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diff --git a/35329.txt b/35329.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b80a2ce --- /dev/null +++ b/35329.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5872 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Manual of the Antiquity of Man + +Author: J. P. MacLean + +Release Date: February 19, 2011 [EBook #35329] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.] + + + + + A MANUAL + OF THE + ANTIQUITY OF MAN. + + BY + + J. P. MACLEAN. + + "In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been." + --PROF. MAX MUeLLER. + + _REVISED EDITION._ + + BOSTON: + UNIVERSALIST PUBLISHING HOUSE, + 37 _Cornhill_, + 1877. + + + + + Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by + J. P. MACLEAN, + + In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found the minds of the +people prepared to receive the evidences, and ready to believe the +conclusions of the geologists. I have felt the need of a popular work to +place in the hands of the public, that would be both instructive and +welcome. The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too +expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to give an +outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable acquaintance +with the facts connected with the new science, to such as desire the +information but cannot pursue it further, and to serve as a manual for +those who intend to become more proficient. + +As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Race are so closely +connected with the subject, I have added the two chapters on these +questions, hoping they will be acceptable to the reader. It was my +intention to have written a more extended chapter on the relation of the +Holy Scriptures to this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had +done in other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits of +the book. + +In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's "Antiquity of +Man" and "Principles of Geology," Lubbock's "Pre-Historic Times," +Buchner's "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive +Man," Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works +of Charles Darwin, Dana's "Manual of Geology," Huxley's "Man's Place in +Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of +the Human Race," and others, referred to in the margins. + +I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cushing, for the ideal restoration +of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving was made especially for this work. +The references to Buchner are from his work entitled, "Man in the Past, +Present and Future." + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTION. + PAGE + Interest in the subject--Influence of Lyell--Usher's + Chronology--Aime Boue first to proclaim the high antiquity + of man--Dr. Schmerling the founder--Boucher de Perthes the + apostle--Classifications by Lubbock, Lartet, Renevier, and + Westropp--Plan of the work--No Universal Age of Stone, + Bronze, or Iron--Epochs not sharply defined--Outlines of + History--Superstitious Notions--Skull from Constatt--Stone + hatchet from London--Cavern of Gailenreuth--Axes from + Hoxne--Human jaw from Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr-- + "Reliquiae Diluvianae"--Discoveries by Tournal and Christol-- + Engis and Enghihoul Caverns--Schmerling's labors--Lyell's + opinions--Arrow mark on skull of Cave-Bear--Boucher de + Perthes and the Valley of the Somme--Jaw of Moulin-Quignon-- + Kent's Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Remains from the + Manzanares--Cave of Aurignac--Lyell declares his belief-- + Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland Neanderthal Skull--Caverns + near Torquay--Cave of Massat--Cave of Lourdes--Caverns of + Ariege--Tertiary at St. Prest--Implements near Gosport-- + Bones from Colmar--Implements near Bournemouth--Trou de + la Naulette--Bones near Savonia--Reindeer Station--Foreland + Cliff--Fossil Man of Mentone--Other Discoveries near Mentone. 11 + + +CHAPTER II. + +GLACIAL EPOCH. + + Starting point for the investigation--Advance of the ice-- + Fauna of Europe--Geological Period--Probable Date--Probable + Duration--Evidences of the Existence of Man--Implements from + Hampshire--Flint tools at Bournemouth--Oval flint from + Foreland Cliff--Implements from the Valley of the Somme-- + Jaw of Moulin-Quignon--Implements from the Seine--Axes + near Madrid--Kent's Hole--Brixham Cave--Human jaw from + Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr--Cave of La Naulette-- + Implements from Hoxne--Bones from Colmar. 25 + + +CHAPTER III. + +GLACIAL--CONTINUED. + + Belgian Caverns--Caverns of Liege--Engis Skull--Remarks of + Prof. Huxley--Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt-- + Neanderthal Skull--Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr. + Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull--Opinions + of Huxley, Buchner, Schaaffhausen, and Busk--Skull from the + Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of + Moen, Minsk, and Plau--Borreby Skulls--Human skulls of Arno. 44 + + +CHAPTER IV. + +PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. + + North America during the Tertiary--Europe--Climate--Fauna of + Eocene--Of Miocene--Of Pliocene--Traces of Man--Opinions of + Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace--Man in the Pliocene-- + Hearth under Osars--Human bones from Savonia--Discoveries at + St. Prest--Skull from Altaville--Prof. Denton's Statement-- + Man in the Miocene--Flints from Pontlevoy--Flint-flake from + Aurillac--Marks on bones near Pouance--Implements from + Colorado and Wyoming--Eocene--Glacial Periods during the + Miocene. 58 + + +CHAPTER V. + +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES. + + No knowledge of the first appearance of Man--Fauna of India + during the Miocene--Intellect of Man--Contests with the + Beasts--A weapon invented--Earliest type--Advancement slow-- + Climate changes--Sufferings of Man--Known by the Remains-- + Structure of the Neanderthal Man--Engis Man--Men both large + and small--Animal structure of jaws from La Naulette and + Moulin-Quignon. 63 + + +CHAPTER VI. + +INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH. + + Condition of the earth--Numerous traces of Man--Cave of + Aurignac--Conclusions of Lartet and Cartailhac--Caverns of + Maccagnone--Wokey Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Reindeer + Station on the Schusse--Dr. Buchner's Conclusions. 68 + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL. + + Length of the Inter-Glacial--Man an improvable being-- + Implements improved--Art of engraving begun--Religious + nature--Denton's description of primeval man--Language + improved. 76 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +REINDEER EPOCH. + + Advance of the Glaciers--Fauna---Reindeer epoch a distinct + one--Evidences of the existence of Man--Caves of Central and + Southern France--Implements from Les Eyzies--Relics from La + Madeleine--Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse-- + Cave and rock shelters of Bruniquel--Cave of Gourdan--Fossil + Man of Mentone--Other remains near Mentone--Other bone caves + of France--Belgian Caverns--Trou de Frontal--Trou Rosette-- + Trou des Nutons--Cave of Chaleux--Cave at Furfooz--Cave of + Thayngen--Cave near Cracow. 79 + + +CHAPTER IX. + +MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. + + Man under a more favorable aspect--Type of--Dwellings-- + Clothing--Food--Cannibalism--The Arts--Traffic--Burial-- + Dupont's Report. 89 + + +CHAPTER X. + +NEOLITHIC EPOCH. + + How characterized--Caves of this period--Contents of--Cave + of Saint Jean d'Alcas--Danish Shell-Mounds--Danish Peat + Bogs--Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland--Enumeration of-- + Robenhausen--Fauna and Flora of--Troyon and Keller on-- + Other Lake-Dwellings--Chronology. 94 + + +CHAPTER XI. + +MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC. + + Type of--Advancement--Habitations--Clothing--Food--Arts and + Manufactures--Vast number of implements discovered--War-- + Agriculture--Burial--Dolmens, Tumuli, Cromlechs, and Menhirs-- + Victims, or Cannibalism. 103 + + +CHAPTER XII. + +BRONZE EPOCH. + + No direct relation to Antiquity of Man--How characterized-- + Type--Habitation and Food--Clothing--Implements--Arts-- + Agriculture--Fishing and Navigation--Burial--Religious + Belief--Stone crescents. 108 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +IRON EPOCH. + + Civilization established--Swiss Lake-Dwellings--Dr. Keller's + Observations. 112 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA. + + Great opportunities for the Archaeologist--Aim of the chapter-- + Skull from Osage Mission--Comstock lode--Charcoal at Toronto-- + Knife from Kansas--Pelvic bone from Natchez--Skeleton from New + Orleans--Remains from the reefs of Florida--Caverns of Brazil-- + Shell Heaps--Mound-Builders--Extent of Mounds--Implements of-- + Sacrificial--Sephulchral--Temple--Symbolical--Antiquity of-- + Fort Shelby--How long the Mound-Builders remained. 114 + + +CHAPTER XV. + +WRITTEN HISTORY. + + Mystery of Ancient Empires--Rollin's difficulties--Egypt-- + Manetho's list--Statement of Herodotus--Mariette's + explorations--Borings in the mud deposits of the Nile-- + Dr. Schliemann's discoveries at Troy--History of Chaldea + by Berosus--Astronomical calculations--Chinese history-- + Mexican History. 123 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +LANGUAGE. + + A field for study--Three divisions of language--Rhematic + period--Origin of--Various theories--Change of--Views of + Ancients--Number of--Comparative permancy of written + language. 132 + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. + + Objections to the Unity of the Race--Anatomical-- + Geographical--Disparity of--Non-existence of medium types-- + Phenomena caused by two united types--Objections answered-- + Both man and animals affected by climate, food, and + condition--Examples--Argument from language--Ocean navigated + by frail crafts--Examples--Captain Tyson and party--The two + extremes exist in all nations, and even in families--People + who have retrograded--Races will amalgamate and perpetuate + their kind--Griquas--Papuas--Pitcairn Islanders--Law of + hybridity--Close affinity of the races--Slow change of. 136 + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +THE BIBLE. + + Controversy--Perversion of meaning--Men of science branded-- + Design of the chapter--Creation--"Bara"--Day--Man's + appearance--Two accounts--Case of Cain--Sons of God--Remarks + of Dr. Livingstone--Doctrine of unity of the race-- + Chronology--The Deluge--Septuagint--Monarchies--The + Dispersion--Opinion of Dr. Hedge--No supernatural aid in the + formation of Language--What God may do does not imply what + he has done--Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of Creation. 143 + + + + +A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the attention of +geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The interest was greatly +increased by the publication of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man." +This work called the attention of the public to the subject, and so +great became the interest that many volumes and memoirs have been added +to the list, discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most +part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw more light on +the subject. The scientific men were slow to take advantage of the +discoveries continually being made of the bones and works of man found +in caves and associated with the remains' of extinct animals. It is +probable, even at this late day, there would not have been so much +discussion of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of +his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to doubt the +correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and so complete has been +the revolution of opinion that it is almost impossible to find an +intelligent man who would limit the period of man's existence to 6,000 +years. + +To Aime Boue, a French geologist, must be attributed the honor of having +been the first to proclaim the high antiquity of the human race; to Dr. +Schmerling, the learned Belgian osteologist, on account of his +laborious investigations, untiring zeal, and great work on the subject, +the merited title of being the founder of the new science; to M. Boucher +de Perthes, its great apostle; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John +Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made the new theory +popular. + +The new science soon became permanently established, and the geologists +at once set about classifying the facts before them, in order to assign +to them their respective places in the geological epochs. All are agreed +in respect to the chronological orders, but all have not used the same +nomenclature, in consequence of which more or less confusion has been +the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic archaeology into four +great epochs, as follows: + +"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession of Europe with the +mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct +animals. This we may call the 'Palaeolithic' period. + +"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period characterized by +beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of +stone; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any +metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for +ornaments. This we may call the 'Neolithic' period. + +"III. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cutting +instruments of all kinds. + +"IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms, +axes, knives, etc."[1] + +These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor. + +Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification: + +I. THE STONE AGE. + +1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and mammoth). + +2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer epoch). + +3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished stone +epoch). + +II. THE METAL AGE. + +1st. The Bronze Epoch. + +2d. The Iron Epoch. + +This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his "Primitive Man," +by the Museum of Saint-Germain in that portion devoted to pre-historic +antiquities, and adhered to in essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac. + +Professor Renevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a somewhat different +scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss glaciation. It is as follows: + +"I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the +elephant (_Elephas antiquus_), rhinoceros (_R. hemitaechus_), and the +cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_). + +"II. _Glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the +mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_), +cave-bear, etc. + +"III. _Post-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the +mammoth and reindeer (_Cervus tarandus_). + +"IV. _Last Epoch_, or epoch of the _Pile-buildings_, in which man lived +cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (_Megaceros hibernicus_), aurochs +(_Bison Europaeus_)," etc.[2] + +Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his stages of +civilization, as follows: _Savagery_, _hunters_, _herdsmen_, and +_agriculturists_. + +In the following pages a somewhat different classification has been +adopted, and may be thus explained: + +I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_; that period antedating the glaciers of the +post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the animals of +the tertiary, southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_), etc. + +II. _Glacial Epoch_; that period of the post-tertiary when man was +forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the floods immediately +succeeding them, when the mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. +tichorrhinus_), cave-bear, etc., began to flourish. + +III. _Interglacial Epoch_; that period between the glacial and the +second advance of the ice, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the +animals of the preceding epoch, and the cave bear became extinct. + +IV. _Reindeer Epoch_; that period when the glaciers again advanced; in +which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of the reindeer (_C. +tarandus_), that animal having made its way in numerous herds as far +south as the Pyrenees. + +V. _Neolithic Epoch_; that period in which man polished his weapons of +stone, and sought to domesticate certain animals, the dog, etc. + +VI. _Bronze Epoch_; that period characterized by weapons and implements +being made chiefly of bronze. + +VII. _Iron Epoch_; that period in which bronze was generally superseded +by iron. + +This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that could be +devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evidences of the +existence of man in their relative geological positions. + +Other methods have misled the student. There was no universal Stone, +Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification given by Lubbock applies to +Europe, but is too general. I have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want +of a better term, although the signification of the word is appropriate +to the period it is intended to represent. + +These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one from the other; +but one merges into the other by gradual progression covering a period +of thousands of years. The growth of the various plants and animals, and +their retreat or final extinction, have also been very slow. + +An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a careful +investigation of the question, and which resolved the question into a +science, is not only one of interest but also of importance to the +careful thinker seeking information on the subject. + +Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people had so little +notion of the nature and signification of the stone axes and weapons of +earlier and later times that they were regarded with superstitious fear +and hope, and as productions of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long +time they were called thunderbolts even by the learned.... As late as +the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy of Paris that these +stones were human implements, he was laughed at, because he had not +proved that they could not have been formed in the clouds."[3] + +As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of the calcareous +tuff of Constatt, in company with the bones of the mammoth. It is +preserved in the Natural History Museum at Stuttgart. + +In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in London, by the side +of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which have been +subsequently found in great numbers in different parts of the world. +This hatchet is still preserved in the British Museum. + +In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. F. Esper discovered +some human bones mingled with the remains of extinct animals. + +In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great numbers from a +brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where they occurred at a +depth of twelve feet, mingled with the bones of extinct species of +animals. They were gathered up and thrown by basketsful upon the +neighboring road. In the year 1801, before the Society of Antiquaries, +John Frere read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they pointed +to a very remote period. This communication, short as it was, contained +the essence of all subsequent discoveries and speculations as to the +antiquity of man. But the society regarded the subject as of no +importance. + +During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hollerd, there was +found, near Maestricht, in the _loess_, a human jaw in company with the +bones of extinct animals. This bone is preserved in the museum at +Leyden. + +In 1823, Aime Boue disinterred portions of a human skeleton from ancient +undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small village nearly opposite Strasbourg. +These bones were placed in the care of Cuvier, but, having been +neglected, are now lost. + +In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, published his +"Reliquiae Diluvianae," a work principally devoted to a description of the +Kirkdale Cave. The author combined all the known facts which favored the +coexistence of man, with the extinct animals. + +In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous caverns in the +south of France. In the cavern of Bize, Tournal found human bones and +teeth, and fragments of rude pottery, together with the bones of both +living and extinct species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and +breccia, cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same +chemical condition as those of the extinct species. + +M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes, some human bones +in the same mud with the bones of an extinct hyena and rhinoceros. + +In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns of Engis and +Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found the Engis skull (now in the +museum of the University of Liege), at a depth of nearly five feet, +under an osseous breccia. The earth also contained the teeth of +rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and exhibited no marks of +disturbance. He also found the skull of a young person imbedded by the +side of a mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell +to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul he found +numerous bones belonging to three human individuals, mingled with the +bones of extinct animals. In these caves he noted rude flint +instruments, but did not collect many of them. In the care of Chokier, +he discovered a polished and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole +pierced through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have +been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains. + +Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a work which +described and represented a vast quantity of objects which had been +discovered in the Belgian caverns. The scientific men were not yet +prepared to receive the new discoveries, and it attracted but little +attention at that time. + +Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling for his +unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell has said: "To have +undertaken, in 1832, with a view of testing its truth (antiquity of +fossil human bones) to follow the Belgian philosopher through every +stage of his observations and proofs, would have been no easy task even +for one well-skilled in geology and osteology. To be let down, as +Schmerling was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide +to the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the +best-preserved human skulls were found; and, after thus gaining access +to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours through a +contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there to superintend by +torchlight, week after week and year after year, the workmen who were +breaking through the stalagmitic crust as hard as marble, in order to +remove piece by piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard; to +stand for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping from +the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position and guard against +the loss of each single bone of a skeleton; and at length, after finding +leisure, strength, and courage for all these operations, to look +forward, as the fruits of one's labor, to the publication of unwelcome +intelligence, opposed to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as +the unscientific public;--when these circumstances are taken into +account, we need scarcely wonder.... that a quarter of a century should +have elapsed before even the neighboring professors of the University +of Liege came forth to vindicate the truthfulness of their indefatigable +and clear-sighted countryman."[4] + +In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier, found in +the cave of Nabrigas (Lozere) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an +arrow had left its mark. Close by, was a fragment of pottery marked by +the finger of the moulder. + +It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of France) that +M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint-axes of the rudest form. +His explorations had been going on for a long time. He did all he could +to bring these discoveries before the public. In the year 1836 he began +to proclaim the high antiquity of man, in a series of communications +addressed to the Societe d'Emulation of Abbeville. To the same society, +in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes he had found, but without +result. In 1839, he took these hatchets to Paris, and showed them to +some of the members of the Institute. At first they gave some +encouragement toward these researches; but this favorable feeling did +not last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which has since +become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained workmen to dig in the +diluvial beds, and in a short time he had collected twenty specimens of +flint wrought by the hand of man, though in a very rude state. In 1846, +he published his first work on the subject, entitled "De l'Industrie +Primitive, ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he +published his "Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes," in which he +gave illustrations of these stone implements. This work attracted no +attention until the year 1854, when a French _savant_, named Rigollot, +made a personal examination and was successful in his search for these +relicts in the neighborhood of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C. +Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, and +other eminent scientists. + +Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was rewarded, in the year +1863, by finding the lower half of a human jaw bone, covered with an +earthy crust, which he extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at +Abbeville. A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They +were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone has been +called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved in the Museum of +Natural History at Paris. + +The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation among English +geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk went to France and +examined the locality where the bone was found. They went away satisfied +with both its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however, +doubted its authenticity; but at the present time all, or nearly all, +recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher de Perthes. + +Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in 1869, in +finding a number of human bones presenting the same character as the jaw +of Moulin-Quignon. + +In 1840, Rev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found in a cave, +called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives among the remains of +the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena, and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under +a crust of stalagmite. Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave +as early as 1825. He did not publish his notes on his discoveries but +they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they were obtained by Mr. +Vivian. + +Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geological Society in the +year 1840, states, in his description of Kent's Hole, he found works of +art in all parts of the cave. + +The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in an old volcanic +tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay, Central France, an account of +which was first published by Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who +have examined these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic +regions of Central France, declared that they believed them to have +been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in which they +are now seen. + +In the years 1845-1850, Casiano de Prado made discoveries on the banks +of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They consisted of portions of the +skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a nearly perfect skeleton of an +elephant in the diluvial sand. Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were +several flint axes of human workmanship. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. SIR CHARLES LYELL.] + +Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named Bonnemaison, in the +year 1852, accidently discovered a cave containing the remains of +seventeen human skeletons. These bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the +mayor of Aurignac, who was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the +parish cemetery. The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten, and +this treasure is now lost to science. In 1860, the cave was explored by +Edward Lartet. After a long and patient examination, he came to the +conclusion that the cave was a human burial place, cotemporary with the +mammoth and other great animals of the quaternary epoch. + +It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, that Sir +Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiquity of the human +race. He had before opposed the idea, but was convinced of the truth by +personal examination of human bones and flint hatchets, from the +quarries of St. Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations, +and, in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific +public, he published his "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man," +in 1863. In the last edition of his "Principles of Geology," he bestows +considerable space to the discussion of the subject. He was closely +followed, in the same view, by other eminent geologists. + +The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland were discovered +in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter was so dry and cold that the +water of the lakes fell far below its ordinary level. On account of +this, a large tract of ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people +throwing up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on which +stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and stone implements, +and various other relics, were discovered.[5] Dr. Keller, of Zurich, +examined the objects, and at once came to a right understanding as to +their signification. He carefully examined the remains, and described +these lake habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian +Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In 1866 these +memoirs were translated into English by J. E. Lee, together with +articles from other antiquaries, under the title of "The Lake Dwellings +of Switzerland, and other parts of Europe." This work contains +ninety-seven plates, besides many wood-cuts. + +Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time to time, been +published, but they are included in the translated work of Dr. Keller. + +The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, in the +year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near Duesseldorf, in a deep ravine +known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull, with parts of the skeleton +to which it belonged, was found under a layer of mud, about five feet in +thickness. It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfeld, Rhenish +Prussia. + +In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far from Kent's Hole. +This cave was examined by a scientific commission. At first it was +undertaken by the Royal Society, but when its grants had failed, Miss +Burdett-Coutts paid the expenses of completing the work. In this cave, +under a layer of stalagmite, were found many flint knives, associated +with the bones of extinct mammals. + +M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department of Ariege), in +1859, human teeth and utensils associated with the remains of the +cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave-lion (_Felis speloea_). + +In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of human industry +mingled with the fossil bones of animals, in the cave of Lourdes, +France. + +In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the researches which he, +in conjunction with Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of Ariege. +These explorers found the jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, +which had been wrought by the hands of man. + +In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St. Prest +(Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desnoyers found the bones of +extinct animals which were cut or notched by flint instruments. In the +same strata Abbe Bourgeois discovered implements of stone. He +communicated his discoveries to the International Congress held at Paris +in 1867. + +In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midway between Gosport and +Southampton, included in gravel from eight to twelve feet thick, capping +a cliff which at its greatest height is thirty-five feet above +high-water mark. These flint tools exactly resemble those found at +Abbeville and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore Museum +at Salisbury. + +In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, Alsace, +human bones in the same bed with bones of the mammoth, horse, stag, +auroch, and other animals. + +In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the gravel at the +top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth opening, Southampton river. +Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to the west of the valley, obtained two other +flint implements. The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867. + +Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer, in the year 1866, +found a fragment of a human jaw in the Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave +situated on the bank of the river Lesse not far from Chaleux. + +At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported he had found +several human bones in beds of Pliocene age, near Savonia, in Liguria. + +The Reindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was discovered in 1867, +during the operations undertaken for the improvement of a mill-pond. The +Schusse is a little river which flows into the lake of Constance, and +its source is upon the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of +Constance and the upper course of the Danube. + +In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint implement in gravel +at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of Wight, five miles southeast of +Ryde. + +The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1873, by M. Riviere, in a +cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was almost entire, and imbedded +twenty feet below the surface of the deposit. + +In 1873, M. Riviere discovered another human skeleton, by the side of +which lay a few unpolished stone implements, in one of the caves in the +same neighborhood. + +In 1873 and 1874, M. Riviere was again so fortunate as to discover, in +neighboring caves, the remains of three persons, two of them those of +children. The skeletons were in the same condition, and decked with +similar ornaments, as those he had previously discovered. