28 files changed, 18878 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/35329-8.txt b/35329-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..337766a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5872 @@
+Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Manual of the Antiquity of Man
+
+Author: J. P. MacLean
+
+Release Date: February 19, 2011 [EBook #35329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+  A MANUAL
+  OF THE
+  ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+  BY
+
+  J. P. MACLEAN.
+
+  "In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been."
+                                                     --PROF. MAX MÜLLER.
+
+  _REVISED EDITION._
+
+  BOSTON:
+  UNIVERSALIST PUBLISHING HOUSE,
+  37 _Cornhill_,
+  1877.
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by
+  J. P. MACLEAN,
+
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found the minds of the
+people prepared to receive the evidences, and ready to believe the
+conclusions of the geologists. I have felt the need of a popular work to
+place in the hands of the public, that would be both instructive and
+welcome. The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too
+expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to give an
+outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable acquaintance
+with the facts connected with the new science, to such as desire the
+information but cannot pursue it further, and to serve as a manual for
+those who intend to become more proficient.
+
+As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Race are so closely
+connected with the subject, I have added the two chapters on these
+questions, hoping they will be acceptable to the reader. It was my
+intention to have written a more extended chapter on the relation of the
+Holy Scriptures to this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had
+done in other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits of
+the book.
+
+In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's "Antiquity of
+Man" and "Principles of Geology," Lubbock's "Pre-Historic Times,"
+Buchner's "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive
+Man," Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works
+of Charles Darwin, Dana's "Manual of Geology," Huxley's "Man's Place in
+Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of
+the Human Race," and others, referred to in the margins.
+
+I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cushing, for the ideal restoration
+of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving was made especially for this work.
+The references to Buchner are from his work entitled, "Man in the Past,
+Present and Future."
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+                                                                    PAGE
+    Interest in the subject--Influence of Lyell--Usher's
+    Chronology--Aimé Boué first to proclaim the high antiquity
+    of man--Dr. Schmerling the founder--Boucher de Perthes the
+    apostle--Classifications by Lubbock, Lartet, Renevier, and
+    Westropp--Plan of the work--No Universal Age of Stone,
+    Bronze, or Iron--Epochs not sharply defined--Outlines of
+    History--Superstitious Notions--Skull from Constatt--Stone
+    hatchet from London--Cavern of Gailenreuth--Axes from
+    Hoxne--Human jaw from Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr--
+    "Reliquiæ Diluvianæ"--Discoveries by Tournal and Christol--
+    Engis and Enghihoul Caverns--Schmerling's labors--Lyell's
+    opinions--Arrow mark on skull of Cave-Bear--Boucher de
+    Perthes and the Valley of the Somme--Jaw of Moulin-Quignon--
+    Kent's Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Remains from the
+    Manzanares--Cave of Aurignac--Lyell declares his belief--
+    Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland Neanderthal Skull--Caverns
+    near Torquay--Cave of Massat--Cave of Lourdes--Caverns of
+    Ariége--Tertiary at St. Prest--Implements near Gosport--
+    Bones from Colmar--Implements near Bournemouth--Trou de
+    la Naulette--Bones near Savonia--Reindeer Station--Foreland
+    Cliff--Fossil Man of Mentone--Other Discoveries near Mentone.     11
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+    Starting point for the investigation--Advance of the ice--
+    Fauna of Europe--Geological Period--Probable Date--Probable
+    Duration--Evidences of the Existence of Man--Implements from
+    Hampshire--Flint tools at Bournemouth--Oval flint from
+    Foreland Cliff--Implements from the Valley of the Somme--
+    Jaw of Moulin-Quignon--Implements from the Seine--Axes
+    near Madrid--Kent's Hole--Brixham Cave--Human jaw from
+    Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr--Cave of La Naulette--
+    Implements from Hoxne--Bones from Colmar.                         25
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GLACIAL--CONTINUED.
+
+    Belgian Caverns--Caverns of Liége--Engis Skull--Remarks of
+    Prof. Huxley--Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt--
+    Neanderthal Skull--Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr.
+    Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull--Opinions
+    of Huxley, Buchner, Schaaffhausen, and Busk--Skull from the
+    Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of
+    Moën, Minsk, and Plau--Borreby Skulls--Human skulls of Arno.      44
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.
+
+    North America during the Tertiary--Europe--Climate--Fauna of
+    Eocene--Of Miocene--Of Pliocene--Traces of Man--Opinions of
+    Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace--Man in the Pliocene--
+    Hearth under Osars--Human bones from Savonia--Discoveries at
+    St. Prest--Skull from Altaville--Prof. Denton's Statement--
+    Man in the Miocene--Flints from Pontlevoy--Flint-flake from
+    Aurillac--Marks on bones near Pouance--Implements from
+    Colorado and Wyoming--Eocene--Glacial Periods during the
+    Miocene.                                                          58
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.
+
+    No knowledge of the first appearance of Man--Fauna of India
+    during the Miocene--Intellect of Man--Contests with the
+    Beasts--A weapon invented--Earliest type--Advancement slow--
+    Climate changes--Sufferings of Man--Known by the Remains--
+    Structure of the Neanderthal Man--Engis Man--Men both large
+    and small--Animal structure of jaws from La Naulette and
+    Moulin-Quignon.                                                   63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+    Condition of the earth--Numerous traces of Man--Cave of
+    Aurignac--Conclusions of Lartet and Cartailhac--Caverns of
+    Maccagnone--Wokey Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Reindeer
+    Station on the Schusse--Dr. Buchner's Conclusions.                68
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.
+
+    Length of the Inter-Glacial--Man an improvable being--
+    Implements improved--Art of engraving begun--Religious
+    nature--Denton's description of primeval man--Language
+    improved.                                                         76
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+    Advance of the Glaciers--Fauna---Reindeer epoch a distinct
+    one--Evidences of the existence of Man--Caves of Central and
+    Southern France--Implements from Les Eyzies--Relics from La
+    Madeleine--Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse--
+    Cave and rock shelters of Bruniquel--Cave of Gourdan--Fossil
+    Man of Mentone--Other remains near Mentone--Other bone caves
+    of France--Belgian Caverns--Trou de Frontal--Trou Rosette--
+    Trou des Nutons--Cave of Chaleux--Cave at Furfooz--Cave of
+    Thayngen--Cave near Cracow.                                       79
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+    Man under a more favorable aspect--Type of--Dwellings--
+    Clothing--Food--Cannibalism--The Arts--Traffic--Burial--
+    Dupont's Report.                                                  89
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+NEOLITHIC EPOCH.
+
+    How characterized--Caves of this period--Contents of--Cave
+    of Saint Jean d'Alcas--Danish Shell-Mounds--Danish Peat
+    Bogs--Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland--Enumeration of--
+    Robenhausen--Fauna and Flora of--Troyon and Keller on--
+    Other Lake-Dwellings--Chronology.                                 94
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.
+
+    Type of--Advancement--Habitations--Clothing--Food--Arts and
+    Manufactures--Vast number of implements discovered--War--
+    Agriculture--Burial--Dolmens, Tumuli, Cromlechs, and Menhirs--
+    Victims, or Cannibalism.                                         103
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+    No direct relation to Antiquity of Man--How characterized--
+    Type--Habitation and Food--Clothing--Implements--Arts--
+    Agriculture--Fishing and Navigation--Burial--Religious
+    Belief--Stone crescents.                                         108
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+IRON EPOCH.
+
+    Civilization established--Swiss Lake-Dwellings--Dr. Keller's
+    Observations.                                                    112
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+    Great opportunities for the Archæologist--Aim of the chapter--
+    Skull from Osage Mission--Comstock lode--Charcoal at Toronto--
+    Knife from Kansas--Pelvic bone from Natchez--Skeleton from New
+    Orleans--Remains from the reefs of Florida--Caverns of Brazil--
+    Shell Heaps--Mound-Builders--Extent of Mounds--Implements of--
+    Sacrificial--Sephulchral--Temple--Symbolical--Antiquity of--
+    Fort Shelby--How long the Mound-Builders remained.               114
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WRITTEN HISTORY.
+
+    Mystery of Ancient Empires--Rollin's difficulties--Egypt--
+    Manetho's list--Statement of Herodotus--Mariette's
+    explorations--Borings in the mud deposits of the Nile--
+    Dr. Schliemann's discoveries at Troy--History of Chaldea
+    by Berosus--Astronomical calculations--Chinese history--
+    Mexican History.                                                 123
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+    A field for study--Three divisions of language--Rhematic
+    period--Origin of--Various theories--Change of--Views of
+    Ancients--Number of--Comparative permancy of written
+    language.                                                        132
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.
+
+    Objections to the Unity of the Race--Anatomical--
+    Geographical--Disparity of--Non-existence of medium types--
+    Phenomena caused by two united types--Objections answered--
+    Both man and animals affected by climate, food, and
+    condition--Examples--Argument from language--Ocean navigated
+    by frail crafts--Examples--Captain Tyson and party--The two
+    extremes exist in all nations, and even in families--People
+    who have retrograded--Races will amalgamate and perpetuate
+    their kind--Griquas--Papuas--Pitcairn Islanders--Law of
+    hybridity--Close affinity of the races--Slow change of.          136
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE BIBLE.
+
+    Controversy--Perversion of meaning--Men of science branded--
+    Design of the chapter--Creation--"Bara"--Day--Man's
+    appearance--Two accounts--Case of Cain--Sons of God--Remarks
+    of Dr. Livingstone--Doctrine of unity of the race--
+    Chronology--The Deluge--Septuagint--Monarchies--The
+    Dispersion--Opinion of Dr. Hedge--No supernatural aid in the
+    formation of Language--What God may do does not imply what
+    he has done--Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of Creation.   143
+
+
+
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the attention of
+geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The interest was greatly
+increased by the publication of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man."
+This work called the attention of the public to the subject, and so
+great became the interest that many volumes and memoirs have been added
+to the list, discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most
+part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw more light on
+the subject. The scientific men were slow to take advantage of the
+discoveries continually being made of the bones and works of man found
+in caves and associated with the remains' of extinct animals. It is
+probable, even at this late day, there would not have been so much
+discussion of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of
+his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to doubt the
+correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and so complete has been
+the revolution of opinion that it is almost impossible to find an
+intelligent man who would limit the period of man's existence to 6,000
+years.
+
+To Aimé Boué, a French geologist, must be attributed the honor of having
+been the first to proclaim the high antiquity of the human race; to Dr.
+Schmerling, the learned Belgian osteologist, on account of his
+laborious investigations, untiring zeal, and great work on the subject,
+the merited title of being the founder of the new science; to M. Boucher
+de Perthes, its great apostle; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John
+Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made the new theory
+popular.
+
+The new science soon became permanently established, and the geologists
+at once set about classifying the facts before them, in order to assign
+to them their respective places in the geological epochs. All are agreed
+in respect to the chronological orders, but all have not used the same
+nomenclature, in consequence of which more or less confusion has been
+the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic archæology into four
+great epochs, as follows:
+
+"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession of Europe with the
+mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct
+animals. This we may call the 'Palæolithic' period.
+
+"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period characterized by
+beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of
+stone; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any
+metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for
+ornaments. This we may call the 'Neolithic' period.
+
+"III. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cutting
+instruments of all kinds.
+
+"IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms,
+axes, knives, etc."[1]
+
+These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor.
+
+Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification:
+
+I. THE STONE AGE.
+
+1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and mammoth).
+
+2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer epoch).
+
+3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished stone
+epoch).
+
+II. THE METAL AGE.
+
+1st. The Bronze Epoch.
+
+2d. The Iron Epoch.
+
+This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his "Primitive Man,"
+by the Museum of Saint-Germain in that portion devoted to pre-historic
+antiquities, and adhered to in essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac.
+
+Professor Renevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a somewhat different
+scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss glaciation. It is as follows:
+
+"I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+elephant (_Elephas antiquus_), rhinoceros (_R. hemitæchus_), and the
+cave-bear (_Ursus spelæus_).
+
+"II. _Glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_),
+cave-bear, etc.
+
+"III. _Post-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+mammoth and reindeer (_Cervus tarandus_).
+
+"IV. _Last Epoch_, or epoch of the _Pile-buildings_, in which man lived
+cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (_Megaceros hibernicus_), aurochs
+(_Bison Europæus_)," etc.[2]
+
+Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his stages of
+civilization, as follows: _Savagery_, _hunters_, _herdsmen_, and
+_agriculturists_.
+
+In the following pages a somewhat different classification has been
+adopted, and may be thus explained:
+
+I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_; that period antedating the glaciers of the
+post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the animals of
+the tertiary, southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_), etc.
+
+II. _Glacial Epoch_; that period of the post-tertiary when man was
+forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the floods immediately
+succeeding them, when the mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R.
+tichorrhinus_), cave-bear, etc., began to flourish.
+
+III. _Interglacial Epoch_; that period between the glacial and the
+second advance of the ice, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+animals of the preceding epoch, and the cave bear became extinct.
+
+IV. _Reindeer Epoch_; that period when the glaciers again advanced; in
+which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of the reindeer (_C.
+tarandus_), that animal having made its way in numerous herds as far
+south as the Pyrenees.
+
+V. _Neolithic Epoch_; that period in which man polished his weapons of
+stone, and sought to domesticate certain animals, the dog, etc.
+
+VI. _Bronze Epoch_; that period characterized by weapons and implements
+being made chiefly of bronze.
+
+VII. _Iron Epoch_; that period in which bronze was generally superseded
+by iron.
+
+This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that could be
+devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evidences of the
+existence of man in their relative geological positions.
+
+Other methods have misled the student. There was no universal Stone,
+Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification given by Lubbock applies to
+Europe, but is too general. I have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want
+of a better term, although the signification of the word is appropriate
+to the period it is intended to represent.
+
+These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one from the other;
+but one merges into the other by gradual progression covering a period
+of thousands of years. The growth of the various plants and animals, and
+their retreat or final extinction, have also been very slow.
+
+An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a careful
+investigation of the question, and which resolved the question into a
+science, is not only one of interest but also of importance to the
+careful thinker seeking information on the subject.
+
+Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people had so little
+notion of the nature and signification of the stone axes and weapons of
+earlier and later times that they were regarded with superstitious fear
+and hope, and as productions of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long
+time they were called thunderbolts even by the learned.... As late as
+the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy of Paris that these
+stones were human implements, he was laughed at, because he had not
+proved that they could not have been formed in the clouds."[3]
+
+As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of the calcareous
+tuff of Constatt, in company with the bones of the mammoth. It is
+preserved in the Natural History Museum at Stuttgart.
+
+In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in London, by the side
+of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which have been
+subsequently found in great numbers in different parts of the world.
+This hatchet is still preserved in the British Museum.
+
+In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. F. Esper discovered
+some human bones mingled with the remains of extinct animals.
+
+In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great numbers from a
+brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where they occurred at a
+depth of twelve feet, mingled with the bones of extinct species of
+animals. They were gathered up and thrown by basketsful upon the
+neighboring road. In the year 1801, before the Society of Antiquaries,
+John Frere read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they pointed
+to a very remote period. This communication, short as it was, contained
+the essence of all subsequent discoveries and speculations as to the
+antiquity of man. But the society regarded the subject as of no
+importance.
+
+During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hollerd, there was
+found, near Maestricht, in the _loess_, a human jaw in company with the
+bones of extinct animals. This bone is preserved in the museum at
+Leyden.
+
+In 1823, Aimé Boué disinterred portions of a human skeleton from ancient
+undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small village nearly opposite Strasbourg.
+These bones were placed in the care of Cuvier, but, having been
+neglected, are now lost.
+
+In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, published his
+"Reliquiæ Diluvianæ," a work principally devoted to a description of the
+Kirkdale Cave. The author combined all the known facts which favored the
+coexistence of man, with the extinct animals.
+
+In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous caverns in the
+south of France. In the cavern of Bize, Tournal found human bones and
+teeth, and fragments of rude pottery, together with the bones of both
+living and extinct species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and
+breccia, cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same
+chemical condition as those of the extinct species.
+
+M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes, some human bones
+in the same mud with the bones of an extinct hyena and rhinoceros.
+
+In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns of Engis and
+Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found the Engis skull (now in the
+museum of the University of Liége), at a depth of nearly five feet,
+under an osseous breccia. The earth also contained the teeth of
+rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and exhibited no marks of
+disturbance. He also found the skull of a young person imbedded by the
+side of a mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell
+to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul he found
+numerous bones belonging to three human individuals, mingled with the
+bones of extinct animals. In these caves he noted rude flint
+instruments, but did not collect many of them. In the care of Chokier,
+he discovered a polished and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole
+pierced through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have
+been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains.
+
+Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a work which
+described and represented a vast quantity of objects which had been
+discovered in the Belgian caverns. The scientific men were not yet
+prepared to receive the new discoveries, and it attracted but little
+attention at that time.
+
+Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling for his
+unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell has said: "To have
+undertaken, in 1832, with a view of testing its truth (antiquity of
+fossil human bones) to follow the Belgian philosopher through every
+stage of his observations and proofs, would have been no easy task even
+for one well-skilled in geology and osteology. To be let down, as
+Schmerling was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide
+to the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the
+best-preserved human skulls were found; and, after thus gaining access
+to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours through a
+contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there to superintend by
+torchlight, week after week and year after year, the workmen who were
+breaking through the stalagmitic crust as hard as marble, in order to
+remove piece by piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard; to
+stand for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping from
+the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position and guard against
+the loss of each single bone of a skeleton; and at length, after finding
+leisure, strength, and courage for all these operations, to look
+forward, as the fruits of one's labor, to the publication of unwelcome
+intelligence, opposed to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as
+the unscientific public;--when these circumstances are taken into
+account, we need scarcely wonder.... that a quarter of a century should
+have elapsed before even the neighboring professors of the University
+of Liége came forth to vindicate the truthfulness of their indefatigable
+and clear-sighted countryman."[4]
+
+In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier, found in
+the cave of Nabrigas (Lozére) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an
+arrow had left its mark. Close by, was a fragment of pottery marked by
+the finger of the moulder.
+
+It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of France) that
+M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint-axes of the rudest form.
+His explorations had been going on for a long time. He did all he could
+to bring these discoveries before the public. In the year 1836 he began
+to proclaim the high antiquity of man, in a series of communications
+addressed to the Société d'Emulation of Abbeville. To the same society,
+in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes he had found, but without
+result. In 1839, he took these hatchets to Paris, and showed them to
+some of the members of the Institute. At first they gave some
+encouragement toward these researches; but this favorable feeling did
+not last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which has since
+become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained workmen to dig in the
+diluvial beds, and in a short time he had collected twenty specimens of
+flint wrought by the hand of man, though in a very rude state. In 1846,
+he published his first work on the subject, entitled "De l'Industrie
+Primitive, ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he
+published his "Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes," in which he
+gave illustrations of these stone implements. This work attracted no
+attention until the year 1854, when a French _savant_, named Rigollot,
+made a personal examination and was successful in his search for these
+relicts in the neighborhood of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C.
+Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, and
+other eminent scientists.
+
+Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was rewarded, in the year
+1863, by finding the lower half of a human jaw bone, covered with an
+earthy crust, which he extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at
+Abbeville. A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They
+were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone has been
+called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved in the Museum of
+Natural History at Paris.
+
+The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation among English
+geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk went to France and
+examined the locality where the bone was found. They went away satisfied
+with both its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however,
+doubted its authenticity; but at the present time all, or nearly all,
+recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher de Perthes.
+
+Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in 1869, in
+finding a number of human bones presenting the same character as the jaw
+of Moulin-Quignon.
+
+In 1840, Rev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found in a cave,
+called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives among the remains of
+the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena, and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under
+a crust of stalagmite. Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave
+as early as 1825. He did not publish his notes on his discoveries but
+they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they were obtained by Mr.
+Vivian.
+
+Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geological Society in the
+year 1840, states, in his description of Kent's Hole, he found works of
+art in all parts of the cave.
+
+The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in an old volcanic
+tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay, Central France, an account of
+which was first published by Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who
+have examined these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic
+regions of Central France, declared that they believed them to have
+been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in which they
+are now seen.
+
+In the years 1845-1850, Casiano de Prado made discoveries on the banks
+of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They consisted of portions of the
+skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a nearly perfect skeleton of an
+elephant in the diluvial sand. Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were
+several flint axes of human workmanship.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1. SIR CHARLES LYELL.]
+
+Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named Bonnemaison, in the
+year 1852, accidently discovered a cave containing the remains of
+seventeen human skeletons. These bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the
+mayor of Aurignac, who was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the
+parish cemetery. The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten, and
+this treasure is now lost to science. In 1860, the cave was explored by
+Edward Lartet. After a long and patient examination, he came to the
+conclusion that the cave was a human burial place, cotemporary with the
+mammoth and other great animals of the quaternary epoch.
+
+It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, that Sir
+Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiquity of the human
+race. He had before opposed the idea, but was convinced of the truth by
+personal examination of human bones and flint hatchets, from the
+quarries of St. Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations,
+and, in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific
+public, he published his "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,"
+in 1863. In the last edition of his "Principles of Geology," he bestows
+considerable space to the discussion of the subject. He was closely
+followed, in the same view, by other eminent geologists.
+
+The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland were discovered
+in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter was so dry and cold that the
+water of the lakes fell far below its ordinary level. On account of
+this, a large tract of ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people
+throwing up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on which
+stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and stone implements,
+and various other relics, were discovered.[5] Dr. Keller, of Zurich,
+examined the objects, and at once came to a right understanding as to
+their signification. He carefully examined the remains, and described
+these lake habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian
+Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In 1866 these
+memoirs were translated into English by J. E. Lee, together with
+articles from other antiquaries, under the title of "The Lake Dwellings
+of Switzerland, and other parts of Europe." This work contains
+ninety-seven plates, besides many wood-cuts.
+
+Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time to time, been
+published, but they are included in the translated work of Dr. Keller.
+
+The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, in the
+year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near Düsseldorf, in a deep ravine
+known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull, with parts of the skeleton
+to which it belonged, was found under a layer of mud, about five feet in
+thickness. It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfeld, Rhenish
+Prussia.
+
+In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far from Kent's Hole.
+This cave was examined by a scientific commission. At first it was
+undertaken by the Royal Society, but when its grants had failed, Miss
+Burdett-Coutts paid the expenses of completing the work. In this cave,
+under a layer of stalagmite, were found many flint knives, associated
+with the bones of extinct mammals.
+
+M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department of Ariége), in
+1859, human teeth and utensils associated with the remains of the
+cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave-lion (_Felis speloea_).
+
+In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of human industry
+mingled with the fossil bones of animals, in the cave of Lourdes,
+France.
+
+In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the researches which he,
+in conjunction with Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of Ariége.
+These explorers found the jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion,
+which had been wrought by the hands of man.
+
+In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St. Prest
+(Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desnoyers found the bones of
+extinct animals which were cut or notched by flint instruments. In the
+same strata Abbé Bourgeois discovered implements of stone. He
+communicated his discoveries to the International Congress held at Paris
+in 1867.
+
+In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midway between Gosport and
+Southampton, included in gravel from eight to twelve feet thick, capping
+a cliff which at its greatest height is thirty-five feet above
+high-water mark. These flint tools exactly resemble those found at
+Abbeville and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore Museum
+at Salisbury.
+
+In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, Alsace,
+human bones in the same bed with bones of the mammoth, horse, stag,
+auroch, and other animals.
+
+In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the gravel at the
+top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth opening, Southampton river.
+Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to the west of the valley, obtained two other
+flint implements. The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867.
+
+Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer, in the year 1866,
+found a fragment of a human jaw in the Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave
+situated on the bank of the river Lesse not far from Chaleux.
+
+At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported he had found
+several human bones in beds of Pliocene age, near Savonia, in Liguria.
+
+The Reindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was discovered in 1867,
+during the operations undertaken for the improvement of a mill-pond. The
+Schusse is a little river which flows into the lake of Constance, and
+its source is upon the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of
+Constance and the upper course of the Danube.
+
+In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint implement in gravel
+at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of Wight, five miles southeast of
+Ryde.
+
+The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1873, by M. Riviére, in a
+cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was almost entire, and imbedded
+twenty feet below the surface of the deposit.
+
+In 1873, M. Riviére discovered another human skeleton, by the side of
+which lay a few unpolished stone implements, in one of the caves in the
+same neighborhood.
+
+In 1873 and 1874, M. Riviére was again so fortunate as to discover, in
+neighboring caves, the remains of three persons, two of them those of
+children. The skeletons were in the same condition, and decked with
+similar ornaments, as those he had previously discovered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+
+Happily for the Archæo-geologist, there is given him a point from which
+to start in his researches into the antiquity of his race. Without it
+his calculations would be very indefinite and his efforts would be shorn
+of much of their interest. The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind
+of both the geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may
+not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages and number
+the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more importance, in this
+investigation, than an understanding of the condition of the earth prior
+to the glacial, and the knowledge of the date and length of this epoch.
+
+For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been preparing itself
+for the reception of man. There was an abundance of game, the forests
+were beautiful, the domestic animals had made their appearance, the
+climate was warm, the soil rich, and the coal had been formed.
+Everything seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who
+had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were fierce and
+savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but a motive power to stir
+man to action and develop the resources of his mind. Should he fail for
+a time to overcome the wild beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow
+recesses of the earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished.
+The earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the
+devastations of water, and now her long summer must come to an end. The
+arctic regions had been growing colder and colder, and the change was
+felt in the countries to the south. The northern animals were being
+clothed with a hairy or woolly garment for their protection. The aspect
+began to be forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy,
+but foreboded he should perish along with the many species of animals
+that were gradually succumbing to the cold. Great fields of ice were
+slowly accumulating at both the poles, and at last, by the power of
+their great weight, assisted by some geographical changes, began to move
+toward the equator, crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either
+driving before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their
+relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The mountains groaned
+under the enormous weight of ice. Their heads were scarred, their sides
+bruised, torn and cut. The icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of
+earth, the lowing of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed
+before the sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal
+heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The northern ice
+was broken up by the time it reached latitude 39° North America, leaving
+its indelible traces in the bowlders, gravel, beds of sand and clay
+which mark its course. In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south
+as Spain and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions extended as
+far as latitude 41° south.
+
+_Fauna of Europe._--Among the Fauna may be mentioned the gigantic
+elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now
+exist, which roamed in herds over England, and extended across the
+Siberian plains and from Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned
+rhinoceroses wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests.
+Hippopotamuses inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear,
+which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave-tiger, twice
+as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the animals of less strength
+than themselves. Troops of hyenas, larger than those of South America,
+disputed with other beasts of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and
+leopard found retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable
+carnivorous animal called _Machairodus_, about the size of a tiger, and
+from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth, must have been a very
+destructive creature. The lemming and the musk ox found a home, and the
+wild horse pranced about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great
+Irish elks swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been very
+numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs and
+marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there was also a species of
+gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant, that subsisted on the
+plains. All these animals followed the retreat of the glaciers and some
+of them were in close proximity to the ice.
+
+_Geological Period._--The glacial epoch occurred during the geological
+period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary had gradually passed
+away and its time had been recorded on the pages of geological history.
+A new epoch began to dawn. This was the epoch of ice, the birth and
+almost the childhood of the post-tertiary.
+
+_Probable Date._--In discussing the probable date of the glacial epoch,
+Sir Charles Lyell says, "The attempt to assign a chronological value to
+any of our geological periods except the latest, must, in the present
+state of science, be hopeless. Nevertheless, independently of all
+astronomical considerations, it must, I think, be conceded that the
+period required for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its
+duration when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was
+subject, as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the 'great thaw' or
+disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where the snow was once
+perpetual, required not tens but hundreds of thousands of years. Less
+time would not suffice for the changes in physical geography and organic
+life of which we have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not
+appear startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have been
+two hundred thousand years ago, although this date must be considered
+as very conjectural, and one which may be as likely to err in deficiency
+of time as in excess."[6]
+
+Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations made by Mr.
+Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers in excavating valleys
+and lowering the general level of the country, says, "As regards the
+higher districts, however, his data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we
+apply them to the valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two
+hundred feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the
+palæolithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hundred and forty
+thousand years."[7]
+
+Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says, in speaking
+of the time required to excavate the gorge of Niagara River, that "on
+both sides of the gorge near the whirlpool, and also at Goat Island,
+there are beds of recent lake shells ... the same kinds that live in
+still water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found in
+the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters, when these
+beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirlpool. A tooth of a
+mastodon (_M. giganteus_) has been found in the same beds. This locates
+the time in the Champlain epoch.... Six miles of the gorge have been
+excavated since that mastodon was alive....
+
+"There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool through the
+Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of Lewiston. This
+valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch, and this blocking up
+of the channel may have compelled it to open a new passage.
+
+"If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we can ascertain
+the probable rate of progress, we may approximate to the length of time
+it required. Hall and Lyell estimated the average rate at one foot a
+year,--which is certainly large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of
+the falls, that it was 'more nearly three feet a century than three feet
+a year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will have
+required over thirty-one thousand years; if at one inch a year--which is
+eight and one third feet a century--three hundred and eighty thousand
+years."[8]
+
+The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch. As this epoch
+was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be either thrown still
+farther back, or else allow the calculations to begin with the end of
+the glacial.
+
+_Probable Duration._--Lyell has attempted to form an estimate of the
+duration of the glacial epoch by considering "the most simple series of
+changes in physical geography which can possibly account for the
+phenomena of the glacial period," and enumerates as follows:
+
+"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the forest of
+Cromer flourished; when the land was at least five hundred feet above
+its present level, perhaps much higher, and its extent probably greater
+than that given in the map, Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the
+British Isles are connected with one another, and with the
+continent--the German Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry
+land).
+
+"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the
+Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was gradually reduced
+to an archipelago; and finally to such a general prevalence of sea as is
+seen in map, Fig. 39." (This map is intended to represent the British
+Isles as they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged to two
+thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one thousand three hundred
+feet.) "This was the period of submergence and of floating ice, when the
+Scandinavian flora, which occupied the lower grounds during the first
+continental period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only
+lands not covered with perpetual snow.
+
+"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial sea,
+with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when the
+quantity of land equalled that of the first period.... During this
+period there were glaciers in the higher mountains of Scotland and
+Wales....
+
+"The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand four hundred
+feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require fifty-six thousand
+years, at the rate of two and a half feet per century; but taking
+Professor Ramsay's estimate of eight hundred feet more, that depression
+being required for the deposition of some of the stratified drift, we
+must demand an additional period of thirty-two thousand years, amounting
+in all to eighty-eight thousand; and the same time would be required for
+the reëlevation of the tract to its present height. But if the land rose
+in the second continental period no more than six hundred above the
+present level ... this ... would have taken another twenty-six thousand
+years; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the submergence
+and reëmergence, having taken, in round numbers, two hundred and
+twenty-four thousand years for its completion; and this, even if there
+were no pause or stationary period, when the downward movement ceased,
+and before it was converted into an upward one."[9]
+
+Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet per century is
+a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and there are cases where the
+change is even six feet a century, yet the average rate of motion, he
+thinks, will not exceed that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock
+believes most geologists will agree.[10]
+
+By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon which a
+calculation can be made as to the time when this epoch began. At the
+time of the most intense cold the eccentricity of the earth's orbit
+was .0575; the difference in millions of miles between the greatest and
+least distances of the earth from the sun 10-1/2; the number of days by
+which winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in
+perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest summer month in
+the latitude of London when the summer occurs in perihelion, 113°; the
+mean temperature of the coldest winter month in the latitude of London
+when the winter occurs in aphelion, 0° 7'. Sixty thousand years later
+the eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332; the difference of
+distance in millions of miles was 6; number of winter days in
+excess, 16.1; mean of hottest month in latitude of London, 95°, and mean
+of coldest month 12°. It is evident then at this time (one hundred and
+fifty thousand years ago) a "great thaw" had taken place and the
+glaciers driven back, although fifty thousand years later less intense
+cold set in again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great
+thaw" from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme point to have
+been two hundred and ten thousand years ago, then one hundred and eighty
+thousand years ago the glaciers had become so broken up as to allow
+vegetation to spring up in many localities, and the wild beasts to
+partially reassert their dominion. If to this be added the time required
+for the duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four
+thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumulate was four
+hundred and four thousand years ago. But if the tables of Mr. Croll be
+correct, their beginning could not have been earlier than three hundred
+and fifty thousand years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit
+varied but little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand
+years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.[11]
+
+During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have melted very
+rapidly,[12] for great rivers were formed, and the water pouring down
+its icy bed sought other streams, and on the bosom of the earth swept
+away loose sediment, depositing it along the course of rivers and in
+caves of the earth, covering the remains of man along with those of
+animals that perished during the long winter of ice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2. STREAM ISSUING FROM A GLACIER.]
+
+_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--The traces of man in the deposits
+made during the glacial epoch are numerous. Out of the many, the most
+noted will be given, with a view to their chronological order.
+
+In all probability the very oldest implements of the post-tertiary, and
+consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch, if not of the pliocene,
+are those found in the south of Hampshire, between Gosport and
+Southampton. They came from a tabular mass of drift which caps the
+tertiary strata. "The great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary
+strata, in which these implements have been found, consists in most
+places of half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded
+pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata.... Many of them exhibit the
+same colors and ochreous stain as do the flints in the gravel in which
+they lay."
+
+West of the Southampton estuary, "on both sides of the opening at
+Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have been met with in the
+gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel from which the flint tool was
+taken at Bournemouth is about one hundred feet above the level of the
+sea.... The gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from
+tertiary strata."
+
+The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top of the Foreland
+cliff "is of the true palæolithic type, and the gravel in which it is
+imbedded at the height of about eighty feet above the level of the sea,
+may have once extended to the cliffs near Gosport; in which case we
+should have to infer that the channel called the Solent had not yet
+been scooped out when this region was inhabited by palæolithic man."[13]
+
+It may be safely inferred that the implements in the above three
+enumerations were imbedded at about the same time.
+
+The flint implements from the valley of the Somme, which have been of so
+much interest, and convinced so many sceptical geologists, belong to the
+early part of this epoch. This valley may be represented by Fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3. SECTION ACROSS THE SOMME IN PICARDY.
+
+    1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, _a_.
+
+    2. Lower level gravel, with elephants' bones and flint tools
+       covered with fluviatile loam, twenty to forty feet thick.
+
+    3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam.
+       In all thirty feet thick.
+
+    4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick.
+
+    5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches.]
+
+In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that No. 2
+indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher ones, which are
+from eighty to one hundred feet above the river. Of a later date than
+these is the peat, No. 1, which is from ten to thirty feet in thickness.
+Underneath the peat is a bed of gravel, _a_, from three to fourteen feet
+thick, resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and the peat
+is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of the valley of the
+Somme is a pretty fair representation of the arrangements of the
+different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and and St. Acheul.
+
+In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked by 2 and 3.
+The two are separated by a layer of fresh-water deposits, which contains
+river shells and is sometimes as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower,
+or gray diluvium, (No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the
+glaciers of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immediately
+upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint hatchets, together
+with the bones of the mammoth and fossil rhinoceros.
+
+In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, the following
+figure is given.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4. SECTION OF A GRAVEL-PIT AT ST. ACHEUL.
+
+    1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick.
+
+    2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few
+       angular flints.
+
+    3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and
+       fresh-water shells, covered with a thin layer of angular gravel
+       from one to two feet thick.
+
+    4. A bed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled
+       tertiary pebbles. In this bed the flint implements are chiefly
+       found--ten to fourteen feet thick.
+
+    5. Formation of chalk.
+        _a._ Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface.
+        _b._ Entire molar of mammoth (_E primigenius_), seventeen feet
+             from surface.
+        _c._ Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface.
+        _d._ Gravel projecting five feet.]
+
+At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of flint
+implements. Some of them have the shape of a spear-head, and are over
+seven inches in length. The oval-shaped hatchets are so rude in some
+instances as to require a practised eye to decide their human origin. In
+the same bed are found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the
+centre. Dr. Rigollot has suggested that these perforated stones or
+gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung together as beads.
+
+In this bed, No. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was found a
+mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth, in densely compressed
+gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an oval form.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ST. ACHEUL.
+
+    Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches
+    long.
+
+      _a._ Side view.
+      _b._ Same seen edgewise.
+
+    "These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number,
+    proportionally to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St.
+    Acheul, than in any of the lower gravels in the valley of the
+    Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates, especially at
+    Abbeville."--_Antiquity of Man_, p. 114.]
+
+That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown, not only from
+the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also from the great blocks of
+hard sandstone, some of which are over four feet in diameter. These
+large fragments not only abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and
+lower level gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but
+they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old diluvium occurs.
+All of these sandstones have been derived from the tertiary strata which
+once covered the chalk.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ABBEVILLE.
+
+    _a._ Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half
+         size of original, which is five and a half inches long, from
+         a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio-marine stratum.
+
+    _b._ Same seen edgewise.
+
+    _c._ Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point
+         _a_, or near the top. This portion of the tool, _c_, is drawn
+         of the natural size, the black central part being the unaltered
+         flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed
+         by discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made.
+
+    The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first
+    shaped, and the bleaching to such a depth must have been the
+    work of time, whether produced by exposure to the sun and air
+    before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep in the
+    soil.--_Antiquity of Man._]
+
+As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the same as those of
+St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what has already been said will
+apply to them. These implements have been found in these localities in
+great numbers, as several thousand of them already taken from the beds
+will amply testify.
+
+From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes, at Abbeville,
+and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the celebrated human bone
+known as the _jaw_ of Moulin-Quignon. It was cotemporary with the axes,
+and undoubtedly some of the flint implements there found were fashioned
+by the man of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part.
+
+This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as displaying "a
+tendency toward the animal structure in the shortness and breadth of the
+ascending ramus (the perpendicular portion of the lower jaw), the equal
+height of the two apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a
+continuous part of the body of the bone), the indication of prognathism
+(projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse angle at which the ramus
+joins the body of the bone.[14]
+
+Near the same locality other human bones were discovered Which presented
+the same characteristics.
+
+Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint implements could be
+found in the valley of the Seine, in beds similar to those of Abbeville,
+the antiquaries were soon rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction
+was fulfilled. M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of
+implements in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains
+of animals of that period.
+
+The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is very similar to
+those of Abbeville. "First, vegetable soil; then about twenty-five feet
+of sand and pebbles, under which was a layer of sandy loam, in which,
+during the year 1850, a complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered.
