwaltung des Cardinals Fleury_ + (Hamburg, 1744). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 10, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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