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GLACIAL EPOCH. + + +Happily for the Archaeo-geologist, there is given him a point from which +to start in his researches into the antiquity of his race. Without it +his calculations would be very indefinite and his efforts would be shorn +of much of their interest. The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind +of both the geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may +not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages and number +the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more importance, in this +investigation, than an understanding of the condition of the earth prior +to the glacial, and the knowledge of the date and length of this epoch. + +For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been preparing itself +for the reception of man. There was an abundance of game, the forests +were beautiful, the domestic animals had made their appearance, the +climate was warm, the soil rich, and the coal had been formed. +Everything seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who +had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were fierce and +savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but a motive power to stir +man to action and develop the resources of his mind. Should he fail for +a time to overcome the wild beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow +recesses of the earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished. +The earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the +devastations of water, and now her long summer must come to an end. The +arctic regions had been growing colder and colder, and the change was +felt in the countries to the south. The northern animals were being +clothed with a hairy or woolly garment for their protection. The aspect +began to be forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy, +but foreboded he should perish along with the many species of animals +that were gradually succumbing to the cold. Great fields of ice were +slowly accumulating at both the poles, and at last, by the power of +their great weight, assisted by some geographical changes, began to move +toward the equator, crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either +driving before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their +relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The mountains groaned +under the enormous weight of ice. Their heads were scarred, their sides +bruised, torn and cut. The icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of +earth, the lowing of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed +before the sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal +heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The northern ice +was broken up by the time it reached latitude 39 deg. North America, leaving +its indelible traces in the bowlders, gravel, beds of sand and clay +which mark its course. In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south +as Spain and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions extended as +far as latitude 41 deg. south. + +_Fauna of Europe._--Among the Fauna may be mentioned the gigantic +elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now +exist, which roamed in herds over England, and extended across the +Siberian plains and from Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned +rhinoceroses wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests. +Hippopotamuses inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear, +which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave-tiger, twice +as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the animals of less strength +than themselves. Troops of hyenas, larger than those of South America, +disputed with other beasts of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and +leopard found retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable +carnivorous animal called _Machairodus_, about the size of a tiger, and +from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth, must have been a very +destructive creature. The lemming and the musk ox found a home, and the +wild horse pranced about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great +Irish elks swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been very +numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs and +marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there was also a species of +gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant, that subsisted on the +plains. All these animals followed the retreat of the glaciers and some +of them were in close proximity to the ice. + +_Geological Period._--The glacial epoch occurred during the geological +period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary had gradually passed +away and its time had been recorded on the pages of geological history. +A new epoch began to dawn. This was the epoch of ice, the birth and +almost the childhood of the post-tertiary. + +_Probable Date._--In discussing the probable date of the glacial epoch, +Sir Charles Lyell says, "The attempt to assign a chronological value to +any of our geological periods except the latest, must, in the present +state of science, be hopeless. Nevertheless, independently of all +astronomical considerations, it must, I think, be conceded that the +period required for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its +duration when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was +subject, as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the 'great thaw' or +disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where the snow was once +perpetual, required not tens but hundreds of thousands of years. Less +time would not suffice for the changes in physical geography and organic +life of which we have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not +appear startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have been +two hundred thousand years ago, although this date must be considered +as very conjectural, and one which may be as likely to err in deficiency +of time as in excess."[6] + +Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations made by Mr. +Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers in excavating valleys +and lowering the general level of the country, says, "As regards the +higher districts, however, his data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we +apply them to the valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two +hundred feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the +palaeolithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hundred and forty +thousand years."[7] + +Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says, in speaking +of the time required to excavate the gorge of Niagara River, that "on +both sides of the gorge near the whirlpool, and also at Goat Island, +there are beds of recent lake shells ... the same kinds that live in +still water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found in +the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters, when these +beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirlpool. A tooth of a +mastodon (_M. giganteus_) has been found in the same beds. This locates +the time in the Champlain epoch.... Six miles of the gorge have been +excavated since that mastodon was alive.... + +"There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool through the +Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of Lewiston. This +valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch, and this blocking up +of the channel may have compelled it to open a new passage. + +"If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we can ascertain +the probable rate of progress, we may approximate to the length of time +it required. Hall and Lyell estimated the average rate at one foot a +year,--which is certainly large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of +the falls, that it was 'more nearly three feet a century than three feet +a year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will have +required over thirty-one thousand years; if at one inch a year--which is +eight and one third feet a century--three hundred and eighty thousand +years."[8] + +The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch. As this epoch +was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be either thrown still +farther back, or else allow the calculations to begin with the end of +the glacial. + +_Probable Duration._--Lyell has attempted to form an estimate of the +duration of the glacial epoch by considering "the most simple series of +changes in physical geography which can possibly account for the +phenomena of the glacial period," and enumerates as follows: + +"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the forest of +Cromer flourished; when the land was at least five hundred feet above +its present level, perhaps much higher, and its extent probably greater +than that given in the map, Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the +British Isles are connected with one another, and with the +continent--the German Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry +land). + +"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the +Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was gradually reduced +to an archipelago; and finally to such a general prevalence of sea as is +seen in map, Fig. 39." (This map is intended to represent the British +Isles as they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged to two +thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one thousand three hundred +feet.) "This was the period of submergence and of floating ice, when the +Scandinavian flora, which occupied the lower grounds during the first +continental period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only +lands not covered with perpetual snow. + +"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial sea, +with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when the +quantity of land equalled that of the first period.... During this +period there were glaciers in the higher mountains of Scotland and +Wales.... + +"The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand four hundred +feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require fifty-six thousand +years, at the rate of two and a half feet per century; but taking +Professor Ramsay's estimate of eight hundred feet more, that depression +being required for the deposition of some of the stratified drift, we +must demand an additional period of thirty-two thousand years, amounting +in all to eighty-eight thousand; and the same time would be required for +the reelevation of the tract to its present height. But if the land rose +in the second continental period no more than six hundred above the +present level ... this ... would have taken another twenty-six thousand +years; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the submergence +and reemergence, having taken, in round numbers, two hundred and +twenty-four thousand years for its completion; and this, even if there +were no pause or stationary period, when the downward movement ceased, +and before it was converted into an upward one."[9] + +Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet per century is +a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and there are cases where the +change is even six feet a century, yet the average rate of motion, he +thinks, will not exceed that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock +believes most geologists will agree.[10] + +By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon which a +calculation can be made as to the time when this epoch began. At the +time of the most intense cold the eccentricity of the earth's orbit +was .0575; the difference in millions of miles between the greatest and +least distances of the earth from the sun 10-1/2; the number of days by +which winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in +perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest summer month in +the latitude of London when the summer occurs in perihelion, 113 deg.; the +mean temperature of the coldest winter month in the latitude of London +when the winter occurs in aphelion, 0 deg. 7'. Sixty thousand years later +the eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332; the difference of +distance in millions of miles was 6; number of winter days in +excess, 16.1; mean of hottest month in latitude of London, 95 deg., and mean +of coldest month 12 deg.. It is evident then at this time (one hundred and +fifty thousand years ago) a "great thaw" had taken place and the +glaciers driven back, although fifty thousand years later less intense +cold set in again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great +thaw" from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme point to have +been two hundred and ten thousand years ago, then one hundred and eighty +thousand years ago the glaciers had become so broken up as to allow +vegetation to spring up in many localities, and the wild beasts to +partially reassert their dominion. If to this be added the time required +for the duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four +thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumulate was four +hundred and four thousand years ago. But if the tables of Mr. Croll be +correct, their beginning could not have been earlier than three hundred +and fifty thousand years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit +varied but little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand +years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.[11] + +During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have melted very +rapidly,[12] for great rivers were formed, and the water pouring down +its icy bed sought other streams, and on the bosom of the earth swept +away loose sediment, depositing it along the course of rivers and in +caves of the earth, covering the remains of man along with those of +animals that perished during the long winter of ice. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. STREAM ISSUING FROM A GLACIER.] + +_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--The traces of man in the deposits +made during the glacial epoch are numerous. Out of the many, the most +noted will be given, with a view to their chronological order. + +In all probability the very oldest implements of the post-tertiary, and +consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch, if not of the pliocene, +are those found in the south of Hampshire, between Gosport and +Southampton. They came from a tabular mass of drift which caps the +tertiary strata. "The great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary +strata, in which these implements have been found, consists in most +places of half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded +pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata.... Many of them exhibit the +same colors and ochreous stain as do the flints in the gravel in which +they lay." + +West of the Southampton estuary, "on both sides of the opening at +Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have been met with in the +gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel from which the flint tool was +taken at Bournemouth is about one hundred feet above the level of the +sea.... The gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from +tertiary strata." + +The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top of the Foreland +cliff "is of the true palaeolithic type, and the gravel in which it is +imbedded at the height of about eighty feet above the level of the sea, +may have once extended to the cliffs near Gosport; in which case we +should have to infer that the channel called the Solent had not yet +been scooped out when this region was inhabited by palaeolithic man."[13] + +It may be safely inferred that the implements in the above three +enumerations were imbedded at about the same time. + +The flint implements from the valley of the Somme, which have been of so +much interest, and convinced so many sceptical geologists, belong to the +early part of this epoch. This valley may be represented by Fig. 3. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. SECTION ACROSS THE SOMME IN PICARDY. + + 1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, _a_. + + 2. Lower level gravel, with elephants' bones and flint tools + covered with fluviatile loam, twenty to forty feet thick. + + 3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam. + In all thirty feet thick. + + 4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick. + + 5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches.] + +In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that No. 2 +indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher ones, which are +from eighty to one hundred feet above the river. Of a later date than +these is the peat, No. 1, which is from ten to thirty feet in thickness. +Underneath the peat is a bed of gravel, _a_, from three to fourteen feet +thick, resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and the peat +is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of the valley of the +Somme is a pretty fair representation of the arrangements of the +different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and and St. Acheul. + +In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked by 2 and 3. +The two are separated by a layer of fresh-water deposits, which contains +river shells and is sometimes as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower, +or gray diluvium, (No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the +glaciers of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immediately +upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint hatchets, together +with the bones of the mammoth and fossil rhinoceros. + +In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, the following +figure is given. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4. SECTION OF A GRAVEL-PIT AT ST. ACHEUL. + + 1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick. + + 2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few + angular flints. + + 3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and + fresh-water shells, covered with a thin layer of angular gravel + from one to two feet thick. + + 4. A bed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled + tertiary pebbles. In this bed the flint implements are chiefly + found--ten to fourteen feet thick. + + 5. Formation of chalk. + _a._ Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface. + _b._ Entire molar of mammoth (_E primigenius_), seventeen feet + from surface. + _c._ Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface. + _d._ Gravel projecting five feet.] + +At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of flint +implements. Some of them have the shape of a spear-head, and are over +seven inches in length. The oval-shaped hatchets are so rude in some +instances as to require a practised eye to decide their human origin. In +the same bed are found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the +centre. Dr. Rigollot has suggested that these perforated stones or +gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung together as beads. + +In this bed, No. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was found a +mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth, in densely compressed +gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an oval form. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ST. ACHEUL. + + Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches + long. + + _a._ Side view. + _b._ Same seen edgewise. + + "These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number, + proportionally to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St. + Acheul, than in any of the lower gravels in the valley of the + Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates, especially at + Abbeville."--_Antiquity of Man_, p. 114.] + +That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown, not only from +the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also from the great blocks of +hard sandstone, some of which are over four feet in diameter. These +large fragments not only abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and +lower level gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but +they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old diluvium occurs. +All of these sandstones have been derived from the tertiary strata which +once covered the chalk. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ABBEVILLE. + + _a._ Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half + size of original, which is five and a half inches long, from + a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio-marine stratum. + + _b._ Same seen edgewise. + + _c._ Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point + _a_, or near the top. This portion of the tool, _c_, is drawn + of the natural size, the black central part being the unaltered + flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed + by discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made. + + The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first + shaped, and the bleaching to such a depth must have been the + work of time, whether produced by exposure to the sun and air + before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep in the + soil.--_Antiquity of Man._] + +As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the same as those of +St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what has already been said will +apply to them. These implements have been found in these localities in +great numbers, as several thousand of them already taken from the beds +will amply testify. + +From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes, at Abbeville, +and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the celebrated human bone +known as the _jaw_ of Moulin-Quignon. It was cotemporary with the axes, +and undoubtedly some of the flint implements there found were fashioned +by the man of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part. + +This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as displaying "a +tendency toward the animal structure in the shortness and breadth of the +ascending ramus (the perpendicular portion of the lower jaw), the equal +height of the two apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a +continuous part of the body of the bone), the indication of prognathism +(projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse angle at which the ramus +joins the body of the bone.[14] + +Near the same locality other human bones were discovered Which presented +the same characteristics. + +Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint implements could be +found in the valley of the Seine, in beds similar to those of Abbeville, +the antiquaries were soon rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction +was fulfilled. M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of +implements in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains +of animals of that period. + +The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is very similar to +those of Abbeville. "First, vegetable soil; then about twenty-five feet +of sand and pebbles, under which was a layer of sandy loam, in which, +during the year 1850, a complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered. +Underneath this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in which +some flint axes, very closely resembling those of Amiens, have been +discovered."[15] + +The remains of man are also preserved in caverns associated with the +fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, cave-bear, +and other extinct quadrupeds. Among these should be noticed Kent's Hole, +which has furnished a mine of wealth. Of his discoveries Godwin-Austen +says: "Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and knives of +flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout the entire +thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded on condition, +distribution, or relative position can be observed, whereby the human +can be separated from the other reliquiae," which included bones of the +mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_), cave-bear +(_Ursus spelaeus_), cave-hyena (_H. spelaeus_), and other mammalia. These +researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had never been +disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance, were procured from +undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick covering of stalagmite; and +all these must have been introduced before the stalagmite flooring had +been formed.[16] These specimens of man's handicraft were found far +below the stalagmite floor.[17] Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brixham +Cave. The following gives the general succession of deposits forming the +contents of the cavern: + +1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches in +thickness. + +2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to fifteen feet in +thickness. + +3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet in depth. + +In the second layer there were found the remains of the mammoth, +rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, reindeer, and seven other +species. Indiscriminately mixed with these bones were found many flint +knives, but chiefly from the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth, +varying in depth from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of +these cannot be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no +other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was +discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every bone in +its natural position. From the bone earth there were taken fifteen +knives, recognized, by the experienced antiquaries, as having been +artificially formed. In the lowest gravel, underlying all, there were +found imperfect specimens of flint knives. The fine layer of mud was +deposited by the slow but regular action of water. Since these layers +were formed the stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its +former level.[18] + +On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are terraces of +gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on the left bank, one of +these terraces projects into the alluvial plain of the Meuse. During the +construction of the canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty +feet. The upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty feet +of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks, and bones of +elephants, together with those of other mammalia, and a human lower jaw +with teeth, were found in or near this gravel. The human jaw was at a +depth of nineteen feet from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam, +beneath a stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the +gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was intact and had +never been disturbed. But the jaw was somewhat isolated, and the nearest +fossil object was the tusk of an elephant six yards distant, though on a +horizontal plane. This fossil is probably older than that discovered at +Lahr. It was probably covered just before the gush of the water when it +first began to flow from the gorges and had washed the ground at some +distance from the ice.[19] + +The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the Rhine, near Lahr, +was found in nearly a horizontal position, but in such a manner as to +forbid the idea of sepulchre. These bones were exhumed from a +perpendicular cliff of solid loess, about five feet high. The town of +Lahr is situated four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the +Rhine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the Schutter, +flowing from the Black Forest. + +In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the the loess is two +hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty feet above the Schutter. At +Lahr it has been denuded so as to form a succession of terraces on the +right bank. It was in the lowest of these from which the skeleton was +taken. Immediately below this bed there were found pebbles, and still +lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of sandstone +and gneiss from the Black Forest. + +There are several interesting facts connected with this discovery. M. +Boue considers that the loess of the Lahr is continuous with that of the +Rhine, and before the loess had been denuded there was not less than +eighty feet of loamy deposit above the human skeleton. The glaciers had +deposited their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melting of +them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then when the torrents +poured forth from the glaciers the loam was formed without the pebbles. +The unfortunate man, whose remains were found, was buried far beneath +the surface, during the very first part of the course of the violent +streams pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then on +the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim while on the +chase.[20] + +The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone similar to the +Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a river deposit of loam covered with +a layer of stalagmite, and at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface. +Associated with it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired +rhinoceros, and flint implements. These implements present the same type +as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a human ulna, two +human teeth, and a fragment of a worked reindeer born. This jaw-bone is +very thick, round in form, and the projection of the chin is almost +entirely absent. The chin is said to hold an intermediate position +between that of the animals and those of the present race of men. The +cavities for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one of +the most remarkable things is that the three molars are reversed, that +is the first true molar is the smallest, and the last the largest. The +inner surface of the jaw at the point of the suture or symphysis, forms +a line obliquely directed upwards. Taking the jaw all in all, it is the +most ape-like human jaw ever discovered.[21] + +The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three different layers +or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a half in depth. The second +was clay, seven and a half feet thick. The third, a bed of sand, with +shells one foot in thickness. The fourth layer, containing the +implements was a bed of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these +flints was so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and +thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account of the great +number, this spot might have been the place where they were +manufactured. Their date is not coeval with the bowlder clay, but +undoubtedly belong, to the last of this epoch. + +The human bones found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, were two +fossilized fragments of the skull. They were found in undisturbed soil +along with the fossil bones of the extinct species of mammoth, horse, +gigantic deer, aurochs, and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull +"showed a depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches, +and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called _dolichocephalic_, +or long-headed form."[22] These remains date so near the end of the +glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GLACIAL EPOCH--CONTINUED. + + +_Belgian Caverns._--The relics discovered by Dr. Schmerling, in the +caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time of the retreat of the +glaciers. The glaciers were still in existence, but their receding had +freed immense tracts of land, and the space they now covered was small +in proportion to their former extent. Whether it be considered or not, +that vegetation greatly nourished and the great wild beasts were rapidly +increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is, floods must have +succeeded or followed closely upon the retreat of the ice. Many remains, +referred to the glacial epoch, may in reality, have occupied the time of +the floods occurring just previous to the commencement of the +inter-glacial. + +The Belgian Caverns, near Liege, either belong exactly to the ice, or +else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers the older monuments of +the palaeolithic period to be the rude implements found in ancient river +gravel and in the mud and stalagmite caves.[23] Caves of this +description are those reported on by Dr. Schmerling. + +The caverns of the province of Liege were not the dens of wild beasts, +but their contents had been swept in by the action of water. The bones +of man "were of the same color, and in the same condition as to the +amount of animal matter contained in them, as those of the accompanying +animals, some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and +rhinoceros, were extinct; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild boar, +roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils were lighter +than fresh bones, except such as had their pores filled with carbonate +of lime, in which case they were often much heavier. The human remains +of most frequent occurrence were teeth detached from the jaw, and the +carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones separated +from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding bones of the cave-bear, +the most abundant of the accompanying mammalia, were also found in the +Liege caverns more commonly than any others, and in the same scattered +condition."[24] In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a +triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud. Dr. +Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he was engrossed in +his osteological inquiries. The human bones were met with at all depths, +in the cave mud and gravel, both above and below those of the extinct +mammalia. + +The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalagmite.[25] In the +cavern at Chokier there occur "three distinct beds of stalagmite, and +between each of them a mass of breccia, and mud mixed with quartz +pebbles, and in the three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds."[26] + + +FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE. + +The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited at a depth of +about five feet, under an osseous breccia containing a tusk of the +rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the remains of small animals. +The breccia was about three and one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the +height of about five feet above the floor of the cavern. In the earth +which contained the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides, +the teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no marks +of the earth having been disturbed. + +There was also found the cranium of a young person, in the floor of the +cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. When first observed, the skull was +entire, but fell to pieces when removed from its position. Besides these +there were found a fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar +teeth worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man; two +vertebrae, a first and last dorsal; a clavicle of the left side, +belonging to a young individual of great stature; two fragments of the +radius, indicating a man of ordinary height; a fragment of an ulna: some +metacarpal bones; six metatarsal, three phalanges of the hand and one of +the foot. + +Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone implement incrusted +with stalagmite and joined to a stone. + +Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As Professor +Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed, and the facial +bones are entirely absent; but the roof of the cranium, consisting of +the frontal, parietal, and the greater part of the occipital bones, as +far as the middle of the occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The +left temporal bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the +immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mastoid process, and +a considerable portion of the squamous element of the temporal, are well +preserved." + +A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to have missed, +has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium by Dr. Spring, the +accomplished anatomist of Liege. + +"The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man. The extreme +length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme breadth, which +corresponds very nearly with the interval between the parietal +protuberances, is not more than 5.4 inches. The proportion of the length +to the breadth is therefore very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn +from the point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the nose, +and which is called the 'glabella' (_a_, Fig. 8), to the occipital +protuberance (_d_), and the distance to the highest point of the arch of +the skull be measured perpendicularly from this line, it will be +found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed from above, the forehead presents an +evenly rounded curve, and passes into the contour of the sides and back +of the skull, which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7. PROFESSOR T. H. HUXLEY.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOUND IN THE CAVE + OF ENGIS. + + _a._ Superciliary ridge and glabella. + _b._ Coronal suture. + _d._ The occipital protuberance.] + +"The front view shows that the roof of the skull was very regularly and +elegantly arched in the transverse direction, and that the transverse +diameter was a little less below the parietal protuberances, than above +them. The forehead cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of +the skull, nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the contrary, +the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so that the +distance along that contour, from the nasal depression to the occipital +protuberance, measures about 13.75 inches. The transverse arc of the +skull, measured from one auditory foramen to the other, across the +middle of the sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture +itself is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow-ridges +(_a_) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are separated by a +median depression. Their principal elevation is disposed so obliquely +that I judge them to be due to large frontal sinuses. If a line joining +the glabella and the occipital protuberance (_a_, _d_, Fig. 8) be made +horizontal, no part of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth +of an inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper +edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line drawn +parallel with this upon the outer surface of the skull."[27] + +Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at variance with +those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock reports him as saying, "There +is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure. It is, in +fact, a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a +philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a +savage."[28] Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor +Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead was somewhat +narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by the skulls of individuals of +European race."[29] + +Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against Huxley. The first +says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that this cranium has belonged to a +person of limited intellectual faculties, and we conclude thence that it +belonged to a man of a low degree of civilization."[30] "From the +narrowness of the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small +intellectual development."[31] Buchner says, "In its length and +narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of the widely +separated orbits and the well developed supra-orbital arches, it +resembles, especially when viewed from above, the celebrated Neanderthal +skull, but in general is far superior to this in its structure."[32] +Carl Vogt "regards it, with reference to the proportion of length to +breadth, as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of +skulls."[33] + +The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise from the failure +to observe the fact that the older the formation in which a skull is +found, the lower is the type. The ordinary observer, judging by the cast +of the skull, would see nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would +fail to see any indications of a philosopher. + + +NEANDERTHAL SKULL. + +The Neanderthal skull was taken from a small cave or grotto in-the +valley of the Duessel, near Duesseldorf, situated about seventy miles +north-east of the region of the Liege caverns. The grotto is in a deep +ravine sixty feet above the river, one hundred feet below the surface of +the country, and at a distance of about ten feet from the Duessel River. +It is fifteen feet deep from the entrance (_f_), which is seven or eight +feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it opened upon a narrow +plateau lying in front. The floor of the cave was covered four or five +feet in thickness with a deposit of mud or loam, and containing some +rounded fragments of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit, +first noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in met +with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded as of any +importance, at the time of their discovery, only the larger ones have +been preserved. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9. SECTION OF THE NEANDERTHAL CAVE. + + _a._ Cavern sixty feet above the Duessel, and one hundred feet + below the surface of the country at _c_. + + _b._ Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which + the human skeleton was found. + + _c_, _a_. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the + country. + + _d._ Superficial sandy loam. + + _e._ Devonian limestone. + + _f._ Terrace, or ledge of rock.] + +Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological time of these +bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the mud or loam in which the +skeleton was found, and no other bones met with save the tusk of a bear. +There is no certain data given whereby its position may be known. +Professor Huxley declares that the bones "indicate a very high +antiquity."[34] Buchner is very positive in his statement, and declares +that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves of the Neanderthal +and the clefts and fissures of its limestone mountains, and in which +both the Neanderthal bones and the fossil bones and teeth of animals +were imbedded, is exactly the same that, in the caverns of the +Neanderthal, covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten +to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which is +unmistakable."[35] Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and general +arrangement of the locality in which they were found, place it, in my +judgment, beyond doubt that the bones belong to the diluvium, and +therefore to primitive times, _i. e._ they come down to us from a period +of the past when our native country was still inhabited by various kinds +of animals, especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since +disappeared out of the series of living creatures."[36] + +The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is still further +confirmed by the discoveries made, in the summer of 1865, in the +Teufelskammer. This cavern is situated one hundred and thirty paces from +the one in which the human bones were found, and on the same side of the +river.. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous fossil +bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, and other +extinct animals. "A great part of these bones, especially those of the +cave-bears, agree in color, weight, density, and the preservation of +their microscopic structure, with the human bones found in the +Feldhofner Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both are +covered with the same _dendrites_, or tree-like markings."[37] + +Before entering into a description and discussion of this remarkable +skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be given. All the bones +are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great development +of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The +two thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus and +radius; the upper third of the right ulna; the left ulna complete, +though pathologically deformed, the coronoid process being so much +enlarged by bony growth that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle +was impossible; the left humerus is much slenderer than the right, and +the upper third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the +coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at the same time, +the olecranon process is curved strongly downwards. The indications are +that an injury sustained during life was the cause of this defect. There +was an ilium, almost perfect; a fragment of the right scapula; the +anterior extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder portions +and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the ribs of a carnivorous +animal than those of man. This abnormal condition has arisen from the +powerful development of the thoracic muscles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FROM FELDHOFNER + CAVE, IN THE NEANDERTHAL, NEAR DUeSSELDORF. + + _a._ The superciliary ridge and glabella. + _c._ The apex of the lambdoidal suture. + _b._ The coronal suture. + _d._ The occipital protuberance.] + +The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. "It has an extreme +length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 5-3/4 inches, or in other +words, its length is to its breadth as 100 is to 72. It is exceedingly +depressed, measuring only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital +line to the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way as in +the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc cannot be exactly +ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the temporal bones, but +was probably about the same, and certainly exceeded 10-1/4 inches. The +horizontal circumference is 23 inches. But this great circumference +arises largely from the vast development of the superciliary ridges, +though the perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large +superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating appearance +than its internal contour would bear out. To an anatomical eye the +posterior part of the skull is even more striking than the anterior. The +occipital protuberance occupies the extreme posterior end of the skull, +when the glabello-occipital line is made horizontal, and so far from any +part of the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the +skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lambdoidal suture +is situated well upon the upper surface of the cranium. At the same +time, notwithstanding the great length of the skull, the sagittal suture +is remarkably short (4-1/2 inches) and the squamosal suture is very +straight."[38] ... "The cranium, in its present condition, contains +about sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire skull +could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches more, its minimum +capacity may be estimated at seventy-five cubic inches.... It has +certainly not undergone compression, and, in reply to the suggestion +that the skull is that of an idiot, it may be urged that the _onus +probandi_ lies with those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible +with very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know of +none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal skull."[39] + +Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape-like of all the +human skulls he has ever seen, and in its examination ape-like +characters are met with in all its parts.[40] Buchner says that the face +of the Neanderthal man must have presented a frightfully bestial and +savage, or ape-like expression (see frontispiece).[41] Professor +Schaaffhausen and Mr. Busk have stated that "this skull is the most +brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of the apes not only +in the prodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the +forward extension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form +of the brain-case, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in +the complete retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the +superior occipital ridges."[42] + +Professor Schaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this skull as a +race-type, and Professor Huxley has said "that it truly forms only the +extreme member of a series leading by slow degrees to the highest and +best developed forms of human skulls."[43] + +That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact that it is not +an isolated case. The fragment of the skull from the loess of the Rhine +(Alsace), by its depressed forehead and strongly projecting superciliary +arches, greatly resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the +calcareous tuff of Constatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong +superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal.[44] The cranium found in +bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar), "resembles, in all +essential particulars, including its great thickness, the far-famed +Neanderthal skull. Its discovery adds immensely to the scientific value +of the Neanderthal specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not +represent, as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual +peculiarity, but that it may have been characteristic of a race +extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules."[45] In speaking of +the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaaffhausen says, "It is worthy of +notice that a similar, although smaller projection of the superciliary +arches has generally been found in the skulls of savage races.... The +remarkably small skull from the graves on the island of Moen, examined +by Professor Eschricht; the two human skulls, described by Dr. Kutorga, +from the government of Minsk (Russia), one of which, especially, shows a +great resemblance to the Neanderthal skull; the human skeleton found +near Plau, in Mecklenburg, in a very ancient grave, in a squatting +position, ... the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when +man stood on a very low grade of development;" and other similar +discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls likewise presenting short, +retreating foreheads and projecting eyebrows.[46] + +Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, belonging to the +stone age of Denmark, "show a great resemblance to the Neanderthal +skull, a resemblance which is manifested in the depression of the +cranium, the receding forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent +superciliary ridges."[47] + +_Human Skull of Arno._--The human skull, found by Professor Cocchi in +the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in diluvial clay, together with +various bones of extinct species of animals, is considered by Carl Vogt +to be of like antiquity with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls.[48] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. + + +The age immediately preceding the glacial, and consequently the +post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch, the last of the tertiary. + +The tertiary period began with the close of the cretaceous. A map of the +early tertiary period would represent parts of Maryland, Virginia, the +Carolinas, Georgia, the whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama, +Mississippi, Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory +on both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with +water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and the western part +of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly course until it emptied into the +Pacific. In Europe, the great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of +chalk), the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium, +Holland, Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern Russia, +as one vast sheet of water. England and France were connected by a band +of rocks. + +About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and tropical fauna +and flora spread over the whole of Europe. Palms, cedars, laurels, and +cinnamon trees flourished in the valleys of Switzerland, and more than +thirty different species of oak adorned the forests of that time. + +In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty species of +crocodiles; many species of snakes, one twenty feet long; a dozen +species of birds; tapirs (_Palaeothere_ and _Lophiodon_), two species of +hogs, some ruminants and rodents. + +In the miocene, among _Pachyderms_ may be mentioned the mastodon, +elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhinoceros, hog, horse, +tapir, and hippopotamus; among _Carnivores_, the machairodus, hyena, +lion, and dog; among _Ruminants_, the camel, deer, and antelope. There +were monkeys, and many other animals. + +In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the bear, hare, and +other animals. + +In the tertiary beds of America have been found mastodons, elephants, +rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves, horses, whales, and other +mammalia. + +Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected that many traces +of man will be discovered in this early period. + +Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable that man lived +in the pliocene; but in relation to miocene time, he says, "Had some +other rational being, representing man, then flourished, some signs of +his existence could hardly have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of +implements of stone or metal, more frequent and more durable than the +osseous remains of any of the mammalia."[49] Sir J. Lubbock, while +admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther and says, +"If man constitutes a separate family of mammalia, as he does in the +opinion of the highest authorities, then, according to all +palaeontological analogies, he must have had representatives in miocene +times. We need not, however, expect to find the proofs in Europe; our +nearest relatives in the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to +tropical climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely +to find the earliest traces of the human race."[50] Alfred R. Wallace +out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says, "We are enabled to +place the origin of man at a much more remote geological epoch than has +yet been thought possible. He may even have lived in the miocene or +eocene period, when not a single mammal was identical in form with any +existing species."[51] + +Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of geologists have +settled the question of tertiary man; and the "signs of his existence," +in the "shape of implements of stone," as demanded by Lyell, have been +furnished. + +_Man in the Pliocene._--It has already been intimated that the evidences +of man are but few in this early epoch. The first example, in the +following list, borders closely on the glacial, but far enough removed +as to be referred to the pliocene. + +In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and Gothenburg it was +necessary to cut through one of those hills called _osars_, or erratic +blocks, which were deposited by the drift-ice during the glacial epoch. +Beneath an immense accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there +was discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about +sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the middle +of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than that of man could +have performed the work.[52] + +In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of Savonia in +Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which presented all the +physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr. Buchner is of the opinion +that before these bones can be employed as satisfactory evidence they +must have a more accurate test by scientific authorities.[53] + +In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Desnoyers found +traces of human action on the bones of animals belonging to the +tertiary. These fractures are analogous to those of human action +observed on bones from the glacial period, and identical with those made +by northern tribes of the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The +marked bones found were those of the Southern elephant (_E. +meridionalis_), rhinoceros (_R. leptorinus_), hippopotamus major, +several species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states that this +discovery is not only genuine, but also, the formation in which the +bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is further characterized by +the presence of the southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_). As this +elephant became extinct before the glacial age, the bones consequently +precede the glacial, and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and +tichorrhine rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages, +confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.[54] + +The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a doubt by the more +recent discoveries of Abbe Bourgeois. In the same tertiary strata of St. +Prest, in which were found the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois +discovered worked flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers.[55] + +A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by James Matson, at +Altaville, in Calaveras county, California, at a depth of one hundred +and thirty feet, under five beds of gravel separated by five layers of +lava, associated with the bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and +horse. The base of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and +small pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles that of +the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness.[56] + +_Man in the Miocene._[57]--M. Bourgeois has found, in a stratum of +miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints, and other flints which +have been subjected to the action of heat. These works of man were +associated with the remains of the acerotherium (an extinct species +allied to the rhinoceros), and beneath five distinct beds, one of which +contained the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium.[58] + +M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship in the miocene +beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with the remains of _dinotherium +giganteum_, and _machaerodus latidens_.[59] + +M. Bourgeois reports that Abbe Delaunay had found near Pouance +(Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a _halitherium_ (an herbivorous +cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of having been operated +upon by cutting instruments.[60] + +In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming territories, +chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and wrought shells have been +found.[61] + +_Eocene._--As yet geologists have failed to discover any traces of man +in the Eocene epoch. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES. + + +Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no precise +knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of his birth is generally +supposed to be in Central Asia. There the geologist looks with a longing +eye, and hopes ultimately to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the +birth-place of his race, but also, how or through what natural process +he sprang into existence. + +If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and Central Asia +the place of his nativity, then he was ushered upon the scene of life +during the period of, and surrounded by, the numerous fauna of India, At +this time her mammalia included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven +species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species), horse +(three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species), hog (three +species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephantine stag, having four +horns and supposed to have had the bulk of an elephant and greater +height), antelope, musk-deer, sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium, +porcupine, species of hyena, lion, and many others. + +It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties were ordinarily +developed, as it would not be natural to suppose he was superior to that +of later times. Judging from the remains of later times, man could have +been but very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose +that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence. His food +must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits of the tree, possibly +with an occasional morsel of raw meat. His pillow was a stone, his +retreat a cave or the boughs of a wide-spreading tree, and his clothing +a natural coat of hair. + +In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might seem to be of +short duration. Providence has ordered all things wisely. Placed low in +the scale of life--brutal, selfish, prowling, yet cautious--man, by the +very force of circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his +mind. With the elephant and the mastodon he could not cope nor would +they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he might fall a prey. From +these he could flee, and find a shelter in the tops of the trees or some +secure fastness of the earth. Learning his own strength by experience, +he would venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly +foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident, that a club +was a powerful weapon with which to beat back his fierce opponent. +Gradually he came to learn that a sharp flint driven into the end of a +club was a safer and more deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an +unequal contest. + +The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength, developed +his muscular system. His muscles became large and tough, and his bones +thick and heavy. The earliest type of man is generally supposed to be +_dolichocephalic_, or long-headed. The walls of the skull were thick, +and the crown low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and +of great power. His make-up was the result of his surroundings. + +His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire length of the +miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable. There was no revolution +in his mind; one step in advance would have been a mighty leap. Nor +could it be expected that there should be rapid progress. The mind was +brutal; and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a mighty +change. The tropical climate should change into a winter of snow and +ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited by the new danger. His +sluggish mind should be quickened, and the inventive genius should be +called into action. The sun no longer could give its heat. The forests +grew cold, the chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in +the cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either dying of +cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair, and retreating +before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly looked about him. He +suffered greatly, and his numbers grew less. Fire had been produced. +How, no one can tell; possibly by accident. He now became more careful +of the fire, and with brand in hand he went from place to place kindling +the fires at the various resting-places. Nor was this sufficient. His +ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent. Colder and colder grew the +winds. The snow, coming in great flakes, was soon consolidated, and +became as ice. The body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had, +and this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must assist +in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen animals would not +alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives must be invented. From the +flint rude knives were fashioned, by means of which the skins were +removed and transferred to the bodies of men. But the long winter +continuing, the lives of the living animals must be forfeited, both for +the flesh and and the skins. Rude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were +produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and cook, and rude rafts +formed, by means of which the swelling rivers might be crossed. Then +those stone hatchets of the Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose. + +Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the perils of +ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not content with his +conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is aroused against his +fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly upon each other, the blood +flows freely, the bones give way, and the weaker one has succumbed. +There are fierce contentions over the common prey, and the strong impose +upon the weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in +communities; and the more daring--the hunters--having their common +places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie with each other in +feats of prowess. + +During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have remained +unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude stone weapons. His +time was spent, for the most part, in self-preservation. He was +retreating before, yet bounding over, the frozen flood in pursuit of +game. This experience must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers +began to recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those +stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They served against +the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and would be of great service in +the ages yet to come. By a little remodelling they could be used to +greater advantage; and this change of shape was accomplished, and other +uses of flint were made known. + +Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended by the relics of +the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale which any anatomist may +read, and even one not well skilled in the art. The primitive type is no +mystery, and those fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone +times. + +The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its structure is animal. +Its history agrees with the generally received idea of primitive man as +conceived by the geologist. The illustration (frontispiece) presents him +bestial and ape-like. A powerful organization, and well adapted to those +times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an old age, as +the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull was very thick. The +strong, prominent superciliary arches denote large perceptives, making +him watchful and always on the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible +conflict. The left arm was broken; who knows but in a contest with the +great cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm +dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he received a +blow, from some source, so great as to carry away a portion of the bone. +The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint weapon in the hand of one of his +race, may have produced that fracture. Still he lived, and the wound +healed. All this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside +view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval man. + +The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less bestial. Possibly +this individual did not enter upon the chase, and engage in the manly +pursuits of those times. He may have been an adviser or a dandy; or, his +ingenuity may have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and +implements from the flint. + +In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as short, +heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a clavicle belonging +to a young person who must have been of great stature. + +The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a great tendency to +animal structure, and confirm the impressions as given of the primitive +condition of man during the glacial and pre-glacial ages. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH. + + +The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again. The forests bloom and +the wild beast roams about. Many species withstood the long siege of +cold; others perished; still others followed the ice as it retreated, +preferring the cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man +spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers and +radiant with earthly splendors. + +The evidences of man's existence during this period are numerous, +consisting in works of art and fossil remains. Only a few examples are +given, as not many will be required to present the evidence and show +man's condition. + +The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Dawkins, affords specimens +of the works of man. When discovered this den was filled to the roof +with _debris_. Under this rubbish was found several layers of the +excrement of the cave-hyena (_H. spelaea_), each of which indicates an +old floor and a separate period of occupation. + +The implements were under these layers of excrement, showing that the +cave had been occupied by the hyenas after the time of the savages. +These implements had not been disturbed by the action of water. In the +bone earth along with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of +the mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (_R. tichorrhinus_), gigantic ox (_Bos +primigenius_), gigantic Irish deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_), reindeer, +cave-bear, cave-lion (_Felis spelaea_), wolf (_Canis lupus_), fox (_Canis +vulpes_), and the teeth and bones of the horse in great numbers. +Intermixed with these bones were chipped flints, a bleached flint +weapon of the spear-head Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11. IDEAL SCENE IN THE POST-TERTIARY. + + On the right is shown the megatherium. This animal belonged to the + sloth tribe, and was a native of South America. It exceeded in + size the largest rhinocerous, and the length of its skeleton + sometimes attained eighteen feet. In front, near the centre, is + the glyptodon another South American animal of the armadillo + tribe. The length of its shell, along the curve, was five feet, + and the total length of the animal, nine feet. Just back of the + glypodon, and holding on to a tree, is the mylodon, belonging to + both North and South America, one species of which was much larger + than the western buffalo. On the left, and in the rear, is the + mastodon, the remains of which are found in both North and South + America, though of different species. While this scene does not + represent the animals with which we are dealing, yet the general + features give an idea of those with which we are interested.