+Underneath this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in which
+some flint axes, very closely resembling those of Amiens, have been
+discovered."[15]
+
+The remains of man are also preserved in caverns associated with the
+fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, cave-bear,
+and other extinct quadrupeds. Among these should be noticed Kent's Hole,
+which has furnished a mine of wealth. Of his discoveries Godwin-Austen
+says: "Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and knives of
+flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout the entire
+thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded on condition,
+distribution, or relative position can be observed, whereby the human
+can be separated from the other reliquiæ," which included bones of the
+mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_), cave-bear
+(_Ursus spelæus_), cave-hyena (_H. spelæus_), and other mammalia. These
+researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had never been
+disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance, were procured from
+undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick covering of stalagmite; and
+all these must have been introduced before the stalagmite flooring had
+been formed.[16] These specimens of man's handicraft were found far
+below the stalagmite floor.[17] Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brixham
+Cave. The following gives the general succession of deposits forming the
+contents of the cavern:
+
+1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches in
+thickness.
+
+2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to fifteen feet in
+thickness.
+
+3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet in depth.
+
+In the second layer there were found the remains of the mammoth,
+rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, reindeer, and seven other
+species. Indiscriminately mixed with these bones were found many flint
+knives, but chiefly from the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth,
+varying in depth from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of
+these cannot be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no
+other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was
+discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every bone in
+its natural position. From the bone earth there were taken fifteen
+knives, recognized, by the experienced antiquaries, as having been
+artificially formed. In the lowest gravel, underlying all, there were
+found imperfect specimens of flint knives. The fine layer of mud was
+deposited by the slow but regular action of water. Since these layers
+were formed the stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its
+former level.[18]
+
+On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are terraces of
+gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on the left bank, one of
+these terraces projects into the alluvial plain of the Meuse. During the
+construction of the canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty
+feet. The upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty feet
+of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks, and bones of
+elephants, together with those of other mammalia, and a human lower jaw
+with teeth, were found in or near this gravel. The human jaw was at a
+depth of nineteen feet from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam,
+beneath a stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the
+gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was intact and had
+never been disturbed. But the jaw was somewhat isolated, and the nearest
+fossil object was the tusk of an elephant six yards distant, though on a
+horizontal plane. This fossil is probably older than that discovered at
+Lahr. It was probably covered just before the gush of the water when it
+first began to flow from the gorges and had washed the ground at some
+distance from the ice.[19]
+
+The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the Rhine, near Lahr,
+was found in nearly a horizontal position, but in such a manner as to
+forbid the idea of sepulchre. These bones were exhumed from a
+perpendicular cliff of solid loess, about five feet high. The town of
+Lahr is situated four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the
+Rhine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the Schutter,
+flowing from the Black Forest.
+
+In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the the loess is two
+hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty feet above the Schutter. At
+Lahr it has been denuded so as to form a succession of terraces on the
+right bank. It was in the lowest of these from which the skeleton was
+taken. Immediately below this bed there were found pebbles, and still
+lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of sandstone
+and gneiss from the Black Forest.
+
+There are several interesting facts connected with this discovery. M.
+Boué considers that the loess of the Lahr is continuous with that of the
+Rhine, and before the loess had been denuded there was not less than
+eighty feet of loamy deposit above the human skeleton. The glaciers had
+deposited their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melting of
+them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then when the torrents
+poured forth from the glaciers the loam was formed without the pebbles.
+The unfortunate man, whose remains were found, was buried far beneath
+the surface, during the very first part of the course of the violent
+streams pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then on
+the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim while on the
+chase.[20]
+
+The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone similar to the
+Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a river deposit of loam covered with
+a layer of stalagmite, and at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface.
+Associated with it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired
+rhinoceros, and flint implements. These implements present the same type
+as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a human ulna, two
+human teeth, and a fragment of a worked reindeer born. This jaw-bone is
+very thick, round in form, and the projection of the chin is almost
+entirely absent. The chin is said to hold an intermediate position
+between that of the animals and those of the present race of men. The
+cavities for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one of
+the most remarkable things is that the three molars are reversed, that
+is the first true molar is the smallest, and the last the largest. The
+inner surface of the jaw at the point of the suture or symphysis, forms
+a line obliquely directed upwards. Taking the jaw all in all, it is the
+most ape-like human jaw ever discovered.[21]
+
+The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three different layers
+or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a half in depth. The second
+was clay, seven and a half feet thick. The third, a bed of sand, with
+shells one foot in thickness. The fourth layer, containing the
+implements was a bed of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these
+flints was so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and
+thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account of the great
+number, this spot might have been the place where they were
+manufactured. Their date is not coeval with the bowlder clay, but
+undoubtedly belong, to the last of this epoch.
+
+The human bones found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, were two
+fossilized fragments of the skull. They were found in undisturbed soil
+along with the fossil bones of the extinct species of mammoth, horse,
+gigantic deer, aurochs, and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull
+"showed a depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches,
+and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called _dolichocephalic_,
+or long-headed form."[22] These remains date so near the end of the
+glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH--CONTINUED.
+
+
+_Belgian Caverns._--The relics discovered by Dr. Schmerling, in the
+caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time of the retreat of the
+glaciers. The glaciers were still in existence, but their receding had
+freed immense tracts of land, and the space they now covered was small
+in proportion to their former extent. Whether it be considered or not,
+that vegetation greatly nourished and the great wild beasts were rapidly
+increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is, floods must have
+succeeded or followed closely upon the retreat of the ice. Many remains,
+referred to the glacial epoch, may in reality, have occupied the time of
+the floods occurring just previous to the commencement of the
+inter-glacial.
+
+The Belgian Caverns, near Liége, either belong exactly to the ice, or
+else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers the older monuments of
+the palæolithic period to be the rude implements found in ancient river
+gravel and in the mud and stalagmite caves.[23] Caves of this
+description are those reported on by Dr. Schmerling.
+
+The caverns of the province of Liége were not the dens of wild beasts,
+but their contents had been swept in by the action of water. The bones
+of man "were of the same color, and in the same condition as to the
+amount of animal matter contained in them, as those of the accompanying
+animals, some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and
+rhinoceros, were extinct; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild boar,
+roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils were lighter
+than fresh bones, except such as had their pores filled with carbonate
+of lime, in which case they were often much heavier. The human remains
+of most frequent occurrence were teeth detached from the jaw, and the
+carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones separated
+from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding bones of the cave-bear,
+the most abundant of the accompanying mammalia, were also found in the
+Liége caverns more commonly than any others, and in the same scattered
+condition."[24] In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a
+triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud. Dr.
+Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he was engrossed in
+his osteological inquiries. The human bones were met with at all depths,
+in the cave mud and gravel, both above and below those of the extinct
+mammalia.
+
+The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalagmite.[25] In the
+cavern at Chokier there occur "three distinct beds of stalagmite, and
+between each of them a mass of breccia, and mud mixed with quartz
+pebbles, and in the three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds."[26]
+
+
+FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE.
+
+The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited at a depth of
+about five feet, under an osseous breccia containing a tusk of the
+rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the remains of small animals.
+The breccia was about three and one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the
+height of about five feet above the floor of the cavern. In the earth
+which contained the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides,
+the teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no marks
+of the earth having been disturbed.
+
+There was also found the cranium of a young person, in the floor of the
+cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. When first observed, the skull was
+entire, but fell to pieces when removed from its position. Besides these
+there were found a fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar
+teeth worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man; two
+vertebræ, a first and last dorsal; a clavicle of the left side,
+belonging to a young individual of great stature; two fragments of the
+radius, indicating a man of ordinary height; a fragment of an ulna: some
+metacarpal bones; six metatarsal, three phalanges of the hand and one of
+the foot.
+
+Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone implement incrusted
+with stalagmite and joined to a stone.
+
+Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As Professor
+Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed, and the facial
+bones are entirely absent; but the roof of the cranium, consisting of
+the frontal, parietal, and the greater part of the occipital bones, as
+far as the middle of the occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The
+left temporal bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the
+immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mastoid process, and
+a considerable portion of the squamous element of the temporal, are well
+preserved."
+
+A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to have missed,
+has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium by Dr. Spring, the
+accomplished anatomist of Liége.
+
+"The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man. The extreme
+length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme breadth, which
+corresponds very nearly with the interval between the parietal
+protuberances, is not more than 5.4 inches. The proportion of the length
+to the breadth is therefore very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn
+from the point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the nose,
+and which is called the 'glabella' (_a_, Fig. 8), to the occipital
+protuberance (_d_), and the distance to the highest point of the arch of
+the skull be measured perpendicularly from this line, it will be
+found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed from above, the forehead presents an
+evenly rounded curve, and passes into the contour of the sides and back
+of the skull, which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7. PROFESSOR T. H. HUXLEY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOUND IN THE CAVE
+  OF ENGIS.
+
+    _a._ Superciliary ridge and glabella.
+    _b._ Coronal suture.
+    _d._ The occipital protuberance.]
+
+"The front view shows that the roof of the skull was very regularly and
+elegantly arched in the transverse direction, and that the transverse
+diameter was a little less below the parietal protuberances, than above
+them. The forehead cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of
+the skull, nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the contrary,
+the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so that the
+distance along that contour, from the nasal depression to the occipital
+protuberance, measures about 13.75 inches. The transverse arc of the
+skull, measured from one auditory foramen to the other, across the
+middle of the sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture
+itself is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow-ridges
+(_a_) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are separated by a
+median depression. Their principal elevation is disposed so obliquely
+that I judge them to be due to large frontal sinuses. If a line joining
+the glabella and the occipital protuberance (_a_, _d_, Fig. 8) be made
+horizontal, no part of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth
+of an inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper
+edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line drawn
+parallel with this upon the outer surface of the skull."[27]
+
+Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at variance with
+those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock reports him as saying, "There
+is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure. It is, in
+fact, a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a
+philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a
+savage."[28] Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor
+Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead was somewhat
+narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by the skulls of individuals of
+European race."[29]
+
+Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against Huxley. The first
+says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that this cranium has belonged to a
+person of limited intellectual faculties, and we conclude thence that it
+belonged to a man of a low degree of civilization."[30] "From the
+narrowness of the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small
+intellectual development."[31] Buchner says, "In its length and
+narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of the widely
+separated orbits and the well developed supra-orbital arches, it
+resembles, especially when viewed from above, the celebrated Neanderthal
+skull, but in general is far superior to this in its structure."[32]
+Carl Vogt "regards it, with reference to the proportion of length to
+breadth, as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of
+skulls."[33]
+
+The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise from the failure
+to observe the fact that the older the formation in which a skull is
+found, the lower is the type. The ordinary observer, judging by the cast
+of the skull, would see nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would
+fail to see any indications of a philosopher.
+
+
+NEANDERTHAL SKULL.
+
+The Neanderthal skull was taken from a small cave or grotto in-the
+valley of the Düssel, near Düsseldorf, situated about seventy miles
+north-east of the region of the Liége caverns. The grotto is in a deep
+ravine sixty feet above the river, one hundred feet below the surface of
+the country, and at a distance of about ten feet from the Düssel River.
+It is fifteen feet deep from the entrance (_f_), which is seven or eight
+feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it opened upon a narrow
+plateau lying in front. The floor of the cave was covered four or five
+feet in thickness with a deposit of mud or loam, and containing some
+rounded fragments of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit,
+first noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in met
+with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded as of any
+importance, at the time of their discovery, only the larger ones have
+been preserved.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9. SECTION OF THE NEANDERTHAL CAVE.
+
+    _a._ Cavern sixty feet above the Düssel, and one hundred feet
+         below the surface of the country at _c_.
+
+    _b._ Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which
+         the human skeleton was found.
+
+    _c_, _a_. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the
+              country.
+
+    _d._ Superficial sandy loam.
+
+    _e._ Devonian limestone.
+
+    _f._ Terrace, or ledge of rock.]
+
+Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological time of these
+bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the mud or loam in which the
+skeleton was found, and no other bones met with save the tusk of a bear.
+There is no certain data given whereby its position may be known.
+Professor Huxley declares that the bones "indicate a very high
+antiquity."[34] Buchner is very positive in his statement, and declares
+that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves of the Neanderthal
+and the clefts and fissures of its limestone mountains, and in which
+both the Neanderthal bones and the fossil bones and teeth of animals
+were imbedded, is exactly the same that, in the caverns of the
+Neanderthal, covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten
+to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which is
+unmistakable."[35] Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and general
+arrangement of the locality in which they were found, place it, in my
+judgment, beyond doubt that the bones belong to the diluvium, and
+therefore to primitive times, _i. e._ they come down to us from a period
+of the past when our native country was still inhabited by various kinds
+of animals, especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since
+disappeared out of the series of living creatures."[36]
+
+The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is still further
+confirmed by the discoveries made, in the summer of 1865, in the
+Teufelskammer. This cavern is situated one hundred and thirty paces from
+the one in which the human bones were found, and on the same side of the
+river.. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous fossil
+bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, and other
+extinct animals. "A great part of these bones, especially those of the
+cave-bears, agree in color, weight, density, and the preservation of
+their microscopic structure, with the human bones found in the
+Feldhofner Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both are
+covered with the same _dendrites_, or tree-like markings."[37]
+
+Before entering into a description and discussion of this remarkable
+skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be given. All the bones
+are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great development
+of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The
+two thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus and
+radius; the upper third of the right ulna; the left ulna complete,
+though pathologically deformed, the coronoid process being so much
+enlarged by bony growth that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle
+was impossible; the left humerus is much slenderer than the right, and
+the upper third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the
+coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at the same time,
+the olecranon process is curved strongly downwards. The indications are
+that an injury sustained during life was the cause of this defect. There
+was an ilium, almost perfect; a fragment of the right scapula; the
+anterior extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder portions
+and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the ribs of a carnivorous
+animal than those of man. This abnormal condition has arisen from the
+powerful development of the thoracic muscles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FROM FELDHOFNER
+  CAVE, IN THE NEANDERTHAL, NEAR DÜSSELDORF.
+
+    _a._ The superciliary ridge and glabella.
+    _c._ The apex of the lambdoidal suture.
+    _b._ The coronal suture.
+    _d._ The occipital protuberance.]
+
+The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. "It has an extreme
+length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 5-3/4 inches, or in other
+words, its length is to its breadth as 100 is to 72. It is exceedingly
+depressed, measuring only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital
+line to the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way as in
+the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc cannot be exactly
+ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the temporal bones, but
+was probably about the same, and certainly exceeded 10-1/4 inches. The
+horizontal circumference is 23 inches. But this great circumference
+arises largely from the vast development of the superciliary ridges,
+though the perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large
+superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating appearance
+than its internal contour would bear out. To an anatomical eye the
+posterior part of the skull is even more striking than the anterior. The
+occipital protuberance occupies the extreme posterior end of the skull,
+when the glabello-occipital line is made horizontal, and so far from any
+part of the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the
+skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lambdoidal suture
+is situated well upon the upper surface of the cranium. At the same
+time, notwithstanding the great length of the skull, the sagittal suture
+is remarkably short (4-1/2 inches) and the squamosal suture is very
+straight."[38] ... "The cranium, in its present condition, contains
+about sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire skull
+could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches more, its minimum
+capacity may be estimated at seventy-five cubic inches.... It has
+certainly not undergone compression, and, in reply to the suggestion
+that the skull is that of an idiot, it may be urged that the _onus
+probandi_ lies with those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible
+with very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know of
+none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal skull."[39]
+
+Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape-like of all the
+human skulls he has ever seen, and in its examination ape-like
+characters are met with in all its parts.[40] Buchner says that the face
+of the Neanderthal man must have presented a frightfully bestial and
+savage, or ape-like expression (see frontispiece).[41] Professor
+Schaaffhausen and Mr. Busk have stated that "this skull is the most
+brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of the apes not only
+in the prodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the
+forward extension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form
+of the brain-case, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in
+the complete retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the
+superior occipital ridges."[42]
+
+Professor Schaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this skull as a
+race-type, and Professor Huxley has said "that it truly forms only the
+extreme member of a series leading by slow degrees to the highest and
+best developed forms of human skulls."[43]
+
+That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact that it is not
+an isolated case. The fragment of the skull from the loess of the Rhine
+(Alsace), by its depressed forehead and strongly projecting superciliary
+arches, greatly resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the
+calcareous tuff of Constatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong
+superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal.[44] The cranium found in
+bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar), "resembles, in all
+essential particulars, including its great thickness, the far-famed
+Neanderthal skull. Its discovery adds immensely to the scientific value
+of the Neanderthal specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not
+represent, as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual
+peculiarity, but that it may have been characteristic of a race
+extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules."[45] In speaking of
+the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaaffhausen says, "It is worthy of
+notice that a similar, although smaller projection of the superciliary
+arches has generally been found in the skulls of savage races.... The
+remarkably small skull from the graves on the island of Moën, examined
+by Professor Eschricht; the two human skulls, described by Dr. Kutorga,
+from the government of Minsk (Russia), one of which, especially, shows a
+great resemblance to the Neanderthal skull; the human skeleton found
+near Plau, in Mecklenburg, in a very ancient grave, in a squatting
+position, ... the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when
+man stood on a very low grade of development;" and other similar
+discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls likewise presenting short,
+retreating foreheads and projecting eyebrows.[46]
+
+Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, belonging to the
+stone age of Denmark, "show a great resemblance to the Neanderthal
+skull, a resemblance which is manifested in the depression of the
+cranium, the receding forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent
+superciliary ridges."[47]
+
+_Human Skull of Arno._--The human skull, found by Professor Cocchi in
+the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in diluvial clay, together with
+various bones of extinct species of animals, is considered by Carl Vogt
+to be of like antiquity with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls.[48]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.
+
+
+The age immediately preceding the glacial, and consequently the
+post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch, the last of the tertiary.
+
+The tertiary period began with the close of the cretaceous. A map of the
+early tertiary period would represent parts of Maryland, Virginia, the
+Carolinas, Georgia, the whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama,
+Mississippi, Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory
+on both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with
+water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and the western part
+of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly course until it emptied into the
+Pacific. In Europe, the great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of
+chalk), the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium,
+Holland, Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern Russia,
+as one vast sheet of water. England and France were connected by a band
+of rocks.
+
+About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and tropical fauna
+and flora spread over the whole of Europe. Palms, cedars, laurels, and
+cinnamon trees flourished in the valleys of Switzerland, and more than
+thirty different species of oak adorned the forests of that time.
+
+In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty species of
+crocodiles; many species of snakes, one twenty feet long; a dozen
+species of birds; tapirs (_Palæothere_ and _Lophiodon_), two species of
+hogs, some ruminants and rodents.
+
+In the miocene, among _Pachyderms_ may be mentioned the mastodon,
+elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhinoceros, hog, horse,
+tapir, and hippopotamus; among _Carnivores_, the machairodus, hyena,
+lion, and dog; among _Ruminants_, the camel, deer, and antelope. There
+were monkeys, and many other animals.
+
+In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the bear, hare, and
+other animals.
+
+In the tertiary beds of America have been found mastodons, elephants,
+rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves, horses, whales, and other
+mammalia.
+
+Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected that many traces
+of man will be discovered in this early period.
+
+Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable that man lived
+in the pliocene; but in relation to miocene time, he says, "Had some
+other rational being, representing man, then flourished, some signs of
+his existence could hardly have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of
+implements of stone or metal, more frequent and more durable than the
+osseous remains of any of the mammalia."[49] Sir J. Lubbock, while
+admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther and says,
+"If man constitutes a separate family of mammalia, as he does in the
+opinion of the highest authorities, then, according to all
+palæontological analogies, he must have had representatives in miocene
+times. We need not, however, expect to find the proofs in Europe; our
+nearest relatives in the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to
+tropical climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely
+to find the earliest traces of the human race."[50] Alfred R. Wallace
+out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says, "We are enabled to
+place the origin of man at a much more remote geological epoch than has
+yet been thought possible. He may even have lived in the miocene or
+eocene period, when not a single mammal was identical in form with any
+existing species."[51]
+
+Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of geologists have
+settled the question of tertiary man; and the "signs of his existence,"
+in the "shape of implements of stone," as demanded by Lyell, have been
+furnished.
+
+_Man in the Pliocene._--It has already been intimated that the evidences
+of man are but few in this early epoch. The first example, in the
+following list, borders closely on the glacial, but far enough removed
+as to be referred to the pliocene.
+
+In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and Gothenburg it was
+necessary to cut through one of those hills called _osars_, or erratic
+blocks, which were deposited by the drift-ice during the glacial epoch.
+Beneath an immense accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there
+was discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about
+sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the middle
+of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than that of man could
+have performed the work.[52]
+
+In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of Savonia in
+Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which presented all the
+physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr. Buchner is of the opinion
+that before these bones can be employed as satisfactory evidence they
+must have a more accurate test by scientific authorities.[53]
+
+In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Desnoyers found
+traces of human action on the bones of animals belonging to the
+tertiary. These fractures are analogous to those of human action
+observed on bones from the glacial period, and identical with those made
+by northern tribes of the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The
+marked bones found were those of the Southern elephant (_E.
+meridionalis_), rhinoceros (_R. leptorinus_), hippopotamus major,
+several species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states that this
+discovery is not only genuine, but also, the formation in which the
+bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is further characterized by
+the presence of the southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_). As this
+elephant became extinct before the glacial age, the bones consequently
+precede the glacial, and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and
+tichorrhine rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages,
+confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.[54]
+
+The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a doubt by the more
+recent discoveries of Abbé Bourgeois. In the same tertiary strata of St.
+Prest, in which were found the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois
+discovered worked flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers.[55]
+
+A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by James Matson, at
+Altaville, in Calaveras county, California, at a depth of one hundred
+and thirty feet, under five beds of gravel separated by five layers of
+lava, associated with the bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and
+horse. The base of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and
+small pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles that of
+the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness.[56]
+
+_Man in the Miocene._[57]--M. Bourgeois has found, in a stratum of
+miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints, and other flints which
+have been subjected to the action of heat. These works of man were
+associated with the remains of the acerotherium (an extinct species
+allied to the rhinoceros), and beneath five distinct beds, one of which
+contained the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium.[58]
+
+M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship in the miocene
+beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with the remains of _dinotherium
+giganteum_, and _machaerodus latidens_.[59]
+
+M. Bourgeois reports that Abbé Delaunay had found near Pouance
+(Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a _halitherium_ (an herbivorous
+cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of having been operated
+upon by cutting instruments.[60]
+
+In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming territories,
+chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and wrought shells have been
+found.[61]
+
+_Eocene._--As yet geologists have failed to discover any traces of man
+in the Eocene epoch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.
+
+
+Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no precise
+knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of his birth is generally
+supposed to be in Central Asia. There the geologist looks with a longing
+eye, and hopes ultimately to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the
+birth-place of his race, but also, how or through what natural process
+he sprang into existence.
+
+If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and Central Asia
+the place of his nativity, then he was ushered upon the scene of life
+during the period of, and surrounded by, the numerous fauna of India, At
+this time her mammalia included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven
+species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species), horse
+(three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species), hog (three
+species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephantine stag, having four
+horns and supposed to have had the bulk of an elephant and greater
+height), antelope, musk-deer, sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium,
+porcupine, species of hyena, lion, and many others.
+
+It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties were ordinarily
+developed, as it would not be natural to suppose he was superior to that
+of later times. Judging from the remains of later times, man could have
+been but very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose
+that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence. His food
+must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits of the tree, possibly
+with an occasional morsel of raw meat. His pillow was a stone, his
+retreat a cave or the boughs of a wide-spreading tree, and his clothing
+a natural coat of hair.
+
+In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might seem to be of
+short duration. Providence has ordered all things wisely. Placed low in
+the scale of life--brutal, selfish, prowling, yet cautious--man, by the
+very force of circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his
+mind. With the elephant and the mastodon he could not cope nor would
+they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he might fall a prey. From
+these he could flee, and find a shelter in the tops of the trees or some
+secure fastness of the earth. Learning his own strength by experience,
+he would venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly
+foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident, that a club
+was a powerful weapon with which to beat back his fierce opponent.
+Gradually he came to learn that a sharp flint driven into the end of a
+club was a safer and more deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an
+unequal contest.
+
+The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength, developed
+his muscular system. His muscles became large and tough, and his bones
+thick and heavy. The earliest type of man is generally supposed to be
+_dolichocephalic_, or long-headed. The walls of the skull were thick,
+and the crown low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and
+of great power. His make-up was the result of his surroundings.
+
+His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire length of the
+miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable. There was no revolution
+in his mind; one step in advance would have been a mighty leap. Nor
+could it be expected that there should be rapid progress. The mind was
+brutal; and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a mighty
+change. The tropical climate should change into a winter of snow and
+ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited by the new danger. His
+sluggish mind should be quickened, and the inventive genius should be
+called into action. The sun no longer could give its heat. The forests
+grew cold, the chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in
+the cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either dying of
+cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair, and retreating
+before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly looked about him. He
+suffered greatly, and his numbers grew less. Fire had been produced.
+How, no one can tell; possibly by accident. He now became more careful
+of the fire, and with brand in hand he went from place to place kindling
+the fires at the various resting-places. Nor was this sufficient. His
+ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent. Colder and colder grew the
+winds. The snow, coming in great flakes, was soon consolidated, and
+became as ice. The body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had,
+and this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must assist
+in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen animals would not
+alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives must be invented. From the
+flint rude knives were fashioned, by means of which the skins were
+removed and transferred to the bodies of men. But the long winter
+continuing, the lives of the living animals must be forfeited, both for
+the flesh and and the skins. Rude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were
+produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and cook, and rude rafts
+formed, by means of which the swelling rivers might be crossed. Then
+those stone hatchets of the Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose.
+
+Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the perils of
+ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not content with his
+conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is aroused against his
+fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly upon each other, the blood
+flows freely, the bones give way, and the weaker one has succumbed.
+There are fierce contentions over the common prey, and the strong impose
+upon the weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in
+communities; and the more daring--the hunters--having their common
+places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie with each other in
+feats of prowess.
+
+During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have remained
+unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude stone weapons. His
+time was spent, for the most part, in self-preservation. He was
+retreating before, yet bounding over, the frozen flood in pursuit of
+game. This experience must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers
+began to recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those
+stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They served against
+the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and would be of great service in
+the ages yet to come. By a little remodelling they could be used to
+greater advantage; and this change of shape was accomplished, and other
+uses of flint were made known.
+
+Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended by the relics of
+the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale which any anatomist may
+read, and even one not well skilled in the art. The primitive type is no
+mystery, and those fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone
+times.
+
+The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its structure is animal.
+Its history agrees with the generally received idea of primitive man as
+conceived by the geologist. The illustration (frontispiece) presents him
+bestial and ape-like. A powerful organization, and well adapted to those
+times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an old age, as
+the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull was very thick. The
+strong, prominent superciliary arches denote large perceptives, making
+him watchful and always on the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible
+conflict. The left arm was broken; who knows but in a contest with the
+great cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm
+dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he received a
+blow, from some source, so great as to carry away a portion of the bone.
+The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint weapon in the hand of one of his
+race, may have produced that fracture. Still he lived, and the wound
+healed. All this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside
+view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval man.
+
+The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less bestial. Possibly
+this individual did not enter upon the chase, and engage in the manly
+pursuits of those times. He may have been an adviser or a dandy; or, his
+ingenuity may have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and
+implements from the flint.
+
+In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as short,
+heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a clavicle belonging
+to a young person who must have been of great stature.
+
+The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a great tendency to
+animal structure, and confirm the impressions as given of the primitive
+condition of man during the glacial and pre-glacial ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+
+The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again. The forests bloom and
+the wild beast roams about. Many species withstood the long siege of
+cold; others perished; still others followed the ice as it retreated,
+preferring the cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man
+spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers and
+radiant with earthly splendors.
+
+The evidences of man's existence during this period are numerous,
+consisting in works of art and fossil remains. Only a few examples are
+given, as not many will be required to present the evidence and show
+man's condition.
+
+The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Dawkins, affords specimens
+of the works of man. When discovered this den was filled to the roof
+with _débris_. Under this rubbish was found several layers of the
+excrement of the cave-hyena (_H. spelæa_), each of which indicates an
+old floor and a separate period of occupation.
+
+The implements were under these layers of excrement, showing that the
+cave had been occupied by the hyenas after the time of the savages.
+These implements had not been disturbed by the action of water. In the
+bone earth along with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of
+the mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (_R. tichorrhinus_), gigantic ox (_Bos
+primigenius_), gigantic Irish deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_), reindeer,
+cave-bear, cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_), wolf (_Canis lupus_), fox (_Canis
+vulpes_), and the teeth and bones of the horse in great numbers.
+Intermixed with these bones were chipped flints, a bleached flint
+weapon of the spear-head Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11. IDEAL SCENE IN THE POST-TERTIARY.
+
+    On the right is shown the megatherium. This animal belonged to the
+    sloth tribe, and was a native of South America. It exceeded in
+    size the largest rhinocerous, and the length of its skeleton
+    sometimes attained eighteen feet. In front, near the centre, is
+    the glyptodon another South American animal of the armadillo
+    tribe. The length of its shell, along the curve, was five feet,
+    and the total length of the animal, nine feet. Just back of the
+    glypodon, and holding on to a tree, is the mylodon, belonging to
+    both North and South America, one species of which was much larger
+    than the western buffalo. On the left, and in the rear, is the
+    mastodon, the remains of which are found in both North and South
+    America, though of different species. While this scene does not
+    represent the animals with which we are dealing, yet the general
+    features give an idea of those with which we are interested.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12. SECTION OF THE SEPULCHRAL GROTTO, IN THE HILL
+  OF FAJOLES, AURIGNAC.
+
+    _a._ Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found.
+
+    _b._ Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in
+         which a few human bones, with entire bones of extinct and
+         living species of animals, and many works of art, were
+         imbedded.
+
+    _c._ Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing
+         broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and living
+         mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art; no human
+         bones.
+
+    _d._ Deposit with similar contents; also a few scattered cinders.
+
+    _e._ Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above.
+
+    _f_, _g._ Slab of rock which closed the vault.
+
+    _i_, _f._ Rabbit-burrow.
+
+    _h_, _k._ Original terrace.
+
+    _N._ Nummulitic limestone.]
+
+In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were found ashes and rude
+flint implements in a breccia containing the bones of the elephant (_E.
+antiquus_), hyena, a large bear, lion, (probably _F. spelæa_), and large
+numbers of bones belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes
+had once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was still
+cemented to the roof.
+
+The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physical condition of
+the country was different from what it is at present. The bone breccia
+cemented to the roof, and coated with stalagmite, testifies that the
+cave, at some time since the formation of the breccia, has been washed
+out. The exact time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given,
+but, in all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear,
+if not before.
+
+The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen human skeletons
+were found, was carefully examined by Lartet eight years after its
+discovery. The recess was formed in nummulitic limestone. In front of
+the grotto, and next to the limestone (_c_, Fig. 12) was a layer of
+ashes and charcoal, eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works
+of art, and broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent
+mammalia. Immediately above this layer (_d_) was another, of made
+ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto; and its contents
+similar to the other, save that within the grotto were found a few human
+bones. The grotto was closed by a slab, and the made earth without was
+covered by a talus of rubbish (_e_), washed down from the hill above.
+
+In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint instruments,
+consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones, chips, and a stone made
+for the purpose of modelling the flints. The bone implements were
+barbless arrows, a well-shaped and sharply pointed bodkin made of the
+horn of the roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides
+these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates, of a white
+shelly substance, made of some species of cockle (_cardium_), pierced
+through the middle; also the tusk of a young cave-bear, the crown of
+which had been carved in imitation of the head of a bird.
+
+The following is a list of the different species found in the layers,
+together with the approximate number of individuals belonging to each:
+
+I.--CARNIVORA.
+
+                                               Number of Individuals.
+  1. Cave Bear (_U. Spelæus_)                                    5-6
+  2. Brown Bear (_U. arctos_)                                      1
+  3. Badger (_Meles taxus_)                                      1-2
+  4. Polecat (_Putorius vulgaris_)                                 1
+  5. Cave Lion (_Felis spelæa_)                                    1
+  6. Wild Cat (_Felis Catus ferus_)                                1
+  7. Hyena (_H. spelæa_)                                         5-6
+  8. Wolf (_Canis lupus_)                                          3
+  9. Fox (_C. vulpes_)                                         18-20
+
+II.--HERBIVORA.
+
+   1. Mammoth (_E. primigenius_)        Two molars and an astragalus.
+   2. Rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_)                               1
+   3. Horse (_Equus caballus_)                                 12-15
+   4. Ass (_E. asinus_)                                            1
+   5. Boar (_Sus scrofa_)                               Two incisors.
+   6. Stag (_Cervus elephas_)                                      1
+   7. Gigantic Irish Deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_)                 1
+   8. Roebuck (_C. capreolus_)                                   3-4
+   9. Reindeer (_C. tarandus_)                                 10-12
+  10. Aurochs (_Bison Europæus_)                               12-15
+
+The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be split open, as
+if for the extraction of the marrow, and many of them burned. The spongy
+parts were wanting, having been gnawed off by the hyenas.
+
+M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a place of
+sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the remnants of the
+funeral feasts. This he argued from the fact that the bones within the
+grotto were not split, broken or gnawed, save the astragalus of the
+mammoth. This meat was placed in the grotto, probably as an offering to
+the dead. The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men
+were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled about the
+spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the flesh that
+remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred their entrance, and
+consequently the bones and human remains within were left untouched.
+
+The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to different
+conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a difference in the
+color of the walls of the cave, indicating that the lower deposit was of
+a yellow color, and the next above of a much lighter tint. In the
+crevices of the lower he found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the
+reindeer, and some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher
+deposit occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and a
+fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac inferred that
+the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded with that outside of it,
+and the layer containing human bones was formed at a subsequent time.
+
+That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early period is proven
+from the numerous remains of the cave-bear. This animal was one of the
+first of those great post-tertiary mammalia to become extinct. The exact
+position of the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were
+intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as the other
+layers, it would indicate that the climate was not very warm during the
+deposit of the layers, but to have been similar to that of Switzerland
+of the present day. The probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur
+in the lowest layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical
+climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were consigned to
+the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial, or beginning of the
+reindeer epoch.
+
+The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff, must be
+assigned to this period, since there have been found, in similar blocks
+of tuff in the same region, the remains of the cave-hyena and
+hippopotamus major. This fossil man consists of a frontal part of the
+skull, the upper jaw, with teeth, belonging to both an adult and young
+individual; a radius, some lumbar vertebræ, and some metatarsal bones.
+The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate into the
+more compact rock.
+
+In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of the Schusse,
+there were discovered more than six hundred split flints, with a
+quantity of partly worked antlers and bones of the reindeer. The bones
+were so numerous that Mr. Oscar Fraas was enabled to put together a
+complete skeleton of the reindeer which is now preserved in the museum
+of Stuttgart. Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of
+extracting the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and a
+fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were also the bones of
+other animals, such as the glutton, arctic fox, and other animals now
+living in high northern latitudes.
+
+Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the careful
+investigations of the geognostic conditions of the place, but also the
+flora of the time (for remains of mosses were found which now live only
+in the extreme north), leave no doubt that the reindeer station on the
+Schusse belongs to the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs
+exactly to the interval between the two glacial epochs which in all
+probability Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared this
+deposit to be _the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier_, which was
+formerly very large. Moreover, according to him, this discovery is
+particularly remarkable, because it is the first example of a station of
+the reindeer-men in a free and open deposit, their remains having
+hitherto been found only in caves."[62]
+
+From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of bones of the
+reindeer, and some show of advancement in the arts, it may be safe to
+conclude that this station belongs to the close of the inter-glacial.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.
+
+
+The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of time, covering many
+thousands of years.
+
+Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may be expected in his
+condition. His mode of life, and continued conflicts with the fierce
+wild beasts, would tax his every device. Necessity compelled him to be
+inventive. The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not
+grapple with the higher problems of existence. United efforts and
+fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those old axes of flint were
+great objects to his mind, and one step beyond them was a great stride
+in progress. That they developed but little cannot be wondered at, not
+only from their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the
+era of history there are nations whose civilization has become fixed and
+stereotyped for ages; others, who, instead of advancing, have been
+retrograding.
+
+The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted beneficially
+throughout this period. The rude axes and flints were retained, but
+improvements were made in utilizing the bones and horns of animals. Out
+of these, bodkins, fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of
+wild animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells, were
+used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling-places, being
+destitute of water, this necessary of life was supplied and carried
+thither in rude vessels made of clay and dried in the sun. The arrows,
+flint knives, and axes were used for killing and skinning the animals,
+splitting the bones containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements,
+felling trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for
+clothing, after having been softened by beating. He commenced the art of
+engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of the great cave-bear wrought on
+a curious stone found in the cave of Massat (Ariége), the bird's head
+formed from the bone of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples.
+The lower jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of
+hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves of Lherm and in
+Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them cooked his food. That he
+paid honors to the dead, and sheltered them from the ravages of beasts
+of prey, at present, must remain an open question. If he did, it might
+seem to imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is considered
+that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be inferred that
+this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an evil genius. Or it may
+be a faint idea of a ghost state and that these feasts were made to
+dissuade the ghost from molesting him. That they had a conception of a
+Supreme Ruler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man, would
+be too preposterous to believe.
+
+Professor Denton has given a description of primeval time which, by a
+little change, would represent inter-glacial times: "The seasons are
+fairly established; and spring follows winter, and fall summer, as now;
+though the summer is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in
+those countries at the present time, and the winters colder. The country
+is covered with dense forests, through which ramble mighty elephants in
+herds, with immense curved tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and
+flowing manes.... Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his
+rocky den--as large as a horse: fierce, shaggy, conscious of his
+strength, he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies the
+cave-tiger (_Felis spelæa_); and, as the wild cattle come down to drink,
+he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible combat ensues. It is as
+large as an elephant, and its horns of enormous size; and even
+cave-tigers could not always master such cattle as they.
+
+"Are these the highest forms of life that the country contains? What
+being is that sitting on yon fallen tree? His long arms are in front of
+his hairy body, and his hands between his knees; while his long legs are
+dangling down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's; his beard
+short, and like the hair of his body; the unkempt hair of his head is
+bushy and thick; his eyebrows are short and crisp; and with his sloping
+forehead and brutal countenance, he seems like the caricature of a man,
+rather than an actual human being.
+
+"Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may behold a group--one
+old man ... and women and children, lounging and lying upon the ground.
+How dirty! What forbidding countenances!--more like furies than women.
+One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from a
+neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing the trees, and
+passing from branch to branch, as they gather the wild fruit that
+abounds on every side. Some are catching fish in the shallows of the
+river, and yell with triumph as they hold their captives by the gills,
+dragging them to the shore."[63]
+
+They have improved their language, and instead of the rude signs and
+undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may now be heard short, but
+occasional sentences, which were the forerunners of the polished tongues
+of modern Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+
+The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced. The gigantic
+animals of the past age have either disappeared or are fast becoming
+extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-hyena, mammoth, and
+woolly-haired rhinoceros have almost become extinct. They have given way
+to a less fierce and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is
+announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are overrunning the
+forests of Western Europe, and extending as far south as the Pyrenees.
+In the forests there now existed the horse, bison, wild bull (_Bos
+primigenius_), musk-ox, elk, deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat,
+lemming, and many others. These animals were capable of withstanding and
+flourishing in a rigorous climate. When the glaciers were again broken
+up and the climate became warmer, the reindeer, musk-ox, elk, chamois,
+wild-goat, hamster-rat, and lemming retired to the high northern
+latitudes in close proximity to the snow, or else to the lofty summits
+of great mountain-chains.
+
+The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and that it
+immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous. The vast number of
+the reindeer bones and horns attest to a distinct epoch, and by the
+remains of arctic animals, as well as the traces of glaciers, the
+climate must have been unlike that of the present time. The remains of
+the mammoth, cave-bear, and cave-lion, would not only connect this
+period with the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers
+continued to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer
+epoch had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss
+lake-villages, or Danish shell mounds, may be shown by the weapons or
+implements which point to a more primitive people, the absence of the
+remains of the dog, and, also, by the absence of the remains of the
+reindeer in the shell-mounds.
+
+There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be told how long
+this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length of time to permit the
+reindeer to increase greatly its species.
+
+_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--M. Christy and M. Lartet examined
+in conjunction the caves of Central and Southern France. Those which
+have been most carefully examined are ten in number, and belong to the
+Department of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a
+settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the principal
+ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute, and Laugerie-Basse.
+
+At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone needle used for
+sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer horn and still fixed in a bone,
+a flint whistle made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer,
+and two slabs of schist, on both of which were scratched animal forms,
+but deficient in any special characteristic.
+
+At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and very thick,
+which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking vessel, as one side of it
+had been subjected to fire; an engraving of a reindeer on the horn of
+that animal; on another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on
+either side; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn; on
+another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human figure, and
+two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into five pieces, had an
+outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13). This was so accurately drawn
+that the small eye, curved tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane,
+could readily be distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head,
+the figure of a tadpole.
+
+There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse, where
+weapons and utensils were manufactured; and they are noted for the
+abundance of instruments made of reindeer horn. Among the works of art
+found at the latter station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle,
+spoon made in the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in
+the middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the horn
+of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is carved a
+mammoth's head; there is a representation of the hind-quarters of some
+herbivorous animal, sketched out with a bold and practiced touch; an
+animal's head, with ears laid back, and of considerable length, is
+carved on a round shaft of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for
+what purpose this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed,
+and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the harpoon of some
+chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in outline, a reindeer fight. On a
+fragment of a spear-head there is a series of human hands, provided with
+four fingers only, and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of
+fish are principally on wands of authority--on one of which is a series
+following one another.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13. SKETCH OF A MAMMOTH, GRAVEN ON A SLAB OF IVORY
+  FROM LA MADELEINE.]
+
+The cave and _rock shelters_ of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne) have been
+carefully examined by competent explorers. These relics are so numerous
+that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of the cavern, sold to the agent of
+the British Museum fifteen hundred specimens, of every description,
+which had been found on his property. In the cave there were found,
+engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and the head
+of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone, on which were
+representations of the above-mentioned animals. The engravings are
+mostly on the horn of the reindeer. The cave has also furnished two
+almost perfect human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the
+Moulin-Quignon.
+
+The _rock-shelters_ are overhanging rocks, under the projections of
+which man found a shelter and built his rude dwellings of boughs and
+sticks. In these shelters have been found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made
+of splinters of bone, saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the
+mammoth engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the
+shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clearness, on a
+fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers made of ivory.
+
+In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters, was found a
+quantity of human bones, including two skulls--one of an old man, the
+other that of an adult.
+
+The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the largest collection of
+implements of bone and horn ever discovered. The stones and reindeer
+horns are carved with great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic
+taste. There are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat,
+bison, horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and birds,
+and also the representations of some plants. In the lowest layer of the
+soil the most perfect works occur, and they grow less as the surface is
+approached. Several of those implements called "batons of command"
+occurred, ornamented with animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was
+carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various figures--plants,
+reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made the subject of a report by M.
+Piette before the Paris Anthropological Society.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14. THE FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE.]
+
+The fossil man of Mentone, found in a grotto of Mentone, a village near
+Nice, for some time past has produced much comment among scientists. The
+skeleton was discovered in undisturbed earth; at a depth of twenty-one
+feet. The cause of the discussion is that the skeleton is accompanied by
+a multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of command, a
+necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the reindeer epoch,
+but surrounded also by the remains of the cave-bear, cave-hyena, and
+woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr. Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that
+this cave was first inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or
+inter-glacial, and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of
+burial.[64] The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig.
+14). It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibiæ, or shin-bones, present
+a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in the European of the
+present time.
+
+In the same neighborhood there have more recently been discovered, in
+different caves, four other human skeletons. They were all stained with
+oxide of iron, and two of them surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth
+of the stag, constituting the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With
+one skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were discovered
+implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear, bones of other
+animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks. The other two skeletons
+were those of children, and not accompanied by either implements or
+ornaments.
+
+The other bone caves of France, which have afforded much valuable
+information, and belonging to this epoch, are: La Gorge d'Enfer,
+Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le Moustier and Badegoule
+(Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude), cave of La Vache (Ariége), cave of
+Savigné (Vienne), grottos of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphiné, the
+settlement of Solutré, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), and the
+cave of Espalungue (Basses-Pyrénées)--the last two date back to the most
+ancient period of the reindeer epoch.
+
+The principal objects found in these caves, and the rock-shelters are
+worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, cutters, hammers, and
+mortar-stones. These works, though unpolished, are but little ruder than
+those of the Esquimaux or the North American Indian.
+
+_Belgian Caverns._--Under the auspices of the Belgian government M.
+Edward Dupont examined more than twenty caves on the banks of the Lesse,
+in the province of Namur. Among these were four, in which occurred
+numerous traces of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou
+Rosette, Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux.
+
+The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and similar to the
+cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was closed by a slab of
+sandstone, and within were the remains of fourteen human beings
+belonging to persons of various ages, and some of them to infants
+scarcely a year old. In front of the cave was an esplanade, where were
+celebrated the funeral feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone,
+traces of fire, flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human
+bones were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of the
+reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds of
+implements. Among the remains were two perfect human skulls, in a good
+state of preservation. The bones were discovered in a state of great
+confusion, which M. Dupont thinks was caused by the disturbance of
+water. Sir John Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to
+foxes and badgers.[65]
+
+Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which the bones of
+three persons were found, mingled with those of the reindeer and beaver.
+It also contained fragments of a blackish kind of pottery, which were
+hollowed out in rough grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion
+that the three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the time
+of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse.
+
+In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty-four feet above
+the Lesse, were found a great many bones of the reindeer, wild bull, and
+many other species. In the cave, indiscriminately mixed up with these
+bones, were one hundred and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones
+of the goat, polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a
+goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15. EARTHEN VASE, FOUND IN THE CAVE OF FURFOOZ,
+  BELGIUM.]
+
+The cave of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish caused by the
+falling in of the roof, consequently preserving all its implements.
+There were found the split bones of mammals and the bones of birds and
+fishes. There was an immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured
+from reindeer horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks.
+Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of slate with
+engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of very coarse pottery,
+hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last but not least, thirty thousand
+worked flints mingled with the broken bones. In the hearth, placed in
+the centre of the cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but
+unintelligible signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty
+pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorched or roasted.
+
+In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen of rough pottery
+(Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones. It was partly broken; by the
+care of M. Hauzeur it has been put together again.
+
+France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of the reindeer
+epoch, for settlements of this epoch have been discovered in Germany,
+Switzerland, and Poland.
+
+In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, have been
+discovered a few remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-lion; the
+remains of two hundred and fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty
+Alpine hares; also the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch,
+glutton, wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably
+appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking them were found
+in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of the swan, grouse, and duck
+predominate. The implements consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and
+arrow-heads made of the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving
+and carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The most
+notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer in the act of
+browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that animal.
+
+Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently discovered and
+examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper part of the floor (four feet in
+depth), consisting of vegetable earth, mould, and _débris_, occurred
+ashes, flint implements, and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer,
+horse, elk, and other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken
+bones of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated teeth of
+the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two thousand flint implements
+were obtained; and from the frequent occurrence of flint the cave was
+used by the troglodytes, or cave-men, as a dwelling; and by the remains
+of the fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial, and
+at the beginning of the reindeer epoch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+
+The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age than those
+already enumerated, presents man under a more favorable aspect, and
+affords a better view of his traits of character and manner of living.
+Not only the sturdy climate spurs him to action, but a higher type is
+supplanting the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed,
+has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought with him
+the art of making more perfect implements. This new type was of short
+stature, having small hands and feet. If Asia be the home of man, then
+from that country, advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were
+destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts, and
+conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are found in the Lapps
+and Fins. Between the two existing races--dolichocephalic and
+brachycephalic--there may have been a long and bitter strife. The former
+was large, stout, fearless, and cruel; the latter, small, hardy, and
+more intelligent. It was a conflict between brute force and
+intelligence. The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully against
+the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It could not have been
+a war of extermination, for finally an intermixture took place,
+producing a medium, as may be judged from the exhumed skulls.
+
+_Dwellings._--As in the past ages, man continued to dwell, for the most
+part, in caves. If the cave was small, he occupied every portion; but if
+large, only that part near the opening was used. In the centre of this
+dwelling he made a hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with
+the fire placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body. This
+mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured out, and under
+the projection of an overhanging rock he built him a booth, or rude hut,
+out of boughs, and the poles of fallen timber. These dwellings, whether
+in caves or under the rocks, were near some stream.
+
+_Clothing._--The climate being cold, he probably ceased to use the inner
+bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins of animals. The skins
+were prepared by the flint scrapers, and then rendered supple by rubbing
+into them the brains and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long
+bones of the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically shaped,
+for they understood the art of sewing. With the bodkin they pierced the
+skin, and with the needle, end was held to end and side to side, and the
+same made permanent by the sinew of some animal.
+
+_Food._--These people were essentially hunters, and lived principally
+upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their spears and arrows. The
+horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the chamois, formed a considerable part of
+their food. The meat was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and
+the long bones were split open in order to extract the brains and
+marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also added fish and,
+occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath-cock, swan, and owl. The
+chase did not always afford them sufficient food, and at times they were
+forced to subsist on the water-rat.
+
+Enough evidence has been produced to show that these people were
+cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered among the remains of
+cooking at Solutré in Mâconnais. M. Issel found, at a point on the road
+from Genoa to Nice, some human bones which had been calcined, and were
+of a whitish color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their
+surface still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them
+showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of the grottos of
+Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found the small shin-bone of a
+child, which had been carefully emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen
+thinks he can recognize the trace of human teeth on some human skulls
+and children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed with
+sculptured flints and the remains of pottery.
+
+_The Arts._--Man had not yet discovered the value of metal, but formed
+his instruments out of flint, bone, and the horn of the reindeer. The
+hatchet was but little used, and the principal weapons were the
+flint-knife, arrow-heads, and occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the
+cave-bear, with its pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use
+were rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and other
+wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting his person and
+pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads, and the whistle for
+delighting his ear. The art of engraving was practised to a great
+extent, and so admirably did he execute his designs that, after the
+lapse of thousands of years, the figures are easily recognized.
+
+The staff of authority would imply that there were certain individuals
+who were recognized as chiefs or leaders. Some system must have
+prevailed, for without it the manufactories at Laugerie-Basse and
+Laugerie-Haute could not have been carried on. In the first of these
+workshops the fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the
+second reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements.
+
+_Traffic._--Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Belgium sought their
+flints in that part of France now called Champagne. From the same
+locality they also brought back fossil shells, which were strung
+together and used for necklaces. There can be no doubt of this, as
+already fifty-four of these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they
+are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne.
+
+_Burial._--As in the previous epoch, the dead were consigned to the same
+kind of caves as were used for habitations, and the entombment was
+celebrated by the funeral-feast. These banquets afford no evidence of
+worship. Some have thought they not only saw signs of worship in the
+banquets, but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found.
+That they should have no notion of a future state is not surprising, for
+Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are tribes at the present time
+without this belief.[66]
+
+M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister of the Interior,
+on the excavations carried on in the caves, has concisely but eloquently
+given a synopsis of man of the reindeer epoch, in the following
+language:
+
+"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with those
+which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present us with a
+striking picture of the primitive ages of mankind in Belgium. These
+ancient tribes, and all their customs, after having been buried in
+oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again vividly brought
+before our eyes; and, ... antiquity lives again in the relics of its
+former existence.
+
+"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and subterranean
+retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully and patiently
+chipping out their flint instruments and shaping their reindeer-horn
+tools, in the midst of all the pestilential emanations arising from the
+various animal remains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in
+their dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and,
+by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's
+eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild
+animals--their only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of
+which are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint. Again, we are
+present at their feasts, in which, during the period when their hunting
+has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more
+noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole resource
+in the time of famine.
+
+"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the region now
+called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells with which they
+love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is to them so precious a
+material. On one side they are picking up the fluor spar, the color of
+which is pleasing to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the
+great slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones round
+their fire.
+
+"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive." The roof of their principal cave
+falls in, burying their weapons and utensils, and forcing them "to fly
+and take up their abode in another spot. The ravages of death break in
+upon them.... They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre; some
+weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of the funeral
+furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of wild beasts. Then
+begins the funeral banquet, celebrated close by the abode of the dead; a
+fire is lighted, great animals are cut up, and portions of their smoking
+flesh are distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must then
+have taken place! ceremonies like those told us of the savages of the
+Indian and African solitudes. Imagination may easily depict the songs,
+the dances, and the invocations, but science is powerless to call them
+into life....
+
+"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of water
+break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from their abodes, in
+vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes
+them, and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, at
+Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe."[67]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+NEOLITHIC EPOCH.
+
+
+The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is characterized by stone
+implements, polished or made smooth by a process of grinding and
+cutting, the greater development attained in the art of pottery, and by
+the presence of the bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in
+which no remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the reindeer
+epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries made in the so
+called _alluvial_ soil, the most ancient remains of the so called Celts,
+the shell-heaps of Denmark, the tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the
+earlier Swiss pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the
+caves of France.
+
+_Caverns._--The caves belonging to this period, and explored by MM.
+Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the Pyrenees and the caves of
+Pradiérs, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these
+caverns have been used in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of
+extinct mammals. The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to
+this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag, sheep,
+goat, antelope, chamois, wild boar, wolf, dog, fox, badger, hare, and
+horse, intermingled with the remains of hearths, also piercers,
+spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of bone; hatchets, knives, scrapers
+made of flints, and various other substances, such as silicious schist,
+quartzite, leptinite, and serpentine stone. These implements were
+carefully wrought, and mostly polished.
+
+The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at different times
+by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a place of sepulture. It was first
+examined about twenty-five years ago, and at that time five human
+skulls, in a good state of preservation, were found, but have been lost,
+as their importance was not then known. Intermingled with these bones
+were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved bones, remains of
+rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, but no
+remains of funeral banquets. At the mouth of the cave were two large
+flag-stones lying across one another. The most recent discoveries in the
+cave have furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a
+habitation, to the last of the neolithic.
+
+_Danish Kjökken-Möddings, or Shell-Mounds, or kitchen-refuse
+heaps._--The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully examined by
+Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchammer, a geologist, and
+Worsaae, the archæologist, commissioned by the Danish government, their
+reports being presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen.
+
+They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark, and consist of the
+shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster, cockle, mussel, and
+periwinkle. These deposits are from three to ten feet in thickness, from
+one hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as
+much as one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons and other
+instruments of stone, horn, and bone; fragments of rough pottery,
+stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abundance, accompanied with
+charcoal and ashes; no traces of coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic
+animals, except the dog. The bones of animals are very numerous, but no
+human bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup estimates
+that ninety-seven per cent. of the bones belong to the stag, the
+roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains are those of the urus
+(_Bos primigenius_), dog, fox, wolf, marten, wild-cat, hedgehog, bear
+(_Ursus arctos_), and the mouse, and the bones of birds and fishes. The
+auroch, musk ox, domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are
+absent.
+
+The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which are never
+obtained by the representatives of the same species now living on the
+Baltic. They are not more than one-half or even one-third the size. At
+the time of the formation of these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or
+an arm of the ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the
+Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely brackish, and
+the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except at its entrance into the
+ocean.
+
+These deposits have been found several miles inland, which would
+indicate that the sea had once covered the intervening space. On the
+western coast they have not been found, in consequence of their having
+possibly been swept away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also
+found on the adjacent islands.
+
+These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark; for they are found in
+England, Scotland, France, and America.
+
+_Danish Peat Bogs._--The peat bogs of Denmark, so faithfully
+investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods of deposition.
+The most ancient is called the _Scotch-Fir_; the second, immediately
+above, the _Oak_, and the uppermost, the _Beech_. The peat is from ten
+to forty feet in thickness, and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet
+thick would require, according to Steenstrup, _at least_ four thousand
+years, and perhaps even from three to four times that period.[68] These
+three epochs denote three periods of time. The lowest belongs to the
+neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and the last to the iron epoch. In
+the lowest, or _Fir_ period, have been found worked flints and bones.
+Human bones have been found, which correspond with the bones taken from
+the tumuli of this epoch.
+
+_The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland._--Dr. Ferdinand Keller and his
+associates have made known to the world the wonderful remains of
+villages situated in the lakes of Switzerland and other countries. The
+villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same period, and they
+represent the neolithic, bronze, and iron epochs; but there was no hard
+line of demarcation between these three periods. These habitations are
+so numerous that more than two hundred settlements hare been discovered
+in Switzerland alone. Among the lakes furnishing these remains may be
+counted the Lake of Neuchâtel (forty-six settlements); Lake Constance
+(thirty-two settlements); Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements); Lake
+of Bienne (twenty-one settlements); Lake of Morat (sixteen settlements);
+Lake of Zurich (three settlements); Lake of Pfæffikon (six settlements);
+Lake of Sempach (six settlements); Lake of Moosseedorf (two
+settlements); Lake of Inkwyl (one settlement); Lake of Nussbaumen (one
+settlement); Lake Greiffensee (one settlement); Lake of Zug (six
+settlements); Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and others.
+
+The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Constance thirty,
+Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements; one each at Morat, Bienne,
+Zurick, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, the settlement of
+Concise, the bridge Thiéle, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others.
+
+These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of various kinds of
+wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and driven into the mud at the
+shallow bottom of the lake. In some of the settlements the piles were
+fastened by heaping stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed
+together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level and then
+the platform beams were fastened upon them. This basis served for the
+foundation of the rude rectangular huts they erected. These piles are
+not now seen above the water, yet they are visible above the bottom of
+the lake. The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high as
+one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than seventy
+thousand square yards. It has been estimated that the population of the
+Lake-villages during the neolithic was over thirty thousand.
+
+The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabitants from wild
+animals, the attacks of enemies, and for the ready obtaining of food by
+fishing. They were not only occupied by the inhabitants, but also by
+their herds and the stores of fodder.[69]
+
+_Robenhausen._--It is not necessary to go into an account of a number of
+these settlements to represent the neolithic epoch, for the settlement
+at Robenhausen (Lake Pfæffikon) takes the first rank in giving the
+domestic arrangements of the ancient inhabitants. This settlement
+covered a space of nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles
+were used in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quadrangle.
+It was about two thousand paces from the ancient western shore of the
+lake, and about three thousand from the shore in the opposite direction.
+With the last-named side there was a communication by means of a bridge,
+the piles of which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and
+pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate, as their
+habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they rallied and rebuilt
+their huts. They remained a long time as would seem from the depth of
+the peat and the vast amount of relics found.
+
+At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most ancient
+relics; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the first
+conflagration--charcoal, stone and bone implements, pottery, woven
+cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at seven and one-half feet, flooring, relics
+of the second settlement, and excrement of cows, sheep, and goats; at
+six and one half feet, remains of second conflagration--charcoal, stone
+and bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at three
+and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of the third
+settlement; at two and one half feet, stone celts, pottery, but no
+traces of fire. Above this was two feet of peat and one-half foot of
+mould.
+
+Without going into detail, the objects found in these various beds are
+as follows: Made out of wood, are knives, ladles, plates, clubs of ash,
+in which is fixed a socket of stag's horn containing a stone celt, a
+boat made of a single trunk, twelve feet long, two and one-half feet
+wide, and five inches deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched
+at both ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets,
+suspension hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying
+vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all made out of
+yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel bush. Out of stag's
+horn--arrow-heads, daggers, piercing and scraping tools, implements for
+knitting and for agriculture. The implements of stone were polished, and
+of the usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in the
+shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance. There were also
+found spoons, and a perforated cone, supposed to have been used as a
+weight for the loom. Several crucibles or melting pots have been found,
+which were used for melting copper. The third building of this village
+was on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages.
+
+The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl, all of
+the neolithic, belong to the brown bear, badger, marten, pine-marten,
+polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat, beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer,
+wild-boar, marsh-boar; the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox,
+goat, sheep, and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from
+all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl.
+
+Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties of wheat and
+barley; fruits and berries--service-tree, dog-rose, elder, bilberry, and
+wayfaring tree; the nuts--hazel, beech, and water-chestnut; the
+oil-producing plants--opium, or garden poppy, and dogwood; the fibrous
+plants--flax; plants used for dying--weld; forest trees and
+shrubs--silver fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak; water and marsh
+plants--lake scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraw,
+buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh pennywort.
+
+Besides these there have been found many specimens of plaited and woven
+cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of a linseed cake.[70]
+
+In the different settlements the same axes and knives abound, and are of
+small size. The arrow-heads and saws are an improvement on those of the
+preceding epoch. Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude
+earthenware were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers are
+occasionally met with from two to three inches in diameter. About five
+hundred implements of stone have been found at Wauwyl, consisting of
+axes, small flint arrow-heads, flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones
+used as hammers, whetstones, and sling-stones.
+
+As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of the neolithic,
+but extend beyond, they naturally have a place in the close of this
+period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of this period came suddenly to an
+"end by the irruption of a people provided with bronze implements. The
+lake-dwellings were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive
+inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote places. This
+catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of East Switzerland, which
+entirely disappeared, and also a number of those on the shore of the
+western lakes. Some few settlements, however--namely, those of the
+so-called transition period--are said not to have been destroyed by the
+new people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of bronze
+implements."[71]
+
+Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there is no sudden
+leap from one class of civilization to another, and that the metals came
+gradually into use. The lake-dwellings were not burned down by the
+irruption of a foreign people; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements
+of the Unter-See, no traces of fire have been observed. The fact that
+but a very few human skeletons have been found in the whole settlements,
+contradicts the supposition of a battle having taken place between the
+aborigines and the supposed conquerors, and of the destruction of the
+former by the latter.[72]
+
+Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have been found in
+Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, France, England,
+Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus says that the Pæonians lived this way
+in Lake Prasias (Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake
+Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The town of
+Tcherkask in Russia, is constructed over the river Don, and Venice
+itself is but a lacustrine city.[73]
+
+Several attempts have been made to estimate the time which has elapsed
+since the neolithic period. The estimates of M. Morlot are based on the
+discoveries made in a hillock formed by the river Tinière at its
+entrance into the lake of Geneva. This cone contained three distinct
+layers of vegetable earth placed at different depths between the
+deposits of alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half
+feet from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in it were
+found relics of the Roman period; the second was five and one-fourth
+feet lower, and six inches thick, in which were fragments of bronze; the
+third was at a depth of eighteen feet from the top, and varied in
+thickness from six to seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone
+age. History proves that the layer containing the Roman relics is from
+thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch the cone has
+increased three and one-half feet, and if the increase was the same in
+previous ages, then the bed containing the bronze is from twenty-nine
+hundred to forty-two hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging
+to the stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten thousand
+years old.
+
+The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the discoveries near the
+bridge of Thièle. About one thousand two hundred and thirty feet from
+the present shore is the old abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year
+1100. There is a document which seems to show that the abbey was built
+on the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years the lake
+retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet. The distance of the
+present shore from the settlement of the bridge of Thièle is eleven
+thousand and seventy-two feet, and consequently the settlement is not
+less than six thousand seven hundred and fifty years old.
+
+M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of from six to
+seven thousand years before the Christian era.[74]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.
+
+
+From the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli, man is represented
+as having a narrow but round skull, with a projecting ridge above the
+eyebrows, showing he was round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small
+of stature though stout, and having a great resemblance to the
+Laplanders. In many respects the race was much superior to that of the
+preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the arts, and made great
+progress in civilization. He had passed out of the barbarous, and might
+be called a semi-barbarian.
+
+_Habitations._--Man's habitation varied according to the locality. In
+the extreme south of France he continued for a considerable length of
+time to occupy the caves and rock-shelters; in Switzerland, the
+pile-buildings, and in Denmark he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close
+together and in proximity to the shell-heaps.
+
+_Clothing._--Clothing also varied according to locality. Where the wild
+animals were numerous their skins were used--there being no incentive to
+substitute other material. Coarse material made of fibrous plants had
+come into use. The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material,
+and completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for their
+feet, as these have been found with the usual indications of usage.
+
+_Food._--Where wild animals could be obtained they were used, and the
+marrow of the long bones extracted. To this, fish and birds were added.
+In Denmark the principal food was the different species of the edible
+mollusk. In Switzerland a higher order and greater variety of food was
+used. The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied with
+bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries. The meat was not
+only obtained from the wild animal, but they provided against the
+uncertainty of the chase by domesticating the boar, ox, sheep, and goat.
+The horse and dog were domesticated to assist in the chase, but
+sometimes served for food, probably during a famine.
+
+If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest solely on the
+human bones discovered at a dolmen near the village of Hammer, Denmark,
+which had been subjected to the action of fire. They were found together
+with some flint implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead
+to the conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used
+along with the roasted stag.
+
+_Arts and Manufactures._--The flint hatchets of the refuse-heaps are
+generally of an imperfect type; the long knives indicate a considerable
+amount of skill; the bodkins, spear-heads, and scrapers are but little
+improved. In the latter part of this epoch, the various kinds of
+implements, especially in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree
+of perfection, in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was
+achieved without the use of metal. They were made into various shapes,
+and with the design of pleasing the eye.
+
+Besides the various types of implements common to the different
+countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a drilled hatchet, which
+is combined in various ways with the hammer. A specimen of this type is
+represented in Fig. 16, now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced
+with a round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge
+describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought into sharp
+angular edges.
+
+New inventions were brought into use. Among them was a comb which,
+according to shape, might be compared to the dung-fork of the American
+stables. Ornaments for the body, made of various materials were
+fashioned. Pottery was still in a rough state, though gradually
+improving. The loom was invented, and various kinds of cloth were
+manufactured. Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which
+again was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various places
+have been found, showing that they were not only used for fishing but
+also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were established, and there the
+stone implements were made and polished; one of these shops was at
+Pressigny.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16. DANISH AXE-HAMMER, DRILLED FOR HANDLE.]
+
+Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone implements which occur,
+when it is considered that in the Museum of Copenhagen there are about
+twelve thousand, consisting of flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and
+hollow chisels; poniards, lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and
+half-moon-shaped implements. In other collections in Denmark there are
+twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stockholm contains about
+sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish Academy owns seven hundred
+flint-flakes, five hundred and twelve celts, more than four hundred
+arrow-heads, fifty spear-heads, seventy-five scrapers, and numerous
+other objects of stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones,
+grain-crushers, etc.[75] Some of these implements, however, may belong
+to other epochs.
+
+War must have been carried on to a considerable extent, as fortified
+camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Furfooz, and other places.
+Their weapons were the axe, the arrow, the spear, and possibly the
+knife. These were wrought with great care.
+
+_Agriculture._--Man commenced to till the ground in this age, and thus
+laid the true foundation of civilization. He probably was forced to do
+it. The beasts of the forest were gradually decreasing. They had
+nourished him in the infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to
+look to the soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain
+his life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been the
+sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated the cereals, made
+his corn-mill, and stored the grain for winter use.
+
+_Burial._--How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed of their
+dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other places, the dead were buried
+in dolmens or tumuli. A dolmen is a monument consisting of several
+perpendicular stones covered with a great block or slab. When it is
+surrounded by circles of stone it takes the name _cromlech_. The dolmens
+occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They were formerly
+considered to have been Druidical sacrificial altars. They were usually
+covered over with earth, and in them were buried from one to twenty
+persons, accompanied with their implements. When a person died, the tomb
+was reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire was used
+for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the tomb. In Brittany, in
+the vicinity of the tombs, there were set up in the ground enormous
+blocks of stone, that have received the name of _menhirs_, the most
+noted of which is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state
+in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take the name of
+_tumuli_. Comparatively few of the tumuli belong to the neolithic. In
+these, large numbers of bodies have been found, and none of them in a
+natural position, but cramped up and their heads resting between the
+knees.
+
+Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently met with at the
+tomb, it may be inferred that victims were offered during the funeral
+ceremonies, perchance a slave, or the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that
+when a woman died in giving birth to a child, or even while still
+suckling it, the child was interred alive with her.[76]
+
+This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of cases in which
+the skeleton of a woman and child have been found together. In the
+ceremonies at the tomb, some read the belief in a future state of
+existence. The evidence, however, is no clearer than that in the
+previous epochs. Man undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not
+reveal it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+
+The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the antiquity of man, for
+it is largely embraced in written history. Although history does not
+record the events of the age of bronze in Western Europe, yet history
+covers the time which embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to
+do with the archæologist than the geologist. It is marked by the
+abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives, ornaments, and
+other articles made of bronze. The bronze implements are principally
+found in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and
+Switzerland. The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to this
+epoch are: Geneva, ten settlements; Neuchatel, twenty-five settlements;
+Bienne, ten settlements; Morat, three settlements; and Sempach, two
+settlements. To these may be added some of the crannoges of Ireland;
+also many tumuli and mounds.
+
+_Type._--The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the preceding. His
+head was rather broad than long, he was small, energetic, and muscular;
+his hands were small, as is proven by the remarkably small handles of
+their swords, which are too small for a hand of the present day. This
+type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzerland to the
+present time.
+
+_Habitations and Food._--The caves and rock-shelters gave way entirely
+to the rude huts which now protected man. If they were resorted to, it
+was only from some peculiar cause or danger. The food was the same as in
+the neolithic, with additions to the cereals.
+
+_Clothing._--The skins of animals were used less than formerly for
+clothing. Garments made of other material have been found, and even the
+whole dress of a chief. In a tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick
+woollen cap, a coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form,
+scalloped out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet four
+inches long, and wide in proportion; two woollen shawls, a woollen
+shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of leather boots.
+Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort of man, and were possibly
+used for summer wear, and under garments in winter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17. WOOLLEN CLOAK OF THE BRONZE EPOCH, FOUND IN
+  1861, IN A TUMULUS IN JUTLAND.]
+
+_Implements._--The people of this age made great improvements in their
+weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist of bronze celts, swords,
+hammers, knives, hair-pins, small rings, ear-rings, bracelets,
+fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads, arrow-heads, buttons,
+needles, various ornaments, saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed
+pins. There were also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged
+celt, has been found, which bore an inscription.
+
+_Arts._--Progress was made in the art of weaving. Soldering and the
+moulding of metal were practised; foundries were established, the
+remains of which have been discovered at Devaine and Walflinger in
+Switzerland; stone moulds were used, one of which, on trial, produced a
+hatchet exactly similar to those which have been collected. The moulds
+were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the melting of the
+metal was made out of pottery which was placed over a hole in the earth
+filled with burning charcoal; when the metal was melted, it was poured
+into the mould. Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various
+patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Phoenician origin,
+was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads, of a blue or green
+color, have been found in the tombs of this epoch.
+
+_Agriculture._--The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. The
+ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem of the tree, used
+as a plough. The grain was stored for winter use, and when required was
+crushed by being rubbed between two stones serving as a mortar.
+
+_Fishing and Navigation._--There are no distinct traces of improvement
+beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation, unless it be in the
+improved hooks made of bronze.
+
+_Burial._--The custom of burning the dead was almost universal in
+Denmark, and was more or less practised in other countries. The ashes
+and fragments of the bone were collected and placed either in or under
+an urn. When buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted
+position, but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their
+implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered in a tumulus
+in Jutland, where the clothing was found, was buried in a coffin nine
+and two-third feet long, over two feet in breadth, and covered by a
+movable lid. The body was in a good state of preservation, owing to the
+action on it of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in
+the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. Buried with it
+were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and caps, two small boxes, a
+bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword in a wooden sheath, and a long
+woollen band. In other coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches,
+awls, tweezers, and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found
+an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet.
+
+_Religious Belief._--Many crescents, made of stone and earthenware, have
+been found which are regarded, by some archæologists, as religious
+emblems. Dr. Keller calls them "moon images," and has devoted a short
+chapter to their consideration.[77] On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl
+Vogt regard them as resting-places for the head at night.[78] They
+carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed comfort for
+vanity. They carried a long pin with which to scratch the head. This
+kind of a pillow is still used by the Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have
+their hair elaborately decorated; and in some cases this is never
+disturbed. If the people were worshippers the crescent is the only
+evidence from archæology. No idols have ever been discovered. That the
+people were already worshippers may be learned from the traditions
+recorded in history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+IRON EPOCH.
+
+
+As the _Iron Epoch_ fairly establishes civilization, and belongs almost
+wholly to the historical epoch, it will be here briefly noticed, and
+then dismissed after giving a quotation from Dr. Keller. The bronze had
+not only prepared the way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great
+impulse to succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new
+importance and gave new life to every movement that tended to the
+assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to those of iron. A
+knife made of iron is represented in Fig. 18. Knives of this pattern
+were, however, made of bronze, and served for the same purpose. The
+workshops of this age were so numerous that four hundred of them have
+been discovered in one province. The potter's wheel was invented; money
+was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18. A KNIFE OF THE IRON EPOCH.]
+
+Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne belong to this
+epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his observations, has made use
+of the following language: "The phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so
+important in the history of civilization, the time of their first
+establishment, their original design, their development, and their final
+extinction, in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects
+clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning of this
+peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its existence, while
+outward circumstances remained the same, a quiet advance to a better
+development of the conditions of life may be observed, in which there
+was neither retrogression nor any sudden advance by the intervention of
+foreign elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country which had
+none, is explained simply by the barter which existed throughout Europe
+in the very earliest ages. The question why the inhabitants of a
+lake-dwelling of the stone age abandoned their settlements, while those
+of another, not many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained
+quietly living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than the
+inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities have
+disappeared, the names and situations of which are known to us. The
+presence of objects of industry on the area of the lake-dwellings has
+nothing in it very surprising, if we consider what misfortunes villages
+of straw-covered huts were exposed to, in which not only the houses
+themselves, but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of
+very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take Cæsar's
+account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose arrival in the country
+is neither mentioned in history nor shown by archæology, withdrew, the
+lake-dwellings then existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there
+can also be no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after
+the return of the population. Their continuing down to the Roman time is
+only astonishing to any one who imagines that at this time the whole
+population had gone over to the Roman manner of life, while the proof
+lies before him that the lower class adhered to their own manners and
+customs till the entrance of the German races."[79]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+
+America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than the old world.
+Her ancient remains are not so much injured by the decay of empires and
+the rude hand of war. Succeeding ages have not so much effaced these
+marks, and many of the remains still stand as left by the original
+occupants, save only the change and decay which time itself produces.
+America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are known; but
+these have not been investigated so diligently as the remains of man in
+Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come.
+Until they do, the history of primitive man in America must be
+surrounded with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the
+investigation of this subject, and many works written, all looking
+toward an early development which must sooner or later come.
+
+In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of these traces.
+
+_Enumeration._--The implements from the gravel beds of Colorado and the
+skull from Calaveras county, California, have already been referred to
+(pp. 61, 62).
+
+Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human skull imbedded in a
+solid rock, which was broken open by blasting. It was examined by Dr.
+Weirley, who compared it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the
+latter in general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of
+this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and was
+imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class, and found several
+feet beneath the surface. Parts of the frontal, parietal, and occipital
+bones were carried away by the explosion. The piece of rock holding the
+remains weighs some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of
+marine shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the
+cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a microscope
+presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the Neanderthal man comes
+nearest to it.[80]
+
+In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five hundred feet, Judge A.
+W. Baldwin found a human skull of unusual and peculiar shape. It is very
+short from base to summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The
+skull is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull has
+never been examined by a competent person.[81]
+
+In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two feet from
+the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of a deer, amidst an
+accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and with them a rude stone chisel or
+hatchet.[82]
+
+In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell leads (Kansas),
+was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth of fourteen feet. Above
+the implement the gravel, composed of quartz and reddish clay, was ten
+feet thick, and above this was four feet of rich black soil. This
+implement was given to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.[83]
+
+Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi at Natchez, a
+human pelvic bone along with the bones of the mastodon and megalonyx.
+They were found at a depth of thirty feet from the surface, and the
+human bone had the same black color which characterized the others. Sir
+Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand years to
+form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the conclusions
+arrived at by the United States engineers be correct, in respect to the
+annual amount of sediment discharged at the delta, the growth would be
+reduced to thirty-three thousand five hundred years. Taking either of
+these estimates, the same would give the number of years which have
+elapsed since these bones were deposited.[84]
+
+In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet from
+the surface, beneath four cypress forests superimposed one upon the
+other, the workmen found a complete human skeleton, and some charcoal.
+The cranium is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This
+discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler assigned to
+the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the Mississippi, of
+fifty-seven thousand years.[85]
+
+Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting of jaws,
+teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a calcareous conglomerate forming
+a part of the series of reefs of Florida. The whole series of reefs is
+of post-tertiary origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been
+one hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this
+calculation be correct, then these bones must have an antiquity of ten
+thousand years.[86]
+
+Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred caverns in Brazil,
+belonging to different epochs, and exhumed in them a great number of
+unknown animal species. In a calcareous cave, near the lake of
+Semidouro, he found the bones of not less than thirty persons of
+different ages, and showing a similar state of decomposition to that of
+the bones of animals with which they were associated. From the
+discoveries there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that man was
+cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the mylodon--animals belonging
+to the post-tertiary.[87]
+
+The shell-heaps of America are coeval with those of Denmark. Those at
+Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined by Professor W. D. Gunning. He
+estimates that within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in
+width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster shells. One
+dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet in height. The only human
+relics found among the shells are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone
+needles, pottery, and copper knives. These shells were probably
+deposited by but a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster
+was a native of that coast, but within the memory of man the oyster has
+not lived there.