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12. SECTION OF THE SEPULCHRAL GROTTO, IN THE HILL + OF FAJOLES, AURIGNAC. + + _a._ Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found. + + _b._ Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in + which a few human bones, with entire bones of extinct and + living species of animals, and many works of art, were + imbedded. + + _c._ Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing + broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and living + mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art; no human + bones. + + _d._ Deposit with similar contents; also a few scattered cinders. + + _e._ Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above. + + _f_, _g._ Slab of rock which closed the vault. + + _i_, _f._ Rabbit-burrow. + + _h_, _k._ Original terrace. + + _N._ Nummulitic limestone.] + +In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were found ashes and rude +flint implements in a breccia containing the bones of the elephant (_E. +antiquus_), hyena, a large bear, lion, (probably _F. spelaea_), and large +numbers of bones belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes +had once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was still +cemented to the roof. + +The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physical condition of +the country was different from what it is at present. The bone breccia +cemented to the roof, and coated with stalagmite, testifies that the +cave, at some time since the formation of the breccia, has been washed +out. The exact time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given, +but, in all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear, +if not before. + +The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen human skeletons +were found, was carefully examined by Lartet eight years after its +discovery. The recess was formed in nummulitic limestone. In front of +the grotto, and next to the limestone (_c_, Fig. 12) was a layer of +ashes and charcoal, eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works +of art, and broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent +mammalia. Immediately above this layer (_d_) was another, of made +ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto; and its contents +similar to the other, save that within the grotto were found a few human +bones. The grotto was closed by a slab, and the made earth without was +covered by a talus of rubbish (_e_), washed down from the hill above. + +In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint instruments, +consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones, chips, and a stone made +for the purpose of modelling the flints. The bone implements were +barbless arrows, a well-shaped and sharply pointed bodkin made of the +horn of the roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides +these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates, of a white +shelly substance, made of some species of cockle (_cardium_), pierced +through the middle; also the tusk of a young cave-bear, the crown of +which had been carved in imitation of the head of a bird. + +The following is a list of the different species found in the layers, +together with the approximate number of individuals belonging to each: + +I.--CARNIVORA. + + Number of Individuals. + 1. Cave Bear (_U. Spelaeus_) 5-6 + 2. Brown Bear (_U. arctos_) 1 + 3. Badger (_Meles taxus_) 1-2 + 4. Polecat (_Putorius vulgaris_) 1 + 5. Cave Lion (_Felis spelaea_) 1 + 6. Wild Cat (_Felis Catus ferus_) 1 + 7. Hyena (_H. spelaea_) 5-6 + 8. Wolf (_Canis lupus_) 3 + 9. Fox (_C. vulpes_) 18-20 + +II.--HERBIVORA. + + 1. Mammoth (_E. primigenius_) Two molars and an astragalus. + 2. Rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_) 1 + 3. Horse (_Equus caballus_) 12-15 + 4. Ass (_E. asinus_) 1 + 5. Boar (_Sus scrofa_) Two incisors. + 6. Stag (_Cervus elephas_) 1 + 7. Gigantic Irish Deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_) 1 + 8. Roebuck (_C. capreolus_) 3-4 + 9. Reindeer (_C. tarandus_) 10-12 + 10. Aurochs (_Bison Europaeus_) 12-15 + +The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be split open, as +if for the extraction of the marrow, and many of them burned. The spongy +parts were wanting, having been gnawed off by the hyenas. + +M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a place of +sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the remnants of the +funeral feasts. This he argued from the fact that the bones within the +grotto were not split, broken or gnawed, save the astragalus of the +mammoth. This meat was placed in the grotto, probably as an offering to +the dead. The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men +were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled about the +spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the flesh that +remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred their entrance, and +consequently the bones and human remains within were left untouched. + +The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to different +conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a difference in the +color of the walls of the cave, indicating that the lower deposit was of +a yellow color, and the next above of a much lighter tint. In the +crevices of the lower he found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the +reindeer, and some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher +deposit occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and a +fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac inferred that +the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded with that outside of it, +and the layer containing human bones was formed at a subsequent time. + +That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early period is proven +from the numerous remains of the cave-bear. This animal was one of the +first of those great post-tertiary mammalia to become extinct. The exact +position of the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were +intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as the other +layers, it would indicate that the climate was not very warm during the +deposit of the layers, but to have been similar to that of Switzerland +of the present day. The probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur +in the lowest layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical +climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were consigned to +the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial, or beginning of the +reindeer epoch. + +The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff, must be +assigned to this period, since there have been found, in similar blocks +of tuff in the same region, the remains of the cave-hyena and +hippopotamus major. This fossil man consists of a frontal part of the +skull, the upper jaw, with teeth, belonging to both an adult and young +individual; a radius, some lumbar vertebrae, and some metatarsal bones. +The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate into the +more compact rock. + +In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of the Schusse, +there were discovered more than six hundred split flints, with a +quantity of partly worked antlers and bones of the reindeer. The bones +were so numerous that Mr. Oscar Fraas was enabled to put together a +complete skeleton of the reindeer which is now preserved in the museum +of Stuttgart. Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of +extracting the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and a +fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were also the bones of +other animals, such as the glutton, arctic fox, and other animals now +living in high northern latitudes. + +Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the careful +investigations of the geognostic conditions of the place, but also the +flora of the time (for remains of mosses were found which now live only +in the extreme north), leave no doubt that the reindeer station on the +Schusse belongs to the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs +exactly to the interval between the two glacial epochs which in all +probability Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared this +deposit to be _the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier_, which was +formerly very large. Moreover, according to him, this discovery is +particularly remarkable, because it is the first example of a station of +the reindeer-men in a free and open deposit, their remains having +hitherto been found only in caves."[62] + +From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of bones of the +reindeer, and some show of advancement in the arts, it may be safe to +conclude that this station belongs to the close of the inter-glacial. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL. + + +The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of time, covering many +thousands of years. + +Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may be expected in his +condition. His mode of life, and continued conflicts with the fierce +wild beasts, would tax his every device. Necessity compelled him to be +inventive. The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not +grapple with the higher problems of existence. United efforts and +fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those old axes of flint were +great objects to his mind, and one step beyond them was a great stride +in progress. That they developed but little cannot be wondered at, not +only from their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the +era of history there are nations whose civilization has become fixed and +stereotyped for ages; others, who, instead of advancing, have been +retrograding. + +The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted beneficially +throughout this period. The rude axes and flints were retained, but +improvements were made in utilizing the bones and horns of animals. Out +of these, bodkins, fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of +wild animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells, were +used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling-places, being +destitute of water, this necessary of life was supplied and carried +thither in rude vessels made of clay and dried in the sun. The arrows, +flint knives, and axes were used for killing and skinning the animals, +splitting the bones containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements, +felling trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for +clothing, after having been softened by beating. He commenced the art of +engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of the great cave-bear wrought on +a curious stone found in the cave of Massat (Ariege), the bird's head +formed from the bone of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples. +The lower jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of +hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves of Lherm and in +Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them cooked his food. That he +paid honors to the dead, and sheltered them from the ravages of beasts +of prey, at present, must remain an open question. If he did, it might +seem to imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is considered +that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be inferred that +this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an evil genius. Or it may +be a faint idea of a ghost state and that these feasts were made to +dissuade the ghost from molesting him. That they had a conception of a +Supreme Ruler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man, would +be too preposterous to believe. + +Professor Denton has given a description of primeval time which, by a +little change, would represent inter-glacial times: "The seasons are +fairly established; and spring follows winter, and fall summer, as now; +though the summer is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in +those countries at the present time, and the winters colder. The country +is covered with dense forests, through which ramble mighty elephants in +herds, with immense curved tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and +flowing manes.... Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his +rocky den--as large as a horse: fierce, shaggy, conscious of his +strength, he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies the +cave-tiger (_Felis spelaea_); and, as the wild cattle come down to drink, +he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible combat ensues. It is as +large as an elephant, and its horns of enormous size; and even +cave-tigers could not always master such cattle as they. + +"Are these the highest forms of life that the country contains? What +being is that sitting on yon fallen tree? His long arms are in front of +his hairy body, and his hands between his knees; while his long legs are +dangling down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's; his beard +short, and like the hair of his body; the unkempt hair of his head is +bushy and thick; his eyebrows are short and crisp; and with his sloping +forehead and brutal countenance, he seems like the caricature of a man, +rather than an actual human being. + +"Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may behold a group--one +old man ... and women and children, lounging and lying upon the ground. +How dirty! What forbidding countenances!--more like furies than women. +One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from a +neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing the trees, and +passing from branch to branch, as they gather the wild fruit that +abounds on every side. Some are catching fish in the shallows of the +river, and yell with triumph as they hold their captives by the gills, +dragging them to the shore."[63] + +They have improved their language, and instead of the rude signs and +undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may now be heard short, but +occasional sentences, which were the forerunners of the polished tongues +of modern Europe. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +REINDEER EPOCH. + + +The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced. The gigantic +animals of the past age have either disappeared or are fast becoming +extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-hyena, mammoth, and +woolly-haired rhinoceros have almost become extinct. They have given way +to a less fierce and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is +announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are overrunning the +forests of Western Europe, and extending as far south as the Pyrenees. +In the forests there now existed the horse, bison, wild bull (_Bos +primigenius_), musk-ox, elk, deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat, +lemming, and many others. These animals were capable of withstanding and +flourishing in a rigorous climate. When the glaciers were again broken +up and the climate became warmer, the reindeer, musk-ox, elk, chamois, +wild-goat, hamster-rat, and lemming retired to the high northern +latitudes in close proximity to the snow, or else to the lofty summits +of great mountain-chains. + +The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and that it +immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous. The vast number of +the reindeer bones and horns attest to a distinct epoch, and by the +remains of arctic animals, as well as the traces of glaciers, the +climate must have been unlike that of the present time. The remains of +the mammoth, cave-bear, and cave-lion, would not only connect this +period with the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers +continued to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer +epoch had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss +lake-villages, or Danish shell mounds, may be shown by the weapons or +implements which point to a more primitive people, the absence of the +remains of the dog, and, also, by the absence of the remains of the +reindeer in the shell-mounds. + +There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be told how long +this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length of time to permit the +reindeer to increase greatly its species. + +_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--M. Christy and M. Lartet examined +in conjunction the caves of Central and Southern France. Those which +have been most carefully examined are ten in number, and belong to the +Department of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a +settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the principal +ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute, and Laugerie-Basse. + +At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone needle used for +sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer horn and still fixed in a bone, +a flint whistle made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer, +and two slabs of schist, on both of which were scratched animal forms, +but deficient in any special characteristic. + +At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and very thick, +which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking vessel, as one side of it +had been subjected to fire; an engraving of a reindeer on the horn of +that animal; on another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on +either side; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn; on +another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human figure, and +two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into five pieces, had an +outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13). This was so accurately drawn +that the small eye, curved tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane, +could readily be distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head, +the figure of a tadpole. + +There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse, where +weapons and utensils were manufactured; and they are noted for the +abundance of instruments made of reindeer horn. Among the works of art +found at the latter station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle, +spoon made in the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in +the middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the horn +of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is carved a +mammoth's head; there is a representation of the hind-quarters of some +herbivorous animal, sketched out with a bold and practiced touch; an +animal's head, with ears laid back, and of considerable length, is +carved on a round shaft of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for +what purpose this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed, +and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the harpoon of some +chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in outline, a reindeer fight. On a +fragment of a spear-head there is a series of human hands, provided with +four fingers only, and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of +fish are principally on wands of authority--on one of which is a series +following one another. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13. SKETCH OF A MAMMOTH, GRAVEN ON A SLAB OF IVORY + FROM LA MADELEINE.] + +The cave and _rock shelters_ of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne) have been +carefully examined by competent explorers. These relics are so numerous +that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of the cavern, sold to the agent of +the British Museum fifteen hundred specimens, of every description, +which had been found on his property. In the cave there were found, +engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and the head +of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone, on which were +representations of the above-mentioned animals. The engravings are +mostly on the horn of the reindeer. The cave has also furnished two +almost perfect human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the +Moulin-Quignon. + +The _rock-shelters_ are overhanging rocks, under the projections of +which man found a shelter and built his rude dwellings of boughs and +sticks. In these shelters have been found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made +of splinters of bone, saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the +mammoth engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the +shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clearness, on a +fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers made of ivory. + +In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters, was found a +quantity of human bones, including two skulls--one of an old man, the +other that of an adult. + +The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the largest collection of +implements of bone and horn ever discovered. The stones and reindeer +horns are carved with great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic +taste. There are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat, +bison, horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and birds, +and also the representations of some plants. In the lowest layer of the +soil the most perfect works occur, and they grow less as the surface is +approached. Several of those implements called "batons of command" +occurred, ornamented with animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was +carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various figures--plants, +reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made the subject of a report by M. +Piette before the Paris Anthropological Society. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14. THE FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE.] + +The fossil man of Mentone, found in a grotto of Mentone, a village near +Nice, for some time past has produced much comment among scientists. The +skeleton was discovered in undisturbed earth; at a depth of twenty-one +feet. The cause of the discussion is that the skeleton is accompanied by +a multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of command, a +necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the reindeer epoch, +but surrounded also by the remains of the cave-bear, cave-hyena, and +woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr. Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that +this cave was first inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or +inter-glacial, and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of +burial.[64] The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig. +14). It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibiae, or shin-bones, present +a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in the European of the +present time. + +In the same neighborhood there have more recently been discovered, in +different caves, four other human skeletons. They were all stained with +oxide of iron, and two of them surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth +of the stag, constituting the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With +one skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were discovered +implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear, bones of other +animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks. The other two skeletons +were those of children, and not accompanied by either implements or +ornaments. + +The other bone caves of France, which have afforded much valuable +information, and belonging to this epoch, are: La Gorge d'Enfer, +Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le Moustier and Badegoule +(Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude), cave of La Vache (Ariege), cave of +Savigne (Vienne), grottos of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphine, the +settlement of Solutre, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees), and the +cave of Espalungue (Basses-Pyrenees)--the last two date back to the most +ancient period of the reindeer epoch. + +The principal objects found in these caves, and the rock-shelters are +worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, cutters, hammers, and +mortar-stones. These works, though unpolished, are but little ruder than +those of the Esquimaux or the North American Indian. + +_Belgian Caverns._--Under the auspices of the Belgian government M. +Edward Dupont examined more than twenty caves on the banks of the Lesse, +in the province of Namur. Among these were four, in which occurred +numerous traces of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou +Rosette, Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux. + +The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and similar to the +cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was closed by a slab of +sandstone, and within were the remains of fourteen human beings +belonging to persons of various ages, and some of them to infants +scarcely a year old. In front of the cave was an esplanade, where were +celebrated the funeral feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone, +traces of fire, flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human +bones were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of the +reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds of +implements. Among the remains were two perfect human skulls, in a good +state of preservation. The bones were discovered in a state of great +confusion, which M. Dupont thinks was caused by the disturbance of +water. Sir John Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to +foxes and badgers.[65] + +Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which the bones of +three persons were found, mingled with those of the reindeer and beaver. +It also contained fragments of a blackish kind of pottery, which were +hollowed out in rough grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion +that the three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the time +of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse. + +In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty-four feet above +the Lesse, were found a great many bones of the reindeer, wild bull, and +many other species. In the cave, indiscriminately mixed up with these +bones, were one hundred and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones +of the goat, polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a +goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15. EARTHEN VASE, FOUND IN THE CAVE OF FURFOOZ, + BELGIUM.] + +The cave of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish caused by the +falling in of the roof, consequently preserving all its implements. +There were found the split bones of mammals and the bones of birds and +fishes. There was an immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured +from reindeer horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks. +Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of slate with +engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of very coarse pottery, +hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last but not least, thirty thousand +worked flints mingled with the broken bones. In the hearth, placed in +the centre of the cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but +unintelligible signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty +pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorched or roasted. + +In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen of rough pottery +(Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones. It was partly broken; by the +care of M. Hauzeur it has been put together again. + +France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of the reindeer +epoch, for settlements of this epoch have been discovered in Germany, +Switzerland, and Poland. + +In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, have been +discovered a few remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-lion; the +remains of two hundred and fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty +Alpine hares; also the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch, +glutton, wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably +appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking them were found +in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of the swan, grouse, and duck +predominate. The implements consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and +arrow-heads made of the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving +and carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The most +notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer in the act of +browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that animal. + +Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently discovered and +examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper part of the floor (four feet in +depth), consisting of vegetable earth, mould, and _debris_, occurred +ashes, flint implements, and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer, +horse, elk, and other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken +bones of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated teeth of +the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two thousand flint implements +were obtained; and from the frequent occurrence of flint the cave was +used by the troglodytes, or cave-men, as a dwelling; and by the remains +of the fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial, and +at the beginning of the reindeer epoch. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. + + +The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age than those +already enumerated, presents man under a more favorable aspect, and +affords a better view of his traits of character and manner of living. +Not only the sturdy climate spurs him to action, but a higher type is +supplanting the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed, +has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought with him +the art of making more perfect implements. This new type was of short +stature, having small hands and feet. If Asia be the home of man, then +from that country, advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were +destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts, and +conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are found in the Lapps +and Fins. Between the two existing races--dolichocephalic and +brachycephalic--there may have been a long and bitter strife. The former +was large, stout, fearless, and cruel; the latter, small, hardy, and +more intelligent. It was a conflict between brute force and +intelligence. The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully against +the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It could not have been +a war of extermination, for finally an intermixture took place, +producing a medium, as may be judged from the exhumed skulls. + +_Dwellings._--As in the past ages, man continued to dwell, for the most +part, in caves. If the cave was small, he occupied every portion; but if +large, only that part near the opening was used. In the centre of this +dwelling he made a hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with +the fire placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body. This +mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured out, and under +the projection of an overhanging rock he built him a booth, or rude hut, +out of boughs, and the poles of fallen timber. These dwellings, whether +in caves or under the rocks, were near some stream. + +_Clothing._--The climate being cold, he probably ceased to use the inner +bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins of animals. The skins +were prepared by the flint scrapers, and then rendered supple by rubbing +into them the brains and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long +bones of the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically shaped, +for they understood the art of sewing. With the bodkin they pierced the +skin, and with the needle, end was held to end and side to side, and the +same made permanent by the sinew of some animal. + +_Food._--These people were essentially hunters, and lived principally +upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their spears and arrows. The +horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the chamois, formed a considerable part of +their food. The meat was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and +the long bones were split open in order to extract the brains and +marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also added fish and, +occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath-cock, swan, and owl. The +chase did not always afford them sufficient food, and at times they were +forced to subsist on the water-rat. + +Enough evidence has been produced to show that these people were +cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered among the remains of +cooking at Solutre in Maconnais. M. Issel found, at a point on the road +from Genoa to Nice, some human bones which had been calcined, and were +of a whitish color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their +surface still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them +showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of the grottos of +Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found the small shin-bone of a +child, which had been carefully emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen +thinks he can recognize the trace of human teeth on some human skulls +and children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed with +sculptured flints and the remains of pottery. + +_The Arts._--Man had not yet discovered the value of metal, but formed +his instruments out of flint, bone, and the horn of the reindeer. The +hatchet was but little used, and the principal weapons were the +flint-knife, arrow-heads, and occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the +cave-bear, with its pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use +were rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and other +wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting his person and +pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads, and the whistle for +delighting his ear. The art of engraving was practised to a great +extent, and so admirably did he execute his designs that, after the +lapse of thousands of years, the figures are easily recognized. + +The staff of authority would imply that there were certain individuals +who were recognized as chiefs or leaders. Some system must have +prevailed, for without it the manufactories at Laugerie-Basse and +Laugerie-Haute could not have been carried on. In the first of these +workshops the fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the +second reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements. + +_Traffic._--Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Belgium sought their +flints in that part of France now called Champagne. From the same +locality they also brought back fossil shells, which were strung +together and used for necklaces. There can be no doubt of this, as +already fifty-four of these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they +are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne. + +_Burial._--As in the previous epoch, the dead were consigned to the same +kind of caves as were used for habitations, and the entombment was +celebrated by the funeral-feast. These banquets afford no evidence of +worship. Some have thought they not only saw signs of worship in the +banquets, but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found. +That they should have no notion of a future state is not surprising, for +Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are tribes at the present time +without this belief.