+
+_The Mound-Builders._--An ancient and unknown people of a certain degree
+of civilization have left remains of their greatness in the
+fortifications and mounds in the valleys of the Mississippi and its
+tributaries. These works extend over a great extent of territory. They
+are found in Western New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri,
+Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and
+along the Kansas, Platte, and other western rivers.
+
+The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On the southern extremity
+the works gradually lose their distinctive character, and pass into the
+higher developed architecture of Mexico; and at the north, north-east,
+and north-west, the population seem to have been more limited and their
+works less perfectly developed. The people were preëminently given to
+agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated the rivers along their
+settlements. The fertile valleys of the Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha,
+White, Wabash, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely
+populated, as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their
+surfaces.
+
+The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their shape differ but
+little from those of Europe. The hatchets and knives are not only made
+of flint but also of obsidian, and other hard stones. Copper was the
+chief metallic substance. Out of this they made various implements, and
+swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior, where they
+carried on extensive mining. In these mines have been found their
+implements, some of which are very large diorite hatchets, used as
+sledges for breaking off lumps of copper, and so heavy that it would
+require more than one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to
+heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was desired.
+
+Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses may be given from
+the statement that in the State of Ohio alone there are from eleven
+thousand to twelve thousand of these works. The fortresses were used for
+the protection of the people against the predatory warfare of the
+hostile tribes, or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other
+Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been much
+speculation, and some archæologists divide them into sacrificial,
+sepulchral, temple, and symbolical.
+
+_Sacrificial._--The sacrificial mounds are characterized by "their
+almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their regular
+construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand, disposed
+alternately in strata conformable to the shape of the mound; and their
+covering a symmetrical altar of burned clay or stone, on which are
+deposited numerous relics, in all instances exhibiting traces, more or
+less abundant, of their having been exposed to the action of fire."[88]
+Among the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the place
+called Mound City situated on the western bank. The mounds are enclosed
+by a simple embankment, between three and four feet high. The area
+occupied is about thirteen acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One
+of these is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest
+breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four successive altars, a
+bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty quartz arrow-heads, and
+copper and other relics. The sacrificial deposits do not disclose a
+miscellaneous assemblage of relics, for on one altar hundreds of
+sculptured pipes chiefly occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments,
+stone implements; on others, calcined shells, burned bones; and on
+others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds are found at
+Marietta and other localities.
+
+All the investigations which have been made prove that the altars were
+not only used for a long period, but also had been repeatedly renewed.
+
+_Sepulchral._--The sepulchral mounds are numbered by the thousands. They
+are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary
+in height from six to eighty feet. Usually they contain but one
+skeleton, reduced almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary
+condition and in a crouching position. By the side of them occur
+trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably only
+raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished person.
+
+_Temple._--The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, with paths or steps
+leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces at different heights.
+Among the most noted of these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is
+seven hundred feet long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety
+feet high. Its level summit is several acres in extent.
+
+_Symbolical._--The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic bas-reliefs
+formed on the surface of the ground, representing men, animals, and
+inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they exist in thousands, and among the
+devices are man, the lizard, turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter,
+raccoon, frog, bird, fish, cross, crescent, angle, straight-line,
+war-club, tobacco-pipe, and other familiar implements or weapons.
+
+In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of six
+quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one human figure,
+and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from one hundred to one hundred
+and twenty feet long, and the figure of the man measured one hundred and
+twenty-five feet in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from
+the end of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when
+first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. One of the
+latter measured four hundred and seventy feet.
+
+In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent; its head
+occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended jaws is a part of an
+oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and sixty feet long, eighty wide,
+and four feet high. The body of the serpent extends round the hill for
+about eight hundred feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near
+Granville, Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred
+feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme length is
+two hundred and fifty feet, average height four feet; the head,
+shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to a height of six feet; the
+paws are forty feet long, the ends being broader than the links, as if
+the spread of the toes were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of
+the effigy is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed
+to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a graded way
+ten feet in breadth. On examination it was discovered that the outline
+of the figure was composed of stones of considerable size, upon which
+the superstructure had been modelled in fine clay.
+
+_Antiquity._--There are methods of determining the antiquity of these
+mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed out three facts which go to prove
+that they belong to a distant period. 1. None of these ancient works
+occur on the lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the
+subsidence of the streams. As these works are raised on all the others,
+it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed since the works were
+erected. The streams generally form four terraces, and the period marked
+by the lowest must be the longest because the excavating power of such
+streams grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of the
+Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme decay. Only one or
+two skeletons have been recovered in a condition suitable for
+intelligent examination. The circumstances attending their burial were
+unusually favorable for preserving them. The earth around them has
+invariably been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when
+exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling condition. 3.
+Their great age is shown by their relation to the primeval forests. As
+the Mound-Builders were a settled agricultural people, their enclosures
+and fields were cleared of trees, and remained so until deserted. When
+discovered by the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic
+trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees which first made
+their appearance were not the regular forest trees. When the first trees
+that got possession of the soil had died away, they were supplanted, in
+many cases, by other kinds, till at last, after a great number of
+centuries, that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North
+America would be established.[89]
+
+Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven thousand to ten
+thousand years.[90]
+
+Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully examined by
+Frank H. Cushing, the archæologist. The fort was found to be composed of
+two parallel circular walls, with a gateway in each. The gateway in the
+outer wall fronted a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet
+distant. Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used
+for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the depth of
+seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom of the shaft he found
+the shells of living species of shell-fish. The natural surroundings
+show that this fort was built when the peat-bog was a lake. This is
+further confirmed by the fact that all ancient works are erected near a
+permanent supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is Oak
+Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The formation of this
+peat would require not less than four thousand years, and more probably
+twice that number.
+
+The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long time. These works were
+formed gradually, and the population extended slowly toward the North.
+Their corn-fields, by their raised condition, show many successive years
+of usage.
+
+    NOTE A.--In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida Count
+    L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones, found in
+    Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in
+    a fresh-water sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated
+    with fresh-water shells of species still living in the lake,
+    (_Paludina, Ampullaria, etc._) No date can be assigned to
+    the formation of that deposit, at least from present
+    observation."--_American Naturalist_, vol. II., p. 443.
+
+    NOTE B.--Besides the evidences already enumerated, Col. Charles
+    Whittlesey gives the following: 1. Three skeletons of Indians in
+    a shelter cave near Elyria, O., were found four feet below the
+    surface, resting upon the original floor of the cave, upon which
+    were also charcoal, ashes, and the remains of existing animals;
+    estimated age, two thousand years. 2. Several human skeletons were
+    found in a cave near Louisville, Ky., cemented into a breccia.
+    They were discovered in constructing the reservoir in 1853. 3. A
+    log, worn by the feet of man, was found in the muck bed at High
+    Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., at a depth of nine feet beneath the
+    cave, and estimated by Dr. Henry McGuire to be 5,470 years old. It
+    was discovered in 1866. 4. Mr. Koch claims to have found an arrow
+    head fifteen feet below the skeleton of the _Mastodon Ohioensis_
+    from the recent alluvium of the Pomme de Terre River, Mo., and now
+    in the British Museum. His statement was, however, contradicted by
+    one of the men who assisted him in exhuming the skeleton. 5. Dr.
+    Holmes, of Charleston, S. C., found pottery at the base of a peat
+    bog, on the banks of the Ashley River, in close connection with
+    the remains of the Mastodon and Megatherium. 6. Col. Whittlesey,
+    in 1838, found fire-hearths in the ancient alluvium of the Ohio,
+    at Portsmouth, O., at a depth of twenty feet, and beneath the
+    works of the Mound-Builders.--_Col. Whittlesey before the American
+    Association, in 1868._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WRITTEN HISTORY.
+
+
+It is not generally known that written history extends so far back as to
+make worthless the present system of chronology. The mighty empires of
+antiquity must have been a mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far
+back as history will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with
+her millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crumbling.
+Rollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which hampered him. He
+says the Assyrian empire was founded by Nimrod eighteen hundred years
+after the creation of man, or two hundred and twenty-four years after
+the Deluge, or one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of
+Noah. Nimrod was succeeded by his son Ninus, who received powerful
+succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests from Egypt as far
+as India and Bactriana. Ninus enlarged his capital to sixty miles in
+circumference, built the walls to the height of one hundred feet, and so
+broad that three chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and
+fortified and adorned them with one thousand five hundred towers two
+hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodigious work he led
+against the Bactrians one million seven hundred thousand foot, two
+hundred thousand horse, besides four hundred vessels well equipped and
+provided. After his death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne. She
+enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of Ethiopia. Then
+she led her army of three million foot and five hundred thousand horse,
+besides the camels and chariots of war, into India, where she suffered a
+severe defeat. After making these statements, Rollin says, "I must own
+I am somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised against the
+extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis, as they do not seem
+to agree with the times so near the Deluge: I mean, such vast armies,
+such a numerous cavalry, so many chariots armed with scythes, and such
+immense treasures of gold and silver; ... and the magnificence of the
+buildings, ascribed to them."[91] The difficulties presented to the
+modern historian never would have occurred if discredit had not been
+thrown on the writings of the ancients.
+
+_Egypt._--The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was that of
+Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, who lived three hundred years
+before Christ. Only fragments of this work have been preserved. This
+history is taken from the ancient Egyptian chronicles, and records a
+list of thirty dynasties reigning in one city. His "thirty-one lists
+contain the names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to
+them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand four hundred
+and sixty-five years."[92] Dr. Buchner says Manetho "calculates for
+three hundred and seventy-five Pharaohs a reigning period of six
+thousand one hundred and seventeen years, which together with the
+present era, makes about eight thousand three hundred and thirty
+years."[93] Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to
+about the year 5000 B. C.[94]
+
+Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their first king (Menes)
+to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos), the priest of Vulcan, was a
+period of three hundred and forty-one generations; such, at least, they
+say, was the number both of their kings and of their high-priests,
+during this interval. Now three hundred generations of men make ten
+thousand years, three generations filling up the century; and the
+remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and forty years.
+Thus the whole number of years is eleven thousand three hundred and
+forty." The priests "led me into the inner sanctuary, which is a
+spacious chamber, and showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in
+wood, which they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number
+they had said; the custom being for every high-priest during his
+life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they showed me the
+figures and reckoned them up, they assured me that each was the son of
+the one preceding him; and this they repeated throughout the whole line,
+beginning with the representation of the priest last deceased, and
+continuing till they had completed the series."[95] From the time of
+Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of Delphi,
+was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple was burned B. C. 548.
+The period which, then, has elapsed from Sethos to the present (1875) is
+two thousand five hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time
+of Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand eight
+hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation be reduced to
+twenty years then the period from Menes to the present is nine thousand
+three hundred and sixty-five years.
+
+The recent explorations made by Mariette among the archives of Egypt
+have confirmed the testimony of Manetho. The names of the kings, their
+order of succession, and the length of their reigns correspond with
+Manetho's table. These discoveries not only testify to the great
+antiquity of the empire, but also throw light on the nation, its
+manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane-bottomed chairs,
+work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet ornaments, earthenware, seeds,
+eggs, bread, straw baskets, a child's plaything, paint boxes, with
+colors and brushes, etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old.
+There were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived 1700 B.
+C., consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear-rings, and bracelets,
+which no modern queen would hesitate to wear.
+
+These statements are still further confirmed by the testimony of
+geology. In the year 1850 borings were commenced in the mud deposit of
+the Nile. The most important results were obtained from an excavation
+and boring made near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Rameses
+at Memphis, the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361 B.
+C. Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the platform or
+foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches below the surface of
+the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it was laid, there had been
+formed between that period and the year A. D. 1850, or during the space
+of three thousand two hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet
+four inches round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and
+one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascertained, by
+sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in the same place, that
+below the level of the old plain the thickness of old Nile mud resting
+on desert sand amounted to thirty-two feet; and it was therefore
+inferred by Mr. Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of
+burned brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old, or
+was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety-six years before
+the year 1850."[96] Other excavations were made on a large scale. In the
+first sixteen or twenty-four feet there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a
+small human figure in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles
+entire. When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the
+progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost everywhere,
+and from all depths, even where they sank sixty feet below the surface,
+pieces of burned brick and pottery were extracted.[97]
+
+_Troy._--Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has recently been
+uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has been thrown over the
+ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy given by Homer, thought to have
+been a mere work of imagination, are now shown to be accurate, and also
+that he must have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of
+Troy the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities
+superimposed one above the other were discovered. The third city, below
+the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of Priam, the Scæan gate, the
+massive walls and pavements, still remained. In the house of Priam Dr.
+Schlieman found a great mass of human bones, among them two entire
+skeletons wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden
+scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight thousand
+seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc. Immediately beside the
+house of Priam, closely packed in a quadrangular space, surrounded with
+ashes, and near by a copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a
+copper pot, a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound,
+several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads,
+fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a part of a
+sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by weight alone, of all the
+gold and silver found in or near the house of Priam, has been estimated
+at twenty thousand dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred
+thousand articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had been
+suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the implements and the effects
+of war were visible. Even the brave warriors who fell while defending
+the palace of their king have not yet wholly crumbled into dust.
+
+The four cities may be thus summed up: The topmost stratum is six and
+one-half feet in depth and covers the Grecian settlement which was
+established about the year 700 B. C. Beneath the Greek masonry are found
+the walls of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the
+abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city--or the successive
+cities--was chiefly built of wood.
+
+The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty-three and
+one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the surface, and form a
+stratum averaging ten feet in thickness. Troy is supposed to have been
+founded about 1400 B. C., and its fall and destruction by fire to have
+occurred about 1100 B. C.
+
+Under Troy there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying from thirteen to
+twenty feet in depth. The most remarkable feature of these oldest ruins
+is the superiority of the terracotta articles. These vases are of a
+shining black, red, or brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut
+into the pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of
+these ruins "is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissitudes of
+the city's history--frequent destruction and rebuilding--would have the
+same practical effect, or very nearly so, as a long interval of time. We
+have anywhere from two to five thousand years before Christ as the date
+of the foundation of the _first_ Troy."[98]
+
+_Chaldea._--Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly three hundred
+years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular history of Chaldea, in
+nine books. The materials for this work were supplied by the archives
+then existing in the Temple of Belus at Babylon. The work was
+particularly devoted to a history of the kingdom prior to the beginning
+of the Assyrian empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by
+Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of ten
+fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true history, and
+enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings of Chaldea, who reigned
+successively from the time when the list begins to the rise of the
+Assyrian empire, about the year 1237 B. C. Berosus begins with a dynasty
+of eighty-six kings, and gives their names, which are now lost. He had
+no chronology of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical
+calculation. His list, which has so far escaped the lapse of time and
+the change of hands, is thus preserved:
+
+First, eighty-six Chaldean kings; history and time mythical.
+
+Second, eight Median kings; during two hundred and twenty-four years.
+
+Third, eleven kings.
+
+Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings.
+
+Fifth, nine Arabian kings; during two hundred and forty-five years.
+
+The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a sixth dynasty.
+The blank spaces in the list are doubtless the result of careless
+copying, or caused by imperfections in the manuscripts. In order to make
+the old kingdom of Chaldea begin about the year 2234 B. C. the first
+eighty-six kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the
+Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any show of
+reason, save that it does not agree with the chronology which the
+mutilators of history accept.
+
+Investigations which have been made among the ruined cities of Chaldea
+have given great weight to the authority of Berosus, and are tending to
+the confirmation of his history. In Susiana there was found a Cushite
+inscription, mentioned by Rawlinson, in which there is a date that goes
+back nearly to the year 3200 B. C. The testimony of the records
+disentombed from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the
+prevalent hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the country
+before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm Berosus by showing that
+Chaldea was a cultivated and flourishing nation, governed by kings, long
+previous to the time when the city known to us as Babylon rose to
+eminence and became the seat of empire. During that long time there were
+several great political epochs in the history of the country,
+representing important dynastic changes, and several transfers of the
+seat of government from one city to another. Such epochs in Chaldean
+history are indicated by the list of Berosus."[99]
+
+By this people, the science of astronomy was well understood.
+"Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Babylon, sent to Aristotle
+from that capital a series of astronomical observations which he had
+found preserved there, extending back to a period of one thousand nine
+hundred and three years from Alexander's conquest of the city.... These
+observations were recorded in tablets of baked clay.... They must have
+extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as 2234 B. C., and would
+seem to have been commenced and carried on for many centuries by the
+primitive Chaldean people." A lens of considerable power, used for
+either magnifying or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at
+Babylon, in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.[100]
+
+_China._--Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that there were
+long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom flourished, the chronology
+of which is not preserved, although there is recorded some knowledge of
+the rulers. One of these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next
+come the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion, and
+the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great epoch, and ruled by
+fifteen successive kings. In the second epoch, agriculture and medical
+science were promoted. In the third, the magnetic needle was discovered,
+the written characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great
+revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the descendants of
+the previous ruler reigned. Next came the period of Yao and Shin. After
+this the period of the "Imperial Dynasties," which began with the
+Emperor Yu, who lived two thousand two hundred years B. C. The
+historical work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically from
+the year 2637 B. C. to 122 B. C.[101]
+
+_Mexico._--It is known that books or manuscripts were abundant among
+the ancient Mexicans. There were persons duly appointed to keep a
+chronicle of the passing events. Las Casas, who saw the books, says they
+gave the origin of the kingdom as well as the founders of the different
+cities, and every different thing which transpired that was worthy of
+note: such as the history of kings, their modes of election and
+succession; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds, good or bad;
+the heroes of other days, their triumphs and defeats. These chroniclers
+calculated the days, months, and years. Nearly all these books were
+destroyed at the instigation of the monks, and by the more ignorant and
+fanatical Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings were
+burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumarraga. A few of the
+works, however, escaped, but none of the great books of annals described
+by Las Casas.[102] Thus Mexico must be left to the archæologist
+unassisted by written history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+
+The origin and growth of language evidently afford a great field for
+study, in not only tracing the development of civilization, but also in
+confirming the testimony of the ancients and the conclusions of the
+geologists. If the unity of language could not be established, there
+would still be left a field so great as would not lessen the interest or
+the importance of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed. For
+the sake of convenience the many varieties of language have been grouped
+into three great divisions, _i. e._, the Aryan, the Semitic, and the
+Turanian. "The English, together with all the Teutonic languages of the
+Continent, Celtic, Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots,
+such as French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many varieties
+of one common type of speech: that Sanskrit, the ancient language of the
+Veda, is no more distinct from the Greek of Homer, ... or from the
+Anglo-Saxon of Alfred, than French is from Italian. All these languages
+together form one family, one whole, in which every member shares
+certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the same time
+distinguished from the rest by certain features peculiarly its own. The
+same applies to the Semitic family which comprises, as its most
+important members, the Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the
+Koran, and the ancient languages on the monuments of Phoenicia and
+Carthage, of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again, form a compact
+family, and differ entirely from the other family, which we called Aryan
+or Indo-European. The third group of languages, for we can hardly call
+it a family, comprises most of the remaining languages of Asia, and
+counts among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic,
+Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages of Siam, the Malay
+Islands, Thibet, and Southern India. Lastly, the Chinese language stands
+by itself as monosyllabic, the only remnant of the earliest formation of
+human speech."[103]
+
+Anterior to these three families there was still another from which
+these were derived. It contained the germs of all the Turanian, as well
+as the Aryan and Semitic forms of speech. It belongs to that period in
+the history of man when ideas were first clothed in language, and has
+been called the Rhematic Period.[104]
+
+As regards the origin of language, three theories have been proposed:
+the Interjectional, the Imitation, and the Root. The first supposes that
+the beginnings of human speech were the cries and sounds which are
+uttered when a human being is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second
+supposes "that man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and
+dogs, and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea, the
+rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the whisper of the
+breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and finding his mimicking
+cries useful as signs of the objects from which they proceeded, he
+followed up the idea and elaborated language." The third theory,
+advanced by Max Müller, is that language followed as the outward sign
+and realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty of
+abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be reduced, express a
+general, not an individual idea.[105]
+
+There is more or less truth in all these theories. At the very earliest
+period man must have possessed some method of communicating his wants or
+ideas. The casual observer has noticed that animals have methods of
+communicating with one another. It is not improbable that at the very
+earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and signs. This may
+have lasted for a very long time. Then the mimicking commenced. Next,
+comparison was resorted to when he had so far advanced as to describe
+his thoughts and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary
+or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root words.[106]
+
+Instead of new languages originating, old languages change. They are
+mutable, and from them new dialects are produced. In the history of man
+there never has been a new language, and the languages now spoken are
+but the modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people,
+however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same materials as
+were used in the beginnings of speech. New words are but old words; old
+in their material elements, though they may be renewed and dressed in
+various forms. "The modifiability of the language and its tendency to
+vary never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and
+modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with the mother
+country direct or indirect. In this respect its mutability will resemble
+that of species, and it can no more spring up independently in separate
+districts than species can, assuming that these last are all of
+derivative origin."[107]
+
+There are from four thousand to six thousand living languages. The
+number of unspoken languages is not known. Their growth has required
+ages, and during their development many a parent stalk has ceased to
+exist. The changes in a language are slowly produced. It requires
+centuries to so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order
+to understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be gained by
+comparing the writings in the English language of different periods. In
+the year 1362 appeared a poem called "Piers Ploughman's Creed," which
+begins as follows:
+
+  "In a summer season,
+  When soft was the sun,
+  I shoop me into shrowds[108]
+  As I a sheep[109] were;
+  In habit as an hermit
+  Unholy of werkes,
+  Went wide in this world
+  Wonders to hear;
+  Ac[110] on a May morwening
+  On Malvern hills
+  Me befel a ferly,[111]
+  Of fairy me thought." Etc.
+
+Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the process of
+either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered that a language has
+been derived successively through numerous others, no special limit or
+time can be given, although a very long period would be required. The
+usually accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the
+diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time required for
+the development of the three general classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.
+
+
+The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a clash of opinions
+among men of science. It has been the great battle field among
+anthropologists, ethnologists, geologists, philologists, and
+theologists. Men of acknowledged ability have been arrayed on either
+side. Among the foremost in favor of a diversity of origin have been
+Agassiz, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and
+Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is most in favor of
+the unity of the human race.
+
+The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin of the human
+race have advanced many objections against the unity, and produced
+arguments in favor of their opinions. These may be summed up under five
+heads. 1. The anatomical differences between the different races, and
+especially those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The
+separation of the races from each other for unknown ages by great
+oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental barriers. 3.
+The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in civilization. 4. A
+medium type cannot exist by itself, except on the condition of being
+supported by the two creating types. 5. When two types become united,
+two phenomena may arise: _a_, Either one of them will absorb the other;
+or _b_, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst of a greater or
+less number of hybrids.
+
+The following answers may be given to these objections, or arguments: 1.
+It is just as reasonable to suppose that man is affected, as well as the
+animals, by climate, food, or peculiar condition. It is well known that
+animals have undergone more or less change by their situation or
+position. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain
+extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate, were
+covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that the present species
+of both genera had lost their hairy covering by exposure to heat. This
+is confirmed by the fact that the elephants of the elevated and cool
+districts of India are more hairy than those on the lowlands.[112] A
+wonderful change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys. In
+India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of rising on
+the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous appendages over the
+beak, enormously developed." "In the English climate an individual Porto
+Santo rabbit recovered the proper color of its fur in less than four
+years."[113] Observers are convinced that a damp climate affects the
+growth of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ from the
+lowland breeds; in a mountainous country the hind limbs would be
+affected from exercising them more, which would also affect the pelvis,
+and, then, from the law of homologous variation, the front limbs and
+head would probably be affected.[114] One of the most marked
+distinctions in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated
+or dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic. Mr. Darwin
+has observed that a change takes place in the skulls of domestic
+rabbits; they become elongated, while those of the wild rabbit are
+rounded. He took two skulls of nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild
+and the other from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15,
+and the latter 4.3 inches in length. Welcker has observed "that short
+men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to dolichocephaly; and
+tall men may be compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all
+of which have elongated skulls."[115] The argument from language is of
+great weight, especially in considering the differences in color.
+Professor Max Müller has stated this clearly: "There was a time when the
+ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, the Greeks and
+Italians, the Persians and Hindus, were living together beneath the same
+roof." "The evidence of language is irrefragable, and it is the only
+evidence worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It
+would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of
+relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their conquerors,
+whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony borne by
+language."[116] When the great lapse of ages is taken into
+consideration, since man originated, it will be seen that sufficient
+time is given to produce the white, black, yellow, red, and brown
+varieties of man.
+
+2. The argument from geographical distribution would hardly seem valid,
+as it is known that the ocean can be and has been navigated by frail
+crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the ship Bounty, in a small boat,
+twenty-three feet long from stem to stern, deep laden with nineteen men
+and one hundred and fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of
+water, twenty pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa
+(South Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand
+six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boisterous sea, and
+great perils, but finally reached his destination.[117] When men began
+to dwell on the sea-coast they made their small vessels and carried on a
+limited navigation. Many a frail craft has been driven out to sea with
+its human freight, some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has
+often happened among the South Sea islanders.[118] If it had been
+asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have been
+partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have received no attention.
+And yet, Captain Tyson and his party, consisting of twelve men, two
+women, and five children, being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated
+Polaris, drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of
+April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic winter.
+Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they subsisted on the
+flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they were able to kill. Every
+member of this party was rescued off the coast of Labrador. It must be
+further noticed that the surface of the earth was not always the same.
+The continents have changed more or less, and during these changes man
+must have become more or less separated.
+
+3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the two extreme
+points are observable in all the nations of the earth. Even in single
+families there have been those who were highly cultured and refined,
+while other members have been very low in organization, habits, and
+tastes. In these days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a
+very high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations have
+retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who pitch their tents amid
+the ruins of Babylon, are the descendants of the ancient mixed races who
+successively occupied Mesopotamia: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes,
+and Persians, who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as Shalmaneser,
+Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild marauding Arabs are the
+descendants of a people who invented algebra and introduced the
+numerals. So the list might be extended.
+
+4 and 5. The fourth and fifth amount to the assumption that no race will
+amalgamate with another. The statements embraced under these two heads
+are not warranted by facts. Dr. Prichard says, "Mankind of all races and
+varieties are equally capable of propagating their offspring by
+intermarriages, and that such connections are equally prolific whether
+contracted between individuals of the same or of the most dissimilar
+varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably in favor of the
+latter."[119] He then gives a short account of several examples of new
+or intermediate stocks which have been produced and multiplied. They are
+Griquas, descended from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks
+of the Orange River, and number five thousand souls; the Cafusos of
+Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African Negroes; the Papuas of
+the island of New Guinea, a mixture between the Malays and Negroes. One
+of the best examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders.
+This colony originated in this way: The British government had sent a
+vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieutenant Bligh, to gather
+bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and introduce them into the West Indies.
+Bligh was an overbearing, tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury,
+and out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Christian
+and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen companions
+adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti; here they took on board
+provisions and live stock, nine Tahitian men, twelve women, and eight
+boys who had secreted themselves, and then proceeded to Toubouai, where
+they founded a settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and
+removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of the mutineers,
+three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with their wives, and one child,
+and nine other women, left in the Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's
+Island, and there burned the Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less
+than nine years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to two
+in number, both whites, and one of them died the succeeding year. In the
+year 1808 the American ship Topaz touched at the island. The colonists
+then numbered thirty-five. In 1856 they had increased to the number of
+one hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was barely
+sufficient to support them they were removed by the British government
+to Norfolk Island. There are only eight surnames among them--five of the
+Bounty stock and three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of
+people; the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely
+distinguishable from English women. If reports be true concerning them,
+they are the most remarkable people on earth. They never allow the sun
+to go down on their wrath, and are noted for their honesty, truth,
+chastity, industry, benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the
+virtues which combine to form true religion.
+
+The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged against the unity
+of the race, has proved an argument in favor. The offspring of birds as
+much alike as the domestic goose and the large Muscovy duck will not
+propagate their species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The
+different varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland pony
+and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together but these
+hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind, thereby proving their
+identity of species. The same may be said of the cross between the most
+perfect and the lowest type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die
+out in a few generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the
+plain violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to a
+marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no issue; if the
+constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in substance too nearly the
+same, the issue, if any, will be either still-born, or die very soon
+after birth; if the contracting parties shall have an adjunctive
+element, the issue will be short-lived, although they may arrive at the
+years of maturity.[120] These laws apply to both the mixed and the
+unmixed types of mankind.
+
+The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the same
+general laws, their capacity for mental and moral improvement, and the
+virtual unity of their languages lead to the conclusion that one
+birth-place was common to all. If that place be Central Asia, or any
+other locality, it must have been long before traditional times, when
+the one tribe was broken up and nations formed.
+
+Races change so slow that they seem to be stationary. On the ancient
+Egyptian monuments are representations of the Negro, having exactly the
+same features which characterize that race at the present time; and some
+of these paintings date as far back as 2000 B. C.
+
+Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in type, an almost
+incredible length of time must be assigned to permit of the great
+disparity as exhibited by the different types of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE.
+
+
+No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible. It has been made to
+answer for the folly of both its friends and foes. The fierce assaults
+made by the sceptic have been the legitimate result of the preposterous
+claims made by its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no
+such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its meaning has
+been perverted, sentences distorted, and words changed in order to suit
+the caprice of its advocates. If it were a living, speaking existence,
+it would certainly beg to be delivered from its friends. It has been
+made to conflict with the investigations of science, and those engaged
+in interpreting the laws of nature have been branded as infidels,
+although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The Bible is not and
+makes no pretensions of being a book of science. It is designed to be a
+book of religion, and a history of the ancient Jews, and its references
+to scientific questions are only incidental. If the references to
+science, or the account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on
+questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invalidated. The
+Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from the results of
+scientific investigation. But there is a duty devolving on him, and that
+is to leave his fanciful interpretations and come to the true meaning of
+the Scriptures, and there learn how the words were understood by those
+to whom they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as used in
+the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with their signification
+as used in the past. There is a great distance that divides the present
+from the times of the Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the
+English language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were not given
+to scientific pursuits, and could have been but comparatively little
+advanced in civilization.
+
+It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of the points
+raised between the Scriptures and science, but to confine the inquiry to
+such questions as the previous chapters have demanded.
+
+_Creation._--The first and second chapters of Genesis not only teach
+that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but also the order of
+succession is given. It is not stated that the world was created out of
+nothing. The word "bara," translated "created," has a variety of
+meanings. According to Gesenius it means _to cut_, _to cut out_, _to
+carve_, _to form_, _to create_, _to produce_, _to beget_, _to bring
+forth_, _to feed_, _to eat_, _to grow fat_, _to fashion_, _to
+make_.[121] The idea presented seems to be this: The author asserts that
+heaven and earth owe their origin to God. Then he goes back and explains
+the successive stages of creation. At the commencement of the work the
+earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition, and from this
+preëxisting mass the worlds were evolved. When this mass was created, if
+ever, the author of Genesis does not state.
+
+Six periods, or "days," are given for the formation of the earth. The
+use of the words "evening and morning" naturally leads to the conclusion
+that the _days_ were each twenty-four hours in length. But doubt is
+thrown over this conclusion by the use of the word _day_ in the second
+chapter and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called a
+_day_. The word translated "day" also means _time_, but it is to be
+generally taken in the sense of the civil day--from sun up to sun down.
+Hugh Miller held to the opinion that the creation was represented to
+Moses in a vision. The periods passed before his mind in succession and
+had the appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and the
+morning was the beginning of another period of time.[122] If a
+description of the different orders of life had been given, it would
+have been beyond the comprehension of that primitive people. It was not
+the design to teach geology. The people were not prepared for such
+scientific knowledge. But the simple statement that God is the author of
+all things, could be and was understood by the Israelites.
+
+On the sixth day man appears; but there are two records, and in them he
+is presented in different ways and for different purposes. In the first
+account man is made in the image of God, and to him is given dominion
+over the living things, and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The
+second account states that there was no man to till the ground, and the
+Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his
+nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. The second
+account cannot be, as has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The
+two accounts are radically different. One account makes man to have
+dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes; the other, to till or
+cultivate the soil. This agrees with archæo-geology. Men were hunters
+many ages before they were agriculturists. The one account has man made
+in the image of God, the other, a _living soul_. The "image of God" and
+"living soul" may be the same, but why the change? There may be a cause
+for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one, then Moses saw man
+in two capacities, differing one from the other. Man may be in the
+"image of God," and yet in a low, savage condition--subsisting on the
+chase. Man may be awakened from that condition, the "image of God" may
+assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful being.[123]
+That there were two classes the record implies. Cain goes out into the
+Land of Nod, where his wife conceives, and he builds a city. Where did
+Cain get his wife, and why did he build a city? No account is given of
+the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained her in
+the Land of Nod.[124] It has been contended that Cain married his
+sister. If this be true it would certainly have been mentioned. It is
+too important a matter to have escaped notice. If he married his sister
+he was guilty of a heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now.
+The city he built must have been more than an _encampment_, or a _small
+fortification_. (The word translated "city" bears this meaning also.) It
+would have been of no moment. It must have been a place of some
+consequence, and designed for more persons than Cain, his wife, and son.
+Taking all the circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every
+one that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object of
+this city was to provide for individuals of the pre-Adamic family
+dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingratiate himself into
+their favor.
+
+Then, again, in the sixth chapter, "The sons of God saw the daughters of
+men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they
+chose." This was followed by great wickedness, in consequence of which
+the world was destroyed by a flood. Who were the "sons of God," and who
+the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of God? The "sons of God"
+must have been the lineal descendants of Adam, and the "daughters of
+men" the offspring of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced
+were monsters,[125] and their minds were bent continually on doing evil.
+These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or else they would not have
+sought wives from among a lower people. By the laws of nature their
+offspring was lower than either of the races, from the fact that to the
+brutish natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural wisdom
+of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in their
+wickedness.[126] If stringent moral laws had been enforced upon them the
+result would have been reversed.
+
+_Chronology._--The chronology given in the margins of the Bible is a
+mere invention, and has worked much mischief. There is nothing to
+warrant it, and no excuse can be made for it. The Bible gives no
+definite chronology for those early times. That no dependence can be
+placed in these chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the
+Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.[127] The Septuagint dates the Flood
+eight hundred years farther back than the common Bible. "A margin of
+variation amounting to eight centuries between two versions of the same
+document, is a variation so enormous that it seems to cast complete
+doubt on the whole system of interpretation on which such computations
+of time are based."[128]
+
+_The Deluge._--Allowing the date of the Deluge to have been 3149 B. C.
+instead of 2349 B. C., still there is not sufficient time to repopulate
+the earth, and form those mighty empires recorded in ancient history.
+The Duke of Argyle has very justly remarked that, "The founding of a
+monarchy is not the beginning of a race. The people among whom such
+monarchies arose must have grown and gathered during many generations."
+The peopling of Egypt is not the only difficulty. "The existence, in the
+days of Abraham, of such an organized government as that of Chedorlaomer
+shows that two thousand years B. C. there nourished in Elam, beyond
+Mesopotamia, a nation which even now would be ranked among 'the Great
+Powers.'"[129] Then the characteristic features of the Negro, one of the
+most strongly marked among the varieties of man, were as greatly marked
+2000 B. C. as at present.
+
+These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood was not
+universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood, but "the monuments
+of the two most ancient civilizations of which we have any
+knowledge--the Egyptian and Chinese--contain no account of, or allusion
+to, Noah's Deluge."[130] Many of these traditions doubtless refer to
+some local flood. The passages of Scripture seem to teach the
+universality of the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the
+idea of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and refer
+only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The question is one of
+doubt whether or not the sacred historian means the Noachian Deluge to
+have been universal, or only a local cataclysm.
+
+_Monarchies._--The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod was the first
+monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and
+Accad, and Calneh." Nor is the statement made that he founded these
+cities. He was a mighty hunter, and these cities were the _beginning of
+his kingdom_.
+
+_The Dispersion._--The building of the tower of Babel is no myth, but a
+veritable reality. A portion of the mighty fabric still stands, a
+mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast amount of work it required in
+its construction. The story is told in few words, and those words cover
+centuries. The people engaged in its construction spoke one language,
+but when this language was confounded the empire was rent asunder. The
+narrative seems to teach the use of but one language on the whole face
+of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge, in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion,"
+says, "Moreover, the phrase 'the whole earth,' as commonly used in the
+Bible, is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not
+intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater part thereof,
+but is loosely employed to designate the whole of that particular
+portion which the writer or speaker has in his mind at the time. In the
+present case it denotes the country bordering on the Tigris and the
+Euphrates."[131] If the views of this eminent theologian be correct,
+then, by the same principle of interpretation the unity of language
+spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the Tigris and the
+Euphrates.
+
+There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origination of
+language. Under the view already advanced, when the animals were brought
+to Adam, he readily gave them names, for he had received language from
+his predecessors, and now, being an especially chosen person, his
+endowments would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use.
+
+It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the world and peopled
+it with myriads of beings in a period of six days of twenty-four hours
+each. It is not incredible that a cataclysm could destroy every living
+creature, save an appointed few, and cover the remotest boundaries of
+the earth. It is possible for God to do anything save that which is
+inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to do, and
+what He does, are two very different things. What He has done can only
+be told from the evidences which He has left. What He might have done is
+only speculation. Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He
+observes the course of nature, and from these observations his
+conclusions are drawn.
+
+The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when properly
+understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not to close his eyes and
+refuse to be guided by science, and with blind credulity accept the
+tales and prejudices of his grandfathers.
+
+    NOTE.--Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England,
+    in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes
+    unusual grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that
+    there were and are two modes of reconciling the letter of
+    Scripture with geology, but each has totally and deservedly
+    failed. One of these attempts to wrest the words of the Bible from
+    their real meaning, and force them to speak the language of
+    science; the other attempts to falsify science to meet the
+    supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another
+    reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of
+    the affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of
+    science and the spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of
+    the general spirit of the Bible truths; and, secondly, there is a
+    likeness in the methods. The frame of this earth was gradually
+    brought into its present condition by the slow and silent action
+    of the same causes which we see now operating through a long
+    succession of ages beyond the memory and imagination of man. We do
+    not expect this doctrine to agree with the letter of the Bible.
+    The early biblical records could not be literal, prosaic,
+    matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world. It is
+    now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain
+    two narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each
+    other in almost every particular of time and place and order. It
+    is now known that the vast epochs demanded by scientific
+    observation are incompatible both with the six thousand years of
+    the Mosaic chronology and the six days of the Mosaic Creation. The
+    discoveries of geology are found to fill up the old religious
+    truths with a new life, and to derive from them in turn a
+    hallowing glory.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+  Adjunctive, having the quality of joining.
+
+  Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of sand, clay, or gravel, made by
+  river action.
+
+  Amalgamate, to mix or blend different things or races.
+
+  Antero-posterior, in a direction from behind forward.
+
+  Aphelion, that point of a planet's or comet's orbit which is most
+  distant from the sun.
+
+  Archæo-geologist, one versed in pre-historic remains, or familiar with
+  both archæology and geology.
+
+  Archives, public records and papers preserved as evidence of fact.
+
+  Aryan, a term applied to all the nations who speak languages derived
+  mainly from the Sanskrit, or ancient Hindoo.
+
+  Atomic, a system of philosophy which accounted for the origin and
+  formation of all things by assuming that atoms are endowed with
+  gravity and motion.
+
+  Auditory, having the power of hearing.
+
+
+  Baton, a staff used as an emblem of authority.
+
+  Brachycephalic, a skull whose transverse diameter exceeds the
+  antero-posterior diameter.
+
+  Breccia, a rock made up of angular fragments cemented together.
+
+  Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from ten to thirty per cent. of tin,
+  to which other metals are sometimes added.
+
+
+  Calcareous, consisting of, or containing, carbonate of lime.
+
+  Calcined, reduced to a powder, or friable state, by the action of
+  heat.
+
+  Carbonate, a salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with a base.
+
+  Carnivora, an order of animals which subsist on flesh.
+
+  Carpal, that portion of the skeleton pertaining to the wrist.
+
+  Cataclysm, a deluge.
+
+  Celt, one of an ancient race of people who formerly inhabited a great
+  part of Central and Western Europe; an implement made of stone or
+  metal, found in the ancient tumuli of Europe.
+
+  Cereal, edible grain.
+
+  Champlain Epoch, a name derived from the beds on the borders of Lake
+  Champlain. The beds are subsequent in origin to the glacial epoch.
+
+  Chert, an impure variety of flint.
+
+  Clavicle, the collar-bone.
+
+  Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles cemented together.
+
+  Coronoid, the process of the ulna and lower jaw.
+
+  Cosmogony, the science of the origin of the world or universe.
+
+  Cranium, the skull.
+
+  Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, used by
+  the ancients as places of habitation.
+
+  Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring great heat, and used for
+  melting ores, metals, etc.
+
+  Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space of time marked by the
+  recurrence of something peculiar.
+
+
+  Data (pl. of datum), a ground of inference or deduction.
+
+  Debris (d[=a]-breé), fragments detached from rocks, and piled up in
+  masses.
+
+  Demi-relief, the projection of one half the figure beyond the plane
+  from which it rises.
+
+  Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like markings.
+
+  Devonian, the geological age between the Silurian and Carboniferous.
+
+  Diluvium, the time when the glacial beds were deposited.
+
+  Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish, speckled with black, or
+  greenish black.
+
+  Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter from the frontal to the
+  occipital bone exceeds the transverse diameter.
+
+  Dorsal, the name given to the second division of the vertebræ.
+
+  Drift, a collection of loose earth and bowlders, distributed during
+  the glacial epoch over large portions of the earth's surface.
+
+  Druidical, pertaining to the religious ceremonies of the ancient
+  Celtic nations in France, Britain, and Germany.
+
+  Dynasty, a succession of kings of the same line or family.
+
+
+  Eccentricity, the distance of the centre of the orbit of a heavenly
+  body from the centre of the body round which it revolves.
+
+  Edible, eatable.
+
+  Elliptical, having an oval or oblong figure.
+
+  Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs of the tertiary.
+
+  Epoch, any period of time marked by some particular cause or event.
+
+  Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat.
+
+
+  Fauna, the animals of any given area or epoch.
+
+  Flora, the complete system of vegetable species native in a given
+  locality, or period.
+
+  Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful colors, composed by fluorine and
+  calcium.
+
+  Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by the joint action of a river and
+  the sea.
+
+  Foramen, a little opening.
+
+
+  Fossa, a depression in a bone.
+
+  Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in the strata composing the
+  surface of the earth.
+
+
+  Genus (pl. genera), an assemblage of species possessing certain
+  characters in common, by which they are distinguished from all others.
+
+  Geode, an irregular shaped stone, containing a small cavity.
+
+  Geognostic, pertaining to a knowledge of the structure of the earth.
+
+  Glabella, the middle or frontal protuberance of the superciliary arch.
+
+  Glaciation, the process of becoming covered with glaciers.
+
+  Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or snow and ice, formed in the region
+  of perpetual snow, and moving slowly down mountain slopes or valleys.
+
+  Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
+
+
+  Herbivora, that order of animals which subsists upon herbs or
+  vegetables.
+
+  Homologous, having the same typical structure.
+
+  Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest the shoulder.
+
+  Hybrid, that which is produced from the mixture of two species.
+
+
+  Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone.
+
+
+  Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a dark green color, and capable of
+  a fine polish.
+
+
+  Lambdoidal, the suture which connects the occipital with the parietal
+  bones.
+
+  Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock.
+
+  Loam, a soil composed of siliceous sand, clay, carbonate of lime,
+  oxide of iron, magnesia, and various salts, and also decayed vegetable
+  and animal matter.
+
+  Loess, a term usually applied to a tertiary deposit on the banks of
+  the Rhine.
+
+  Lumbar, the vertebræ near the loins.
+
+
+  Mammalia, that class of animals characterized by the female suckling
+  its young.
+
+  Marl, a mixed earthy substance, consisting of carbonate of lime, clay,
+  and siliceous sand.
+
+  Mastoid, a process situated at the posterior part of the temporal
+  bone.
+
+  Matrix, a mould; the cavity in which a thing is held.
+
+  Maxillary, the upper jaw bone.
+
+  Metacarpal, the part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers.
+
+  Metallurgy, the art of working metals.
+
+  Metatarsal, the middle part of the foot.
+
+  Miocene, the middle or second epoch of the Tertiary.
+
+  Molar, a grinding tooth.
+
+  Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used in casting; to form or shape;
+  fine soft earth.
+
+  Mollusca, an order of invertebrate animals having a soft, fleshy body,
+  which is inarticulate, and not radiate internally.
+
+  Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel extending along the sides of
+  separate glaciers, and along the middle part of glaciers formed by the
+  union of one or more separate ones.
+
+
+  Nebulous, having a faint, misty appearance; applied to uncondensed
+  gaseous matter.
+
+  Neolithic, new stone age; a term applied to the more modern age of
+  stone.
+
+  Nummulitic, composed of, or containing a fossil of a flattened form,
+  resembling a small coin, and common in the early tertiary period.
+
+
+  Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by volcanoes.
+
+  Occipital, pertaining to the back part of the head.
+
+  Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, containing iron.
+
+  Olecranon, the large process at the extremity of the larger bone of
+  the fore-arm.
+
+  Onusprobandi, the burden of proof.
+
+  Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is located; the path described by a
+  heavenly body in its periodical revolution.
+
+  Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel formed by glaciers.
+
+  Oscillation, the act of moving backward and forward.
+
+  Osseous, composed of bone.
+
+  Osteologist, one versed in the nature, arrangement, and uses of the
+  bones.
+
+  Oxide, a compound of oxygen, and a base destitute of acid and saltish
+  properties.
+
+
+  Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal, characterized by the thickness of
+  its skin.
+
+  Palæolithic, the ancient stone age; a term applied to the earliest
+  traces of man when he was cotemporary with many extinct mammalia.
+
+  Palæontological, belonging to the science of the ancient life of the
+  earth.
+
+  Parallelogram, a figure having four sides, the opposite sides of which
+  are parallel, and consequently equal.
+
+  Parietal, pertaining to the bones which form the sides and upper part
+  of the skull.
+
+  Pathological, pertaining to the knowledge of disease.
+
+  Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony structure at the lower extremity
+  of the body.
+
+  Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a planet, or comet, in which it
+  is nearest to the sun.
+
+  Perimeter, the outer boundary of a body.
+
+  Phalanges, the small bones of the fingers and toes.
+
+  Philologist, one versed in the laws of human speech.
+
+  Pliocene, a term applied to the most recent tertiary deposits.
+
+  Post-Tertiary, the second period of the age of mammals.
+
+  Prototype, a model after which anything is to be copied.
+
+
+  Quadrangular, having four angles, and consequently four sides.
+
+  Quadrumana, an order of animals whose fore feet correspond to the
+  hands of man.
+
+  Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with a glassy lustre, and varying
+  in color from white, or colorless, to black.
+
+  Quartzite, granular quartz.
+
+  Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary.
+
+
+  Radius, the smaller and exterior bone of the fore-arm.
+
+  Reliquiæ, remains of the dead.
+
+  Rhematic, that period when men first began to coin expressions for the
+  most necessary ideas.
+
+  Rodent, an animal that gnaws.
+
+  Ruminant, an animal that chews the cud.
+
+
+  Sagittal, the suture which connects the parietal bones of the skull.
+
+  Savant (sä-v[)o]ng), a person eminent for acquirements.
+
+  Scapula, the shoulder-blade.
+
+  Schist, a rock having a slaty structure.
+
+  Scientist, a person noted for his profound knowledge.
+
+  Sediment, the matter which subsides to the bottom.
+
+  Semitic, pertaining to one of the families of nations, or languages,
+  and so named from its members being ranked as the descendants of Shem.
+
+  Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in color dark to light green.
+
+  Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty matter.
+
+  Simian, a name given to the various tribes of monkeys.
+
+  Squamous, the anterior and upper part of the temporal bone, scale-like
+  in form.
+
+  Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter, made by calcareous water
+  dropping on the floors of caverns.
+
+  Stratified, formed or deposited in layers.
+
+  Stratum (pl. strata), a bed or layer.
+
+  Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradually descending.
+
+  Superciliary, the bony superior arch above the eye-brow.
+
+  Suture, the seam which unites the bones of the skull.
+
+  Symphysis, a connection of bones without a movable joint.
+
+
+  Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of rocks lying at the foot of a
+  hill.
+
+  Tarsal, relating to the ankle.
+
+  Temporal, pertaining to that portion of the head located to the front
+  and a little above the ear.
+
+  Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made from fine clay, hardened by heat.
+
+  Tertiary, the first period of the age of mammals.
+
+  Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or chest.
+
+  Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave.
+
+  Truncated, cut off.
+
+  Tufaceous, consisting of, of resembling, tuff.
+
+  Tuff, a sand rock formed by agglutinated volcanic rock.
+
+  Turanian, that order of languages known as monosyllabic.
+
+
+  Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the fore-arm.
+
+
+  Veda, the ancient sacred literature of the Hindoos.
+
+  Vertebra, a joint of the back bone.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Agassiz, 136.
+  Agriculture, 106, 110.
+  Amalgamation, 140.
+  Amiel, Dr., 20.
+  Archiac, Vic. d', 13.
+  Arts, 77, 91, 104, 109.
+  Aymard, Dr., 19.
+
+  Baldwin, A. W., 115.
+  Bara, 144.
+  Belgian Caverns, 44, 86.
+  Berosus, 128.
+  Blackmore, Dr., 23.
+  Bligh, Lieut., 138, 140.
+  Bonnemaison, 20.
+  Boucher de Perthes, 12, 18, 19, 38.
+  Boué, Aimé, 11, 16, 41.
+  Bourgeois, Abbé, 22, 61, 62.
+  Brown, James, 22.
+  Buchner, Dr., 50, 52, 55, 56, 60, 75, 121, 124.
+  Buckland. Dr., 16.
+  Burdett-Coutts, Miss, 22.
+  Burial, 91, 106, 110.
+  Busk, 19, 50, 55.
+
+  Cain, Case of, 146.
+  Cannibalism, 90.
+  Carpenter, 19.
+  Cartailhac, 74.
+  Casiano de Prado, 20, 38.
+  Cave of Aurignac, 20, 72-74.
+  Cave of Brixham, 39.
+  Cave of Chokier, 17, 45.
+  Cave of Feldhofner, 53.
+  Cave of Furfooz, 88.
+  Cave of Gourdan, 82.
+  Cave of Kirkdale, 16.
+  Cave of La Madeleine, 80.
+  Cave of La Naulette, 42.
+  Cave of Les Eyzies, 80.
+  Cave of Massat, 22.
+  Cave of Mentone, 23, 24.
+  Cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas, 94.
+  Cave of Thayngen, 88.
+  Cave of Tron de Chaleux, 86, 87.
+  Cave of Trou des Nutons, 86.
+  Cave of Trou Rosette, 86.
+  Cave of Trou du Frontal, 86.
+  Cavern of Ariége, 22.
+  Cavern of Bize, 16.
+  Cavern of Cracow, 88.
+  Cavern of Enghihoul, 16, 17.
+  Cavern of Engis, 16, 17.
+  Cavern of Gailenruth, 15.
+  Cavern of Maccagnone, 71.
+  Cavern of Pondres, 16.
+  Cavern of Torquay, 22.
+  Caverns of Brazil, 116.
+  Caverns of Liége, 44.
+  Cazalis de Fondace, 95.
+  Chaldea, 128-130.
+  China, 130.
+  Christian, Fletcher, 140.
+  Christol, 16.
+  Christy, 19, 80.
+  Chronology, 101, 148.
+  Chronology, Usher's, 11.
+  Clothing, 77, 90, 103, 109.
+  Codrington, Thos., 23.
+  Creation, 144.
+  Croll, 31.
+  Cromlech, 106.
+  Cushing, F. H. 121.
+
+  Dana, J. D., 28.
+  Danish Shell-Mounds, 95.
+  Danish Peat Bogs, 96.
+  Darwin, Charles, 137.
+  Dawkins, 68.
+  Delaunay, Abbé, 62.
+  Deluge, 148.
+  Denton, W., 61, 77.
+  Desnoyers, 22, 60, 61.
+  Desor, 28, 75.
+  Dickeson, Dr. 115.
+  Dolmen, 106.
+  Dowler, Dr. Bennet, 116.
+  Dupont, Edward, 23, 86, 87, 92.
+  Dwellings, 89, 103, 108.
+
+  Edwards, M. A. Milne, 22.
+  Egypt, 124-126.
+  Epoch, Eocene, 62.
+  Epoch, Eocene, Fauna of, 58.
+  Epoch, Eocene, Glaciers in, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Fauna of, 59.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Flint flake from Aurillac, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Man in, 62.
+  Epoch, Pliocene, 58.
+  Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, 60, 61.
+  Epochs, not sharply defined, 14.
+  Eschricht, Prof., 56.
+  Esper, J. F. 15.
+
+  Falconer, Dr., 18, 19.
+  Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, 79.
+  Figuier, 13, 102.
+  Filhol, 22, 94.
+  Fishing and Navigation, 110.
+  Fontan, M. A., 22.
+  Food, 90, 103, 108.
+  Forchammer, 95.
+  Ft. Shelby, 121.
+  Fossil Man of Denise, 19, 74.
+  Fossil Man of Mentone, 23, 85.
+  Fossil Remains from Florida, 116.
+  Fraas, Oscar, 75.
+  Frere, John, 15.
+  Fuhlrott, Dr., 22, 52.
+
+  Garrigou, Dr., 22, 85, 94
+  Geikie, 28.
+  Gillieron, 102.
+  Glacial Epoch, 52.
+  Glacial Epoch, Date of, 27.
+  Glacial Epoch, Duration of, 28.
+  Glacial Epoch, Fauna of, 26.
+  Glacial Epoch, Geological Period of, 27.
+  Godwin-Austen, 19, 39.
+  Gosse, 38.
+  Gunning, W. D., 117.
+
+  Half-castes, 147.
+  Hall, Dr., 28.
+  Hauzeur, 88.
+  Herodotus, 101, 124.
+  History, Outline of, 14.
+  Horner, 126.
+  Human bones from Colmar, 23, 42.
+  Human bones from Savonia, 23, 60.
+  Huxley, Prof., 46, 50, 52, 54-57.
+  Hybridity, law of, 141.
+
+  Implements, 104, 109.
+  Implements, from Toronto, 115.
+  Implements, superstitious regard for, 15.
+  India, Fauna of, in Miocene, 63.
+  Issel, M. A., 60, 90.
+
+  Jaw from Maestricht, 16, 40.
+  Jaw from Moulin-Quignon, 19, 38, 67.
+  Jaw from La Naulette, 23, 42, 67.
+  Joly, 18.
+
+  Keller, Dr., 21, 96, 100, 112.
+  Kemp, 15.
+  Kent's Hole, 19, 39.
+  Kutorga, Dr., 56.
+
+  Land of Nod, 146.
+  Language, 78.
+  Language, Change of, 134.
+  Language, Divisions of, 132.
+  Language, Number of, 135.
+  Language, Origin of, 134.
+  Language, Written, 135.
+  Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, 21, 96-101.
+  Lartet, Edward, 12, 21, 72, 73, 80.
+  Las Casas, 131.
+  Lastic, M. de, 81.
+  Lee, J. E. 21.
+  Lepsius, 126.
+  Litse, 130.
+  Lubbock, Sir John, 12, 14, 28, 30, 50, 59, 86, 92, 106.
+  Lund, Dr., 116.
+  Lyell, Sir Charles, 11, 12, 17, 21, 27, 29, 50, 59.
+
+  MacEnery, Rev. J., 19.
+  Mahndel before the Academy of Paris, 15.
+  Man, Contentions, 64.
+  Man, Description of, 77, 92.
+  Man, Development of, 63, 76, 89.
+  Man, Dispersion of, 149.
+  Man, During Glaciers, 65.
+  Man, Inventive, 65, 76.
+  Man, Mode of living, 65, 66.
+  Man, Origin of, 63, 145.
+  Man, Type, 64, 66, 89, 103, 108.
+  Manetho, 124.
+  Marks on fossil bones, 18, 62.
+  Mariette, 125.
+  Matson, James, 61.
+  Max Müller, Prof., 133, 138.
+  Menhirs, 106.
+  Mexico, 130.
+  Miller, Hugh, 145.
+  Morlot, 101.
+  Mound Builders, 117-122.
+  Mounds, Antiquity of, 120.
+  Mounds, Extent of, 117.
+  Mounds, Sacrificial, 118.
+  Mounds, Sepulchral, 119.
+  Mounds, Symbolical, 119.
+  Mounds, Temple, 119.
+  Murchison, Sir Roderick I., 18, 136.
+
+  Neolithic, 14.
+
+  Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, 60.
+  Owen, Prof., 91.
+
+  Pelvic bone from Natchez, 115.
+  Piers Ploughman's Creed, 135.
+  Piette, 82.
+  Pliocene beds at St. Prest, 23, 60, 61.
+  Pouchet, Georges, 136.
+  Pourtalis, Count, 116.
+  Pre-historic Archæology, Divisions of, 12, 13.
+  Prichard, Dr., 140.
+
+  Quatrefages, 61.
+
+  Rames, 22.
+  Rawlinson, 129.
+  Reindeer Station on the Schusse, 23, 75.
+  Religious Belief, 111.
+  Renevier, 13.
+  Rigollot, Dr., 35.
+  Riviére, 23, 24.
+  Robenhausen, 98, 99.
+  Rock-Shelters of Bruniquel, 81.
+  Rollin, 123.
+
+  Schaaffhausen, Prof., 55, 56.
+  Schleicher, 136.
+  Schlieman, Dr., 127.
+  Schmerling, Dr., 11, 16, 17, 44-46, 50.
+  Scott, P. A., 115.
+  Septuagint, 148.
+  Shell-Heaps of America, 117.
+  Skeleton from Lahr, 16, 41.
+  Skeleton from New Orleans, 116.
+  Skeleton from Plau, 56.
+  Skull, Engis, 45-51, 67.
+  Skull, Neanderthal, 22, 51-56, 66.
+  Skull, Neanderthal, Race Type, 56.
+  Skull from Altaville, 61.
+  Skull from Cochrane's Cave, 56.
+  Skull from Comstock Lode, 115.
+  Skull from Constatt, 15.
+  Skull from Osage Mission, 114.
+  Skull from Rhine, 56.
+  Skull of Arno, 57.
+  Skulls from Borreby, 57.
+  Skulls from Minsk, 56.
+  Skulls from Moën, 56.
+  Somme, Valley of, 18, 34.
+  Somme, Valley of, Implements from, 35-37.
+  Sons of God, 146.
+  Spring, Dr., 46.
+  Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, 151.
+  Steenstrup, Prof. 95, 96.
+  Stevens, Alfred, 23.
+  Stone Implements from Bournemonth, 23.
+  Stone Implements from Colorado and Wyoming, 62, 114.
+  Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, 23, 33.
+  Stone Implements from Gosport, 22, 33.
+  Stone Implements from Grinell Leads, 115.
+  Stone Implements from London, 15.
+  Stone Implements from Madrid, 20, 38.
+  Stone Implements from Seine, 38.
+  Stone Implements near Hoxne, 15.
+  Stone Implements, number, 105.
+
+  Tardy, 62.
+  Taylor, Bayard, 124.
+  Tertiary beds at St. Prest, 23.
+  Tertiary, Climate of, 58.
+  Tertiary, Fauna of, in America, 59.
+  Tertiary, Geography of, 58.
+  Tournal, 16.
+  Troy, 127, 128.
+  Troyon, 13, 100.
+  Traffic, 91.
+  Tylor, 12.
+  Tyson, Capt., 139.
+
+  Unity of Race, 136-142, 147.
+  Unity of Race, Objections to, 136.
+
+  Vivian, 19.
+  Vogt, Carl, 50, 51, 57, 61.
+
+  Wallace, A. R., 59, 136.
+  War, 105.
+  Weirley, Dr., 114.
+  Welcker, 137.
+  Westropp, 13.
+  Whitney, Prof., 61.
+  Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 115.
+  Wokey Hole, 68.
+  Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, 80, 91.
+  Workshops of Laugerie-Haute, 80, 91.
+  Worsaae, 95.
+
+  Zawisza, Count, 88.
+  Zumarraga, Bishop, 131.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 2.
+
+[2] Buchner, p. 269.
+
+[3] "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p. 238.
+
+[4] "Antiquity of Man," p. 68.
+
+[5] Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829.--Keller's
+"Lake-Dwellings," p. 11.
+
+[6] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 286.
+
+[7] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 418.
+
+[8] "Manual of Geology," p. 590.
+
+[9] "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285.
+
+[10] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 417.
+
+[11] Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285; "Pre-Historic Times," p.
+411.
+
+Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the
+earth's orbit "cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen
+thousand years; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to
+certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length
+of time; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred
+and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of
+climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years."--Darwin's
+_Origin of Species_, p. 343.
+
+[12] It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more
+rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Naturalist's
+Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that "during one very dry and
+long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it
+attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand feet. It is
+probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated,
+rather than thawed."
+
+[13] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii, pp. 567-569.
+
+[14] Buchner, p. 118
+
+[15] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 362.
+
+[16] "Antiquity of Man," p. 97; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.
+
+[17] The "Science Record" for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these
+implements says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were
+made half a million years ago."
+
+[18] "Antiquity of Man," p. 98. "Pre-Historic Times," p. 317.
+
+[19] "Antiquity of Man," p. 338; Buchner, 27.
+
+[20] "Antiquity of Man," p. 510; Buchner, p. 27.
+
+[21] Buchner, pp. 118, 306.
+
+[22] Buchner, p. 239.
+
+[23] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 566.
+
+[24] "Antiquity of Man," p. 63.
+
+[25] It has been estimated by the British Association that it requires
+twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite.--_Science
+Record._ 1874, p. 601.
+
+[26] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 527.
+
+[27] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 146.
+
+[28] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337.
+
+[29] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.
+
+[30] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 143.
+
+[31] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.
+
+[32] Buchner, p. 263.
+
+[33] _Ibid._ p. 262.
+
+[34] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 158.
+
+[35] Buchner, p. 241.
+
+[36] Buchner, p. 240.
+
+[37] _Ibid._ p. 241.
+
+[38] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 164.
+
+[39] Buchner, p. 116.
+
+[40] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, p. 53.
+
+[42] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.
+
+[43] Buchner, p. 54.
+
+[44] Buchner, p. 242.
+
+[45] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270.
+
+[46] Buchner, p. 265.
+
+[47] _Ibid._, p. 54.
+
+[48] _Ibid._, p. 242.
+
+[49] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.
+
+[50] _Ibid._, p. 423.
+
+[51] Wallace's "Natural Selection, p. 322."
+
+[52] Buchner, pp. 34, 252.
+
+[53] Buchner, p. 242.
+
+[54] Buchner, p. 31; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 420.
+
+[55] Buchner, p. 33; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421.
+
+[56] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270; "American Phrenological Journal,
+Feb." 1874.
+
+Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this skull was
+not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote to
+Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March 1875,
+inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the statement
+that he had visited the place where the skull was found; that certain
+persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the victim of a
+joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were prejudiced
+against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best informed had every
+reason to believe the statements made by Professor Whitney were true.
+The skull is a very remarkable one, and stands alone for the enormous
+size of the orbits, and I have good reasons to believe it to have been
+found as stated.
+
+[57] "Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that
+glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations, not
+to mention still more ancient formations."--Darwin's _Origin of
+Species_, p. 343.
+
+[58] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421; Buchner, 32.
+
+[59] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.
+
+[60] Buchner, p. 32.
+
+[61] "American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874.
+
+[62] Buchner, p. 274.
+
+[63] "Our Planet," p. 266.
+
+[64] "Science Record," 1874, p. 499.
+
+[65] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.
+
+[66] "Origin of Civilization," p. 121.
+
+[67] Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 116.
+
+[68] Buchner, p. 248.
+
+[69] Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings."
+
+[70] "Lake-Dwellings," pp. 37, 334, 350, 360.
+
+[71] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394.
+
+[72] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 396.
+
+[73] "Primitive Man," p. 219.
+
+[74] "Primitive Man," p. 293.
+
+[75] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 76.
+
+[76] "Primitive Man," p. 200.
+
+[77] "Lake Dwellings," p. 319.
+
+[78] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 218; "Primitive Man," p. 281.
+
+[79] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 400.
+
+[80] "Science Record," p. 564. 1875.
+
+[81] "American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874.
+
+[82] Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," p. 40.
+
+[83] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 46.
+
+[84] "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p.
+454.
+
+[85] "Antiquity of Man," p. 43; "Pre-Historic Man," p. 47.
+
+[86] "Antiquity of Man," p. 44.
+
+[87] "Primitive Man," pp. 9, 77.
+
+[88] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 236.
+
+[89] "Ancient Monuments," p. 304.
+
+[90] Buchner, p. 35.
+
+[91] Rollin, vol. i. p. 138.
+
+[92] Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788.
+
+[93] Buchner, 254.
+
+[94] "New York Tribune", June 6, 1874.
+
+[95] Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189.
+
+[96] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432.
+
+[97] "Antiquity of Man," p. 36.
+
+[98] Bayard Taylor in "New York Tribune, Extra," No. 15.
+
+[99] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190.
+
+[100] _Ibid._ pp. 178, 175.
+
+[101] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 37.
+
+[102] "Ancient America," p. 187.
+
+[103] "Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21.
+
+[104] _Ibid._ vol. ii. p. 8.
+
+[105] Wake's "Chapters on Man," p. 33.
+
+[106] "Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and
+Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man. The
+first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after the
+manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till,
+associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use
+articulate sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks
+of those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate
+to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony which was
+framed by Mochus, the Phoenician, and afterward improved by Democritus
+and Epicurus."--Pouchet's _Plurality of the Human Race_, p. 142.
+
+[107] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii. p. 475. "It is generally
+acknowledged that all organic beings have been formed on two great
+laws--Unity of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type
+is meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic
+beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their habits
+of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of
+descent."--Darwin's _Origin of Species_, p. 200.
+
+[108] I put myself into clothes.
+
+[109] Shepherd.
+
+[110] And.
+
+[111] Wonder.
+
+[112] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143.
+
+[113] Mivart's "Genesis of Species," p. 114.
+
+[114] "Origin of Species," p. 193.
+
+[115] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142.
+
+[116] "Chips," vol. i. pp. 63, 62.
+
+[117] Lady Belcher's "Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61.
+
+[118] "Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants of
+Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the distance
+between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1696, two
+canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were thrown by
+contrary winds and storms on the Island of Samar, one of the
+Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two canoes,
+one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, men,
+women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep to the
+island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two hundred miles."
+Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his countrymen, while sailing in a
+boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm, and drifted about the
+sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on the produce of the sea, and
+finally were picked up in an insensible condition by the inhabitants of
+Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand five hundred miles distant from his
+native isle.--_Principles of Geology_, vol. ii. p. 472.
+
+[119] "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 16.
+
+[120] Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180.
+
+[121] The idea that "bara" meant to create out of nothing is a modern
+invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews and
+Greeks at Alexandria. The Greeks believed that matter was co-eternal
+with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to this
+notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of
+nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception of
+_fashioning_ or _arranging_.--_Chips_, vol. i. p. 132.
+
+[122] "Testimony of the Rocks," Fifth Lecture.
+
+[123] Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man in
+Genesis and Geology, p. 105); Lubbock regards him as a typical savage
+(Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great
+prototype of the human race?
+
+[124] The word _Nod_ means _to wander_, _to be driven about_, etc. It
+appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It
+was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have been
+roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated "Wandering
+Land"?
+
+[125] Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the
+Zambesi, described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity,
+"remarks, 'It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so much
+more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case.' An
+inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, 'God made white men, and God made
+black men, but the devil made half castes.' When two races, both low in
+the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be eminently bad. Thus the
+noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage
+disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between Indians and Negroes; and
+this conclusion has been arrived at by various observers. From these
+facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so many
+half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage
+condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral conditions under which
+they generally exist."--_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, vol.
+ii. p. 63.
+
+[126] This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the
+race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its
+briefness. A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words,
+and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the
+idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared.
+The strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 26: "Hath made of one
+blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth."
+This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair,
+but their _blood_ is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no
+ancestors. When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only
+to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors, the
+leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not uncommon to drop
+the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is given in
+the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of his
+grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred and
+twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been dropped. If
+Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the line any farther
+back. The forming him of the dust of the ground would give his
+relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen, endowed for the
+purpose of elevating the race--of becoming the head of a new type of
+humanity.
+
+[127] The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into
+Greek, made about three hundred years B. C. The oldest existing MS. of
+the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the tenth
+century after the Christian era--_Chips._ vol. i. p. 11.
+
+[128] "Primeval Man," p. 86.
+
+[129] "Primeval Man," p. 87.
+
+[130] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195.
+
+[131] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35329-8.txt or 35329-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/3/2/35329/
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35329-8.zip b/35329-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39805e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-8.zip
diff --git a/35329-h.zip b/35329-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..144339f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h.zip
diff --git a/35329-h/35329-h.htm b/35329-h/35329-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abf6eda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/35329-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,7118 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. Maclean.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 92%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .pagec    { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 86%;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+    .bbt       {border-bottom: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px; width: 16em; margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span.i0     {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Manual of the Antiquity of Man
+
+Author: J. P. MacLean
+
+Release Date: February 19, 2011 [EBook #35329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="768" height="774" alt="IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h3>A MANUAL</h3>
+<h5>OF THE</h5>
+<h1>ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</h1>
+
+<h4>BY<br />
+<big>J. P. MACLEAN.</big></h4>
+
+<p class="center">"In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been."<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &mdash;<span class="smcap">Prof. Max M&uuml;ller.</span></p>
+
+<div class="bbt">
+<h3><i>REVISED EDITION.</i></h3>
+</div>
+
+<h4>BOSTON:<br />
+<span class="smcap">Universalist Publishing House</span>,<br />
+<i>37 Cornhill,</i><br />
+1877.</h4>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<p class="center">
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by<br />
+J. P. MACLEAN,<br />
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found
+the minds of the people prepared to receive the evidences,
+and ready to believe the conclusions of the geologists. I
+have felt the need of a popular work to place in the hands of
+the public, that would be both instructive and welcome.
+The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too
+expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to
+give an outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable
+acquaintance with the facts connected with the new science,
+to such as desire the information but cannot pursue it
+further, and to serve as a manual for those who intend to
+become more proficient.</p>
+
+<p>As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Race are
+so closely connected with the subject, I have added the two
+chapters on these questions, hoping they will be acceptable
+to the reader. It was my intention to have written a more
+extended chapter on the relation of the Holy Scriptures to
+this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had done in
+other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits
+of the book.</p>
+
+<p>In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's
+"Antiquity of Man" and "Principles of Geology," Lubbock's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+"Pre-Historic Times," Buchner's "Man in the Past,
+Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive Man," Wilson's
+"Pre-Historic Man," Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works
+of Charles Darwin, Dana's "Manual of Geology," Huxley's
+"Man's Place in Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of
+Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of the Human Race," and
+others, referred to in the margins.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cushing, for the
+ideal restoration of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving
+was made especially for this work. The references to Buchner
+are from his work entitled, "Man in the Past, Present
+and Future."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagec'>PAGE</span></p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><big>CHAPTER I.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+INTRODUCTION.</p>
+
+<p>Interest in the subject&mdash;Influence of Lyell&mdash;Usher's Chronology&mdash;Aim&eacute;
+Bou&eacute; first to proclaim the high antiquity of man&mdash;Dr.
+Schmerling the founder&mdash;Boucher de Perthes the apostle&mdash;Classifications
+by Lubbock, Lartet, Renevier, and Westropp&mdash;Plan
+of the work&mdash;No Universal Age of Stone, Bronze, or Iron&mdash;Epochs
+not sharply defined&mdash;Outlines of History&mdash;Superstitious
+Notions&mdash;Skull from Constatt&mdash;Stone hatchet from London&mdash;Cavern
+of Gailenreuth&mdash;Axes from Hoxne&mdash;Human jaw
+from Maestricht&mdash;Skeleton from Lahr&mdash;"Reliqui&aelig; Diluvian&aelig;"&mdash;Discoveries
+by Tournal and Christol&mdash;Engis and Enghihoul
+Caverns&mdash;Schmerling's labors&mdash;Lyell's opinions&mdash;Arrow mark
+on skull of Cave-Bear&mdash;Boucher de Perthes and the Valley of
+the Somme&mdash;Jaw of Moulin-Quignon&mdash;Kent's Hole&mdash;Fossil
+Man of Denise&mdash;Remains from the Manzanares&mdash;Cave of Aurignac&mdash;Lyell
+declares his belief&mdash;Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland
+Neanderthal Skull&mdash;Caverns near Torquay&mdash;Cave of Massat&mdash;Cave
+of Lourdes&mdash;Caverns of Ari&eacute;ge&mdash;Tertiary at St. Prest&mdash;Implements
+near Gosport&mdash;Bones from Colmar&mdash;Implements
+near Bournemouth&mdash;Trou de la Naulette&mdash;Bones near Savonia&mdash;Reindeer
+Station&mdash;Foreland Cliff&mdash;Fossil Man of Mentone&mdash;Other
+Discoveries near Mentone.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><big>CHAPTER II.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+GLACIAL EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>Starting point for the investigation&mdash;Advance of the ice&mdash;Fauna
+of Europe&mdash;Geological Period&mdash;Probable Date&mdash;Probable Duration&mdash;Evidences
+of the Existence of Man&mdash;Implements
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>from Hampshire&mdash;Flint tools at Bournemouth&mdash;Oval flint from
+Foreland Cliff&mdash;Implements from the Valley of the Somme&mdash;Jaw
+of Moulin-Quignon&mdash;Implements from the Seine&mdash;Axes
+near Madrid&mdash;Kent's Hole&mdash;Brixham Cave&mdash;Human jaw from
+Maestricht&mdash;Skeleton from Lahr&mdash;Cave of La Naulette&mdash;Implements
+from Hoxne&mdash;Bones from Colmar.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><big>CHAPTER III.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+GLACIAL&mdash;CONTINUED.</p>
+
+<p>Belgian Caverns&mdash;Caverns of Li&eacute;ge&mdash;Engis Skull&mdash;Remarks of
+Prof. Huxley&mdash;Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt&mdash;Neanderthal
+Skull&mdash;Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr.
+Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull&mdash;Opinions
+of Huxley, Buchner, Schaaffhausen, and Busk&mdash;Skull from the
+Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of Mo&euml;n,
+Minsk, and Plau&mdash;Borreby Skulls&mdash;Human skulls of Arno.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><big>CHAPTER IV.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.</p>
+
+<p>North America during the Tertiary&mdash;Europe&mdash;Climate&mdash;Fauna of
+Eocene&mdash;Of Miocene&mdash;Of Pliocene&mdash;Traces of Man&mdash;Opinions
+of Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace&mdash;Man in the Pliocene&mdash;Hearth
+under Osars&mdash;Human bones from Savonia&mdash;Discoveries
+at St. Prest&mdash;Skull from Altaville&mdash;Prof. Denton's Statement&mdash;Man
+in the Miocene&mdash;Flints from Pontlevoy&mdash;Flint-flake from
+Aurillac&mdash;Marks on bones near Pouance&mdash;Implements from
+Colorado and Wyoming&mdash;Eocene&mdash;Glacial Periods during the
+Miocene.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><big>CHAPTER V.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.</p>
+
+<p>No knowledge of the first appearance of Man&mdash;Fauna of India
+during the Miocene&mdash;Intellect of Man&mdash;Contests with the
+Beasts&mdash;A weapon invented&mdash;Earliest type&mdash;Advancement
+slow&mdash;Climate changes&mdash;Sufferings of Man&mdash;Known by the
+Remains&mdash;Structure of the Neanderthal Man&mdash;Engis Man&mdash;Men
+both large and small&mdash;Animal structure of jaws from
+La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><big>CHAPTER VI.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>Condition of the earth&mdash;Numerous traces of Man&mdash;Cave of Aurignac&mdash;Conclusions
+of Lartet and Cartailhac&mdash;Caverns of Maccagnone&mdash;Wokey
+Hole&mdash;Fossil Man of Denise&mdash;Reindeer Station
+on the Schusse&mdash;Dr. Buchner's Conclusions.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><big>CHAPTER VII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.</p>
+
+<p>Length of the Inter-Glacial&mdash;Man an improvable being&mdash;Implements
+improved&mdash;Art of engraving begun&mdash;Religious nature&mdash;Denton's
+description of primeval man&mdash;Language improved.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><big>CHAPTER VIII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+REINDEER EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>Advance of the Glaciers&mdash;Fauna&mdash;-Reindeer epoch a distinct one&mdash;Evidences
+of the existence of Man&mdash;Caves of Central and
+Southern France&mdash;Implements from Les Eyzies&mdash;Relics from
+La Madeleine&mdash;Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse&mdash;Cave
+and rock shelters of Bruniquel&mdash;Cave of Gourdan&mdash;Fossil
+Man of Mentone&mdash;Other remains near Mentone&mdash;Other
+bone caves of France&mdash;Belgian Caverns&mdash;Trou de Frontal&mdash;Trou
+Rosette&mdash;Trou des Nutons&mdash;Cave of Chaleux&mdash;Cave at
+Furfooz&mdash;Cave of Thayngen&mdash;Cave near Cracow.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><big>CHAPTER IX.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>Man under a more favorable aspect&mdash;Type of&mdash;Dwellings&mdash;Clothing&mdash;Food&mdash;Cannibalism&mdash;The
+Arts&mdash;Traffic&mdash;Burial&mdash;Dupont's
+Report.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><big>CHAPTER X.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+NEOLITHIC EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>How characterized&mdash;Caves of this period&mdash;Contents of&mdash;Cave of
+Saint Jean d'Alcas&mdash;Danish Shell-Mounds&mdash;Danish Peat Bogs&mdash;Lake-Dwellings
+of Switzerland&mdash;Enumeration of&mdash;Robenhausen&mdash;Fauna
+and Flora of&mdash;Troyon and Keller on&mdash;Other
+Lake-Dwellings&mdash;Chronology.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><big>CHAPTER XI.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.</p>
+
+<p>Type of&mdash;Advancement&mdash;Habitations&mdash;Clothing&mdash;Food&mdash;Arts and
+Manufactures&mdash;Vast number of implements discovered&mdash;War&mdash;Agriculture&mdash;Burial&mdash;Dolmens,
+Tumuli, Cromlechs, and
+Menhirs&mdash;Victims, or Cannibalism.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_103">103</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><big>CHAPTER XII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+BRONZE EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>No direct relation to Antiquity of Man&mdash;How characterized&mdash;Type&mdash;Habitation
+and Food&mdash;Clothing&mdash;Implements&mdash;Arts&mdash;Agriculture&mdash;Fishing
+and Navigation&mdash;Burial&mdash;Religious Belief&mdash;Stone
+crescents.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_108">108</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><big>CHAPTER XIII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+IRON EPOCH.</p>
+
+<p>Civilization established&mdash;Swiss Lake-Dwellings&mdash;Dr. Keller's Observations.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><big>CHAPTER XIV.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p>Great opportunities for the Arch&aelig;ologist&mdash;Aim of the chapter&mdash;Skull
+from Osage Mission&mdash;Comstock lode&mdash;Charcoal at Toronto&mdash;Knife
+from Kansas&mdash;Pelvic bone from Natchez&mdash;Skeleton
+from New Orleans&mdash;Remains from the reefs of Florida&mdash;Caverns
+of Brazil&mdash;Shell Heaps&mdash;Mound-Builders&mdash;Extent of
+Mounds&mdash;Implements of&mdash;Sacrificial&mdash;Sephulchral&mdash;Temple&mdash;Symbolical&mdash;Antiquity
+of&mdash;Fort Shelby&mdash;How long the Mound-Builders
+remained.       <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><big>CHAPTER XV.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+WRITTEN HISTORY.</p>
+
+<p>Mystery of Ancient Empires&mdash;Rollin's difficulties&mdash;Egypt&mdash;Manetho's
+list&mdash;Statement of Herodotus&mdash;Mariette's explorations&mdash;Borings
+in the mud deposits of the Nile&mdash;Dr. Schliemann's discoveries
+at Troy&mdash;History of Chaldea by Berosus&mdash;Astronomical
+calculations&mdash;Chinese history&mdash;Mexican History.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></span></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><big>CHAPTER XVI.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+LANGUAGE.</p>
+
+<p>A field for study&mdash;Three divisions of language&mdash;Rhematic period&mdash;Origin
+of&mdash;Various theories&mdash;Change of&mdash;Views of Ancients&mdash;Number
+of&mdash;Comparative permancy of written language.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><big>CHAPTER XVII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.</p>
+
+<p>Objections to the Unity of the Race&mdash;Anatomical&mdash;Geographical&mdash;Disparity
+of&mdash;Non-existence of medium types&mdash;Phenomena
+caused by two united types&mdash;Objections answered&mdash;Both man
+and animals affected by climate, food, and condition&mdash;Examples&mdash;Argument
+from language&mdash;Ocean navigated by frail crafts&mdash;Examples&mdash;Captain
+Tyson and party&mdash;The two extremes
+exist in all nations, and even in families&mdash;People who have
+retrograded&mdash;Races will amalgamate and perpetuate their
+kind&mdash;Griquas&mdash;Papuas&mdash;Pitcairn Islanders&mdash;Law of hybridity&mdash;Close
+affinity of the races&mdash;Slow change of.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><big>CHAPTER XVIII.</big></a><br />
+<br />
+THE BIBLE.</p>
+
+<p>Controversy&mdash;Perversion of meaning&mdash;Men of science branded&mdash;Design
+of the chapter&mdash;Creation&mdash;"Bara"&mdash;Day&mdash;Man's appearance&mdash;Two
+accounts&mdash;Case of Cain&mdash;Sons of God&mdash;Remarks
+of Dr. Livingstone&mdash;Doctrine of unity of the race&mdash;Chronology&mdash;The
+Deluge&mdash;Septuagint&mdash;Monarchies&mdash;The Dispersion&mdash;Opinion
+of Dr. Hedge&mdash;No supernatural aid in the
+formation of Language&mdash;What God may do does not imply
+what he has done&mdash;Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of
+Creation.      <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+<h3>A MANUAL</h3>
+<h5>OF THE</h5>
+<h1>ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the attention
+of geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The
+interest was greatly increased by the publication of Sir Charles
+Lyell's "Antiquity of Man." This work called the attention
+of the public to the subject, and so great became the interest
+that many volumes and memoirs have been added to the list,
+discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most
+part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw
+more light on the subject. The scientific men were slow to
+take advantage of the discoveries continually being made of
+the bones and works of man found in caves and associated
+with the remains' of extinct animals. It is probable, even at
+this late day, there would not have been so much discussion
+of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of
+his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to
+doubt the correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and
+so complete has been the revolution of opinion that it is
+almost impossible to find an intelligent man who would limit
+the period of man's existence to 6,000 years.</p>
+
+<p>To Aim&eacute; Bou&eacute;, a French geologist, must be attributed the
+honor of having been the first to proclaim the high antiquity
+of the human race; to Dr. Schmerling, the learned Belgian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+osteologist, on account of his laborious investigations, untiring
+zeal, and great work on the subject, the merited title
+of being the founder of the new science; to M. Boucher de
+Perthes, its great apostle; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir
+John Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made
+the new theory popular.</p>
+
+<p>The new science soon became permanently established,
+and the geologists at once set about classifying the facts before
+them, in order to assign to them their respective places
+in the geological epochs. All are agreed in respect to the
+chronological orders, but all have not used the same nomenclature,
+in consequence of which more or less confusion has
+been the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic
+arch&aelig;ology into four great epochs, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession
+of Europe with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired
+rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may
+call the 'Pal&aelig;olithic' period.</p>
+
+<p>"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period characterized
+by beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of
+flint and other kinds of stone; in which, however, we find no
+trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which
+seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we
+may call the 'Neolithic' period.</p>
+
+<p>"III. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for
+arms and cutting instruments of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>"IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded
+bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification:</p>
+
+<p class="center">I. THE STONE AGE.</p>
+
+<p>1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and
+mammoth).</p>
+
+<p>2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer
+epoch).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished
+stone epoch).</p>
+
+<p class="center">II. THE METAL AGE.</p>
+
+<p>1st. The Bronze Epoch.</p>
+
+<p>2d. The Iron Epoch.</p>
+
+<p>This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his
+"Primitive Man," by the Museum of Saint-Germain in that
+portion devoted to pre-historic antiquities, and adhered to in
+essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Renevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a somewhat
+different scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss
+glaciation. It is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I. <i>Pre-glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously
+with the elephant (<i>Elephas antiquus</i>), rhinoceros
+(<i>R. hemit&aelig;chus</i>), and the cave-bear (<i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>).</p>
+
+<p>"II. <i>Glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously
+with the mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>), rhinoceros (<i>R.
+tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear, etc.</p>
+
+<p>"III. <i>Post-glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously
+with the mammoth and reindeer (<i>Cervus tarandus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>"IV. <i>Last Epoch</i>, or epoch of the <i>Pile-buildings</i>, in
+which man lived cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (<i>Megaceros
+hibernicus</i>), aurochs (<i>Bison Europ&aelig;us</i>)," etc.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his
+stages of civilization, as follows: <i>Savagery</i>, <i>hunters</i>, <i>herdsmen</i>,
+and <i>agriculturists</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the following pages a somewhat different classification
+has been adopted, and may be thus explained:</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Pre-glacial Epoch</i>; that period antedating the glaciers
+of the post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously
+with the animals of the tertiary, southern elephant (<i>E.
+meridionalis</i>), etc.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Glacial Epoch</i>; that period of the post-tertiary when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+man was forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the
+floods immediately succeeding them, when the mammoth
+(<i>E. primigenius</i>), rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear, etc.,
+began to flourish.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Interglacial Epoch</i>; that period between the glacial
+and the second advance of the ice, in which man lived cotemporaneously
+with the animals of the preceding epoch,
+and the cave bear became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Reindeer Epoch</i>; that period when the glaciers again
+advanced; in which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of
+the reindeer (<i>C. tarandus</i>), that animal having made its way
+in numerous herds as far south as the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>V. <i>Neolithic Epoch</i>; that period in which man polished
+his weapons of stone, and sought to domesticate certain animals,
+the dog, etc.</p>
+
+<p>VI. <i>Bronze Epoch</i>; that period characterized by weapons
+and implements being made chiefly of bronze.</p>
+
+<p>VII. <i>Iron Epoch</i>; that period in which bronze was generally
+superseded by iron.</p>
+
+<p>This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that
+could be devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evidences
+of the existence of man in their relative geological
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>Other methods have misled the student. There was no
+universal Stone, Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification
+given by Lubbock applies to Europe, but is too general. I
+have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want of a better
+term, although the signification of the word is appropriate to
+the period it is intended to represent.</p>
+
+<p>These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one
+from the other; but one merges into the other by gradual progression
+covering a period of thousands of years. The growth
+of the various plants and animals, and their retreat or final
+extinction, have also been very slow.</p>
+
+<p>An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a
+careful investigation of the question, and which resolved the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+question into a science, is not only one of interest but also of
+importance to the careful thinker seeking information on
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people
+had so little notion of the nature and signification of the
+stone axes and weapons of earlier and later times that they
+were regarded with superstitious fear and hope, and as productions
+of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long time they
+were called thunderbolts even by the learned.... As
+late as the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy
+of Paris that these stones were human implements, he was
+laughed at, because he had not proved that they could not
+have been formed in the clouds."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of
+the calcareous tuff of Constatt, in company with the bones
+of the mammoth. It is preserved in the Natural History
+Museum at Stuttgart.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in
+London, by the side of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar
+to those which have been subsequently found in great
+numbers in different parts of the world. This hatchet is still
+preserved in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. F. Esper
+discovered some human bones mingled with the remains
+of extinct animals.</p>
+
+<p>In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great numbers
+from a brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where
+they occurred at a depth of twelve feet, mingled with the
+bones of extinct species of animals. They were gathered up
+and thrown by basketsful upon the neighboring road. In
+the year 1801, before the Society of Antiquaries, John Frere
+read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they
+pointed to a very remote period. This communication, short
+as it was, contained the essence of all subsequent discoveries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+and speculations as to the antiquity of man. But the society
+regarded the subject as of no importance.</p>
+
+<p>During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hollerd,
+there was found, near Maestricht, in the <i>loess</i>, a human
+jaw in company with the bones of extinct animals. This
+bone is preserved in the museum at Leyden.</p>
+
+<p>In 1823, Aim&eacute; Bou&eacute; disinterred portions of a human skeleton
+from ancient undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small village
+nearly opposite Strasbourg. These bones were placed in
+the care of Cuvier, but, having been neglected, are now lost.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, published
+his "Reliqui&aelig; Diluvian&aelig;," a work principally devoted
+to a description of the Kirkdale Cave. The author combined
+all the known facts which favored the coexistence of
+man, with the extinct animals.</p>
+
+<p>In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous
+caverns in the south of France. In the cavern of Bize,
+Tournal found human bones and teeth, and fragments of rude
+pottery, together with the bones of both living and extinct
+species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and breccia,
+cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same
+chemical condition as those of the extinct species.</p>
+
+<p>M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes,
+some human bones in the same mud with the bones of an
+extinct hyena and rhinoceros.</p>
+
+<p>In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns
+of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found
+the Engis skull (now in the museum of the University of
+Li&eacute;ge), at a depth of nearly five feet, under an osseous breccia.
+The earth also contained the teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyena,
+and bear, and exhibited no marks of disturbance. He also
+found the skull of a young person imbedded by the side of a
+mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell
+to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul
+he found numerous bones belonging to three human individuals,
+mingled with the bones of extinct animals. In these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+caves he noted rude flint instruments, but did not collect
+many of them. In the care of Chokier, he discovered a polished
+and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole pierced
+through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have
+been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a
+work which described and represented a vast quantity of
+objects which had been discovered in the Belgian caverns.
+The scientific men were not yet prepared to receive the new
+discoveries, and it attracted but little attention at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling
+for his unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell
+has said: "To have undertaken, in 1832, with a view of
+testing its truth (antiquity of fossil human bones) to follow
+the Belgian philosopher through every stage of his observations
+and proofs, would have been no easy task even for one well-skilled
+in geology and osteology. To be let down, as Schmerling
+was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide to
+the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the best-preserved
+human skulls were found; and, after thus gaining
+access to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours
+through a contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there
+to superintend by torchlight, week after week and year after
+year, the workmen who were breaking through the stalagmitic
+crust as hard as marble, in order to remove piece by
+piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard; to stand
+for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping
+from the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position
+and guard against the loss of each single bone of a skeleton;
+and at length, after finding leisure, strength, and courage for
+all these operations, to look forward, as the fruits of one's
+labor, to the publication of unwelcome intelligence, opposed
+to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as the unscientific
+public;&mdash;when these circumstances are taken into account,
+we need scarcely wonder.... that a quarter of a
+century should have elapsed before even the neighboring pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>fessors
+of the University of Li&eacute;ge came forth to vindicate
+the truthfulness of their indefatigable and clear-sighted countryman."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier,
+found in the cave of Nabrigas (Loz&eacute;re) the skull of
+a cave-bear, on which an arrow had left its mark. Close
+by, was a fragment of pottery marked by the finger of the
+moulder.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of
+France) that M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint-axes
+of the rudest form. His explorations had been going
+on for a long time. He did all he could to bring these discoveries
+before the public. In the year 1836 he began to proclaim
+the high antiquity of man, in a series of communications
+addressed to the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Emulation of Abbeville. To
+the same society, in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes
+he had found, but without result. In 1839, he took these
+hatchets to Paris, and showed them to some of the members
+of the Institute. At first they gave some encouragement
+toward these researches; but this favorable feeling did not
+last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which
+has since become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained
+workmen to dig in the diluvial beds, and in a short time he
+had collected twenty specimens of flint wrought by the hand
+of man, though in a very rude state. In 1846, he published
+his first work on the subject, entitled "De l'Industrie Primitive,
+ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he
+published his "Antiquit&eacute;s Celtiques et Ant&eacute;diluviennes," in
+which he gave illustrations of these stone implements. This
+work attracted no attention until the year 1854, when a
+French <i>savant</i>, named Rigollot, made a personal examination
+and was successful in his search for these relicts in the neighborhood
+of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C. Lyell,
+Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
+and other eminent scientists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was rewarded,
+in the year 1863, by finding the lower half of a
+human jaw bone, covered with an earthy crust, which he
+extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at Abbeville.
+A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They
+were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone
+has been called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved
+in the Museum of Natural History at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation
+among English geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter,
+and Busk went to France and examined the locality where
+the bone was found. They went away satisfied with both
+its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however,
+doubted its authenticity; but at the present time all, or
+nearly all, recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher
+de Perthes.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in
+1869, in finding a number of human bones presenting the
+same character as the jaw of Moulin-Quignon.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840, Rev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found
+in a cave, called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives
+among the remains of the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena,
+and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under a crust of stalagmite.
+Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave as
+early as 1825. He did not publish his notes on his discoveries
+but they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they
+were obtained by Mr. Vivian.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geological
+Society in the year 1840, states, in his description of
+Kent's Hole, he found works of art in all parts of the cave.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in
+an old volcanic tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay,
+Central France, an account of which was first published by
+Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who have examined
+these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic regions
+of Central France, declared that they believed them to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in
+which they are now seen.</p>
+
+<p>In the years 1845-1850, Casiano de Prado made discoveries
+on the banks of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They
+consisted of portions of the skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a
+nearly perfect skeleton of an elephant in the diluvial sand.
+Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were several flint axes of
+human workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 763px;">
+<img src="images/fig01.jpg" width="763" height="1024" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sir Charles Lyell.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named
+Bonnemaison, in the year 1852, accidently discovered a cave
+containing the remains of seventeen human skeletons. These
+bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the mayor of Aurignac, who
+was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the parish cemetery.
+The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten,
+and this treasure is now lost to science. In 1860, the cave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+was explored by Edward Lartet. After a long and patient
+examination, he came to the conclusion that the cave was a
+human burial place, cotemporary with the mammoth and other
+great animals of the quaternary epoch.</p>
+
+<p>It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855,
+that Sir Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiquity
+of the human race. He had before opposed the idea,
+but was convinced of the truth by personal examination of
+human bones and flint hatchets, from the quarries of St.
+Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations, and,
+in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific public,
+he published his "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity
+of Man," in 1863. In the last edition of his "Principles of
+Geology," he bestows considerable space to the discussion of
+the subject. He was closely followed, in the same view, by
+other eminent geologists.</p>
+
+<p>The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland
+were discovered in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter
+was so dry and cold that the water of the lakes fell far below
+its ordinary level. On account of this, a large tract of
+ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people throwing
+up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on
+which stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and
+stone implements, and various other relics, were discovered.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+Dr. Keller, of Zurich, examined the objects, and at once
+came to a right understanding as to their signification. He
+carefully examined the remains, and described these lake
+habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian
+Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In
+1866 these memoirs were translated into English by J. E.
+Lee, together with articles from other antiquaries, under the
+title of "The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, and other parts
+of Europe." This work contains ninety-seven plates, besides
+many wood-cuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time
+to time, been published, but they are included in the translated
+work of Dr. Keller.</p>
+
+<p>The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr.
+Fuhlrott, in the year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near D&uuml;sseldorf,
+in a deep ravine known by the name of Neanderthal.
+This skull, with parts of the skeleton to which it belonged,
+was found under a layer of mud, about five feet in thickness.
+It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfeld, Rhenish
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far
+from Kent's Hole. This cave was examined by a scientific
+commission. At first it was undertaken by the Royal Society,
+but when its grants had failed, Miss Burdett-Coutts paid
+the expenses of completing the work. In this cave, under a
+layer of stalagmite, were found many flint knives, associated
+with the bones of extinct mammals.</p>
+
+<p>M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department
+of Ari&eacute;ge), in 1859, human teeth and utensils associated with
+the remains of the cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave-lion
+(<i>Felis spel&#339;a</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of
+human industry mingled with the fossil bones of animals, in
+the cave of Lourdes, France.</p>
+
+<p>In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the researches
+which he, in conjunction with Rames and Filhol, had
+made in the caverns of Ari&eacute;ge. These explorers found the
+jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, which had been
+wrought by the hands of man.</p>
+
+<p>In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St.
+Prest (Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desnoyers
+found the bones of extinct animals which were cut or notched
+by flint instruments. In the same strata Abb&eacute; Bourgeois discovered
+implements of stone. He communicated his discoveries
+to the International Congress held at Paris in 1867.</p>
+
+<p>In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midway<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+between Gosport and Southampton, included in gravel from
+eight to twelve feet thick, capping a cliff which at its
+greatest height is thirty-five feet above high-water mark.
+These flint tools exactly resemble those found at Abbeville
+and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore
+Museum at Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near
+Colmar, Alsace, human bones in the same bed with bones of
+the mammoth, horse, stag, auroch, and other animals.</p>
+
+<p>In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the
+gravel at the top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth
+opening, Southampton river. Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to
+the west of the valley, obtained two other flint implements.
+The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer,
+in the year 1866, found a fragment of a human jaw in the
+Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave situated on the bank of the
+river Lesse not far from Chaleux.</p>
+
+<p>At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported
+he had found several human bones in beds of Pliocene age,
+near Savonia, in Liguria.</p>
+
+<p>The Reindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was discovered
+in 1867, during the operations undertaken for the
+improvement of a mill-pond. The Schusse is a little river
+which flows into the lake of Constance, and its source is upon
+the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of Constance
+and the upper course of the Danube.</p>
+
+<p>In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint implement
+in gravel at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of
+Wight, five miles southeast of Ryde.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1873, by M.
+Rivi&eacute;re, in a cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was
+almost entire, and imbedded twenty feet below the surface of
+the deposit.</p>
+
+<p>In 1873, M. Rivi&eacute;re discovered another human skeleton,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+by the side of which lay a few unpolished stone implements,
+in one of the caves in the same neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>In 1873 and 1874, M. Rivi&eacute;re was again so fortunate as to
+discover, in neighboring caves, the remains of three persons,
+two of them those of children. The skeletons were in the
+same condition, and decked with similar ornaments, as those
+he had previously discovered.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>GLACIAL EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Happily for the Arch&aelig;o-geologist, there is given him a
+point from which to start in his researches into the antiquity
+of his race. Without it his calculations would be very indefinite
+and his efforts would be shorn of much of their interest.
+The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind of both the
+geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may
+not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages
+and number the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more
+importance, in this investigation, than an understanding of
+the condition of the earth prior to the glacial, and the knowledge
+of the date and length of this epoch.</p>
+
+<p>For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been
+preparing itself for the reception of man. There was an
+abundance of game, the forests were beautiful, the domestic
+animals had made their appearance, the climate was warm,
+the soil rich, and the coal had been formed. Everything
+seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who
+had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were
+fierce and savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but
+a motive power to stir man to action and develop the resources
+of his mind. Should he fail for a time to overcome the wild
+beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow recesses of the
+earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished. The
+earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the
+devastations of water, and now her long summer must come
+to an end. The arctic regions had been growing colder and
+colder, and the change was felt in the countries to the south.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+The northern animals were being clothed with a hairy or
+woolly garment for their protection. The aspect began to be
+forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy,
+but foreboded he should perish along with the many species
+of animals that were gradually succumbing to the cold.
+Great fields of ice were slowly accumulating at both the poles,
+and at last, by the power of their great weight, assisted by
+some geographical changes, began to move toward the equator,
+crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either driving
+before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their
+relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The
+mountains groaned under the enormous weight of ice. Their
+heads were scarred, their sides bruised, torn and cut. The
+icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of earth, the lowing
+of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed before the
+sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal
+heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The
+northern ice was broken up by the time it reached latitude
+39&deg; North America, leaving its indelible traces in the bowlders,
+gravel, beds of sand and clay which mark its course.
+In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south as Spain
+and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions extended
+as far as latitude 41&deg; south.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna of Europe.</i>&mdash;Among the Fauna may be mentioned
+the gigantic elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest
+individuals that now exist, which roamed in herds over
+England, and extended across the Siberian plains and from
+Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned rhinoceroses
+wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests. Hippopotamuses
+inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear,
+which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave-tiger,
+twice as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the animals
+of less strength than themselves. Troops of hyenas,
+larger than those of South America, disputed with other beasts
+of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and leopard found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable
+carnivorous animal called <i>Machairodus</i>, about the size of a
+tiger, and from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth,
+must have been a very destructive creature. The lemming
+and the musk ox found a home, and the wild horse pranced
+about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great Irish elks
+swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been very
+numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs
+and marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there
+was also a species of gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant,
+that subsisted on the plains. All these animals followed the
+retreat of the glaciers and some of them were in close proximity
+to the ice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geological Period.</i>&mdash;The glacial epoch occurred during
+the geological period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary
+had gradually passed away and its time had been recorded on
+the pages of geological history. A new epoch began to dawn.
+This was the epoch of ice, the birth and almost the childhood
+of the post-tertiary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Probable Date.</i>&mdash;In discussing the probable date of the
+glacial epoch, Sir Charles Lyell says, "The attempt to assign
+a chronological value to any of our geological periods except
+the latest, must, in the present state of science, be hopeless.
+Nevertheless, independently of all astronomical considerations,
+it must, I think, be conceded that the period required
+for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its duration
+when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was subject,
+as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the 'great thaw'
+or disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where
+the snow was once perpetual, required not tens but hundreds
+of thousands of years. Less time would not suffice for the
+changes in physical geography and organic life of which we
+have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not appear
+startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have
+been two hundred thousand years ago, although this date<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+must be considered as very conjectural, and one which may
+be as likely to err in deficiency of time as in excess."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations
+made by Mr. Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers
+in excavating valleys and lowering the general level of the
+country, says, "As regards the higher districts, however, his
+data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we apply them to the
+valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two hundred
+feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the
+pal&aelig;olithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hundred
+and forty thousand years."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says,
+in speaking of the time required to excavate the gorge of
+Niagara River, that "on both sides of the gorge near the
+whirlpool, and also at Goat Island, there are beds of recent
+lake shells ... the same kinds that live in still
+water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found
+in the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters,
+when these beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirlpool.
+A tooth of a mastodon (<i>M. giganteus</i>) has been found
+in the same beds. This locates the time in the Champlain
+epoch.... Six miles of the gorge have been excavated
+since that mastodon was alive....</p>
+
+<p>"There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool
+through the Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of
+Lewiston. This valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch,
+and this blocking up of the channel may have compelled it to
+open a new passage.</p>
+
+<p>"If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we
+can ascertain the probable rate of progress, we may approximate
+to the length of time it required. Hall and Lyell estimated
+the average rate at one foot a year,&mdash;which is certainly
+large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of the falls, that
+it was 'more nearly three feet a century than three feet a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will
+have required over thirty-one thousand years; if at one inch
+a year&mdash;which is eight and one third feet a century&mdash;three
+hundred and eighty thousand years."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch.
+As this epoch was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be
+either thrown still farther back, or else allow the calculations
+to begin with the end of the glacial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Probable Duration.</i>&mdash;Lyell has attempted to form an
+estimate of the duration of the glacial epoch by considering
+"the most simple series of changes in physical geography
+which can possibly account for the phenomena of the glacial
+period," and enumerates as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"First, a continental period, toward the close of which
+the forest of Cromer flourished; when the land was at least
+five hundred feet above its present level, perhaps much higher,
+and its extent probably greater than that given in the map,
+Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the British Isles are connected
+with one another, and with the continent&mdash;the German
+Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry land).</p>
+
+<p>"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land
+north of the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland,
+was gradually reduced to an archipelago; and finally to
+such a general prevalence of sea as is seen in map, Fig. 39."
+(This map is intended to represent the British Isles as
+they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged
+to two thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one
+thousand three hundred feet.) "This was the period of
+submergence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora,
+which occupied the lower grounds during the first continental
+period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only
+lands not covered with perpetual snow.</p>
+
+<p>"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the
+glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid
+dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that of the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+period.... During this period there were glaciers
+in the higher mountains of Scotland and Wales....</p>
+
+<p>"The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand
+four hundred feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require
+fifty-six thousand years, at the rate of two and a half feet per
+century; but taking Professor Ramsay's estimate of eight
+hundred feet more, that depression being required for the
+deposition of some of the stratified drift, we must demand
+an additional period of thirty-two thousand years, amounting
+in all to eighty-eight thousand; and the same time
+would be required for the re&euml;levation of the tract to its
+present height. But if the land rose in the second continental
+period no more than six hundred above the present level ...
+this ... would have taken another twenty-six thousand
+years; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the
+submergence and re&euml;mergence, having taken, in round numbers,
+two hundred and twenty-four thousand years for its
+completion; and this, even if there were no pause or stationary
+period, when the downward movement ceased, and before
+it was converted into an upward one."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet
+per century is a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and
+there are cases where the change is even six feet a century,
+yet the average rate of motion, he thinks, will not exceed
+that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock believes
+most geologists will agree.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon
+which a calculation can be made as to the time when this
+epoch began. At the time of the most intense cold the
+eccentricity of the earth's orbit was .0575; the difference in
+millions of miles between the greatest and least distances of
+the earth from the sun 10&frac12;; the number of days by which
+winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in
+perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest sum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>mer
+month in the latitude of London when the summer
+occurs in perihelion, 113&deg;; the mean temperature of the
+coldest winter month in the latitude of London when the
+winter occurs in aphelion, 0&deg; 7'. Sixty thousand years later the
+eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332; the difference
+of distance in millions of miles was 6; number of winter days
+in excess, 16.1; mean of hottest month in latitude of London,
+95&deg;, and mean of coldest month 12&deg;. It is evident then at
+this time (one hundred and fifty thousand years ago) a
+"great thaw" had taken place and the glaciers driven back,
+although fifty thousand years later less intense cold set in
+again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great
+thaw" from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme
+point to have been two hundred and ten thousand years ago,
+then one hundred and eighty thousand years ago the glaciers
+had become so broken up as to allow vegetation to spring up
+in many localities, and the wild beasts to partially reassert
+their dominion. If to this be added the time required for the
+duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four
+thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumulate
+was four hundred and four thousand years ago. But if
+the tables of Mr. Croll be correct, their beginning could not
+have been earlier than three hundred and fifty thousand
+years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit varied but
+little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand
+years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+melted very rapidly,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> for great rivers were formed, and the
+water pouring down its icy bed sought other streams, and on
+the bosom of the earth swept away loose sediment, depositing
+it along the course of rivers and in caves of the earth, covering
+the remains of man along with those of animals that
+perished during the long winter of ice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="768" height="845" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stream issuing from a Glacier.</span>
+</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Evidences of the Existence of Man.</i>&mdash;The traces of man in
+the deposits made during the glacial epoch are numerous.
+Out of the many, the most noted will be given, with a view
+to their chronological order.</p>
+
+<p>In all probability the very oldest implements of the post-tertiary,
+and consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch,
+if not of the pliocene, are those found in the south of Hampshire,
+between Gosport and Southampton. They came from
+a tabular mass of drift which caps the tertiary strata. "The
+great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary strata, in which
+these implements have been found, consists in most places of
+half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded
+pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata.... Many of
+them exhibit the same colors and ochreous stain as do the
+flints in the gravel in which they lay."</p>
+
+<p>West of the Southampton estuary, "on both sides of the
+opening at Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have
+been met with in the gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel
+from which the flint tool was taken at Bournemouth is about
+one hundred feet above the level of the sea.... The
+gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from tertiary
+strata."</p>
+
+<p>The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top
+of the Foreland cliff "is of the true pal&aelig;olithic type, and the
+gravel in which it is imbedded at the height of about eighty
+feet above the level of the sea, may have once extended to the
+cliffs near Gosport; in which case we should have to infer that
+the channel called the Solent had not yet been scooped out
+when this region was inhabited by pal&aelig;olithic man."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>It may be safely inferred that the implements in the
+above three enumerations were imbedded at about the same
+time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The flint implements from the valley of the Somme,
+which have been of so much interest, and convinced so many
+sceptical geologists, belong to the early part of this epoch.
+This valley may be represented by Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="1024" height="205" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Section Across the Somme in Picardy.</span></span>
+
+<p>1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, <i>a</i>.<br />
+2. Lower level gravel, with elephants' bones and flint tools covered with fluviatile
+loam, twenty to forty feet thick.<br />
+3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam. In all thirty feet
+thick.<br />
+4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick.<br />
+5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that
+No. 2 indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher
+ones, which are from eighty to one hundred feet above the
+river. Of a later date than these is the peat, No. 1, which
+is from ten to thirty feet in thickness. Underneath the
+peat is a bed of gravel, <i>a</i>, from three to fourteen feet thick,
+resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and
+the peat is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of
+the valley of the Somme is a pretty fair representation of the
+arrangements of the different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and
+and St. Acheul.</p>
+
+<p>In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked
+by 2 and 3. The two are separated by a layer of fresh-water
+deposits, which contains river shells and is sometimes
+as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower, or gray diluvium,
+(No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the glaciers
+of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immediately
+upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint
+hatchets, together with the bones of the mammoth and fossil
+rhinoceros.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, the
+following figure is given.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 960px;">
+<img src="images/fig04.jpg" width="960" height="768" alt="4" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Section of a Gravel-pit at St. Acheul.</span>
+</span>
+<p>1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few angular flints.</p>
+
+<p>3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and fresh-water shells,
+covered with a thin layer of angular gravel from one to two feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>4. A bed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled tertiary pebbles. In
+this bed the flint implements are chiefly found&mdash;ten to fourteen feet thick.</p>
+
+<p>5. Formation of chalk.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Entire molar of mammoth (<i>E primigenius</i>), seventeen feet from surface.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> Gravel projecting five feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of
+flint implements. Some of them have the shape of a spear-head,
+and are over seven inches in length. The oval-shaped
+hatchets are so rude in some instances as to require a practised
+eye to decide their human origin. In the same bed are
+found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the
+centre. Dr. Rigollot has suggested that these perforated
+stones or gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung
+together as beads.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In this bed, No. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was
+found a mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth,
+in densely compressed gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an
+oval form.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/fig05.jpg" width="768" height="980" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flint Implement From St. Acheul.</span></span>
+<p>Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches long.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Side view.<br />
+ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Same seen edgewise.</p>
+
+<p>"These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number, proportionally
+to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St. Acheul, than in any of the
+lower gravels in the valley of the Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates,
+especially at Abbeville."&mdash;<i>Antiquity of Man</i>, p. 114.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+not only from the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also
+from the great blocks of hard sandstone, some of which are
+over four feet in diameter. These large fragments not only
+abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and lower level
+gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but
+they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old diluvium
+occurs. All of these sandstones have been derived
+from the tertiary strata which once covered the chalk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 830px;">
+<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="830" height="768" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flint Implement from Abbeville.</span></span>
+<p><i>a.</i> Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half size of original,
+which is five and a half inches long, from a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio-marine
+stratum.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Same seen edgewise.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point <i>a</i>, or near the top.
+This portion of the tool, <i>c</i>, is drawn of the natural size, the black central part being
+the unaltered flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed by
+discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made.</p>
+
+<p>The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first shaped, and the
+bleaching to such a depth must have been the work of time, whether produced by
+exposure to the sun and air before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep
+in the soil.&mdash;<i>Antiquity of Man.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the
+same as those of St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what
+has already been said will apply to them. These implements
+have been found in these localities in great numbers, as several
+thousand of them already taken from the beds will
+amply testify.</p>
+
+<p>From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes,
+at Abbeville, and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the
+celebrated human bone known as the <i>jaw</i> of Moulin-Quignon.
+It was cotemporary with the axes, and undoubtedly some of
+the flint implements there found were fashioned by the man
+of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part.</p>
+
+<p>This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as
+displaying "a tendency toward the animal structure in the
+shortness and breadth of the ascending ramus (the perpendicular
+portion of the lower jaw), the equal height of the two
+apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a continuous
+part of the body of the bone), the indication of
+prognathism (projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse
+angle at which the ramus joins the body of the bone.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Near the same locality other human bones were discovered
+Which presented the same characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint implements
+could be found in the valley of the Seine, in beds
+similar to those of Abbeville, the antiquaries were soon
+rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction was fulfilled.
+M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of implements
+in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains of
+animals of that period.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is
+very similar to those of Abbeville. "First, vegetable soil;
+then about twenty-five feet of sand and pebbles, under which
+was a layer of sandy loam, in which, during the year 1850, a
+complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered. Under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>neath
+this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in
+which some flint axes, very closely resembling those of
+Amiens, have been discovered."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The remains of man are also preserved in caverns associated
+with the fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired
+rhinoceros, cave-bear, and other extinct quadrupeds. Among
+these should be noticed Kent's Hole, which has furnished a
+mine of wealth. Of his discoveries Godwin-Austen says:
+"Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and
+knives of flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout
+the entire thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded
+on condition, distribution, or relative position can be observed,
+whereby the human can be separated from the other
+reliqui&aelig;," which included bones of the mammoth (<i>E. primigenius</i>),
+rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear (<i>Ursus spel&aelig;us</i>),
+cave-hyena (<i>H. spel&aelig;us</i>), and other mammalia. These
+researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had
+never been disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance,
+were procured from undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick
+covering of stalagmite; and all these must have been introduced
+before the stalagmite flooring had been formed.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+These specimens of man's handicraft were found far below
+the stalagmite floor.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brixham
+Cave. The following gives the general succession of
+deposits forming the contents of the cavern:</p>
+
+<p>1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches
+in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to
+fifteen feet in thickness.</p>
+
+<p>3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet
+in depth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the second layer there were found the remains of the
+mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, reindeer,
+and seven other species. Indiscriminately mixed with
+these bones were found many flint knives, but chiefly from
+the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth, varying in depth
+from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of these cannot
+be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no
+other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was
+discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every
+bone in its natural position. From the bone earth there were
+taken fifteen knives, recognized, by the experienced antiquaries,
+as having been artificially formed. In the lowest gravel,
+underlying all, there were found imperfect specimens of flint
+knives. The fine layer of mud was deposited by the slow but
+regular action of water. Since these layers were formed the
+stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its
+former level.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are
+terraces of gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on
+the left bank, one of these terraces projects into the alluvial
+plain of the Meuse. During the construction of the
+canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty feet. The
+upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty
+feet of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks,
+and bones of elephants, together with those of other mammalia,
+and a human lower jaw with teeth, were found in or near
+this gravel. The human jaw was at a depth of nineteen feet
+from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam, beneath a
+stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the
+gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was
+intact and had never been disturbed. But the jaw was somewhat
+isolated, and the nearest fossil object was the tusk of an
+elephant six yards distant, though on a horizontal plane.
+This fossil is probably older than that discovered at Lahr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+It was probably covered just before the gush of the water
+when it first began to flow from the gorges and had washed
+the ground at some distance from the ice.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the
+Rhine, near Lahr, was found in nearly a horizontal position,
+but in such a manner as to forbid the idea of sepulchre.
+These bones were exhumed from a perpendicular cliff of
+solid loess, about five feet high. The town of Lahr is situated
+four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the
+Rhine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the
+Schutter, flowing from the Black Forest.</p>
+
+<p>In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the
+the loess is two hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty
+feet above the Schutter. At Lahr it has been denuded so as
+to form a succession of terraces on the right bank. It was in
+the lowest of these from which the skeleton was taken. Immediately
+below this bed there were found pebbles, and still
+lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of
+sandstone and gneiss from the Black Forest.</p>
+
+<p>There are several interesting facts connected with this
+discovery. M. Bou&eacute; considers that the loess of the Lahr is
+continuous with that of the Rhine, and before the loess had
+been denuded there was not less than eighty feet of loamy deposit
+above the human skeleton. The glaciers had deposited
+their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melting
+of them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then
+when the torrents poured forth from the glaciers the loam was
+formed without the pebbles. The unfortunate man, whose
+remains were found, was buried far beneath the surface, during
+the very first part of the course of the violent streams
+pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then
+on the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim
+while on the chase.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone
+similar to the Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a
+river deposit of loam covered with a layer of stalagmite, and
+at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface. Associated with
+it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired rhinoceros,
+and flint implements. These implements present the same
+type as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a
+human ulna, two human teeth, and a fragment of a worked
+reindeer born. This jaw-bone is very thick, round in form,
+and the projection of the chin is almost entirely absent. The
+chin is said to hold an intermediate position between that of
+the animals and those of the present race of men. The cavities
+for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one
+of the most remarkable things is that the three molars are
+reversed, that is the first true molar is the smallest, and the
+last the largest. The inner surface of the jaw at the point of
+the suture or symphysis, forms a line obliquely directed upwards.