[66] + +M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister of the Interior, +on the excavations carried on in the caves, has concisely but eloquently +given a synopsis of man of the reindeer epoch, in the following +language: + +"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with those +which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present us with a +striking picture of the primitive ages of mankind in Belgium. These +ancient tribes, and all their customs, after having been buried in +oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again vividly brought +before our eyes; and, ... antiquity lives again in the relics of its +former existence. + +"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and subterranean +retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully and patiently +chipping out their flint instruments and shaping their reindeer-horn +tools, in the midst of all the pestilential emanations arising from the +various animal remains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in +their dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and, +by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's +eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild +animals--their only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of +which are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint. Again, we are +present at their feasts, in which, during the period when their hunting +has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more +noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole resource +in the time of famine. + +"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the region now +called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells with which they +love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is to them so precious a +material. On one side they are picking up the fluor spar, the color of +which is pleasing to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the +great slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones round +their fire. + +"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive." The roof of their principal cave +falls in, burying their weapons and utensils, and forcing them "to fly +and take up their abode in another spot. The ravages of death break in +upon them.... They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre; some +weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of the funeral +furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of wild beasts. Then +begins the funeral banquet, celebrated close by the abode of the dead; a +fire is lighted, great animals are cut up, and portions of their smoking +flesh are distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must then +have taken place! ceremonies like those told us of the savages of the +Indian and African solitudes. Imagination may easily depict the songs, +the dances, and the invocations, but science is powerless to call them +into life.... + +"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of water +break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from their abodes, in +vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes +them, and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, at +Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe."[67] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +NEOLITHIC EPOCH. + + +The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is characterized by stone +implements, polished or made smooth by a process of grinding and +cutting, the greater development attained in the art of pottery, and by +the presence of the bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in +which no remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the reindeer +epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries made in the so +called _alluvial_ soil, the most ancient remains of the so called Celts, +the shell-heaps of Denmark, the tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the +earlier Swiss pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the +caves of France. + +_Caverns._--The caves belonging to this period, and explored by MM. +Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the Pyrenees and the caves of +Pradiers, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these +caverns have been used in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of +extinct mammals. The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to +this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag, sheep, +goat, antelope, chamois, wild boar, wolf, dog, fox, badger, hare, and +horse, intermingled with the remains of hearths, also piercers, +spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of bone; hatchets, knives, scrapers +made of flints, and various other substances, such as silicious schist, +quartzite, leptinite, and serpentine stone. These implements were +carefully wrought, and mostly polished. + +The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at different times +by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a place of sepulture. It was first +examined about twenty-five years ago, and at that time five human +skulls, in a good state of preservation, were found, but have been lost, +as their importance was not then known. Intermingled with these bones +were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved bones, remains of +rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, but no +remains of funeral banquets. At the mouth of the cave were two large +flag-stones lying across one another. The most recent discoveries in the +cave have furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a +habitation, to the last of the neolithic. + +_Danish Kjoekken-Moeddings, or Shell-Mounds, or kitchen-refuse +heaps._--The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully examined by +Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchammer, a geologist, and +Worsaae, the archaeologist, commissioned by the Danish government, their +reports being presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen. + +They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark, and consist of the +shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster, cockle, mussel, and +periwinkle. These deposits are from three to ten feet in thickness, from +one hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as +much as one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons and other +instruments of stone, horn, and bone; fragments of rough pottery, +stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abundance, accompanied with +charcoal and ashes; no traces of coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic +animals, except the dog. The bones of animals are very numerous, but no +human bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup estimates +that ninety-seven per cent. of the bones belong to the stag, the +roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains are those of the urus +(_Bos primigenius_), dog, fox, wolf, marten, wild-cat, hedgehog, bear +(_Ursus arctos_), and the mouse, and the bones of birds and fishes. The +auroch, musk ox, domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are +absent. + +The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which are never +obtained by the representatives of the same species now living on the +Baltic. They are not more than one-half or even one-third the size. At +the time of the formation of these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or +an arm of the ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the +Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely brackish, and +the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except at its entrance into the +ocean. + +These deposits have been found several miles inland, which would +indicate that the sea had once covered the intervening space. On the +western coast they have not been found, in consequence of their having +possibly been swept away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also +found on the adjacent islands. + +These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark; for they are found in +England, Scotland, France, and America. + +_Danish Peat Bogs._--The peat bogs of Denmark, so faithfully +investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods of deposition. +The most ancient is called the _Scotch-Fir_; the second, immediately +above, the _Oak_, and the uppermost, the _Beech_. The peat is from ten +to forty feet in thickness, and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet +thick would require, according to Steenstrup, _at least_ four thousand +years, and perhaps even from three to four times that period.[68] These +three epochs denote three periods of time. The lowest belongs to the +neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and the last to the iron epoch. In +the lowest, or _Fir_ period, have been found worked flints and bones. +Human bones have been found, which correspond with the bones taken from +the tumuli of this epoch. + +_The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland._--Dr. Ferdinand Keller and his +associates have made known to the world the wonderful remains of +villages situated in the lakes of Switzerland and other countries. The +villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same period, and they +represent the neolithic, bronze, and iron epochs; but there was no hard +line of demarcation between these three periods. These habitations are +so numerous that more than two hundred settlements hare been discovered +in Switzerland alone. Among the lakes furnishing these remains may be +counted the Lake of Neuchatel (forty-six settlements); Lake Constance +(thirty-two settlements); Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements); Lake +of Bienne (twenty-one settlements); Lake of Morat (sixteen settlements); +Lake of Zurich (three settlements); Lake of Pfaeffikon (six settlements); +Lake of Sempach (six settlements); Lake of Moosseedorf (two +settlements); Lake of Inkwyl (one settlement); Lake of Nussbaumen (one +settlement); Lake Greiffensee (one settlement); Lake of Zug (six +settlements); Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and others. + +The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Constance thirty, +Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements; one each at Morat, Bienne, +Zurick, Pfaeffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, the settlement of +Concise, the bridge Thiele, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others. + +These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of various kinds of +wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and driven into the mud at the +shallow bottom of the lake. In some of the settlements the piles were +fastened by heaping stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed +together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level and then +the platform beams were fastened upon them. This basis served for the +foundation of the rude rectangular huts they erected. These piles are +not now seen above the water, yet they are visible above the bottom of +the lake. The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high as +one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than seventy +thousand square yards. It has been estimated that the population of the +Lake-villages during the neolithic was over thirty thousand. + +The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabitants from wild +animals, the attacks of enemies, and for the ready obtaining of food by +fishing. They were not only occupied by the inhabitants, but also by +their herds and the stores of fodder.[69] + +_Robenhausen._--It is not necessary to go into an account of a number of +these settlements to represent the neolithic epoch, for the settlement +at Robenhausen (Lake Pfaeffikon) takes the first rank in giving the +domestic arrangements of the ancient inhabitants. This settlement +covered a space of nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles +were used in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quadrangle. +It was about two thousand paces from the ancient western shore of the +lake, and about three thousand from the shore in the opposite direction. +With the last-named side there was a communication by means of a bridge, +the piles of which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and +pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate, as their +habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they rallied and rebuilt +their huts. They remained a long time as would seem from the depth of +the peat and the vast amount of relics found. + +At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most ancient +relics; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the first +conflagration--charcoal, stone and bone implements, pottery, woven +cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at seven and one-half feet, flooring, relics +of the second settlement, and excrement of cows, sheep, and goats; at +six and one half feet, remains of second conflagration--charcoal, stone +and bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at three +and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of the third +settlement; at two and one half feet, stone celts, pottery, but no +traces of fire. Above this was two feet of peat and one-half foot of +mould. + +Without going into detail, the objects found in these various beds are +as follows: Made out of wood, are knives, ladles, plates, clubs of ash, +in which is fixed a socket of stag's horn containing a stone celt, a +boat made of a single trunk, twelve feet long, two and one-half feet +wide, and five inches deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched +at both ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets, +suspension hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying +vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all made out of +yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel bush. Out of stag's +horn--arrow-heads, daggers, piercing and scraping tools, implements for +knitting and for agriculture. The implements of stone were polished, and +of the usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in the +shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance. There were also +found spoons, and a perforated cone, supposed to have been used as a +weight for the loom. Several crucibles or melting pots have been found, +which were used for melting copper. The third building of this village +was on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages. + +The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl, all of +the neolithic, belong to the brown bear, badger, marten, pine-marten, +polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat, beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer, +wild-boar, marsh-boar; the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox, +goat, sheep, and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from +all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl. + +Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties of wheat and +barley; fruits and berries--service-tree, dog-rose, elder, bilberry, and +wayfaring tree; the nuts--hazel, beech, and water-chestnut; the +oil-producing plants--opium, or garden poppy, and dogwood; the fibrous +plants--flax; plants used for dying--weld; forest trees and +shrubs--silver fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak; water and marsh +plants--lake scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraw, +buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh pennywort. + +Besides these there have been found many specimens of plaited and woven +cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of a linseed cake.[70] + +In the different settlements the same axes and knives abound, and are of +small size. The arrow-heads and saws are an improvement on those of the +preceding epoch. Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude +earthenware were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers are +occasionally met with from two to three inches in diameter. About five +hundred implements of stone have been found at Wauwyl, consisting of +axes, small flint arrow-heads, flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones +used as hammers, whetstones, and sling-stones. + +As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of the neolithic, +but extend beyond, they naturally have a place in the close of this +period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of this period came suddenly to an +"end by the irruption of a people provided with bronze implements. The +lake-dwellings were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive +inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote places. This +catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of East Switzerland, which +entirely disappeared, and also a number of those on the shore of the +western lakes. Some few settlements, however--namely, those of the +so-called transition period--are said not to have been destroyed by the +new people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of bronze +implements."[71] + +Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there is no sudden +leap from one class of civilization to another, and that the metals came +gradually into use. The lake-dwellings were not burned down by the +irruption of a foreign people; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements +of the Unter-See, no traces of fire have been observed. The fact that +but a very few human skeletons have been found in the whole settlements, +contradicts the supposition of a battle having taken place between the +aborigines and the supposed conquerors, and of the destruction of the +former by the latter.[72] + +Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have been found in +Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, France, England, +Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus says that the Paeonians lived this way +in Lake Prasias (Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake +Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The town of +Tcherkask in Russia, is constructed over the river Don, and Venice +itself is but a lacustrine city.[73] + +Several attempts have been made to estimate the time which has elapsed +since the neolithic period. The estimates of M. Morlot are based on the +discoveries made in a hillock formed by the river Tiniere at its +entrance into the lake of Geneva. This cone contained three distinct +layers of vegetable earth placed at different depths between the +deposits of alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half +feet from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in it were +found relics of the Roman period; the second was five and one-fourth +feet lower, and six inches thick, in which were fragments of bronze; the +third was at a depth of eighteen feet from the top, and varied in +thickness from six to seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone +age. History proves that the layer containing the Roman relics is from +thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch the cone has +increased three and one-half feet, and if the increase was the same in +previous ages, then the bed containing the bronze is from twenty-nine +hundred to forty-two hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging +to the stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten thousand +years old. + +The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the discoveries near the +bridge of Thiele. About one thousand two hundred and thirty feet from +the present shore is the old abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year +1100. There is a document which seems to show that the abbey was built +on the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years the lake +retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet. The distance of the +present shore from the settlement of the bridge of Thiele is eleven +thousand and seventy-two feet, and consequently the settlement is not +less than six thousand seven hundred and fifty years old. + +M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of from six to +seven thousand years before the Christian era.[74] + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC. + + +From the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli, man is represented +as having a narrow but round skull, with a projecting ridge above the +eyebrows, showing he was round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small +of stature though stout, and having a great resemblance to the +Laplanders. In many respects the race was much superior to that of the +preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the arts, and made great +progress in civilization. He had passed out of the barbarous, and might +be called a semi-barbarian. + +_Habitations._--Man's habitation varied according to the locality. In +the extreme south of France he continued for a considerable length of +time to occupy the caves and rock-shelters; in Switzerland, the +pile-buildings, and in Denmark he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close +together and in proximity to the shell-heaps. + +_Clothing._--Clothing also varied according to locality. Where the wild +animals were numerous their skins were used--there being no incentive to +substitute other material. Coarse material made of fibrous plants had +come into use. The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material, +and completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for their +feet, as these have been found with the usual indications of usage. + +_Food._--Where wild animals could be obtained they were used, and the +marrow of the long bones extracted. To this, fish and birds were added. +In Denmark the principal food was the different species of the edible +mollusk. In Switzerland a higher order and greater variety of food was +used. The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied with +bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries. The meat was not +only obtained from the wild animal, but they provided against the +uncertainty of the chase by domesticating the boar, ox, sheep, and goat. +The horse and dog were domesticated to assist in the chase, but +sometimes served for food, probably during a famine. + +If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest solely on the +human bones discovered at a dolmen near the village of Hammer, Denmark, +which had been subjected to the action of fire. They were found together +with some flint implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead +to the conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used +along with the roasted stag. + +_Arts and Manufactures._--The flint hatchets of the refuse-heaps are +generally of an imperfect type; the long knives indicate a considerable +amount of skill; the bodkins, spear-heads, and scrapers are but little +improved. In the latter part of this epoch, the various kinds of +implements, especially in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree +of perfection, in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was +achieved without the use of metal. They were made into various shapes, +and with the design of pleasing the eye. + +Besides the various types of implements common to the different +countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a drilled hatchet, which +is combined in various ways with the hammer. A specimen of this type is +represented in Fig. 16, now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced +with a round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge +describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought into sharp +angular edges. + +New inventions were brought into use. Among them was a comb which, +according to shape, might be compared to the dung-fork of the American +stables. Ornaments for the body, made of various materials were +fashioned. Pottery was still in a rough state, though gradually +improving. The loom was invented, and various kinds of cloth were +manufactured. Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which +again was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various places +have been found, showing that they were not only used for fishing but +also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were established, and there the +stone implements were made and polished; one of these shops was at +Pressigny. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16. DANISH AXE-HAMMER, DRILLED FOR HANDLE.] + +Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone implements which occur, +when it is considered that in the Museum of Copenhagen there are about +twelve thousand, consisting of flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and +hollow chisels; poniards, lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and +half-moon-shaped implements. In other collections in Denmark there are +twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stockholm contains about +sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish Academy owns seven hundred +flint-flakes, five hundred and twelve celts, more than four hundred +arrow-heads, fifty spear-heads, seventy-five scrapers, and numerous +other objects of stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, +grain-crushers, etc.[75] Some of these implements, however, may belong +to other epochs. + +War must have been carried on to a considerable extent, as fortified +camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Furfooz, and other places. +Their weapons were the axe, the arrow, the spear, and possibly the +knife. These were wrought with great care. + +_Agriculture._--Man commenced to till the ground in this age, and thus +laid the true foundation of civilization. He probably was forced to do +it. The beasts of the forest were gradually decreasing. They had +nourished him in the infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to +look to the soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain +his life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been the +sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated the cereals, made +his corn-mill, and stored the grain for winter use. + +_Burial._--How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed of their +dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other places, the dead were buried +in dolmens or tumuli. A dolmen is a monument consisting of several +perpendicular stones covered with a great block or slab. When it is +surrounded by circles of stone it takes the name _cromlech_. The dolmens +occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They were formerly +considered to have been Druidical sacrificial altars. They were usually +covered over with earth, and in them were buried from one to twenty +persons, accompanied with their implements. When a person died, the tomb +was reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire was used +for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the tomb. In Brittany, in +the vicinity of the tombs, there were set up in the ground enormous +blocks of stone, that have received the name of _menhirs_, the most +noted of which is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state +in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take the name of +_tumuli_. Comparatively few of the tumuli belong to the neolithic. In +these, large numbers of bodies have been found, and none of them in a +natural position, but cramped up and their heads resting between the +knees. + +Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently met with at the +tomb, it may be inferred that victims were offered during the funeral +ceremonies, perchance a slave, or the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that +when a woman died in giving birth to a child, or even while still +suckling it, the child was interred alive with her.[76] + +This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of cases in which +the skeleton of a woman and child have been found together. In the +ceremonies at the tomb, some read the belief in a future state of +existence. The evidence, however, is no clearer than that in the +previous epochs. Man undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not +reveal it. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +BRONZE EPOCH. + + +The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the antiquity of man, for +it is largely embraced in written history. Although history does not +record the events of the age of bronze in Western Europe, yet history +covers the time which embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to +do with the archaeologist than the geologist. It is marked by the +abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives, ornaments, and +other articles made of bronze. The bronze implements are principally +found in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and +Switzerland. The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to this +epoch are: Geneva, ten settlements; Neuchatel, twenty-five settlements; +Bienne, ten settlements; Morat, three settlements; and Sempach, two +settlements. To these may be added some of the crannoges of Ireland; +also many tumuli and mounds. + +_Type._--The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the preceding. His +head was rather broad than long, he was small, energetic, and muscular; +his hands were small, as is proven by the remarkably small handles of +their swords, which are too small for a hand of the present day. This +type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzerland to the +present time. + +_Habitations and Food._--The caves and rock-shelters gave way entirely +to the rude huts which now protected man. If they were resorted to, it +was only from some peculiar cause or danger. The food was the same as in +the neolithic, with additions to the cereals. + +_Clothing._--The skins of animals were used less than formerly for +clothing. Garments made of other material have been found, and even the +whole dress of a chief. In a tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick +woollen cap, a coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form, +scalloped out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet four +inches long, and wide in proportion; two woollen shawls, a woollen +shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of leather boots. +Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort of man, and were possibly +used for summer wear, and under garments in winter. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17. WOOLLEN CLOAK OF THE BRONZE EPOCH, FOUND IN + 1861, IN A TUMULUS IN JUTLAND.] + +_Implements._--The people of this age made great improvements in their +weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist of bronze celts, swords, +hammers, knives, hair-pins, small rings, ear-rings, bracelets, +fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads, arrow-heads, buttons, +needles, various ornaments, saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed +pins. There were also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged +celt, has been found, which bore an inscription. + +_Arts._--Progress was made in the art of weaving. Soldering and the +moulding of metal were practised; foundries were established, the +remains of which have been discovered at Devaine and Walflinger in +Switzerland; stone moulds were used, one of which, on trial, produced a +hatchet exactly similar to those which have been collected. The moulds +were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the melting of the +metal was made out of pottery which was placed over a hole in the earth +filled with burning charcoal; when the metal was melted, it was poured +into the mould. Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various +patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Phoenician origin, +was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads, of a blue or green +color, have been found in the tombs of this epoch. + +_Agriculture._--The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. The +ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem of the tree, used +as a plough. The grain was stored for winter use, and when required was +crushed by being rubbed between two stones serving as a mortar. + +_Fishing and Navigation._--There are no distinct traces of improvement +beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation, unless it be in the +improved hooks made of bronze. + +_Burial._--The custom of burning the dead was almost universal in +Denmark, and was more or less practised in other countries. The ashes +and fragments of the bone were collected and placed either in or under +an urn. When buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted +position, but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their +implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered in a tumulus +in Jutland, where the clothing was found, was buried in a coffin nine +and two-third feet long, over two feet in breadth, and covered by a +movable lid. The body was in a good state of preservation, owing to the +action on it of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in +the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. Buried with it +were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and caps, two small boxes, a +bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword in a wooden sheath, and a long +woollen band. In other coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches, +awls, tweezers, and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found +an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet. + +_Religious Belief._--Many crescents, made of stone and earthenware, have +been found which are regarded, by some archaeologists, as religious +emblems. Dr. Keller calls them "moon images," and has devoted a short +chapter to their consideration.[77] On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl +Vogt regard them as resting-places for the head at night.[78] They +carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed comfort for +vanity. They carried a long pin with which to scratch the head. This +kind of a pillow is still used by the Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have +their hair elaborately decorated; and in some cases this is never +disturbed. If the people were worshippers the crescent is the only +evidence from archaeology. No idols have ever been discovered. That the +people were already worshippers may be learned from the traditions +recorded in history. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +IRON EPOCH. + + +As the _Iron Epoch_ fairly establishes civilization, and belongs almost +wholly to the historical epoch, it will be here briefly noticed, and +then dismissed after giving a quotation from Dr. Keller. The bronze had +not only prepared the way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great +impulse to succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new +importance and gave new life to every movement that tended to the +assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to those of iron. A +knife made of iron is represented in Fig. 18. Knives of this pattern +were, however, made of bronze, and served for the same purpose. The +workshops of this age were so numerous that four hundred of them have +been discovered in one province. The potter's wheel was invented; money +was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18. A KNIFE OF THE IRON EPOCH.] + +Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne belong to this +epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his observations, has made use +of the following language: "The phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so +important in the history of civilization, the time of their first +establishment, their original design, their development, and their final +extinction, in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects +clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning of this +peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its existence, while +outward circumstances remained the same, a quiet advance to a better +development of the conditions of life may be observed, in which there +was neither retrogression nor any sudden advance by the intervention of +foreign elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country which had +none, is explained simply by the barter which existed throughout Europe +in the very earliest ages. The question why the inhabitants of a +lake-dwelling of the stone age abandoned their settlements, while those +of another, not many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained +quietly living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than the +inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities have +disappeared, the names and situations of which are known to us. The +presence of objects of industry on the area of the lake-dwellings has +nothing in it very surprising, if we consider what misfortunes villages +of straw-covered huts were exposed to, in which not only the houses +themselves, but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of +very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take Caesar's +account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose arrival in the country +is neither mentioned in history nor shown by archaeology, withdrew, the +lake-dwellings then existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there +can also be no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after +the return of the population. Their continuing down to the Roman time is +only astonishing to any one who imagines that at this time the whole +population had gone over to the Roman manner of life, while the proof +lies before him that the lower class adhered to their own manners and +customs till the entrance of the German races."[79] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA. + + +America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than the old world. +Her ancient remains are not so much injured by the decay of empires and +the rude hand of war. Succeeding ages have not so much effaced these +marks, and many of the remains still stand as left by the original +occupants, save only the change and decay which time itself produces. +America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are known; but +these have not been investigated so diligently as the remains of man in +Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come. +Until they do, the history of primitive man in America must be +surrounded with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the +investigation of this subject, and many works written, all looking +toward an early development which must sooner or later come. + +In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of these traces. + +_Enumeration._--The implements from the gravel beds of Colorado and the +skull from Calaveras county, California, have already been referred to +(pp. 61, 62). + +Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human skull imbedded in a +solid rock, which was broken open by blasting. It was examined by Dr. +Weirley, who compared it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the +latter in general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of +this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and was +imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class, and found several +feet beneath the surface. Parts of the frontal, parietal, and occipital +bones were carried away by the explosion. The piece of rock holding the +remains weighs some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of +marine shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the +cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a microscope +presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the Neanderthal man comes +nearest to it.[80] + +In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five hundred feet, Judge A. +W. Baldwin found a human skull of unusual and peculiar shape. It is very +short from base to summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The +skull is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull has +never been examined by a competent person.[81] + +In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two feet from +the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of a deer, amidst an +accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and with them a rude stone chisel or +hatchet.[82] + +In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell leads (Kansas), +was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth of fourteen feet. Above +the implement the gravel, composed of quartz and reddish clay, was ten +feet thick, and above this was four feet of rich black soil. This +implement was given to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.[83] + +Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi at Natchez, a +human pelvic bone along with the bones of the mastodon and megalonyx. +They were found at a depth of thirty feet from the surface, and the +human bone had the same black color which characterized the others. Sir +Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand years to +form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the conclusions +arrived at by the United States engineers be correct, in respect to the +annual amount of sediment discharged at the delta, the growth would be +reduced to thirty-three thousand five hundred years. Taking either of +these estimates, the same would give the number of years which have +elapsed since these bones were deposited.[84] + +In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet from +the surface, beneath four cypress forests superimposed one upon the +other, the workmen found a complete human skeleton, and some charcoal. +The cranium is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This +discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler assigned to +the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the Mississippi, of +fifty-seven thousand years.[85] + +Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting of jaws, +teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a calcareous conglomerate forming +a part of the series of reefs of Florida. The whole series of reefs is +of post-tertiary origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been +one hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this +calculation be correct, then these bones must have an antiquity of ten +thousand years.[86] + +Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred caverns in Brazil, +belonging to different epochs, and exhumed in them a great number of +unknown animal species. In a calcareous cave, near the lake of +Semidouro, he found the bones of not less than thirty persons of +different ages, and showing a similar state of decomposition to that of +the bones of animals with which they were associated. From the +discoveries there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that man was +cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the mylodon--animals belonging +to the post-tertiary.[87] + +The shell-heaps of America are coeval with those of Denmark. Those at +Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined by Professor W. D. Gunning. He +estimates that within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in +width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster shells. One +dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet in height. The only human +relics found among the shells are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone +needles, pottery, and copper knives. These shells were probably +deposited by but a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster +was a native of that coast, but within the memory of man the oyster has +not lived there. + +_The Mound-Builders._--An ancient and unknown people of a certain degree +of civilization have left remains of their greatness in the +fortifications and mounds in the valleys of the Mississippi and its +tributaries. These works extend over a great extent of territory. They +are found in Western New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, +Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, +Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and +along the Kansas, Platte, and other western rivers. + +The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On the southern extremity +the works gradually lose their distinctive character, and pass into the +higher developed architecture of Mexico; and at the north, north-east, +and north-west, the population seem to have been more limited and their +works less perfectly developed. The people were preeminently given to +agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated the rivers along their +settlements. The fertile valleys of the Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha, +White, Wabash, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely +populated, as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their +surfaces. + +The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their shape differ but +little from those of Europe. The hatchets and knives are not only made +of flint but also of obsidian, and other hard stones. Copper was the +chief metallic substance. Out of this they made various implements, and +swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior, where they +carried on extensive mining. In these mines have been found their +implements, some of which are very large diorite hatchets, used as +sledges for breaking off lumps of copper, and so heavy that it would +require more than one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to +heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was desired. + +Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses may be given from +the statement that in the State of Ohio alone there are from eleven +thousand to twelve thousand of these works. The fortresses were used for +the protection of the people against the predatory warfare of the +hostile tribes, or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other +Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been much +speculation, and some archaeologists divide them into sacrificial, +sepulchral, temple, and symbolical. + +_Sacrificial._--The sacrificial mounds are characterized by "their +almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their regular +construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand, disposed +alternately in strata conformable to the shape of the mound; and their +covering a symmetrical altar of burned clay or stone, on which are +deposited numerous relics, in all instances exhibiting traces, more or +less abundant, of their having been exposed to the action of fire."[88] +Among the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the place +called Mound City situated on the western bank. The mounds are enclosed +by a simple embankment, between three and four feet high. The area +occupied is about thirteen acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One +of these is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest +breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four successive altars, a +bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty quartz arrow-heads, and +copper and other relics. The sacrificial deposits do not disclose a +miscellaneous assemblage of relics, for on one altar hundreds of +sculptured pipes chiefly occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments, +stone implements; on others, calcined shells, burned bones; and on +others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds are found at +Marietta and other localities. + +All the investigations which have been made prove that the altars were +not only used for a long period, but also had been repeatedly renewed. + +_Sepulchral._--The sepulchral mounds are numbered by the thousands. They +are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary +in height from six to eighty feet. Usually they contain but one +skeleton, reduced almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary +condition and in a crouching position. By the side of them occur +trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably only +raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished person. + +_Temple._--The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, with paths or steps +leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces at different heights. +Among the most noted of these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is +seven hundred feet long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety +feet high. Its level summit is several acres in extent. + +_Symbolical._--The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic bas-reliefs +formed on the surface of the ground, representing men, animals, and +inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they exist in thousands, and among the +devices are man, the lizard, turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter, +raccoon, frog, bird, fish, cross, crescent, angle, straight-line, +war-club, tobacco-pipe, and other familiar implements or weapons. + +In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of six +quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one human figure, +and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from one hundred to one hundred +and twenty feet long, and the figure of the man measured one hundred and +twenty-five feet in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from +the end of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when +first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. One of the +latter measured four hundred and seventy feet. + +In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent; its head +occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended jaws is a part of an +oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and sixty feet long, eighty wide, +and four feet high. The body of the serpent extends round the hill for +about eight hundred feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near +Granville, Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred +feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme length is +two hundred and fifty feet, average height four feet; the head, +shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to a height of six feet; the +paws are forty feet long, the ends being broader than the links, as if +the spread of the toes were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of +the effigy is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed +to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a graded way +ten feet in breadth. On examination it was discovered that the outline +of the figure was composed of stones of considerable size, upon which +the superstructure had been modelled in fine clay. + +_Antiquity._--There are methods of determining the antiquity of these +mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed out three facts which go to prove +that they belong to a distant period. 1. None of these ancient works +occur on the lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the +subsidence of the streams. As these works are raised on all the others, +it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed since the works were +erected. The streams generally form four terraces, and the period marked +by the lowest must be the longest because the excavating power of such +streams grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of the +Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme decay. Only one or +two skeletons have been recovered in a condition suitable for +intelligent examination. The circumstances attending their burial were +unusually favorable for preserving them. The earth around them has +invariably been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when +exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling condition. 3. +Their great age is shown by their relation to the primeval forests. As +the Mound-Builders were a settled agricultural people, their enclosures +and fields were cleared of trees, and remained so until deserted. When +discovered by the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic +trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees which first made +their appearance were not the regular forest trees. When the first trees +that got possession of the soil had died away, they were supplanted, in +many cases, by other kinds, till at last, after a great number of +centuries, that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North +America would be established.[89] + +Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven thousand to ten +thousand years.[90] + +Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully examined by +Frank H. Cushing, the archaeologist. The fort was found to be composed of +two parallel circular walls, with a gateway in each. The gateway in the +outer wall fronted a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet +distant. Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used +for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the depth of +seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom of the shaft he found +the shells of living species of shell-fish. The natural surroundings +show that this fort was built when the peat-bog was a lake. This is +further confirmed by the fact that all ancient works are erected near a +permanent supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is Oak +Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The formation of this +peat would require not less than four thousand years, and more probably +twice that number. + +The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long time. These works were +formed gradually, and the population extended slowly toward the North. +Their corn-fields, by their raised condition, show many successive years +of usage. + + NOTE A.--In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida Count + L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones, found in + Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in + a fresh-water sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated + with fresh-water shells of species still living in the lake, + (_Paludina, Ampullaria, etc._) No date can be assigned to + the formation of that deposit, at least from present + observation."--_American Naturalist_, vol. II., p. 443. + + NOTE B.--Besides the evidences already enumerated, Col. Charles + Whittlesey gives the following: 1. Three skeletons of Indians in + a shelter cave near Elyria, O., were found four feet below the + surface, resting upon the original floor of the cave, upon which + were also charcoal, ashes, and the remains of existing animals; + estimated age, two thousand years. 2. Several human skeletons were + found in a cave near Louisville, Ky., cemented into a breccia. + They were discovered in constructing the reservoir in 1853. 3. A + log, worn by the feet of man, was found in the muck bed at High + Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., at a depth of nine feet beneath the + cave, and estimated by Dr. Henry McGuire to be 5,470 years old. It + was discovered in 1866. 4. Mr. Koch claims to have found an arrow + head fifteen feet below the skeleton of the _Mastodon Ohioensis_ + from the recent alluvium of the Pomme de Terre River, Mo., and now + in the British Museum. His statement was, however, contradicted by + one of the men who assisted him in exhuming the skeleton. 5. Dr. + Holmes, of Charleston, S. C., found pottery at the base of a peat + bog, on the banks of the Ashley River, in close connection with + the remains of the Mastodon and Megatherium. 6. Col. Whittlesey, + in 1838, found fire-hearths in the ancient alluvium of the Ohio, + at Portsmouth, O., at a depth of twenty feet, and beneath the + works of the Mound-Builders.--_Col. Whittlesey before the American + Association, in 1868._ + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +WRITTEN HISTORY. + + +It is not generally known that written history extends so far back as to +make worthless the present system of chronology. The mighty empires of +antiquity must have been a mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far +back as history will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with +her millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crumbling. +Rollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which hampered him. He +says the Assyrian empire was founded by Nimrod eighteen hundred years +after the creation of man, or two hundred and twenty-four years after +the Deluge, or one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of +Noah. Nimrod was succeeded by his son Ninus, who received powerful +succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests from Egypt as far +as India and Bactriana. Ninus enlarged his capital to sixty miles in +circumference, built the walls to the height of one hundred feet, and so +broad that three chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and +fortified and adorned them with one thousand five hundred towers two +hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodigious work he led +against the Bactrians one million seven hundred thousand foot, two +hundred thousand horse, besides four hundred vessels well equipped and +provided. After his death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne. She +enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of Ethiopia. Then +she led her army of three million foot and five hundred thousand horse, +besides the camels and chariots of war, into India, where she suffered a +severe defeat. After making these statements, Rollin says, "I must own +I am somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised against the +extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis, as they do not seem +to agree with the times so near the Deluge: I mean, such vast armies, +such a numerous cavalry, so many chariots armed with scythes, and such +immense treasures of gold and silver; ... and the magnificence of the +buildings, ascribed to them."[91] The difficulties presented to the +modern historian never would have occurred if discredit had not been +thrown on the writings of the ancients. + +_Egypt._--The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was that of +Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, who lived three hundred years +before Christ. Only fragments of this work have been preserved. This +history is taken from the ancient Egyptian chronicles, and records a +list of thirty dynasties reigning in one city. His "thirty-one lists +contain the names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to +them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand four hundred +and sixty-five years."[92] Dr. Buchner says Manetho "calculates for +three hundred and seventy-five Pharaohs a reigning period of six +thousand one hundred and seventeen years, which together with the +present era, makes about eight thousand three hundred and thirty +years."[93] Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to +about the year 5000 B. C.[94] + +Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their first king (Menes) +to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos), the priest of Vulcan, was a +period of three hundred and forty-one generations; such, at least, they +say, was the number both of their kings and of their high-priests, +during this interval. Now three hundred generations of men make ten +thousand years, three generations filling up the century; and the +remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and forty years. +Thus the whole number of years is eleven thousand three hundred and +forty." The priests "led me into the inner sanctuary, which is a +spacious chamber, and showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in +wood, which they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number +they had said; the custom being for every high-priest during his +life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they showed me the +figures and reckoned them up, they assured me that each was the son of +the one preceding him; and this they repeated throughout the whole line, +beginning with the representation of the priest last deceased, and +continuing till they had completed the series."[95] From the time of +Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of Delphi, +was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple was burned B. C. 548. +The period which, then, has elapsed from Sethos to the present (1875) is +two thousand five hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time +of Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand eight +hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation be reduced to +twenty years then the period from Menes to the present is nine thousand +three hundred and sixty-five years. + +The recent explorations made by Mariette among the archives of Egypt +have confirmed the testimony of Manetho. The names of the kings, their +order of succession, and the length of their reigns correspond with +Manetho's table. These discoveries not only testify to the great +antiquity of the empire, but also throw light on the nation, its +manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane-bottomed chairs, +work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet ornaments, earthenware, seeds, +eggs, bread, straw baskets, a child's plaything, paint boxes, with +colors and brushes, etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old. +There were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived 1700 B. +C., consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear-rings, and bracelets, +which no modern queen would hesitate to wear. + +These statements are still further confirmed by the testimony of +geology. In the year 1850 borings were commenced in the mud deposit of +the Nile. The most important results were obtained from an excavation +and boring made near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Rameses +at Memphis, the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361 B. +C. Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the platform or +foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches below the surface of +the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it was laid, there had been +formed between that period and the year A. D. 1850, or during the space +of three thousand two hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet +four inches round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and +one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascertained, by +sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in the same place, that +below the level of the old plain the thickness of old Nile mud resting +on desert sand amounted to thirty-two feet; and it was therefore +inferred by Mr. Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of +burned brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old, or +was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety-six years before +the year 1850."[96] Other excavations were made on a large scale. In the +first sixteen or twenty-four feet there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a +small human figure in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles +entire. When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the +progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost everywhere, +and from all depths, even where they sank sixty feet below the surface, +pieces of burned brick and pottery were extracted.[97] + +_Troy._--Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has recently been +uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has been thrown over the +ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy given by Homer, thought to have +been a mere work of imagination, are now shown to be accurate, and also +that he must have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of +Troy the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities +superimposed one above the other were discovered. The third city, below +the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of Priam, the Scaean gate, the +massive walls and pavements, still remained. In the house of Priam Dr. +Schlieman found a great mass of human bones, among them two entire +skeletons wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden +scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight thousand +seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc. Immediately beside the +house of Priam, closely packed in a quadrangular space, surrounded with +ashes, and near by a copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a +copper pot, a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound, +several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads, +fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a part of a +sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by weight alone, of all the +gold and silver found in or near the house of Priam, has been estimated +at twenty thousand dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred +thousand articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had been +suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the implements and the effects +of war were visible. Even the brave warriors who fell while defending +the palace of their king have not yet wholly crumbled into dust. + +The four cities may be thus summed up: The topmost stratum is six and +one-half feet in depth and covers the Grecian settlement which was +established about the year 700 B. C. Beneath the Greek masonry are found +the walls of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the +abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city--or the successive +cities--was chiefly built of wood. + +The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty-three and +one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the surface, and form a +stratum averaging ten feet in thickness. Troy is supposed to have been +founded about 1400 B. C., and its fall and destruction by fire to have +occurred about 1100 B. C. + +Under Troy there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying from thirteen to +twenty feet in depth. The most remarkable feature of these oldest ruins +is the superiority of the terracotta articles. These vases are of a +shining black, red, or brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut +into the pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of +these ruins "is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissitudes of +the city's history--frequent destruction and rebuilding--would have the +same practical effect, or very nearly so, as a long interval of time. We +have anywhere from two to five thousand years before Christ as the date +of the foundation of the _first_ Troy."[98] + +_Chaldea._--Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly three hundred +years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular history of Chaldea, in +nine books. The materials for this work were supplied by the archives +then existing in the Temple of Belus at Babylon. The work was +particularly devoted to a history of the kingdom prior to the beginning +of the Assyrian empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by +Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of ten +fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true history, and +enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings of Chaldea, who reigned +successively from the time when the list begins to the rise of the +Assyrian empire, about the year 1237 B. C. Berosus begins with a dynasty +of eighty-six kings, and gives their names, which are now lost. He had +no chronology of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical +calculation. His list, which has so far escaped the lapse of time and +the change of hands, is thus preserved: + +First, eighty-six Chaldean kings; history and time mythical. + +Second, eight Median kings; during two hundred and twenty-four years. + +Third, eleven kings. + +Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings. + +Fifth, nine Arabian kings; during two hundred and forty-five years. + +The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a sixth dynasty. +The blank spaces in the list are doubtless the result of careless +copying, or caused by imperfections in the manuscripts. In order to make +the old kingdom of Chaldea begin about the year 2234 B. C. the first +eighty-six kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the +Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any show of +reason, save that it does not agree with the chronology which the +mutilators of history accept. + +Investigations which have been made among the ruined cities of Chaldea +have given great weight to the authority of Berosus, and are tending to +the confirmation of his history. In Susiana there was found a Cushite +inscription, mentioned by Rawlinson, in which there is a date that goes +back nearly to the year 3200 B. C. The testimony of the records +disentombed from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the +prevalent hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the country +before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm Berosus by showing that +Chaldea was a cultivated and flourishing nation, governed by kings, long +previous to the time when the city known to us as Babylon rose to +eminence and became the seat of empire. During that long time there were +several great political epochs in the history of the country, +representing important dynastic changes, and several transfers of the +seat of government from one city to another. Such epochs in Chaldean +history are indicated by the list of Berosus."