+Taking the jaw all in all, it is the most ape-like
+human jaw ever discovered.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three
+different layers or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a
+half in depth. The second was clay, seven and a half feet
+thick. The third, a bed of sand, with shells one foot in thickness.
+The fourth layer, containing the implements was a bed
+of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these flints was
+so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and
+thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account
+of the great number, this spot might have been the place
+where they were manufactured. Their date is not coeval
+with the bowlder clay, but undoubtedly belong, to the last
+of this epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The human bones found in the loess of the Rhine, near
+Colmar, were two fossilized fragments of the skull. They
+were found in undisturbed soil along with the fossil bones of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+the extinct species of mammoth, horse, gigantic deer, aurochs,
+and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull "showed a
+depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches,
+and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called <i>dolichocephalic</i>,
+or long-headed form."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> These remains date so near
+the end of the glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>GLACIAL EPOCH&mdash;CONTINUED.</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Belgian Caverns.</i>&mdash;The relics discovered by Dr. Schmerling,
+in the caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time
+of the retreat of the glaciers. The glaciers were still in
+existence, but their receding had freed immense tracts of land,
+and the space they now covered was small in proportion to
+their former extent. Whether it be considered or not, that
+vegetation greatly nourished and the great wild beasts were
+rapidly increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is,
+floods must have succeeded or followed closely upon the
+retreat of the ice. Many remains, referred to the glacial epoch,
+may in reality, have occupied the time of the floods occurring
+just previous to the commencement of the inter-glacial.</p>
+
+<p>The Belgian Caverns, near Li&eacute;ge, either belong exactly to
+the ice, or else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers
+the older monuments of the pal&aelig;olithic period to be the rude
+implements found in ancient river gravel and in the mud and
+stalagmite caves.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Caves of this description are those reported
+on by Dr. Schmerling.</p>
+
+<p>The caverns of the province of Li&eacute;ge were not the dens
+of wild beasts, but their contents had been swept in by the
+action of water. The bones of man "were of the same color,
+and in the same condition as to the amount of animal matter
+contained in them, as those of the accompanying animals,
+some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and rhinoceros,
+were extinct; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild
+boar, roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+were lighter than fresh bones, except such as had their pores
+filled with carbonate of lime, in which case they were often
+much heavier. The human remains of most frequent occurrence
+were teeth detached from the jaw, and the carpal,
+metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones separated
+from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding
+bones of the cave-bear, the most abundant of the accompanying
+mammalia, were also found in the Li&eacute;ge caverns more
+commonly than any others, and in the same scattered condition."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a
+triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud.
+Dr. Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he
+was engrossed in his osteological inquiries. The human
+bones were met with at all depths, in the cave mud and
+gravel, both above and below those of the extinct mammalia.</p>
+
+<p>The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalagmite.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+In the cavern at Chokier there occur "three distinct
+beds of stalagmite, and between each of them a mass of
+breccia, and mud mixed with quartz pebbles, and in the
+three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited
+at a depth of about five feet, under an osseous breccia containing
+a tusk of the rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the
+remains of small animals. The breccia was about three and
+one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the height of about five feet
+above the floor of the cavern. In the earth which contained
+the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides, the
+teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no
+marks of the earth having been disturbed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There was also found the cranium of a young person, in
+the floor of the cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. When
+first observed, the skull was entire, but fell to pieces when
+removed from its position. Besides these there were found a
+fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar teeth
+worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man; two
+vertebr&aelig;, a first and last dorsal; a clavicle of the left side,
+belonging to a young individual of great stature; two fragments
+of the radius, indicating a man of ordinary height; a
+fragment of an ulna: some metacarpal bones; six metatarsal,
+three phalanges of the hand and one of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone implement
+incrusted with stalagmite and joined to a stone.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As
+Professor Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed,
+and the facial bones are entirely absent; but the roof
+of the cranium, consisting of the frontal, parietal, and the
+greater part of the occipital bones, as far as the middle of the
+occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The left temporal
+bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the
+immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mastoid
+process, and a considerable portion of the squamous
+element of the temporal, are well preserved."</p>
+
+<p>A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to
+have missed, has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium
+by Dr. Spring, the accomplished anatomist of Li&eacute;ge.</p>
+
+<p>"The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man.
+The extreme length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme
+breadth, which corresponds very nearly with the interval
+between the parietal protuberances, is not more than 5.4
+inches. The proportion of the length to the breadth is therefore
+very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn from the
+point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the
+nose, and which is called the 'glabella' (<i>a</i>, Fig. 8), to the
+occipital protuberance (<i>d</i>), and the distance to the highest
+point of the arch of the skull be measured perpendicularly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+from this line, it will be found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed
+from above, the forehead presents an evenly rounded curve,
+and passes into the contour of the sides and back of the skull,
+which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 654px;">
+<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="654" height="1024" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Professor T. H. Huxley.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 857px;">
+<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="857" height="768" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Side View of the Human Skull found in the Cave of Engis.</span></span>
+<p>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Superciliary ridge and glabella.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Coronal suture.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> The occipital protuberance.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>"The front view shows that the roof of the skull was very
+regularly and elegantly arched in the transverse direction,
+and that the transverse diameter was a little less below the
+parietal protuberances, than above them. The forehead
+cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of the skull,
+nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the contrary,
+the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so
+that the distance along that contour, from the nasal depres<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>sion
+to the occipital protuberance, measures about 13.75
+inches. The transverse arc of the skull, measured from one
+auditory foramen to the other, across the middle of the
+sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture itself
+is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow-ridges
+(<i>a</i>) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are
+separated by a median depression. Their principal elevation
+is disposed so obliquely that I judge them to be due to large
+frontal sinuses. If a line joining the glabella and the occipital
+protuberance (<i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, Fig. 8) be made horizontal, no part
+of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth of an
+inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper
+edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line
+drawn parallel with this upon the outer surface of the skull."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at
+variance with those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock
+reports him as saying, "There is no mark of degradation
+about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair average
+human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, or
+might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor
+Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead
+was somewhat narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by
+the skulls of individuals of European race."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against
+Huxley. The first says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that
+this cranium has belonged to a person of limited intellectual
+faculties, and we conclude thence that it belonged to a man
+of a low degree of civilization."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> "From the narrowness of
+the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small intellectual
+development."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Buchner says, "In its length and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of
+the widely separated orbits and the well developed supra-orbital
+arches, it resembles, especially when viewed from
+above, the celebrated Neanderthal skull, but in general is far
+superior to this in its structure."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Carl Vogt "regards
+it, with reference to the proportion of length to breadth,
+as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of
+skulls."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p>The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise
+from the failure to observe the fact that the older the formation
+in which a skull is found, the lower is the type. The
+ordinary observer, judging by the cast of the skull, would see
+nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would fail to see any
+indications of a philosopher.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">NEANDERTHAL SKULL.</p>
+
+<p>The Neanderthal skull was taken from a small cave or
+grotto in-the valley of the D&uuml;ssel, near D&uuml;sseldorf, situated
+about seventy miles north-east of the region of the Li&eacute;ge
+caverns. The grotto is in a deep ravine sixty feet above the
+river, one hundred feet below the surface of the country, and
+at a distance of about ten feet from the D&uuml;ssel River. It is
+fifteen feet deep from the entrance (<i>f</i>), which is seven or
+eight feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it
+opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front. The floor of
+the cave was covered four or five feet in thickness with a
+deposit of mud or loam, and containing some rounded fragments
+of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit, first
+noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in
+met with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded
+as of any importance, at the time of their discovery, only the
+larger ones have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="1024" height="466" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Section of the Neanderthal Cave.</span></span>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> Cavern sixty feet above the D&uuml;ssel, and one hundred feet below the surface of
+the country at <i>c</i>.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which the human skeleton
+was found.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c</i>, <i>a</i>. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the country.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> Superficial sandy loam.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>e.</i> Devonian limestone.<br />
+
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>f.</i> Terrace, or ledge of rock.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological
+time of these bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the
+mud or loam in which the skeleton was found, and no other
+bones met with save the tusk of a bear. There is no certain
+data given whereby its position may be known. Professor
+Huxley declares that the bones "indicate a very high antiquity."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+Buchner is very positive in his statement, and
+declares that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves
+of the Neanderthal and the clefts and fissures of its limestone
+mountains, and in which both the Neanderthal bones
+and the fossil bones and teeth of animals were imbedded, is
+exactly the same that, in the caverns of the Neanderthal,
+covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten
+to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which
+is unmistakable."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and
+general arrangement of the locality in which they were found,
+place it, in my judgment, beyond doubt that the bones
+belong to the diluvium, and therefore to primitive times, <i>i. e.</i>
+they come down to us from a period of the past when our
+native country was still inhabited by various kinds of animals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since
+disappeared out of the series of living creatures."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is
+still further confirmed by the discoveries made, in the
+summer of 1865, in the Teufelskammer. This cavern is
+situated one hundred and thirty paces from the one in which
+the human bones were found, and on the same side of the
+river.. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous
+fossil bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena,
+and other extinct animals. "A great part of these
+bones, especially those of the cave-bears, agree in color,
+weight, density, and the preservation of their microscopic
+structure, with the human bones found in the Feldhofner
+Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both
+are covered with the same <i>dendrites</i>, or tree-like markings."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>Before entering into a description and discussion of this
+remarkable skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be
+given. All the bones are characterized by their unusual
+thickness, and the great development of all the elevations
+and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The two
+thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus
+and radius; the upper third of the right ulna; the left ulna
+complete, though pathologically deformed, the coronoid
+process being so much enlarged by bony growth that flexure
+of the elbow beyond a right angle was impossible; the left
+humerus is much slenderer than the right, and the upper
+third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the
+coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at
+the same time, the olecranon process is curved strongly
+downwards. The indications are that an injury sustained
+during life was the cause of this defect. There was an ilium,
+almost perfect; a fragment of the right scapula; the anterior
+extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder
+portions and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the
+ribs of a carnivorous animal than those of man. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+abnormal condition has arisen from the powerful development
+of the thoracic muscles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 949px;">
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="949" height="768" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Side View of the Human Skull from Feldhofner Cave, in
+the Neanderthal, near D&uuml;sseldorf.</span></span>
+<p>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>a.</i> The superciliary ridge and glabella.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>c.</i> The apex of the lambdoidal suture.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>b.</i> The coronal suture.<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>d.</i> The occipital protuberance.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. "It
+has an extreme length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only
+5&frac34; inches, or in other words, its length is to its breadth as
+100 is to 72. It is exceedingly depressed, measuring
+only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital line to
+the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way
+as in the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc cannot
+be exactly ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the
+temporal bones, but was probably about the same, and certainly
+exceeded 10&frac14; inches. The horizontal circumference is
+23 inches. But this great circumference arises largely from
+the vast development of the superciliary ridges, though the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large
+superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating
+appearance than its internal contour would bear out. To an
+anatomical eye the posterior part of the skull is even more
+striking than the anterior. The occipital protuberance occupies
+the extreme posterior end of the skull, when the glabello-occipital
+line is made horizontal, and so far from any part of
+the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the
+skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lambdoidal
+suture is situated well upon the upper surface of the
+cranium. At the same time, notwithstanding the great
+length of the skull, the sagittal suture is remarkably short
+(4&frac12; inches) and the squamosal suture is very straight."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+... "The cranium, in its present condition, contains about
+sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire
+skull could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches
+more, its minimum capacity may be estimated at seventy-five
+cubic inches.... It has certainly not undergone compression,
+and, in reply to the suggestion that the skull is that
+of an idiot, it may be urged that the <i>onus probandi</i> lies with
+those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible with
+very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know
+of none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal
+skull."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape-like
+of all the human skulls he has ever seen, and in its
+examination ape-like characters are met with in all its
+parts.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Buchner says that the face of the Neanderthal
+man must have presented a frightfully bestial and savage, or
+ape-like expression (see frontispiece).<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> Professor Schaaffhausen
+and Mr. Busk have stated that "this skull is the
+most brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of
+the apes not only in the prodigious development of the superciliary
+prominences and the forward extension of the orbits,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+but still more in the depressed form of the brain-case, in the
+straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the complete
+retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the superior
+occipital ridges."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>Professor Schaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this
+skull as a race-type, and Professor Huxley has said "that it
+truly forms only the extreme member of a series leading by
+slow degrees to the highest and best developed forms of
+human skulls."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact
+that it is not an isolated case. The fragment of the skull
+from the loess of the Rhine (Alsace), by its depressed forehead
+and strongly projecting superciliary arches, greatly
+resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the calcareous
+tuff of Constatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong
+superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> The cranium
+found in bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar),
+"resembles, in all essential particulars, including its great
+thickness, the far-famed Neanderthal skull. Its discovery
+adds immensely to the scientific value of the Neanderthal
+specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not represent,
+as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual peculiarity,
+but that it may have been characteristic of a race
+extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> In
+speaking of the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaaffhausen
+says, "It is worthy of notice that a similar, although smaller
+projection of the superciliary arches has generally been found
+in the skulls of savage races.... The remarkably
+small skull from the graves on the island of Mo&euml;n, examined
+by Professor Eschricht; the two human skulls, described by
+Dr. Kutorga, from the government of Minsk (Russia), one of
+which, especially, shows a great resemblance to the Neanderthal
+skull; the human skeleton found near Plau, in Mecklenburg,
+in a very ancient grave, in a squatting position, ...<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when
+man stood on a very low grade of development;" and
+other similar discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls likewise
+presenting short, retreating foreheads and projecting
+eyebrows.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, belonging
+to the stone age of Denmark, "show a great resemblance
+to the Neanderthal skull, a resemblance which is
+manifested in the depression of the cranium, the receding
+forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent superciliary
+ridges."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Human Skull of Arno.</i>&mdash;The human skull, found by
+Professor Cocchi in the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in
+diluvial clay, together with various bones of extinct species of
+animals, is considered by Carl Vogt to be of like antiquity
+with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The age immediately preceding the glacial, and consequently
+the post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch,
+the last of the tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>The tertiary period began with the close of the cretaceous.
+A map of the early tertiary period would represent
+parts of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, the
+whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama, Mississippi,
+Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory on
+both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with
+water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and
+the western part of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly
+course until it emptied into the Pacific. In Europe, the
+great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of chalk), the greater
+part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium, Holland,
+Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern
+Russia, as one vast sheet of water. England and France
+were connected by a band of rocks.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and
+tropical fauna and flora spread over the whole of Europe.
+Palms, cedars, laurels, and cinnamon trees flourished in the
+valleys of Switzerland, and more than thirty different species
+of oak adorned the forests of that time.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty
+species of crocodiles; many species of snakes, one twenty
+feet long; a dozen species of birds; tapirs (<i>Pal&aelig;othere</i> and
+<i>Lophiodon</i>), two species of hogs, some ruminants and rodents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the miocene, among <i>Pachyderms</i> may be mentioned the
+mastodon, elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhinoceros,
+hog, horse, tapir, and hippopotamus; among
+<i>Carnivores</i>, the machairodus, hyena, lion, and dog; among
+<i>Ruminants</i>, the camel, deer, and antelope. There were
+monkeys, and many other animals.</p>
+
+<p>In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the
+bear, hare, and other animals.</p>
+
+<p>In the tertiary beds of America have been found mastodons,
+elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves,
+horses, whales, and other mammalia.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected
+that many traces of man will be discovered in this early
+period.</p>
+
+<p>Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable
+that man lived in the pliocene; but in relation to miocene
+time, he says, "Had some other rational being, representing
+man, then flourished, some signs of his existence could hardly
+have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of implements of stone
+or metal, more frequent and more durable than the osseous
+remains of any of the mammalia."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Sir J. Lubbock, while
+admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther
+and says, "If man constitutes a separate family of mammalia,
+as he does in the opinion of the highest authorities, then,
+according to all pal&aelig;ontological analogies, he must have had
+representatives in miocene times. We need not, however,
+expect to find the proofs in Europe; our nearest relatives in
+the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to tropical
+climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely
+to find the earliest traces of the human race."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Alfred R.
+Wallace out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says,
+"We are enabled to place the origin of man at a much more
+remote geological epoch than has yet been thought possible.
+He may even have lived in the miocene or eocene period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+when not a single mammal was identical in form with any
+existing species."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of
+geologists have settled the question of tertiary man; and the
+"signs of his existence," in the "shape of implements of
+stone," as demanded by Lyell, have been furnished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Man in the Pliocene.</i>&mdash;It has already been intimated that
+the evidences of man are but few in this early epoch. The
+first example, in the following list, borders closely on the
+glacial, but far enough removed as to be referred to the
+pliocene.</p>
+
+<p>In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and
+Gothenburg it was necessary to cut through one of those hills
+called <i>osars</i>, or erratic blocks, which were deposited by the
+drift-ice during the glacial epoch. Beneath an immense
+accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there was
+discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about
+sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the
+middle of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than
+that of man could have performed the work.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of
+Savonia in Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which
+presented all the physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr.
+Buchner is of the opinion that before these bones can be employed
+as satisfactory evidence they must have a more
+accurate test by scientific authorities.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Desnoyers
+found traces of human action on the bones of animals
+belonging to the tertiary. These fractures are analogous to
+those of human action observed on bones from the glacial
+period, and identical with those made by northern tribes of
+the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The marked
+bones found were those of the Southern elephant (<i>E. meridionalis</i>),
+rhinoceros (<i>R. leptorinus</i>), hippopotamus major,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+several species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states
+that this discovery is not only genuine, but also, the formation
+in which the bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is
+further characterized by the presence of the southern elephant
+(<i>E. meridionalis</i>). As this elephant became extinct before
+the glacial age, the bones consequently precede the glacial,
+and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and tichorrhine
+rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages,
+confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a
+doubt by the more recent discoveries of Abb&eacute; Bourgeois.
+In the same tertiary strata of St. Prest, in which were found
+the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois discovered worked
+flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by
+James Matson, at Altaville, in Calaveras county, California,
+at a depth of one hundred and thirty feet, under five beds of
+gravel separated by five layers of lava, associated with the
+bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and horse. The base
+of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and small
+pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles
+that of the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span><i>Man in the Miocene.</i><a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>&mdash;M. Bourgeois has found, in a
+stratum of miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints,
+and other flints which have been subjected to the action of
+heat. These works of man were associated with the remains
+of the acerotherium (an extinct species allied to the rhinoceros),
+and beneath five distinct beds, one of which contained
+the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship
+in the miocene beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with
+the remains of <i>dinotherium giganteum</i>, and <i>machaerodus
+latidens</i>.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Bourgeois reports that Abb&eacute; Delaunay had found near
+Pouance (Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a <i>halitherium</i> (an
+herbivorous cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of
+having been operated upon by cutting instruments.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming
+territories, chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and
+wrought shells have been found.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Eocene.</i>&mdash;As yet geologists have failed to discover any
+traces of man in the Eocene epoch.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no
+precise knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of
+his birth is generally supposed to be in Central Asia. There
+the geologist looks with a longing eye, and hopes ultimately
+to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the birth-place of
+his race, but also, how or through what natural process he
+sprang into existence.</p>
+
+<p>If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and
+Central Asia the place of his nativity, then he was ushered
+upon the scene of life during the period of, and surrounded
+by, the numerous fauna of India, At this time her mammalia
+included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven
+species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species),
+horse (three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species),
+hog (three species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephantine
+stag, having four horns and supposed to have had the
+bulk of an elephant and greater height), antelope, musk-deer,
+sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium, porcupine,
+species of hyena, lion, and many others.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties
+were ordinarily developed, as it would not be natural to
+suppose he was superior to that of later times. Judging
+from the remains of later times, man could have been but
+very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose
+that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence.
+His food must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits
+of the tree, possibly with an occasional morsel of raw meat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+His pillow was a stone, his retreat a cave or the boughs of a
+wide-spreading tree, and his clothing a natural coat of hair.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might
+seem to be of short duration. Providence has ordered all
+things wisely. Placed low in the scale of life&mdash;brutal, selfish,
+prowling, yet cautious&mdash;man, by the very force of
+circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his
+mind. With the elephant and the mastodon he could not
+cope nor would they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he
+might fall a prey. From these he could flee, and find a
+shelter in the tops of the trees or some secure fastness of the
+earth. Learning his own strength by experience, he would
+venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly
+foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident,
+that a club was a powerful weapon with which to beat back
+his fierce opponent. Gradually he came to learn that a sharp
+flint driven into the end of a club was a safer and more
+deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an unequal
+contest.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength,
+developed his muscular system. His muscles became large
+and tough, and his bones thick and heavy. The earliest type
+of man is generally supposed to be <i>dolichocephalic</i>, or long-headed.
+The walls of the skull were thick, and the crown
+low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and
+of great power. His make-up was the result of his surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire
+length of the miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable.
+There was no revolution in his mind; one step in advance
+would have been a mighty leap. Nor could it be expected
+that there should be rapid progress. The mind was brutal;
+and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a
+mighty change. The tropical climate should change into a
+winter of snow and ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited
+by the new danger. His sluggish mind should be quickened,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+and the inventive genius should be called into action. The
+sun no longer could give its heat. The forests grew cold, the
+chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in the
+cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either
+dying of cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair,
+and retreating before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly
+looked about him. He suffered greatly, and his numbers
+grew less. Fire had been produced. How, no one can tell;
+possibly by accident. He now became more careful of the
+fire, and with brand in hand he went from place to place
+kindling the fires at the various resting-places. Nor was this
+sufficient. His ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent.
+Colder and colder grew the winds. The snow, coming in
+great flakes, was soon consolidated, and became as ice. The
+body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had, and
+this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must
+assist in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen
+animals would not alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives
+must be invented. From the flint rude knives were fashioned,
+by means of which the skins were removed and transferred to
+the bodies of men. But the long winter continuing, the lives
+of the living animals must be forfeited, both for the flesh and
+and the skins. Rude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were
+produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and
+cook, and rude rafts formed, by means of which the swelling
+rivers might be crossed. Then those stone hatchets of the
+Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the
+perils of ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not content
+with his conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is
+aroused against his fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly
+upon each other, the blood flows freely, the bones give way,
+and the weaker one has succumbed. There are fierce contentions
+over the common prey, and the strong impose upon the
+weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in communities;
+and the more daring&mdash;the hunters&mdash;having their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+common places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie
+with each other in feats of prowess.</p>
+
+<p>During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have
+remained unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude
+stone weapons. His time was spent, for the most part, in
+self-preservation. He was retreating before, yet bounding
+over, the frozen flood in pursuit of game. This experience
+must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers began to
+recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those
+stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They
+served against the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and
+would be of great service in the ages yet to come. By a little
+remodelling they could be used to greater advantage; and this
+change of shape was accomplished, and other uses of flint
+were made known.</p>
+
+<p>Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended
+by the relics of the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale
+which any anatomist may read, and even one not well skilled
+in the art. The primitive type is no mystery, and those
+fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone times.</p>
+
+<p>The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its
+structure is animal. Its history agrees with the generally
+received idea of primitive man as conceived by the geologist.
+The illustration (frontispiece) presents him bestial and ape-like.
+A powerful organization, and well adapted to those
+times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an
+old age, as the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull
+was very thick. The strong, prominent superciliary arches
+denote large perceptives, making him watchful and always on
+the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible conflict. The left
+arm was broken; who knows but in a contest with the great
+cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm
+dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he
+received a blow, from some source, so great as to carry away
+a portion of the bone. The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint
+weapon in the hand of one of his race, may have produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+that fracture. Still he lived, and the wound healed. All
+this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside
+view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less
+bestial. Possibly this individual did not enter upon the
+chase, and engage in the manly pursuits of those times. He
+may have been an adviser or a dandy; or, his ingenuity may
+have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and implements
+from the flint.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as
+short, heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a
+clavicle belonging to a young person who must have been of
+great stature.</p>
+
+<p>The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a
+great tendency to animal structure, and confirm the impressions
+as given of the primitive condition of man during the
+glacial and pre-glacial ages.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again.
+The forests bloom and the wild beast roams about. Many
+species withstood the long siege of cold; others perished;
+still others followed the ice as it retreated, preferring the
+cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man
+spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers
+and radiant with earthly splendors.</p>
+
+<p>The evidences of man's existence during this period are
+numerous, consisting in works of art and fossil remains.
+Only a few examples are given, as not many will be required
+to present the evidence and show man's condition.</p>
+
+<p>The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Dawkins,
+affords specimens of the works of man. When discovered
+this den was filled to the roof with <i>d&eacute;bris</i>. Under this
+rubbish was found several layers of the excrement of the
+cave-hyena (<i>H. spel&aelig;a</i>), each of which indicates an old floor
+and a separate period of occupation.</p>
+
+<p>The implements were under these layers of excrement,
+showing that the cave had been occupied by the hyenas after
+the time of the savages. These implements had not been
+disturbed by the action of water. In the bone earth along
+with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of the
+mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), gigantic ox
+(<i>Bos primigenius</i>), gigantic Irish deer (<i>Megaceros Hibernicus</i>),
+reindeer, cave-bear, cave-lion (<i>Felis spel&aelig;a</i>), wolf (<i>Canis
+lupus</i>), fox (<i>Canis vulpes</i>), and the teeth and bones of the
+horse in great numbers. Intermixed with these bones were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>chipped flints, a bleached flint weapon of the spear-head
+Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="1024" height="483" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ideal Scene in the Post-Tertiary.</span></span>
+<p>On the right is shown the megatherium. This animal belonged to the sloth tribe, and was a native of South America. It exceeded in
+size the largest rhinocerous, and the length of its skeleton sometimes attained eighteen feet. In front, near the centre, is the glyptodon
+another South American animal of the armadillo tribe. The length of its shell, along the curve, was five feet, and the total length of the
+animal, nine feet. Just back of the glypodon, and holding on to a tree, is the mylodon, belonging to both North and South America, one
+species of which was much larger than the western buffalo. On the left, and in the rear, is the mastodon, the remains of which are found
+in both North and South America, though of different species. While this scene does not represent the animals with which we are dealing,
+yet the general features give an idea of those with which we are interested.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 996px;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="996" height="768" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Section of the Sepulchral Grotto, in the Hill of Fajoles,
+Aurignac.</span></span>
+<p><i>a.</i> Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in which a few human
+bones, with entire bones of extinct and living species of animals, and many works
+of art, were imbedded.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing broken, burned, and
+gnawed bones of extinct and living mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art;
+no human bones.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Deposit with similar contents; also a few scattered cinders.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above.</p>
+
+<p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>. Slab of rock which closed the vault.</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, <i>f</i>. Rabbit-burrow.</p>
+
+<p><i>h</i>, <i>k</i>. Original terrace.</p>
+
+<p><i>N.</i> Nummulitic limestone.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were
+found ashes and rude flint implements in a breccia containing
+the bones of the elephant (<i>E. antiquus</i>), hyena, a large bear,
+lion, (probably <i>F. spel&aelig;a</i>), and large numbers of bones<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes had
+once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was
+still cemented to the roof.</p>
+
+<p>The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physical
+condition of the country was different from what it is at
+present. The bone breccia cemented to the roof, and coated
+with stalagmite, testifies that the cave, at some time since the
+formation of the breccia, has been washed out. The exact
+time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given, but, in
+all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear,
+if not before.</p>
+
+<p>The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen
+human skeletons were found, was carefully examined by
+Lartet eight years after its discovery. The recess was formed
+in nummulitic limestone. In front of the grotto, and next to
+the limestone (<i>c</i>, Fig. 12) was a layer of ashes and charcoal,
+eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works of art, and
+broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent
+mammalia. Immediately above this layer (<i>d</i>) was another, of
+made ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto; and
+its contents similar to the other, save that within the grotto
+were found a few human bones. The grotto was closed by a
+slab, and the made earth without was covered by a talus of
+rubbish (<i>e</i>), washed down from the hill above.</p>
+
+<p>In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint
+instruments, consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones,
+chips, and a stone made for the purpose of modelling the
+flints. The bone implements were barbless arrows, a well-shaped
+and sharply pointed bodkin made of the horn of the
+roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides
+these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates,
+of a white shelly substance, made of some species of cockle
+(<i>cardium</i>), pierced through the middle; also the tusk of a
+young cave-bear, the crown of which had been carved in imitation
+of the head of a bird.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of the different species found in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+layers, together with the approximate number of individuals
+belonging to each:</p>
+
+<p class="center">I.&mdash;CARNIVORA.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr><th align='left'></th><th align='right'>Number of Individuals.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. Cave Bear (<i>U. Spel&aelig;us</i>)</td><td align='right'>5-6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Brown Bear (<i>U. arctos</i>)                             </td><td align='right'>    1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Badger (<i>Meles taxus</i>)     </td><td align='right'>                            1-2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Polecat (<i>Putorius vulgaris</i>)                     </td><td align='right'>       1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. Cave Lion (<i>Felis spel&aelig;a</i>)       </td><td align='right'>                        1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Wild Cat (<i>Felis Catus ferus</i>)        </td><td align='right'>                   1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. Hyena (<i>H. spel&aelig;a</i>)                     </td><td align='right'>               5-6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. Wolf (<i>Canis lupus</i>)                     </td><td align='right'>                3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. Fox (<i>C. vulpes</i>)                         </td><td align='right'>           18-20</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p class="center">II.&mdash;HERBIVORA.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. Mammoth (<i>E. primigenius</i>)</td><td align='right'> Two molars and an astragalus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 12-15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Ass (<i>E. asinus</i>)</td><td align='right'>  1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. Boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>)</td><td align='right'>  Two incisors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Stag (<i>Cervus elephas</i>)</td><td align='right'>  1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. Gigantic Irish Deer (<i>Megaceros Hibernicus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. Roebuck (<i>C. capreolus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 3-4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. Reindeer (<i>C. tarandus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 10-12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. Aurochs (<i>Bison Europ&aelig;us</i>)                 </td><td align='right'>         12-15</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be
+split open, as if for the extraction of the marrow, and many
+of them burned. The spongy parts were wanting, having
+been gnawed off by the hyenas.</p>
+
+<p>M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a
+place of sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the
+remnants of the funeral feasts. This he argued from the
+fact that the bones within the grotto were not split, broken
+or gnawed, save the astragalus of the mammoth. This meat
+was placed in the grotto, probably as an offering to the dead.
+The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men
+were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled
+about the spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+flesh that remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred
+their entrance, and consequently the bones and human
+remains within were left untouched.</p>
+
+<p>The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to
+different conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a
+difference in the color of the walls of the cave, indicating that
+the lower deposit was of a yellow color, and the next above
+of a much lighter tint. In the crevices of the lower he
+found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the reindeer, and
+some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher deposit
+occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and
+a fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac
+inferred that the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded
+with that outside of it, and the layer containing human bones
+was formed at a subsequent time.</p>
+
+<p>That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early
+period is proven from the numerous remains of the cave-bear.
+This animal was one of the first of those great post-tertiary
+mammalia to become extinct. The exact position of
+the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were
+intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as
+the other layers, it would indicate that the climate was not
+very warm during the deposit of the layers, but to have been
+similar to that of Switzerland of the present day. The
+probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur in the lowest
+layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical
+climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were
+consigned to the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial,
+or beginning of the reindeer epoch.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff,
+must be assigned to this period, since there have been found,
+in similar blocks of tuff in the same region, the remains of
+the cave-hyena and hippopotamus major. This fossil man
+consists of a frontal part of the skull, the upper jaw, with
+teeth, belonging to both an adult and young individual; a
+radius, some lumbar vertebr&aelig;, and some metatarsal bones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate
+into the more compact rock.</p>
+
+<p>In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of
+the Schusse, there were discovered more than six hundred
+split flints, with a quantity of partly worked antlers and bones
+of the reindeer. The bones were so numerous that Mr. Oscar
+Fraas was enabled to put together a complete skeleton of the
+reindeer which is now preserved in the museum of Stuttgart.
+Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of extracting
+the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and
+a fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were
+also the bones of other animals, such as the glutton, arctic
+fox, and other animals now living in high northern latitudes.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the
+careful investigations of the geognostic conditions of the
+place, but also the flora of the time (for remains of mosses
+were found which now live only in the extreme north), leave
+no doubt that the reindeer station on the Schusse belongs to
+the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs exactly to the
+interval between the two glacial epochs which in all probability
+Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared
+this deposit to be <i>the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier</i>,
+which was formerly very large. Moreover, according to him,
+this discovery is particularly remarkable, because it is the
+first example of a station of the reindeer-men in a free and
+open deposit, their remains having hitherto been found only
+in caves."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of
+bones of the reindeer, and some show of advancement in the
+arts, it may be safe to conclude that this station belongs to
+the close of the inter-glacial.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of
+time, covering many thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may
+be expected in his condition. His mode of life, and continued
+conflicts with the fierce wild beasts, would tax his
+every device. Necessity compelled him to be inventive.
+The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not
+grapple with the higher problems of existence. United
+efforts and fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those
+old axes of flint were great objects to his mind, and one step
+beyond them was a great stride in progress. That they
+developed but little cannot be wondered at, not only from
+their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the
+era of history there are nations whose civilization has become
+fixed and stereotyped for ages; others, who, instead of advancing,
+have been retrograding.</p>
+
+<p>The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted
+beneficially throughout this period. The rude axes and
+flints were retained, but improvements were made in utilizing
+the bones and horns of animals. Out of these, bodkins,
+fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of wild
+animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells,
+were used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling-places,
+being destitute of water, this necessary of life was
+supplied and carried thither in rude vessels made of clay and
+dried in the sun. The arrows, flint knives, and axes were
+used for killing and skinning the animals, splitting the bones
+containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements, felling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for
+clothing, after having been softened by beating. He commenced
+the art of engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of
+the great cave-bear wrought on a curious stone found in the
+cave of Massat (Ari&eacute;ge), the bird's head formed from the bone
+of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples. The lower
+jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of
+hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves of Lherm
+and in Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them
+cooked his food. That he paid honors to the dead, and sheltered
+them from the ravages of beasts of prey, at present,
+must remain an open question. If he did, it might seem to
+imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is considered
+that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be
+inferred that this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an
+evil genius. Or it may be a faint idea of a ghost state and
+that these feasts were made to dissuade the ghost from
+molesting him. That they had a conception of a Supreme
+Ruler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man,
+would be too preposterous to believe.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Denton has given a description of primeval
+time which, by a little change, would represent inter-glacial
+times: "The seasons are fairly established; and spring
+follows winter, and fall summer, as now; though the summer
+is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in
+those countries at the present time, and the winters colder.
+The country is covered with dense forests, through which
+ramble mighty elephants in herds, with immense curved
+tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and flowing manes....
+Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his rocky den&mdash;as
+large as a horse: fierce, shaggy, conscious of his strength,
+he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies
+the cave-tiger (<i>Felis spel&aelig;a</i>); and, as the wild cattle come
+down to drink, he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible
+combat ensues. It is as large as an elephant, and its horns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+of enormous size; and even cave-tigers could not always
+master such cattle as they.</p>
+
+<p>"Are these the highest forms of life that the country
+contains? What being is that sitting on yon fallen tree?
+His long arms are in front of his hairy body, and his
+hands between his knees; while his long legs are dangling
+down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's; his
+beard short, and like the hair of his body; the unkempt hair
+of his head is bushy and thick; his eyebrows are short and
+crisp; and with his sloping forehead and brutal countenance,
+he seems like the caricature of a man, rather than an
+actual human being.</p>
+
+<p>"Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may behold
+a group&mdash;one old man ... and women and children,
+lounging and lying upon the ground. How dirty! What
+forbidding countenances!&mdash;more like furies than women.
+One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from
+a neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing
+the trees, and passing from branch to branch, as they gather
+the wild fruit that abounds on every side. Some are catching
+fish in the shallows of the river, and yell with triumph as
+they hold their captives by the gills, dragging them to the
+shore."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>They have improved their language, and instead of the
+rude signs and undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may
+now be heard short, but occasional sentences, which were the
+forerunners of the polished tongues of modern Europe.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>REINDEER EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced.
+The gigantic animals of the past age have either disappeared
+or are fast becoming extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion,
+cave-hyena, mammoth, and woolly-haired rhinoceros have
+almost become extinct. They have given way to a less fierce
+and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is
+announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are
+overrunning the forests of Western Europe, and extending as
+far south as the Pyrenees. In the forests there now existed
+the horse, bison, wild bull (<i>Bos primigenius</i>), musk-ox, elk,
+deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat, lemming, and many
+others. These animals were capable of withstanding and
+flourishing in a rigorous climate. When the glaciers were
+again broken up and the climate became warmer, the reindeer,
+musk-ox, elk, chamois, wild-goat, hamster-rat, and
+lemming retired to the high northern latitudes in close proximity
+to the snow, or else to the lofty summits of great
+mountain-chains.</p>
+
+<p>The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and
+that it immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous.
+The vast number of the reindeer bones and horns attest to a
+distinct epoch, and by the remains of arctic animals, as well as
+the traces of glaciers, the climate must have been unlike that
+of the present time. The remains of the mammoth, cave-bear,
+and cave-lion, would not only connect this period with
+the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers continued
+to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer epoch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss lake-villages,
+or Danish shell mounds, may be shown by the weapons
+or implements which point to a more primitive people,
+the absence of the remains of the dog, and, also, by the
+absence of the remains of the reindeer in the shell-mounds.</p>
+
+<p>There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be
+told how long this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length
+of time to permit the reindeer to increase greatly its species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Evidences of the Existence of Man.</i>&mdash;M. Christy and M.
+Lartet examined in conjunction the caves of Central and
+Southern France. Those which have been most carefully
+examined are ten in number, and belong to the Department
+of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a
+settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the
+principal ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute,
+and Laugerie-Basse.</p>
+
+<p>At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone
+needle used for sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer
+horn and still fixed in a bone, a flint whistle made from the
+first joint of the foot of the reindeer, and two slabs of schist,
+on both of which were scratched animal forms, but deficient
+in any special characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and
+very thick, which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking
+vessel, as one side of it had been subjected to fire; an
+engraving of a reindeer on the horn of that animal; on
+another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on either
+side; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn; on
+another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human
+figure, and two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into
+five pieces, had an outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13).