[99] + +By this people, the science of astronomy was well understood. +"Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Babylon, sent to Aristotle +from that capital a series of astronomical observations which he had +found preserved there, extending back to a period of one thousand nine +hundred and three years from Alexander's conquest of the city.... These +observations were recorded in tablets of baked clay.... They must have +extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as 2234 B. C., and would +seem to have been commenced and carried on for many centuries by the +primitive Chaldean people." A lens of considerable power, used for +either magnifying or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at +Babylon, in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.[100] + +_China._--Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that there were +long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom flourished, the chronology +of which is not preserved, although there is recorded some knowledge of +the rulers. One of these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next +come the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion, and +the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great epoch, and ruled by +fifteen successive kings. In the second epoch, agriculture and medical +science were promoted. In the third, the magnetic needle was discovered, +the written characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great +revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the descendants of +the previous ruler reigned. Next came the period of Yao and Shin. After +this the period of the "Imperial Dynasties," which began with the +Emperor Yu, who lived two thousand two hundred years B. C. The +historical work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically from +the year 2637 B. C. to 122 B. C.[101] + +_Mexico._--It is known that books or manuscripts were abundant among +the ancient Mexicans. There were persons duly appointed to keep a +chronicle of the passing events. Las Casas, who saw the books, says they +gave the origin of the kingdom as well as the founders of the different +cities, and every different thing which transpired that was worthy of +note: such as the history of kings, their modes of election and +succession; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds, good or bad; +the heroes of other days, their triumphs and defeats. These chroniclers +calculated the days, months, and years. Nearly all these books were +destroyed at the instigation of the monks, and by the more ignorant and +fanatical Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings were +burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumarraga. A few of the +works, however, escaped, but none of the great books of annals described +by Las Casas.[102] Thus Mexico must be left to the archaeologist +unassisted by written history. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +LANGUAGE. + + +The origin and growth of language evidently afford a great field for +study, in not only tracing the development of civilization, but also in +confirming the testimony of the ancients and the conclusions of the +geologists. If the unity of language could not be established, there +would still be left a field so great as would not lessen the interest or +the importance of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed. For +the sake of convenience the many varieties of language have been grouped +into three great divisions, _i. e._, the Aryan, the Semitic, and the +Turanian. "The English, together with all the Teutonic languages of the +Continent, Celtic, Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots, +such as French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many varieties +of one common type of speech: that Sanskrit, the ancient language of the +Veda, is no more distinct from the Greek of Homer, ... or from the +Anglo-Saxon of Alfred, than French is from Italian. All these languages +together form one family, one whole, in which every member shares +certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the same time +distinguished from the rest by certain features peculiarly its own. The +same applies to the Semitic family which comprises, as its most +important members, the Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the +Koran, and the ancient languages on the monuments of Phoenicia and +Carthage, of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again, form a compact +family, and differ entirely from the other family, which we called Aryan +or Indo-European. The third group of languages, for we can hardly call +it a family, comprises most of the remaining languages of Asia, and +counts among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, +Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages of Siam, the Malay +Islands, Thibet, and Southern India. Lastly, the Chinese language stands +by itself as monosyllabic, the only remnant of the earliest formation of +human speech."[103] + +Anterior to these three families there was still another from which +these were derived. It contained the germs of all the Turanian, as well +as the Aryan and Semitic forms of speech. It belongs to that period in +the history of man when ideas were first clothed in language, and has +been called the Rhematic Period.[104] + +As regards the origin of language, three theories have been proposed: +the Interjectional, the Imitation, and the Root. The first supposes that +the beginnings of human speech were the cries and sounds which are +uttered when a human being is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second +supposes "that man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and +dogs, and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea, the +rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the whisper of the +breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and finding his mimicking +cries useful as signs of the objects from which they proceeded, he +followed up the idea and elaborated language." The third theory, +advanced by Max Mueller, is that language followed as the outward sign +and realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty of +abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be reduced, express a +general, not an individual idea.[105] + +There is more or less truth in all these theories. At the very earliest +period man must have possessed some method of communicating his wants or +ideas. The casual observer has noticed that animals have methods of +communicating with one another. It is not improbable that at the very +earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and signs. This may +have lasted for a very long time. Then the mimicking commenced. Next, +comparison was resorted to when he had so far advanced as to describe +his thoughts and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary +or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root words.[106] + +Instead of new languages originating, old languages change. They are +mutable, and from them new dialects are produced. In the history of man +there never has been a new language, and the languages now spoken are +but the modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people, +however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same materials as +were used in the beginnings of speech. New words are but old words; old +in their material elements, though they may be renewed and dressed in +various forms. "The modifiability of the language and its tendency to +vary never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and +modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with the mother +country direct or indirect. In this respect its mutability will resemble +that of species, and it can no more spring up independently in separate +districts than species can, assuming that these last are all of +derivative origin."[107] + +There are from four thousand to six thousand living languages. The +number of unspoken languages is not known. Their growth has required +ages, and during their development many a parent stalk has ceased to +exist. The changes in a language are slowly produced. It requires +centuries to so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order +to understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be gained by +comparing the writings in the English language of different periods. In +the year 1362 appeared a poem called "Piers Ploughman's Creed," which +begins as follows: + + "In a summer season, + When soft was the sun, + I shoop me into shrowds[108] + As I a sheep[109] were; + In habit as an hermit + Unholy of werkes, + Went wide in this world + Wonders to hear; + Ac[110] on a May morwening + On Malvern hills + Me befel a ferly,[111] + Of fairy me thought." Etc. + +Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the process of +either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered that a language has +been derived successively through numerous others, no special limit or +time can be given, although a very long period would be required. The +usually accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the +diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time required for +the development of the three general classes. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. + + +The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a clash of opinions +among men of science. It has been the great battle field among +anthropologists, ethnologists, geologists, philologists, and +theologists. Men of acknowledged ability have been arrayed on either +side. Among the foremost in favor of a diversity of origin have been +Agassiz, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and +Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is most in favor of +the unity of the human race. + +The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin of the human +race have advanced many objections against the unity, and produced +arguments in favor of their opinions. These may be summed up under five +heads. 1. The anatomical differences between the different races, and +especially those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The +separation of the races from each other for unknown ages by great +oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental barriers. 3. +The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in civilization. 4. A +medium type cannot exist by itself, except on the condition of being +supported by the two creating types. 5. When two types become united, +two phenomena may arise: _a_, Either one of them will absorb the other; +or _b_, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst of a greater or +less number of hybrids. + +The following answers may be given to these objections, or arguments: 1. +It is just as reasonable to suppose that man is affected, as well as the +animals, by climate, food, or peculiar condition. It is well known that +animals have undergone more or less change by their situation or +position. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain +extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate, were +covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that the present species +of both genera had lost their hairy covering by exposure to heat. This +is confirmed by the fact that the elephants of the elevated and cool +districts of India are more hairy than those on the lowlands.[112] A +wonderful change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys. In +India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of rising on +the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous appendages over the +beak, enormously developed." "In the English climate an individual Porto +Santo rabbit recovered the proper color of its fur in less than four +years."[113] Observers are convinced that a damp climate affects the +growth of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ from the +lowland breeds; in a mountainous country the hind limbs would be +affected from exercising them more, which would also affect the pelvis, +and, then, from the law of homologous variation, the front limbs and +head would probably be affected.[114] One of the most marked +distinctions in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated +or dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic. Mr. Darwin +has observed that a change takes place in the skulls of domestic +rabbits; they become elongated, while those of the wild rabbit are +rounded. He took two skulls of nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild +and the other from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15, +and the latter 4.3 inches in length. Welcker has observed "that short +men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to dolichocephaly; and +tall men may be compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all +of which have elongated skulls."[115] The argument from language is of +great weight, especially in considering the differences in color. +Professor Max Mueller has stated this clearly: "There was a time when the +ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, the Greeks and +Italians, the Persians and Hindus, were living together beneath the same +roof." "The evidence of language is irrefragable, and it is the only +evidence worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It +would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of +relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their conquerors, +whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony borne by +language."[116] When the great lapse of ages is taken into +consideration, since man originated, it will be seen that sufficient +time is given to produce the white, black, yellow, red, and brown +varieties of man. + +2. The argument from geographical distribution would hardly seem valid, +as it is known that the ocean can be and has been navigated by frail +crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the ship Bounty, in a small boat, +twenty-three feet long from stem to stern, deep laden with nineteen men +and one hundred and fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of +water, twenty pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa +(South Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand +six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boisterous sea, and +great perils, but finally reached his destination.[117] When men began +to dwell on the sea-coast they made their small vessels and carried on a +limited navigation. Many a frail craft has been driven out to sea with +its human freight, some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has +often happened among the South Sea islanders.[118] If it had been +asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have been +partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have received no attention. +And yet, Captain Tyson and his party, consisting of twelve men, two +women, and five children, being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated +Polaris, drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of +April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic winter. +Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they subsisted on the +flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they were able to kill. Every +member of this party was rescued off the coast of Labrador. It must be +further noticed that the surface of the earth was not always the same. +The continents have changed more or less, and during these changes man +must have become more or less separated. + +3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the two extreme +points are observable in all the nations of the earth. Even in single +families there have been those who were highly cultured and refined, +while other members have been very low in organization, habits, and +tastes. In these days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a +very high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations have +retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who pitch their tents amid +the ruins of Babylon, are the descendants of the ancient mixed races who +successively occupied Mesopotamia: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, +and Persians, who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as Shalmaneser, +Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild marauding Arabs are the +descendants of a people who invented algebra and introduced the +numerals. So the list might be extended. + +4 and 5. The fourth and fifth amount to the assumption that no race will +amalgamate with another. The statements embraced under these two heads +are not warranted by facts. Dr. Prichard says, "Mankind of all races and +varieties are equally capable of propagating their offspring by +intermarriages, and that such connections are equally prolific whether +contracted between individuals of the same or of the most dissimilar +varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably in favor of the +latter."[119] He then gives a short account of several examples of new +or intermediate stocks which have been produced and multiplied. They are +Griquas, descended from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks +of the Orange River, and number five thousand souls; the Cafusos of +Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African Negroes; the Papuas of +the island of New Guinea, a mixture between the Malays and Negroes. One +of the best examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders. +This colony originated in this way: The British government had sent a +vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieutenant Bligh, to gather +bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and introduce them into the West Indies. +Bligh was an overbearing, tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury, +and out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Christian +and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen companions +adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti; here they took on board +provisions and live stock, nine Tahitian men, twelve women, and eight +boys who had secreted themselves, and then proceeded to Toubouai, where +they founded a settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and +removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of the mutineers, +three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with their wives, and one child, +and nine other women, left in the Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's +Island, and there burned the Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less +than nine years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to two +in number, both whites, and one of them died the succeeding year. In the +year 1808 the American ship Topaz touched at the island. The colonists +then numbered thirty-five. In 1856 they had increased to the number of +one hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was barely +sufficient to support them they were removed by the British government +to Norfolk Island. There are only eight surnames among them--five of the +Bounty stock and three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of +people; the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely +distinguishable from English women. If reports be true concerning them, +they are the most remarkable people on earth. They never allow the sun +to go down on their wrath, and are noted for their honesty, truth, +chastity, industry, benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the +virtues which combine to form true religion. + +The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged against the unity +of the race, has proved an argument in favor. The offspring of birds as +much alike as the domestic goose and the large Muscovy duck will not +propagate their species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The +different varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland pony +and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together but these +hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind, thereby proving their +identity of species. The same may be said of the cross between the most +perfect and the lowest type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die +out in a few generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the +plain violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to a +marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no issue; if the +constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in substance too nearly the +same, the issue, if any, will be either still-born, or die very soon +after birth; if the contracting parties shall have an adjunctive +element, the issue will be short-lived, although they may arrive at the +years of maturity.[120] These laws apply to both the mixed and the +unmixed types of mankind. + +The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the same +general laws, their capacity for mental and moral improvement, and the +virtual unity of their languages lead to the conclusion that one +birth-place was common to all. If that place be Central Asia, or any +other locality, it must have been long before traditional times, when +the one tribe was broken up and nations formed. + +Races change so slow that they seem to be stationary. On the ancient +Egyptian monuments are representations of the Negro, having exactly the +same features which characterize that race at the present time; and some +of these paintings date as far back as 2000 B. C. + +Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in type, an almost +incredible length of time must be assigned to permit of the great +disparity as exhibited by the different types of mankind. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. + + +No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible. It has been made to +answer for the folly of both its friends and foes. The fierce assaults +made by the sceptic have been the legitimate result of the preposterous +claims made by its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no +such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its meaning has +been perverted, sentences distorted, and words changed in order to suit +the caprice of its advocates. If it were a living, speaking existence, +it would certainly beg to be delivered from its friends. It has been +made to conflict with the investigations of science, and those engaged +in interpreting the laws of nature have been branded as infidels, +although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The Bible is not and +makes no pretensions of being a book of science. It is designed to be a +book of religion, and a history of the ancient Jews, and its references +to scientific questions are only incidental. If the references to +science, or the account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on +questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invalidated. The +Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from the results of +scientific investigation. But there is a duty devolving on him, and that +is to leave his fanciful interpretations and come to the true meaning of +the Scriptures, and there learn how the words were understood by those +to whom they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as used in +the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with their signification +as used in the past. There is a great distance that divides the present +from the times of the Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the +English language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were not given +to scientific pursuits, and could have been but comparatively little +advanced in civilization. + +It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of the points +raised between the Scriptures and science, but to confine the inquiry to +such questions as the previous chapters have demanded. + +_Creation._--The first and second chapters of Genesis not only teach +that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but also the order of +succession is given. It is not stated that the world was created out of +nothing. The word "bara," translated "created," has a variety of +meanings. According to Gesenius it means _to cut_, _to cut out_, _to +carve_, _to form_, _to create_, _to produce_, _to beget_, _to bring +forth_, _to feed_, _to eat_, _to grow fat_, _to fashion_, _to +make_.[121] The idea presented seems to be this: The author asserts that +heaven and earth owe their origin to God. Then he goes back and explains +the successive stages of creation. At the commencement of the work the +earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition, and from this +preexisting mass the worlds were evolved. When this mass was created, if +ever, the author of Genesis does not state. + +Six periods, or "days," are given for the formation of the earth. The +use of the words "evening and morning" naturally leads to the conclusion +that the _days_ were each twenty-four hours in length. But doubt is +thrown over this conclusion by the use of the word _day_ in the second +chapter and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called a +_day_. The word translated "day" also means _time_, but it is to be +generally taken in the sense of the civil day--from sun up to sun down. +Hugh Miller held to the opinion that the creation was represented to +Moses in a vision. The periods passed before his mind in succession and +had the appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and the +morning was the beginning of another period of time.[122] If a +description of the different orders of life had been given, it would +have been beyond the comprehension of that primitive people. It was not +the design to teach geology. The people were not prepared for such +scientific knowledge. But the simple statement that God is the author of +all things, could be and was understood by the Israelites. + +On the sixth day man appears; but there are two records, and in them he +is presented in different ways and for different purposes. In the first +account man is made in the image of God, and to him is given dominion +over the living things, and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The +second account states that there was no man to till the ground, and the +Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his +nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. The second +account cannot be, as has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The +two accounts are radically different. One account makes man to have +dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes; the other, to till or +cultivate the soil. This agrees with archaeo-geology. Men were hunters +many ages before they were agriculturists. The one account has man made +in the image of God, the other, a _living soul_. The "image of God" and +"living soul" may be the same, but why the change? There may be a cause +for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one, then Moses saw man +in two capacities, differing one from the other. Man may be in the +"image of God," and yet in a low, savage condition--subsisting on the +chase. Man may be awakened from that condition, the "image of God" may +assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful being.[123] +That there were two classes the record implies. Cain goes out into the +Land of Nod, where his wife conceives, and he builds a city. Where did +Cain get his wife, and why did he build a city? No account is given of +the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained her in +the Land of Nod.[124] It has been contended that Cain married his +sister. If this be true it would certainly have been mentioned. It is +too important a matter to have escaped notice. If he married his sister +he was guilty of a heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now. +The city he built must have been more than an _encampment_, or a _small +fortification_. (The word translated "city" bears this meaning also.) It +would have been of no moment. It must have been a place of some +consequence, and designed for more persons than Cain, his wife, and son. +Taking all the circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every +one that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object of +this city was to provide for individuals of the pre-Adamic family +dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingratiate himself into +their favor. + +Then, again, in the sixth chapter, "The sons of God saw the daughters of +men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they +chose." This was followed by great wickedness, in consequence of which +the world was destroyed by a flood. Who were the "sons of God," and who +the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of God? The "sons of God" +must have been the lineal descendants of Adam, and the "daughters of +men" the offspring of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced +were monsters,[125] and their minds were bent continually on doing evil. +These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or else they would not have +sought wives from among a lower people. By the laws of nature their +offspring was lower than either of the races, from the fact that to the +brutish natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural wisdom +of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in their +wickedness.[126] If stringent moral laws had been enforced upon them the +result would have been reversed. + +_Chronology._--The chronology given in the margins of the Bible is a +mere invention, and has worked much mischief. There is nothing to +warrant it, and no excuse can be made for it. The Bible gives no +definite chronology for those early times. That no dependence can be +placed in these chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the +Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.[127] The Septuagint dates the Flood +eight hundred years farther back than the common Bible. "A margin of +variation amounting to eight centuries between two versions of the same +document, is a variation so enormous that it seems to cast complete +doubt on the whole system of interpretation on which such computations +of time are based."[128] + +_The Deluge._--Allowing the date of the Deluge to have been 3149 B. C. +instead of 2349 B. C., still there is not sufficient time to repopulate +the earth, and form those mighty empires recorded in ancient history. +The Duke of Argyle has very justly remarked that, "The founding of a +monarchy is not the beginning of a race. The people among whom such +monarchies arose must have grown and gathered during many generations." +The peopling of Egypt is not the only difficulty. "The existence, in the +days of Abraham, of such an organized government as that of Chedorlaomer +shows that two thousand years B. C. there nourished in Elam, beyond +Mesopotamia, a nation which even now would be ranked among 'the Great +Powers.'"[129] Then the characteristic features of the Negro, one of the +most strongly marked among the varieties of man, were as greatly marked +2000 B. C. as at present. + +These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood was not +universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood, but "the monuments +of the two most ancient civilizations of which we have any +knowledge--the Egyptian and Chinese--contain no account of, or allusion +to, Noah's Deluge."[130] Many of these traditions doubtless refer to +some local flood. The passages of Scripture seem to teach the +universality of the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the +idea of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and refer +only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The question is one of +doubt whether or not the sacred historian means the Noachian Deluge to +have been universal, or only a local cataclysm. + +_Monarchies._--The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod was the first +monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and +Accad, and Calneh." Nor is the statement made that he founded these +cities. He was a mighty hunter, and these cities were the _beginning of +his kingdom_. + +_The Dispersion._--The building of the tower of Babel is no myth, but a +veritable reality. A portion of the mighty fabric still stands, a +mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast amount of work it required in +its construction. The story is told in few words, and those words cover +centuries. The people engaged in its construction spoke one language, +but when this language was confounded the empire was rent asunder. The +narrative seems to teach the use of but one language on the whole face +of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge, in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion," +says, "Moreover, the phrase 'the whole earth,' as commonly used in the +Bible, is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not +intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater part thereof, +but is loosely employed to designate the whole of that particular +portion which the writer or speaker has in his mind at the time. In the +present case it denotes the country bordering on the Tigris and the +Euphrates."[131] If the views of this eminent theologian be correct, +then, by the same principle of interpretation the unity of language +spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the Tigris and the +Euphrates. + +There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origination of +language. Under the view already advanced, when the animals were brought +to Adam, he readily gave them names, for he had received language from +his predecessors, and now, being an especially chosen person, his +endowments would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use. + +It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the world and peopled +it with myriads of beings in a period of six days of twenty-four hours +each. It is not incredible that a cataclysm could destroy every living +creature, save an appointed few, and cover the remotest boundaries of +the earth. It is possible for God to do anything save that which is +inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to do, and +what He does, are two very different things. What He has done can only +be told from the evidences which He has left. What He might have done is +only speculation. Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He +observes the course of nature, and from these observations his +conclusions are drawn. + +The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when properly +understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not to close his eyes and +refuse to be guided by science, and with blind credulity accept the +tales and prejudices of his grandfathers. + + NOTE.--Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England, + in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes + unusual grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that + there were and are two modes of reconciling the letter of + Scripture with geology, but each has totally and deservedly + failed. One of these attempts to wrest the words of the Bible from + their real meaning, and force them to speak the language of + science; the other attempts to falsify science to meet the + supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another + reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of + the affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of + science and the spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of + the general spirit of the Bible truths; and, secondly, there is a + likeness in the methods. The frame of this earth was gradually + brought into its present condition by the slow and silent action + of the same causes which we see now operating through a long + succession of ages beyond the memory and imagination of man. We do + not expect this doctrine to agree with the letter of the Bible. + The early biblical records could not be literal, prosaic, + matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world. It is + now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain + two narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each + other in almost every particular of time and place and order. It + is now known that the vast epochs demanded by scientific + observation are incompatible both with the six thousand years of + the Mosaic chronology and the six days of the Mosaic Creation. The + discoveries of geology are found to fill up the old religious + truths with a new life, and to derive from them in turn a + hallowing glory. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME. + + + Adjunctive, having the quality of joining. + + Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of sand, clay, or gravel, made by + river action. + + Amalgamate, to mix or blend different things or races. + + Antero-posterior, in a direction from behind forward. + + Aphelion, that point of a planet's or comet's orbit which is most + distant from the sun. + + Archaeo-geologist, one versed in pre-historic remains, or familiar with + both archaeology and geology. + + Archives, public records and papers preserved as evidence of fact. + + Aryan, a term applied to all the nations who speak languages derived + mainly from the Sanskrit, or ancient Hindoo. + + Atomic, a system of philosophy which accounted for the origin and + formation of all things by assuming that atoms are endowed with + gravity and motion. + + Auditory, having the power of hearing. + + + Baton, a staff used as an emblem of authority. + + Brachycephalic, a skull whose transverse diameter exceeds the + antero-posterior diameter. + + Breccia, a rock made up of angular fragments cemented together. + + Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from ten to thirty per cent. of tin, + to which other metals are sometimes added. + + + Calcareous, consisting of, or containing, carbonate of lime. + + Calcined, reduced to a powder, or friable state, by the action of + heat. + + Carbonate, a salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with a base. + + Carnivora, an order of animals which subsist on flesh. + + Carpal, that portion of the skeleton pertaining to the wrist. + + Cataclysm, a deluge. + + Celt, one of an ancient race of people who formerly inhabited a great + part of Central and Western Europe; an implement made of stone or + metal, found in the ancient tumuli of Europe. + + Cereal, edible grain. + + Champlain Epoch, a name derived from the beds on the borders of Lake + Champlain. The beds are subsequent in origin to the glacial epoch. + + Chert, an impure variety of flint. + + Clavicle, the collar-bone. + + Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles cemented together. + + Coronoid, the process of the ulna and lower jaw. + + Cosmogony, the science of the origin of the world or universe. + + Cranium, the skull. + + Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, used by + the ancients as places of habitation. + + Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring great heat, and used for + melting ores, metals, etc. + + Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space of time marked by the + recurrence of something peculiar. + + + Data (pl. of datum), a ground of inference or deduction. + + Debris (d[=a]-bree), fragments detached from rocks, and piled up in + masses. + + Demi-relief, the projection of one half the figure beyond the plane + from which it rises. + + Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like markings. + + Devonian, the geological age between the Silurian and Carboniferous. + + Diluvium, the time when the glacial beds were deposited. + + Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish, speckled with black, or + greenish black. + + Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter from the frontal to the + occipital bone exceeds the transverse diameter. + + Dorsal, the name given to the second division of the vertebrae. + + Drift, a collection of loose earth and bowlders, distributed during + the glacial epoch over large portions of the earth's surface. + + Druidical, pertaining to the religious ceremonies of the ancient + Celtic nations in France, Britain, and Germany. + + Dynasty, a succession of kings of the same line or family. + + + Eccentricity, the distance of the centre of the orbit of a heavenly + body from the centre of the body round which it revolves. + + Edible, eatable. + + Elliptical, having an oval or oblong figure. + + Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs of the tertiary. + + Epoch, any period of time marked by some particular cause or event. + + Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat. + + + Fauna, the animals of any given area or epoch. + + Flora, the complete system of vegetable species native in a given + locality, or period. + + Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful colors, composed by fluorine and + calcium. + + Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by the joint action of a river and + the sea. + + Foramen, a little opening. + + + Fossa, a depression in a bone. + + Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in the strata composing the + surface of the earth. + + + Genus (pl. genera), an assemblage of species possessing certain + characters in common, by which they are distinguished from all others. + + Geode, an irregular shaped stone, containing a small cavity. + + Geognostic, pertaining to a knowledge of the structure of the earth. + + Glabella, the middle or frontal protuberance of the superciliary arch. + + Glaciation, the process of becoming covered with glaciers. + + Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or snow and ice, formed in the region + of perpetual snow, and moving slowly down mountain slopes or valleys. + + Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of quartz, feldspar, and mica. + + + Herbivora, that order of animals which subsists upon herbs or + vegetables. + + Homologous, having the same typical structure. + + Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest the shoulder. + + Hybrid, that which is produced from the mixture of two species. + + + Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone. + + + Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a dark green color, and capable of + a fine polish. + + + Lambdoidal, the suture which connects the occipital with the parietal + bones. + + Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock. + + Loam, a soil composed of siliceous sand, clay, carbonate of lime, + oxide of iron, magnesia, and various salts, and also decayed vegetable + and animal matter. + + Loess, a term usually applied to a tertiary deposit on the banks of + the Rhine. + + Lumbar, the vertebrae near the loins. + + + Mammalia, that class of animals characterized by the female suckling + its young. + + Marl, a mixed earthy substance, consisting of carbonate of lime, clay, + and siliceous sand. + + Mastoid, a process situated at the posterior part of the temporal + bone. + + Matrix, a mould; the cavity in which a thing is held. + + Maxillary, the upper jaw bone. + + Metacarpal, the part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers. + + Metallurgy, the art of working metals. + + Metatarsal, the middle part of the foot. + + Miocene, the middle or second epoch of the Tertiary. + + Molar, a grinding tooth. + + Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used in casting; to form or shape; + fine soft earth. + + Mollusca, an order of invertebrate animals having a soft, fleshy body, + which is inarticulate, and not radiate internally. + + Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel extending along the sides of + separate glaciers, and along the middle part of glaciers formed by the + union of one or more separate ones. + + + Nebulous, having a faint, misty appearance; applied to uncondensed + gaseous matter. + + Neolithic, new stone age; a term applied to the more modern age of + stone. + + Nummulitic, composed of, or containing a fossil of a flattened form, + resembling a small coin, and common in the early tertiary period. + + + Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by volcanoes. + + Occipital, pertaining to the back part of the head. + + Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, containing iron. + + Olecranon, the large process at the extremity of the larger bone of + the fore-arm. + + Onusprobandi, the burden of proof. + + Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is located; the path described by a + heavenly body in its periodical revolution. + + Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel formed by glaciers. + + Oscillation, the act of moving backward and forward. + + Osseous, composed of bone. + + Osteologist, one versed in the nature, arrangement, and uses of the + bones. + + Oxide, a compound of oxygen, and a base destitute of acid and saltish + properties. + + + Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal, characterized by the thickness of + its skin. + + Palaeolithic, the ancient stone age; a term applied to the earliest + traces of man when he was cotemporary with many extinct mammalia. + + Palaeontological, belonging to the science of the ancient life of the + earth. + + Parallelogram, a figure having four sides, the opposite sides of which + are parallel, and consequently equal. + + Parietal, pertaining to the bones which form the sides and upper part + of the skull. + + Pathological, pertaining to the knowledge of disease. + + Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony structure at the lower extremity + of the body. + + Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a planet, or comet, in which it + is nearest to the sun. + + Perimeter, the outer boundary of a body. + + Phalanges, the small bones of the fingers and toes. + + Philologist, one versed in the laws of human speech. + + Pliocene, a term applied to the most recent tertiary deposits. + + Post-Tertiary, the second period of the age of mammals. + + Prototype, a model after which anything is to be copied. + + + Quadrangular, having four angles, and consequently four sides. + + Quadrumana, an order of animals whose fore feet correspond to the + hands of man. + + Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with a glassy lustre, and varying + in color from white, or colorless, to black. + + Quartzite, granular quartz. + + Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary. + + + Radius, the smaller and exterior bone of the fore-arm. + + Reliquiae, remains of the dead. + + Rhematic, that period when men first began to coin expressions for the + most necessary ideas. + + Rodent, an animal that gnaws. + + Ruminant, an animal that chews the cud. + + + Sagittal, the suture which connects the parietal bones of the skull. + + Savant (sae-v[)o]ng), a person eminent for acquirements. + + Scapula, the shoulder-blade. + + Schist, a rock having a slaty structure. + + Scientist, a person noted for his profound knowledge. + + Sediment, the matter which subsides to the bottom. + + Semitic, pertaining to one of the families of nations, or languages, + and so named from its members being ranked as the descendants of Shem. + + Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in color dark to light green. + + Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty matter. + + Simian, a name given to the various tribes of monkeys. + + Squamous, the anterior and upper part of the temporal bone, scale-like + in form. + + Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter, made by calcareous water + dropping on the floors of caverns. + + Stratified, formed or deposited in layers. + + Stratum (pl. strata), a bed or layer. + + Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradually descending. + + Superciliary, the bony superior arch above the eye-brow. + + Suture, the seam which unites the bones of the skull. + + Symphysis, a connection of bones without a movable joint. + + + Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of rocks lying at the foot of a + hill. + + Tarsal, relating to the ankle. + + Temporal, pertaining to that portion of the head located to the front + and a little above the ear. + + Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made from fine clay, hardened by heat. + + Tertiary, the first period of the age of mammals. + + Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or chest. + + Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave. + + Truncated, cut off. + + Tufaceous, consisting of, of resembling, tuff. + + Tuff, a sand rock formed by agglutinated volcanic rock. + + Turanian, that order of languages known as monosyllabic. + + + Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the fore-arm. + + + Veda, the ancient sacred literature of the Hindoos. + + Vertebra, a joint of the back bone. + + + + +INDEX. + + + Agassiz, 136. + Agriculture, 106, 110. + Amalgamation, 140. + Amiel, Dr., 20. + Archiac, Vic. d', 13. + Arts, 77, 91, 104, 109. + Aymard, Dr., 19. + + Baldwin, A. W., 115. + Bara, 144. + Belgian Caverns, 44, 86. + Berosus, 128. + Blackmore, Dr., 23. + Bligh, Lieut., 138, 140. + Bonnemaison, 20. + Boucher de Perthes, 12, 18, 19, 38. + Boue, Aime, 11, 16, 41. + Bourgeois, Abbe, 22, 61, 62. + Brown, James, 22. + Buchner, Dr., 50, 52, 55, 56, 60, 75, 121, 124. + Buckland. Dr., 16. + Burdett-Coutts, Miss, 22. + Burial, 91, 106, 110. + Busk, 19, 50, 55. + + Cain, Case of, 146. + Cannibalism, 90. + Carpenter, 19. + Cartailhac, 74. + Casiano de Prado, 20, 38. + Cave of Aurignac, 20, 72-74. + Cave of Brixham, 39. + Cave of Chokier, 17, 45. + Cave of Feldhofner, 53. + Cave of Furfooz, 88. + Cave of Gourdan, 82. + Cave of Kirkdale, 16. + Cave of La Madeleine, 80. + Cave of La Naulette, 42. + Cave of Les Eyzies, 80. + Cave of Massat, 22. + Cave of Mentone, 23, 24. + Cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas, 94. + Cave of Thayngen, 88. + Cave of Tron de Chaleux, 86, 87. + Cave of Trou des Nutons, 86. + Cave of Trou Rosette, 86. + Cave of Trou du Frontal, 86. + Cavern of Ariege, 22. + Cavern of Bize, 16. + Cavern of Cracow, 88. + Cavern of Enghihoul, 16, 17. + Cavern of Engis, 16, 17. + Cavern of Gailenruth, 15. + Cavern of Maccagnone, 71. + Cavern of Pondres, 16. + Cavern of Torquay, 22. + Caverns of Brazil, 116. + Caverns of Liege, 44. + Cazalis de Fondace, 95. + Chaldea, 128-130. + China, 130. + Christian, Fletcher, 140. + Christol, 16. + Christy, 19, 80. + Chronology, 101, 148. + Chronology, Usher's, 11. + Clothing, 77, 90, 103, 109. + Codrington, Thos., 23. + Creation, 144. + Croll, 31. + Cromlech, 106. + Cushing, F. H. 121. + + Dana, J. D., 28. + Danish Shell-Mounds, 95. + Danish Peat Bogs, 96. + Darwin, Charles, 137. + Dawkins, 68. + Delaunay, Abbe, 62. + Deluge, 148. + Denton, W., 61, 77. + Desnoyers, 22, 60, 61. + Desor, 28, 75. + Dickeson, Dr. 115. + Dolmen, 106. + Dowler, Dr. Bennet, 116. + Dupont, Edward, 23, 86, 87, 92. + Dwellings, 89, 103, 108. + + Edwards, M. A. Milne, 22. + Egypt, 124-126. + Epoch, Eocene, 62. + Epoch, Eocene, Fauna of, 58. + Epoch, Eocene, Glaciers in, 62. + Epoch, Miocene, Fauna of, 59. + Epoch, Miocene, Flint flake from Aurillac, 62. + Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, 62. + Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, 62. + Epoch, Miocene, Man in, 62. + Epoch, Pliocene, 58. + Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, 60, 61. + Epochs, not sharply defined, 14. + Eschricht, Prof., 56. + Esper, J. F. 15. + + Falconer, Dr., 18, 19. + Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, 79. + Figuier, 13, 102. + Filhol, 22, 94. + Fishing and Navigation, 110. + Fontan, M. A., 22. + Food, 90, 103, 108. + Forchammer, 95. + Ft. Shelby, 121. + Fossil Man of Denise, 19, 74. + Fossil Man of Mentone, 23, 85. + Fossil Remains from Florida, 116. + Fraas, Oscar, 75. + Frere, John, 15. + Fuhlrott, Dr., 22, 52. + + Garrigou, Dr., 22, 85, 94 + Geikie, 28. + Gillieron, 102. + Glacial Epoch, 52. + Glacial Epoch, Date of, 27. + Glacial Epoch, Duration of, 28. + Glacial Epoch, Fauna of, 26. + Glacial Epoch, Geological Period of, 27. + Godwin-Austen, 19, 39. + Gosse, 38. + Gunning, W. D., 117. + + Half-castes, 147. + Hall, Dr., 28. + Hauzeur, 88. + Herodotus, 101, 124. + History, Outline of, 14. + Horner, 126. + Human bones from Colmar, 23, 42. + Human bones from Savonia, 23, 60. + Huxley, Prof., 46, 50, 52, 54-57. + Hybridity, law of, 141. + + Implements, 104, 109. + Implements, from Toronto, 115. + Implements, superstitious regard for, 15. + India, Fauna of, in Miocene, 63. + Issel, M. A., 60, 90. + + Jaw from Maestricht, 16, 40. + Jaw from Moulin-Quignon, 19, 38, 67. + Jaw from La Naulette, 23, 42, 67. + Joly, 18. + + Keller, Dr., 21, 96, 100, 112. + Kemp, 15. + Kent's Hole, 19, 39. + Kutorga, Dr., 56. + + Land of Nod, 146. + Language, 78. + Language, Change of, 134. + Language, Divisions of, 132. + Language, Number of, 135. + Language, Origin of, 134. + Language, Written, 135. + Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, 21, 96-101. + Lartet, Edward, 12, 21, 72, 73, 80. + Las Casas, 131. + Lastic, M. de, 81. + Lee, J. E. 21. + Lepsius, 126. + Litse, 130. + Lubbock, Sir John, 12, 14, 28, 30, 50, 59, 86, 92, 106. + Lund, Dr., 116. + Lyell, Sir Charles, 11, 12, 17, 21, 27, 29, 50, 59. + + MacEnery, Rev. J., 19. + Mahndel before the Academy of Paris, 15. + Man, Contentions, 64. + Man, Description of, 77, 92. + Man, Development of, 63, 76, 89. + Man, Dispersion of, 149. + Man, During Glaciers, 65. + Man, Inventive, 65, 76. + Man, Mode of living, 65, 66. + Man, Origin of, 63, 145. + Man, Type, 64, 66, 89, 103, 108. + Manetho, 124. + Marks on fossil bones, 18, 62. + Mariette, 125. + Matson, James, 61. + Max Mueller, Prof., 133, 138. + Menhirs, 106. + Mexico, 130. + Miller, Hugh, 145. + Morlot, 101. + Mound Builders, 117-122. + Mounds, Antiquity of, 120. + Mounds, Extent of, 117. + Mounds, Sacrificial, 118. + Mounds, Sepulchral, 119. + Mounds, Symbolical, 119. + Mounds, Temple, 119. + Murchison, Sir Roderick I., 18, 136. + + Neolithic, 14. + + Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, 60. + Owen, Prof., 91. + + Pelvic bone from Natchez, 115. + Piers Ploughman's Creed, 135. + Piette, 82. + Pliocene beds at St. Prest, 23, 60, 61. + Pouchet, Georges, 136. + Pourtalis, Count, 116. + Pre-historic Archaeology, Divisions of, 12, 13. + Prichard, Dr., 140. + + Quatrefages, 61. + + Rames, 22. + Rawlinson, 129. + Reindeer Station on the Schusse, 23, 75. + Religious Belief, 111. + Renevier, 13. + Rigollot, Dr., 35. + Riviere, 23, 24. + Robenhausen, 98, 99. + Rock-Shelters of Bruniquel, 81. + Rollin, 123. + + Schaaffhausen, Prof., 55, 56. + Schleicher, 136. + Schlieman, Dr., 127. + Schmerling, Dr., 11, 16, 17, 44-46, 50. + Scott, P. A., 115. + Septuagint, 148. + Shell-Heaps of America, 117. + Skeleton from Lahr, 16, 41. + Skeleton from New Orleans, 116. + Skeleton from Plau, 56. + Skull, Engis, 45-51, 67. + Skull, Neanderthal, 22, 51-56, 66. + Skull, Neanderthal, Race Type, 56. + Skull from Altaville, 61. + Skull from Cochrane's Cave, 56. + Skull from Comstock Lode, 115. + Skull from Constatt, 15. + Skull from Osage Mission, 114. + Skull from Rhine, 56. + Skull of Arno, 57. + Skulls from Borreby, 57. + Skulls from Minsk, 56. + Skulls from Moen, 56. + Somme, Valley of, 18, 34. + Somme, Valley of, Implements from, 35-37. + Sons of God, 146. + Spring, Dr., 46. + Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, 151. + Steenstrup, Prof. 95, 96. + Stevens, Alfred, 23. + Stone Implements from Bournemonth, 23. + Stone Implements from Colorado and Wyoming, 62, 114. + Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, 23, 33. + Stone Implements from Gosport, 22, 33. + Stone Implements from Grinell Leads, 115. + Stone Implements from London, 15. + Stone Implements from Madrid, 20, 38. + Stone Implements from Seine, 38. + Stone Implements near Hoxne, 15. + Stone Implements, number, 105. + + Tardy, 62. + Taylor, Bayard, 124. + Tertiary beds at St. Prest, 23. + Tertiary, Climate of, 58. + Tertiary, Fauna of, in America, 59. + Tertiary, Geography of, 58. + Tournal, 16. + Troy, 127, 128. + Troyon, 13, 100. + Traffic, 91. + Tylor, 12. + Tyson, Capt., 139. + + Unity of Race, 136-142, 147. + Unity of Race, Objections to, 136. + + Vivian, 19. + Vogt, Carl, 50, 51, 57, 61. + + Wallace, A. R., 59, 136. + War, 105. + Weirley, Dr., 114. + Welcker, 137. + Westropp, 13. + Whitney, Prof., 61. + Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 115. + Wokey Hole, 68. + Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, 80, 91. + Workshops of Laugerie-Haute, 80, 91. + Worsaae, 95. + + Zawisza, Count, 88. + Zumarraga, Bishop, 131. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +[1] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 2. + +[2] Buchner, p. 269. + +[3] "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p. 238. + +[4] "Antiquity of Man," p. 68. + +[5] Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829.--Keller's +"Lake-Dwellings," p. 11. + +[6] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 286. + +[7] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 418. + +[8] "Manual of Geology," p. 590. + +[9] "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285. + +[10] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 417. + +[11] Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285; "Pre-Historic Times," p. +411. + +Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the +earth's orbit "cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen +thousand years; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to +certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length +of time; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred +and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of +climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years."--Darwin's +_Origin of Species_, p. 343. + +[12] It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more +rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Naturalist's +Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that "during one very dry and +long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it +attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand feet. It is +probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated, +rather than thawed." + +[13] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii, pp. 567-569. + +[14] Buchner, p. 118 + +[15] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 362. + +[16] "Antiquity of Man," p. 97; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315. + +[17] The "Science Record" for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these +implements says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were +made half a million years ago." + +[18] "Antiquity of Man," p. 98. "Pre-Historic Times," p. 317. + +[19] "Antiquity of Man," p. 338; Buchner, 27. + +[20] "Antiquity of Man," p. 510; Buchner, p. 27. + +[21] Buchner, pp. 118, 306. + +[22] Buchner, p. 239. + +[23] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 566. + +[24] "Antiquity of Man," p. 63. + +[25] It has been estimated by the British Association that it requires +twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite.--_Science +Record._ 1874, p. 601. + +[26] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 527. + +[27] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 146. + +[28] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337. + +[29] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80. + +[30] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 143. + +[31] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80. + +[32] Buchner, p. 263. + +[33] _Ibid._ p. 262. + +[34] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 158. + +[35] Buchner, p. 241. + +[36] Buchner, p. 240. + +[37] _Ibid._ p. 241. + +[38] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 164. + +[39] Buchner, p. 116. + +[40] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84. + +[41] _Ibid._, p. 53. + +[42] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84. + +[43] Buchner, p. 54. + +[44] Buchner, p. 242. + +[45] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270. + +[46] Buchner, p. 265. + +[47] _Ibid._, p. 54. + +[48] _Ibid._, p. 242. + +[49] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422. + +[50] _Ibid._, p. 423. + +[51] Wallace's "Natural Selection, p. 322." + +[52] Buchner, pp. 34, 252. + +[53] Buchner, p. 242. + +[54] Buchner, p. 31; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 420. + +[55] Buchner, p. 33; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421. + +[56] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270; "American Phrenological Journal, +Feb." 1874. + +Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this skull was +not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote to +Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March 1875, +inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the statement +that he had visited the place where the skull was found; that certain +persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the victim of a +joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were prejudiced +against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best informed had every +reason to believe the statements made by Professor Whitney were true. +The skull is a very remarkable one, and stands alone for the enormous +size of the orbits, and I have good reasons to believe it to have been +found as stated. + +[57] "Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that +glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations, not +to mention still more ancient formations."--Darwin's _Origin of +Species_, p. 343. + +[58] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421; Buchner, 32. + +[59] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422. + +[60] Buchner, p. 32. + +[61] "American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874. + +[62] Buchner, p. 274. + +[63] "Our Planet," p. 266. + +[64] "Science Record," 1874, p. 499. + +[65] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315. + +[66] "Origin of Civilization," p. 121. + +[67] Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 116. + +[68] Buchner, p. 248. + +[69] Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings." + +[70] "Lake-Dwellings," pp. 37, 334, 350, 360. + +[71] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394. + +[72] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 396. + +[73] "Primitive Man," p. 219. + +[74] "Primitive Man," p. 293. + +[75] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 76. + +[76] "Primitive Man," p. 200. + +[77] "Lake Dwellings," p. 319. + +[78] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 218; "Primitive Man," p. 281. + +[79] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 400. + +[80] "Science Record," p. 564. 1875. + +[81] "American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874. + +[82] Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," p. 40. + +[83] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 46. + +[84] "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. +454. + +[85] "Antiquity of Man," p. 43; "Pre-Historic Man," p. 47. + +[86] "Antiquity of Man," p. 44. + +[87] "Primitive Man," pp. 9, 77. + +[88] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 236. + +[89] "Ancient Monuments," p. 304. + +[90] Buchner, p. 35. + +[91] Rollin, vol. i. p. 138. + +[92] Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788. + +[93] Buchner, 254. + +[94] "New York Tribune", June 6, 1874. + +[95] Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189. + +[96] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432. + +[97] "Antiquity of Man," p. 36. + +[98] Bayard Taylor in "New York Tribune, Extra," No. 15. + +[99] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190. + +[100] _Ibid._ pp. 178, 175. + +[101] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 37. + +[102] "Ancient America," p. 187. + +[103] "Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21. + +[104] _Ibid._ vol. ii. p. 8. + +[105] Wake's "Chapters on Man," p. 33. + +[106] "Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and +Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man. The +first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after the +manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till, +associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use +articulate sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks +of those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate +to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony which was +framed by Mochus, the Phoenician, and afterward improved by Democritus +and Epicurus."--Pouchet's _Plurality of the Human Race_, p. 142. + +[107] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii. p. 475. "It is generally +acknowledged that all organic beings have been formed on two great +laws--Unity of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type +is meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic +beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their habits +of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of +descent."--Darwin's _Origin of Species_, p. 200. + +[108] I put myself into clothes. + +[109] Shepherd. + +[110] And. + +[111] Wonder. + +[112] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143. + +[113] Mivart's "Genesis of Species," p. 114. + +[114] "Origin of Species," p. 193. + +[115] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142. + +[116] "Chips," vol. i. pp. 63, 62. + +[117] Lady Belcher's "Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61. + +[118] "Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants of +Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the distance +between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1696, two +canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were thrown by +contrary winds and storms on the Island of Samar, one of the +Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two canoes, +one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, men, +women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep to the +island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two hundred miles." +Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his countrymen, while sailing in a +boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm, and drifted about the +sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on the produce of the sea, and +finally were picked up in an insensible condition by the inhabitants of +Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand five hundred miles distant from his +native isle.--_Principles of Geology_, vol. ii. p. 472. + +[119] "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 16. + +[120] Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180. + +[121] The idea that "bara" meant to create out of nothing is a modern +invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews and +Greeks at Alexandria. The Greeks believed that matter was co-eternal +with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to this +notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of +nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception of +_fashioning_ or _arranging_.--_Chips_, vol. i. p. 132. + +[122] "Testimony of the Rocks," Fifth Lecture. + +[123] Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man in +Genesis and Geology, p. 105); Lubbock regards him as a typical savage +(Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great +prototype of the human race? + +[124] The word _Nod_ means _to wander_, _to be driven about_, etc. It +appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It +was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have been +roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated "Wandering +Land"? + +[125] Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the +Zambesi, described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity, +"remarks, 'It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so much +more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case.' An +inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, 'God made white men, and God made +black men, but the devil made half castes.' When two races, both low in +the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be eminently bad. Thus the +noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage +disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between Indians and Negroes; and +this conclusion has been arrived at by various observers. From these +facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so many +half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage +condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral conditions under which +they generally exist."--_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, vol. +ii. p. 63. + +[126] This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the +race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its +briefness. A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words, +and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the +idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared. +The strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 26: "Hath made of one +blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth." +This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair, +but their _blood_ is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no +ancestors. When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only +to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors, the +leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not uncommon to drop +the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is given in +the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of his +grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred and +twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been dropped. If +Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the line any farther +back. The forming him of the dust of the ground would give his +relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen, endowed for the +purpose of elevating the race--of becoming the head of a new type of +humanity. + +[127] The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into +Greek, made about three hundred years B. C. The oldest existing MS. of +the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the tenth +century after the Christian era--_Chips._ vol. i. p. 11. + +[128] "Primeval Man," p. 86. + +[129] "Primeval Man," p. 87. + +[130] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195. + +[131] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. 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