+This was so accurately drawn that the small eye, curved
+tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane, could readily be
+distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head, the
+figure of a tadpole.</p>
+
+<p>There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>-Basse,
+where weapons and utensils were manufactured; and
+they are noted for the abundance of instruments made of
+reindeer horn. Among the works of art found at the latter
+station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle, spoon made in
+the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in the
+middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the
+horn of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is
+carved a mammoth's head; there is a representation of the
+hind-quarters of some herbivorous animal, sketched out with
+a bold and practiced touch; an animal's head, with ears laid
+back, and of considerable length, is carved on a round shaft
+of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for what purpose
+this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed,
+and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the
+harpoon of some chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in outline,
+a reindeer fight. On a fragment of a spear-head there is
+a series of human hands, provided with four fingers only,
+and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of fish are
+principally on wands of authority&mdash;on one of which is a series
+following one another.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="1024" height="563" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of Ivory
+from La Madeleine.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cave and <i>rock shelters</i> of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne)
+have been carefully examined by competent explorers. These
+relics are so numerous that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of
+the cavern, sold to the agent of the British Museum fifteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+hundred specimens, of every description, which had been
+found on his property. In the cave there were found,
+engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and
+the head of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone,
+on which were representations of the above-mentioned
+animals. The engravings are mostly on the horn of the reindeer.
+The cave has also furnished two almost perfect
+human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the
+Moulin-Quignon.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>rock-shelters</i> are overhanging rocks, under the projections
+of which man found a shelter and built his rude
+dwellings of boughs and sticks. In these shelters have been
+found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made of splinters of bone,
+saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the mammoth
+engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the
+shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clearness,
+on a fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers
+made of ivory.</p>
+
+<p>In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters,
+was found a quantity of human bones, including two skulls&mdash;one
+of an old man, the other that of an adult.</p>
+
+<p>The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the
+largest collection of implements of bone and horn ever discovered.
+The stones and reindeer horns are carved with
+great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic taste. There
+are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat, bison,
+horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and
+birds, and also the representations of some plants. In the
+lowest layer of the soil the most perfect works occur, and
+they grow less as the surface is approached. Several of those
+implements called "batons of command" occurred, ornamented
+with animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was
+carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various
+figures&mdash;plants, reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made
+the subject of a report by M. Piette before the Paris Anthropological
+Society.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="1024" height="681" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">The Fossil Man of Mentone.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+The fossil man of Mentone, found in a grotto of Mentone,
+a village near Nice, for some time past has produced much
+comment among scientists. The skeleton was discovered in
+undisturbed earth; at a depth of twenty-one feet. The cause
+of the discussion is that the skeleton is accompanied by a
+multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of command,
+a necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the
+reindeer epoch, but surrounded also by the remains of the
+cave-bear, cave-hyena, and woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr.
+Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that this cave was first
+inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or inter-glacial,
+and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of burial.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>
+The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig. 14).
+It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibi&aelig;, or shin-bones,
+present a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in
+the European of the present time.</p>
+
+<p>In the same neighborhood there have more recently been
+discovered, in different caves, four other human skeletons.
+They were all stained with oxide of iron, and two of them
+surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth of the stag, constituting
+the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With one
+skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were discovered
+implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear,
+bones of other animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks.
+The other two skeletons were those of children, and not
+accompanied by either implements or ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>The other bone caves of France, which have afforded
+much valuable information, and belonging to this epoch, are:
+La Gorge d'Enfer, Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le
+Moustier and Badegoule (Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude),
+cave of La Vache (Ari&eacute;ge), cave of Savign&eacute; (Vienne), grottos
+of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphin&eacute;, the settlement of
+Solutr&eacute;, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyr&eacute;n&eacute;es), and the cave
+of Espalungue (Basses-Pyr&eacute;n&eacute;es)&mdash;the last two date back to
+the most ancient period of the reindeer epoch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The principal objects found in these caves, and the rock-shelters
+are worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads,
+cutters, hammers, and mortar-stones. These works, though
+unpolished, are but little ruder than those of the Esquimaux
+or the North American Indian.</p>
+
+<p><i>Belgian Caverns.</i>&mdash;Under the auspices of the Belgian
+government M. Edward Dupont examined more than twenty
+caves on the banks of the Lesse, in the province of Namur.
+Among these were four, in which occurred numerous traces
+of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou Rosette,
+Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux.</p>
+
+<p>The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and
+similar to the cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was
+closed by a slab of sandstone, and within were the remains of
+fourteen human beings belonging to persons of various ages,
+and some of them to infants scarcely a year old. In front of
+the cave was an esplanade, where were celebrated the funeral
+feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone, traces of fire,
+flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human bones
+were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of
+the reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds
+of implements. Among the remains were two perfect human
+skulls, in a good state of preservation. The bones were discovered
+in a state of great confusion, which M. Dupont
+thinks was caused by the disturbance of water. Sir John
+Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to foxes
+and badgers.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which
+the bones of three persons were found, mingled with those of
+the reindeer and beaver. It also contained fragments of a
+blackish kind of pottery, which were hollowed out in rough
+grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion that the
+three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the
+time of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse.</p>
+
+<p>In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>four
+feet above the Lesse, were found a great many bones of
+the reindeer, wild bull, and many other species. In the cave,
+indiscriminately mixed up with these bones, were one hundred
+and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones of the goat,
+polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a
+goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="768" height="863" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz, Belgium.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The cave of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish
+caused by the falling in of the roof, consequently preserving
+all its implements. There were found the split bones of
+mammals and the bones of birds and fishes. There was an
+immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured from reindeer
+horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks.
+Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of
+slate with engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of
+very coarse pottery, hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last
+but not least, thirty thousand worked flints mingled with the
+broken bones. In the hearth, placed in the centre of the
+cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but unintelligible
+signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty
+pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorched or
+roasted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen
+of rough pottery (Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones.
+It was partly broken; by the care of M. Hauzeur it has been
+put together again.</p>
+
+<p>France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of
+the reindeer epoch, for settlements of this epoch have been
+discovered in Germany, Switzerland, and Poland.</p>
+
+<p>In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland,
+have been discovered a few remains of the mammoth,
+rhinoceros, and cave-lion; the remains of two hundred and
+fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty Alpine hares; also
+the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch, glutton,
+wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably
+appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking
+them were found in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of
+the swan, grouse, and duck predominate. The implements
+consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and arrow-heads made of
+the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving and
+carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The
+most notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer
+in the act of browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently
+discovered and examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper
+part of the floor (four feet in depth), consisting of vegetable
+earth, mould, and <i>d&eacute;bris</i>, occurred ashes, flint implements,
+and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer, horse, elk, and
+other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken bones
+of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated
+teeth of the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two
+thousand flint implements were obtained; and from the
+frequent occurrence of flint the cave was used by the troglodytes,
+or cave-men, as a dwelling; and by the remains of the
+fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial,
+and at the beginning of the reindeer epoch.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age
+than those already enumerated, presents man under a more
+favorable aspect, and affords a better view of his traits of
+character and manner of living. Not only the sturdy climate
+spurs him to action, but a higher type is supplanting
+the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed,
+has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought
+with him the art of making more perfect implements. This
+new type was of short stature, having small hands and feet.
+If Asia be the home of man, then from that country,
+advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were
+destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts,
+and conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are
+found in the Lapps and Fins. Between the two existing
+races&mdash;dolichocephalic and brachycephalic&mdash;there may have
+been a long and bitter strife. The former was large, stout,
+fearless, and cruel; the latter, small, hardy, and more intelligent.
+It was a conflict between brute force and intelligence.
+The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully
+against the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It
+could not have been a war of extermination, for finally an
+intermixture took place, producing a medium, as may be
+judged from the exhumed skulls.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dwellings.</i>&mdash;As in the past ages, man continued to dwell,
+for the most part, in caves. If the cave was small, he occupied
+every portion; but if large, only that part near the
+opening was used. In the centre of this dwelling he made a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with the fire
+placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body.
+This mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured
+out, and under the projection of an overhanging rock he built
+him a booth, or rude hut, out of boughs, and the poles of
+fallen timber. These dwellings, whether in caves or under
+the rocks, were near some stream.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clothing.</i>&mdash;The climate being cold, he probably ceased to
+use the inner bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins
+of animals. The skins were prepared by the flint scrapers,
+and then rendered supple by rubbing into them the brains
+and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long bones of
+the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically
+shaped, for they understood the art of sewing. With the
+bodkin they pierced the skin, and with the needle, end was
+held to end and side to side, and the same made permanent
+by the sinew of some animal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Food.</i>&mdash;These people were essentially hunters, and lived
+principally upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their
+spears and arrows. The horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the
+chamois, formed a considerable part of their food. The meat
+was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and the long
+bones were split open in order to extract the brains and
+marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also
+added fish and, occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath-cock,
+swan, and owl. The chase did not always afford them
+sufficient food, and at times they were forced to subsist on
+the water-rat.</p>
+
+<p>Enough evidence has been produced to show that these
+people were cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered
+among the remains of cooking at Solutr&eacute; in M&acirc;connais. M.
+Issel found, at a point on the road from Genoa to Nice, some
+human bones which had been calcined, and were of a whitish
+color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their surface
+still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them
+showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+the grottos of Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found
+the small shin-bone of a child, which had been carefully
+emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen thinks he can recognize
+the trace of human teeth on some human skulls and
+children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed
+with sculptured flints and the remains of pottery.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Arts.</i>&mdash;Man had not yet discovered the value of
+metal, but formed his instruments out of flint, bone, and the
+horn of the reindeer. The hatchet was but little used, and
+the principal weapons were the flint-knife, arrow-heads, and
+occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the cave-bear, with its
+pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use were
+rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and
+other wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting
+his person and pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads,
+and the whistle for delighting his ear. The art of engraving
+was practised to a great extent, and so admirably did he
+execute his designs that, after the lapse of thousands of years,
+the figures are easily recognized.</p>
+
+<p>The staff of authority would imply that there were
+certain individuals who were recognized as chiefs or leaders.
+Some system must have prevailed, for without it the manufactories
+at Laugeri&egrave;-Basse and Laugerie-Haute could not
+have been carried on. In the first of these workshops the
+fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the second
+reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Traffic.</i>&mdash;Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Belgium
+sought their flints in that part of France now called
+Champagne. From the same locality they also brought back
+fossil shells, which were strung together and used for necklaces.
+There can be no doubt of this, as already fifty-four of
+these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they are not
+found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne.</p>
+
+<p><i>Burial.</i>&mdash;As in the previous epoch, the dead were consigned
+to the same kind of caves as were used for habitations,
+and the entombment was celebrated by the funeral-feast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+These banquets afford no evidence of worship. Some have
+thought they not only saw signs of worship in the banquets,
+but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found.
+That they should have no notion of a future state is not
+surprising, for Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are
+tribes at the present time without this belief.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister
+of the Interior, on the excavations carried on in the caves, has
+concisely but eloquently given a synopsis of man of the
+reindeer epoch, in the following language:</p>
+
+<p>"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together
+with those which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz,
+present us with a striking picture of the primitive ages of
+mankind in Belgium. These ancient tribes, and all their
+customs, after having been buried in oblivion for thousands
+and thousands of years, are again vividly brought before our
+eyes; and, ... antiquity lives again in the relics of its
+former existence.</p>
+
+<p>"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark
+and subterranean retreats, crouching round their hearths,
+and skilfully and patiently chipping out their flint instruments
+and shaping their reindeer-horn tools, in the midst of all
+the pestilential emanations arising from the various animal remains
+which their carelessness has allowed to remain in their
+dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair,
+and, by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments.
+In our mind's eye, we may see them engaged in the chase,
+and hunting wild animals&mdash;their only weapons being darts
+and spears, the fatal points of which are formed of nothing
+but a splinter of flint. Again, we are present at their feasts,
+in which, during the period when their hunting has been
+fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more
+noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole
+resource in the time of famine.</p>
+
+<p>"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+the region now called France, and procuring the jet and fossil
+shells with which they love to adorn themselves, and the flint
+which is to them so precious a material. On one side they
+are picking up the fluor spar, the color of which is pleasing
+to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the great
+slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones
+round their fire.</p>
+
+<p>"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive." The roof of their
+principal cave falls in, burying their weapons and utensils,
+and forcing them "to fly and take up their abode in another
+spot. The ravages of death break in upon them....
+They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre; some
+weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of
+the funeral furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of
+wild beasts. Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated
+close by the abode of the dead; a fire is lighted, great animals
+are cut up, and portions of their smoking flesh are
+distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must
+then have taken place! ceremonies like those told us of the
+savages of the Indian and African solitudes. Imagination
+may easily depict the songs, the dances, and the invocations,
+but science is powerless to call them into life....</p>
+
+<p>"But the end of this primitive age is at last come.
+Torrents of water break in upon the country. Its inhabitants,
+driven from their abodes, in vain take refuge on
+the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes them,
+and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who,
+at Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>NEOLITHIC EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is characterized
+by stone implements, polished or made smooth by a
+process of grinding and cutting, the greater development
+attained in the art of pottery, and by the presence of the
+bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in which no
+remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the reindeer
+epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries
+made in the so called <i>alluvial</i> soil, the most ancient remains
+of the so called Celts, the shell-heaps of Denmark, the
+tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the earlier Swiss
+pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the caves
+of France.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caverns.</i>&mdash;The caves belonging to this period, and explored
+by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the
+Pyrenees and the caves of Pradi&eacute;rs, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux,
+Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these caverns have been used
+in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of extinct mammals.
+The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to
+this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag,
+sheep, goat, antelope, chamois, wild boar, wolf, dog, fox,
+badger, hare, and horse, intermingled with the remains of
+hearths, also piercers, spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of
+bone; hatchets, knives, scrapers made of flints, and various
+other substances, such as silicious schist, quartzite, leptinite,
+and serpentine stone. These implements were carefully
+wrought, and mostly polished.</p>
+
+<p>The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+different times by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a
+place of sepulture. It was first examined about twenty-five
+years ago, and at that time five human skulls, in a good state
+of preservation, were found, but have been lost, as their importance
+was not then known. Intermingled with these
+bones were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved
+bones, remains of rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells
+of shell-fish, but no remains of funeral banquets. At the
+mouth of the cave were two large flag-stones lying across one
+another. The most recent discoveries in the cave have
+furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a
+habitation, to the last of the neolithic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Danish Kj&ouml;kken-M&ouml;ddings, or Shell-Mounds, or kitchen-refuse
+heaps.</i>&mdash;The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully
+examined by Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchammer,
+a geologist, and Worsaae, the arch&aelig;ologist, commissioned
+by the Danish government, their reports being
+presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark,
+and consist of the shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster,
+cockle, mussel, and periwinkle. These deposits are from
+three to ten feet in thickness, from one hundred to two
+hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as much as
+one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons
+and other instruments of stone, horn, and bone; fragments
+of rough pottery, stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abundance,
+accompanied with charcoal and ashes; no traces of
+coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic animals, except the dog.
+The bones of animals are very numerous, but no human
+bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup
+estimates that ninety-seven per cent. of the bones belong to
+the stag, the roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains
+are those of the urus (<i>Bos primigenius</i>), dog, fox, wolf, marten,
+wild-cat, hedgehog, bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>), and the mouse,
+and the bones of birds and fishes. The auroch, musk ox,
+domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are absent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which
+are never obtained by the representatives of the same species
+now living on the Baltic. They are not more than one-half
+or even one-third the size. At the time of the formation of
+these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or an arm of the
+ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the
+Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely
+brackish, and the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except
+at its entrance into the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>These deposits have been found several miles inland,
+which would indicate that the sea had once covered the
+intervening space. On the western coast they have not been
+found, in consequence of their having possibly been swept
+away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also found
+on the adjacent islands.</p>
+
+<p>These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark; for
+they are found in England, Scotland, France, and America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Danish Peat Bogs.</i>&mdash;The peat bogs of Denmark, so faithfully
+investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods
+of deposition. The most ancient is called the <i>Scotch-Fir</i>;
+the second, immediately above, the <i>Oak</i>, and the uppermost,
+the <i>Beech</i>. The peat is from ten to forty feet in thickness,
+and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet thick would
+require, according to Steenstrup, <i>at least</i> four thousand years,
+and perhaps even from three to four times that period.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>
+These three epochs denote three periods of time. The lowest
+belongs to the neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and
+the last to the iron epoch. In the lowest, or <i>Fir</i> period,
+have been found worked flints and bones. Human bones
+have been found, which correspond with the bones taken
+from the tumuli of this epoch.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland.</i>&mdash;Dr. Ferdinand
+Keller and his associates have made known to the world the
+wonderful remains of villages situated in the lakes of Switzerland
+and other countries. The villages of Switzerland do not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+all belong to the same period, and they represent the neolithic,
+bronze, and iron epochs; but there was no hard line
+of demarcation between these three periods. These habitations
+are so numerous that more than two hundred settlements
+hare been discovered in Switzerland alone. Among
+the lakes furnishing these remains may be counted the Lake
+of Neuch&acirc;tel (forty-six settlements); Lake Constance (thirty-two
+settlements); Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements);
+Lake of Bienne (twenty-one settlements); Lake of Morat
+(sixteen settlements); Lake of Zurich (three settlements);
+Lake of Pf&aelig;ffikon (six settlements); Lake of Sempach (six
+settlements); Lake of Moosseedorf (two settlements); Lake
+of Inkwyl (one settlement); Lake of Nussbaumen (one settlement);
+Lake Greiffensee (one settlement); Lake of Zug
+(six settlements); Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Constance
+thirty, Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements; one
+each at Morat, Bienne, Zurick, Pf&aelig;ffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf,
+Nussbaumen, the settlement of Concise, the bridge
+Thi&eacute;le, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others.</p>
+
+<p>These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of
+various kinds of wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and
+driven into the mud at the shallow bottom of the lake. In
+some of the settlements the piles were fastened by heaping
+stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed
+together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level
+and then the platform beams were fastened upon them.
+This basis served for the foundation of the rude rectangular
+huts they erected. These piles are not now seen above the
+water, yet they are visible above the bottom of the lake.
+The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high
+as one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than
+seventy thousand square yards. It has been estimated that
+the population of the Lake-villages during the neolithic was
+over thirty thousand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabitants
+from wild animals, the attacks of enemies, and for the
+ready obtaining of food by fishing. They were not only
+occupied by the inhabitants, but also by their herds and the
+stores of fodder.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Robenhausen.</i>&mdash;It is not necessary to go into an account
+of a number of these settlements to represent the neolithic
+epoch, for the settlement at Robenhausen (Lake Pf&aelig;ffikon)
+takes the first rank in giving the domestic arrangements of
+the ancient inhabitants. This settlement covered a space of
+nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles were used
+in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quadrangle.
+It was about two thousand paces from the ancient
+western shore of the lake, and about three thousand from the
+shore in the opposite direction. With the last-named side
+there was a communication by means of a bridge, the piles of
+which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and
+pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate,
+as their habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they
+rallied and rebuilt their huts. They remained a long time as
+would seem from the depth of the peat and the vast amount
+of relics found.</p>
+
+<p>At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most
+ancient relics; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the
+first conflagration&mdash;charcoal, stone and bone implements,
+pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at seven and one-half
+feet, flooring, relics of the second settlement, and
+excrement of cows, sheep, and goats; at six and one half
+feet, remains of second conflagration&mdash;charcoal, stone and
+bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at
+three and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of
+the third settlement; at two and one half feet, stone celts,
+pottery, but no traces of fire. Above this was two feet of
+peat and one-half foot of mould.</p>
+
+<p>Without going into detail, the objects found in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+various beds are as follows: Made out of wood, are knives,
+ladles, plates, clubs of ash, in which is fixed a socket of stag's
+horn containing a stone celt, a boat made of a single trunk,
+twelve feet long, two and one-half feet wide, and five inches
+deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched at both
+ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets, suspension
+hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying
+vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all
+made out of yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel
+bush. Out of stag's horn&mdash;arrow-heads, daggers, piercing
+and scraping tools, implements for knitting and for agriculture.
+The implements of stone were polished, and of the
+usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in
+the shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance.
+There were also found spoons, and a perforated cone, supposed
+to have been used as a weight for the loom. Several
+crucibles or melting pots have been found, which were used
+for melting copper. The third building of this village was
+on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages.</p>
+
+<p>The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf
+and Wauwyl, all of the neolithic, belong to the brown bear,
+badger, marten, pine-marten, polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat,
+beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer, wild-boar, marsh-boar;
+the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox, goat, sheep,
+and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from
+all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl.</p>
+
+<p>Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties
+of wheat and barley; fruits and berries&mdash;service-tree, dog-rose,
+elder, bilberry, and wayfaring tree; the nuts&mdash;hazel,
+beech, and water-chestnut; the oil-producing plants&mdash;opium,
+or garden poppy, and dogwood; the fibrous plants&mdash;flax;
+plants used for dying&mdash;weld; forest trees and shrubs&mdash;silver
+fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak; water and marsh plants&mdash;lake
+scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraw,
+buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh
+pennywort.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<p>Besides these there have been found many specimens of
+plaited and woven cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of
+a linseed cake.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the different settlements the same axes and knives
+abound, and are of small size. The arrow-heads and saws
+are an improvement on those of the preceding epoch.
+Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude earthenware
+were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers
+are occasionally met with from two to three inches in diameter.
+About five hundred implements of stone have been
+found at Wauwyl, consisting of axes, small flint arrow-heads,
+flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones used as hammers,
+whetstones, and sling-stones.</p>
+
+<p>As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of
+the neolithic, but extend beyond, they naturally have a place
+in the close of this period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of
+this period came suddenly to an "end by the irruption of a
+people provided with bronze implements. The lake-dwellings
+were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive
+inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote
+places. This catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of
+East Switzerland, which entirely disappeared, and also a
+number of those on the shore of the western lakes. Some few
+settlements, however&mdash;namely, those of the so-called transition
+period&mdash;are said not to have been destroyed by the new
+people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of
+bronze implements."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there
+is no sudden leap from one class of civilization to another,
+and that the metals came gradually into use. The lake-dwellings
+were not burned down by the irruption of a foreign
+people; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements of the
+Unter-See, no traces of fire have been observed. The fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+that but a very few human skeletons have been found in the
+whole settlements, contradicts the supposition of a battle
+having taken place between the aborigines and the supposed
+conquerors, and of the destruction of the former by the
+latter.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have
+been found in Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pomerania,
+France, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus
+says that the P&aelig;onians lived this way in Lake Prasias
+(Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake
+Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The
+town of Tcherkask in Russia, is constructed over the river
+Don, and Venice itself is but a lacustrine city.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>Several attempts have been made to estimate the time
+which has elapsed since the neolithic period. The estimates
+of M. Morlot are based on the discoveries made in a hillock
+formed by the river Tini&egrave;re at its entrance into the lake of
+Geneva. This cone contained three distinct layers of vegetable
+earth placed at different depths between the deposits of
+alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half feet
+from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in
+it were found relics of the Roman period; the second was
+five and one-fourth feet lower, and six inches thick, in which
+were fragments of bronze; the third was at a depth of eighteen
+feet from the top, and varied in thickness from six to
+seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone age.
+History proves that the layer containing the Roman relics is
+from thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch
+the cone has increased three and one-half feet, and if the
+increase was the same in previous ages, then the bed containing
+the bronze is from twenty-nine hundred to forty-two
+hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging to the
+stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten
+thousand years old.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the
+discoveries near the bridge of Thi&egrave;le. About one thousand
+two hundred and thirty feet from the present shore is the old
+abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year 1100. There is a
+document which seems to show that the abbey was built on
+the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years
+the lake retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet.
+The distance of the present shore from the settlement of the
+bridge of Thi&egrave;le is eleven thousand and seventy-two feet, and
+consequently the settlement is not less than six thousand
+seven hundred and fifty years old.</p>
+
+<p>M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of
+from six to seven thousand years before the Christian era.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.</h3>
+
+
+<p>From the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli,
+man is represented as having a narrow but round skull,
+with a projecting ridge above the eyebrows, showing he was
+round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small of stature
+though stout, and having a great resemblance to the Laplanders.
+In many respects the race was much superior to
+that of the preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the
+arts, and made great progress in civilization. He had passed
+out of the barbarous, and might be called a semi-barbarian.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habitations.</i>&mdash;Man's habitation varied according to the
+locality. In the extreme south of France he continued for a
+considerable length of time to occupy the caves and rock-shelters;
+in Switzerland, the pile-buildings, and in Denmark
+he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close together and in
+proximity to the shell-heaps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clothing.</i>&mdash;Clothing also varied according to locality.
+Where the wild animals were numerous their skins were
+used&mdash;there being no incentive to substitute other material.
+Coarse material made of fibrous plants had come into use.
+The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material, and
+completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for
+their feet, as these have been found with the usual indications
+of usage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Food.</i>&mdash;Where wild animals could be obtained they were
+used, and the marrow of the long bones extracted. To this,
+fish and birds were added. In Denmark the principal food
+was the different species of the edible mollusk. In Switzer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>land
+a higher order and greater variety of food was used.
+The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied
+with bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries.
+The meat was not only obtained from the wild animal, but
+they provided against the uncertainty of the chase by domesticating
+the boar, ox, sheep, and goat. The horse and dog
+were domesticated to assist in the chase, but sometimes
+served for food, probably during a famine.</p>
+
+<p>If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest
+solely on the human bones discovered at a dolmen near the
+village of Hammer, Denmark, which had been subjected to
+the action of fire. They were found together with some flint
+implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead to the
+conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used
+along with the roasted stag.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arts and Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The flint hatchets of the refuse-heaps
+are generally of an imperfect type; the long knives
+indicate a considerable amount of skill; the bodkins, spear-heads,
+and scrapers are but little improved. In the latter
+part of this epoch, the various kinds of implements, especially
+in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree of perfection,
+in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was
+achieved without the use of metal. They were made into
+various shapes, and with the design of pleasing the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the various types of implements common to the
+different countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a
+drilled hatchet, which is combined in various ways with the
+hammer. A specimen of this type is represented in Fig. 16,
+now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced with a
+round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge
+describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought
+into sharp angular edges.</p>
+
+<p>New inventions were brought into use. Among them was
+a comb which, according to shape, might be compared to the
+dung-fork of the American stables. Ornaments for the body,
+made of various materials were fashioned. Pottery was still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+in a rough state, though gradually improving. The loom was
+invented, and various kinds of cloth were manufactured.
+Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which again
+was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various
+places have been found, showing that they were not only used
+for fishing but also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were
+established, and there the stone implements were made and
+polished; one of these shops was at Pressigny.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 744px;">
+<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="744" height="396" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Danish Axe-Hammer, Drilled for Handle.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone implements
+which occur, when it is considered that in the Museum
+of Copenhagen there are about twelve thousand, consisting of
+flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and hollow chisels; poniards,
+lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and half-moon-shaped
+implements. In other collections in Denmark there
+are twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stockholm
+contains about sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish
+Academy owns seven hundred flint-flakes, five hundred and
+twelve celts, more than four hundred arrow-heads, fifty spear-heads,
+seventy-five scrapers, and numerous other objects of
+stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, grain-crushers,
+etc.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Some of these implements, however, may
+belong to other epochs.</p>
+
+<p>War must have been carried on to a considerable extent,
+as fortified camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Furfooz,
+and other places. Their weapons were the axe, the
+arrow, the spear, and possibly the knife. These were wrought
+with great care.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Man commenced to till the ground in this
+age, and thus laid the true foundation of civilization. He
+probably was forced to do it. The beasts of the forest were
+gradually decreasing. They had nourished him in the
+infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to look to the
+soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain his
+life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been
+the sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated
+the cereals, made his corn-mill, and stored the grain for
+winter use.</p>
+
+<p><i>Burial.</i>&mdash;How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed
+of their dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other
+places, the dead were buried in dolmens or tumuli. A dolmen
+is a monument consisting of several perpendicular stones
+covered with a great block or slab. When it is surrounded
+by circles of stone it takes the name <i>cromlech</i>. The dolmens
+occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They
+were formerly considered to have been Druidical sacrificial
+altars. They were usually covered over with earth, and in
+them were buried from one to twenty persons, accompanied
+with their implements. When a person died, the tomb was
+reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire
+was used for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the
+tomb. In Brittany, in the vicinity of the tombs, there
+were set up in the ground enormous blocks of stone, that
+have received the name of <i>menhirs</i>, the most noted of which
+is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state
+in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take
+the name of <i>tumuli</i>. Comparatively few of the tumuli
+belong to the neolithic. In these, large numbers of bodies
+have been found, and none of them in a natural position, but
+cramped up and their heads resting between the knees.</p>
+
+<p>Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently
+met with at the tomb, it may be inferred that victims were
+offered during the funeral ceremonies, perchance a slave, or
+the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that when a woman died<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+in giving birth to a child, or even while still suckling it, the
+child was interred alive with her.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of
+cases in which the skeleton of a woman and child have been
+found together. In the ceremonies at the tomb, some read
+the belief in a future state of existence. The evidence, however,
+is no clearer than that in the previous epochs. Man
+undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not reveal it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>BRONZE EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the antiquity
+of man, for it is largely embraced in written history.
+Although history does not record the events of the age of
+bronze in Western Europe, yet history covers the time which
+embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to do
+with the arch&aelig;ologist than the geologist. It is marked by the
+abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives,
+ornaments, and other articles made of bronze. The bronze
+implements are principally found in England, Scotland,
+Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and Switzerland.
+The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to
+this epoch are: Geneva, ten settlements; Neuchatel, twenty-five
+settlements; Bienne, ten settlements; Morat, three settlements;
+and Sempach, two settlements. To these may be
+added some of the crannoges of Ireland; also many tumuli
+and mounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Type.</i>&mdash;The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the
+preceding. His head was rather broad than long, he was
+small, energetic, and muscular; his hands were small, as is
+proven by the remarkably small handles of their swords,
+which are too small for a hand of the present day. This
+type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzerland
+to the present time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habitations and Food.</i>&mdash;The caves and rock-shelters gave
+way entirely to the rude huts which now protected man. If
+they were resorted to, it was only from some peculiar cause or
+danger. The food was the same as in the neolithic, with
+additions to the cereals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Clothing.</i>&mdash;The skins of animals were used less than
+formerly for clothing. Garments made of other material
+have been found, and even the whole dress of a chief. In a
+tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick woollen cap, a
+coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form, scalloped
+out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet
+four inches long, and wide in proportion; two woollen shawls,
+a woollen shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of
+leather boots. Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort
+of man, and were possibly used for summer wear, and under
+garments in winter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="768" height="791" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, Found in 1861, in
+a Tumulus in Jutland.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><i>Implements.</i>&mdash;The people of this age made great improvements
+in their weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist
+of bronze celts, swords, hammers, knives, hair-pins, small
+rings, ear-rings, bracelets, fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads,
+arrow-heads, buttons, needles, various ornaments,
+saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed pins. There were
+also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged celt,
+has been found, which bore an inscription.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arts.</i>&mdash;Progress was made in the art of weaving. Solder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>ing
+and the moulding of metal were practised; foundries
+were established, the remains of which have been discovered
+at Devaine and Walflinger in Switzerland; stone moulds
+were used, one of which, on trial, produced a hatchet exactly
+similar to those which have been collected. The moulds
+were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the
+melting of the metal was made out of pottery which was
+placed over a hole in the earth filled with burning charcoal;
+when the metal was melted, it was poured into the mould.
+Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various
+patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Ph&#339;nician
+origin, was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads,
+of a blue or green color, have been found in the tombs of this
+epoch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil.
+The ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem
+of the tree, used as a plough. The grain was stored for
+winter use, and when required was crushed by being rubbed
+between two stones serving as a mortar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fishing and Navigation.</i>&mdash;There are no distinct traces of
+improvement beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation,
+unless it be in the improved hooks made of bronze.</p>
+
+<p><i>Burial.</i>&mdash;The custom of burning the dead was almost
+universal in Denmark, and was more or less practised in
+other countries. The ashes and fragments of the bone were
+collected and placed either in or under an urn. When
+buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted position,
+but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their
+implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered
+in a tumulus in Jutland, where the clothing was found,
+was buried in a coffin nine and two-third feet long, over two
+feet in breadth, and covered by a movable lid. The body
+was in a good state of preservation, owing to the action on it
+of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in
+the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide.
+Buried with it were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+caps, two small boxes, a bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword
+in a wooden sheath, and a long woollen band. In other
+coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches, awls, tweezers,
+and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found
+an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religious Belief.</i>&mdash;Many crescents, made of stone and
+earthenware, have been found which are regarded, by some
+arch&aelig;ologists, as religious emblems. Dr. Keller calls them
+"moon images," and has devoted a short chapter to their
+consideration.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl Vogt
+regard them as resting-places for the head at night.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> They
+carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed
+comfort for vanity. They carried a long pin with which to
+scratch the head. This kind of a pillow is still used by the
+Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have their hair elaborately
+decorated; and in some cases this is never disturbed. If the
+people were worshippers the crescent is the only evidence
+from arch&aelig;ology. No idols have ever been discovered. That
+the people were already worshippers may be learned from the
+traditions recorded in history.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>IRON EPOCH.</h3>
+
+
+<p>As the <i>Iron Epoch</i> fairly establishes civilization, and
+belongs almost wholly to the historical epoch, it will be
+here briefly noticed, and then dismissed after giving a quotation
+from Dr. Keller. The bronze had not only prepared the
+way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great impulse to
+succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new
+importance and gave new life to every movement that tended
+to the assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to
+those of iron. A knife made of iron is represented in Fig.
+18. Knives of this pattern were, however, made of bronze,
+and served for the same purpose. The workshops of this age
+were so numerous that four hundred of them have been discovered
+in one province. The potter's wheel was invented;
+money was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;">
+<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="1024" height="273" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">A Knife of the Iron Epoch.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne
+belong to this epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his
+observations, has made use of the following language: "The
+phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so important in the history
+of civilization, the time of their first establishment, their
+original design, their development, and their final extinction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects
+clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning
+of this peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its
+existence, while outward circumstances remained the same, a
+quiet advance to a better development of the conditions of life
+may be observed, in which there was neither retrogression
+nor any sudden advance by the intervention of foreign
+elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country
+which had none, is explained simply by the barter which
+existed throughout Europe in the very earliest ages. The
+question why the inhabitants of a lake-dwelling of the stone
+age abandoned their settlements, while those of another, not
+many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained quietly
+living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than
+the inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities
+have disappeared, the names and situations of which are
+known to us. The presence of objects of industry on the
+area of the lake-dwellings has nothing in it very surprising, if
+we consider what misfortunes villages of straw-covered huts
+were exposed to, in which not only the houses themselves,
+but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of
+very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take
+C&aelig;sar's account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose
+arrival in the country is neither mentioned in history nor
+shown by arch&aelig;ology, withdrew, the lake-dwellings then
+existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there can also be
+no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after
+the return of the population. Their continuing down to the
+Roman time is only astonishing to any one who imagines that
+at this time the whole population had gone over to the
+Roman manner of life, while the proof lies before him that
+the lower class adhered to their own manners and customs
+till the entrance of the German races."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.</h3>
+
+
+<p>America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than
+the old world. Her ancient remains are not so much injured
+by the decay of empires and the rude hand of war. Succeeding
+ages have not so much effaced these marks, and many of
+the remains still stand as left by the original occupants, save
+only the change and decay which time itself produces.
+America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are
+known; but these have not been investigated so diligently as
+the remains of man in Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and
+the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come. Until they do, the
+history of primitive man in America must be surrounded
+with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the
+investigation of this subject, and many works written, all
+looking toward an early development which must sooner or
+later come.</p>
+
+<p>In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of
+these traces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Enumeration.</i>&mdash;The implements from the gravel beds of
+Colorado and the skull from Calaveras county, California,
+have already been referred to (pp. 61, 62).</p>
+
+<p>Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human
+skull imbedded in a solid rock, which was broken open by
+blasting. It was examined by Dr. Weirley, who compared
+it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the latter in
+general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of
+this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and
+was imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+and found several feet beneath the surface. Parts of the
+frontal, parietal, and occipital bones were carried away by
+the explosion. The piece of rock holding the remains weighs
+some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of marine
+shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the
+cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a
+microscope presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the
+Neanderthal man comes nearest to it.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five
+hundred feet, Judge A. W. Baldwin found a human skull of
+unusual and peculiar shape. It is very short from base to
+summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The skull
+is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull
+has never been examined by a competent person.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two
+feet from the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of
+a deer, amidst an accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and
+with them a rude stone chisel or hatchet.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell
+leads (Kansas), was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth
+of fourteen feet. Above the implement the gravel, composed
+of quartz and reddish clay, was ten feet thick, and above this
+was four feet of rich black soil. This implement was given
+to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi
+at Natchez, a human pelvic bone along with the bones of the
+mastodon and megalonyx. They were found at a depth of
+thirty feet from the surface, and the human bone had the
+same black color which characterized the others. Sir
+Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand
+years to form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the
+conclusions arrived at by the United States engineers be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+correct, in respect to the annual amount of sediment discharged
+at the delta, the growth would be reduced to thirty-three
+thousand five hundred years. Taking either of these
+estimates, the same would give the number of years which
+have elapsed since these bones were deposited.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of
+sixteen feet from the surface, beneath four cypress forests
+superimposed one upon the other, the workmen found a
+complete human skeleton, and some charcoal. The cranium
+is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This
+discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler
+assigned to the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the
+Mississippi, of fifty-seven thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting
+of jaws, teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a
+calcareous conglomerate forming a part of the series of reefs
+of Florida. The whole series of reefs is of post-tertiary
+origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been one
+hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this
+calculation be correct, then these bones must have an
+antiquity of ten thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred
+caverns in Brazil, belonging to different epochs, and exhumed
+in them a great number of unknown animal species. In a
+calcareous cave, near the lake of Semidouro, he found the
+bones of not less than thirty persons of different ages, and
+showing a similar state of decomposition to that of the bones
+of animals with which they were associated. From the discoveries
+there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that
+man was cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the
+mylodon&mdash;animals belonging to the post-tertiary.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>The shell-heaps of America are coeval with those of
+Denmark. Those at Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined
+by Professor W. D. Gunning. He estimates that
+within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in
+width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster
+shells. One dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet
+in height. The only human relics found among the shells
+are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone needles, pottery, and
+copper knives. These shells were probably deposited by but
+a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster was a
+native of that coast, but within the memory of man the
+oyster has not lived there.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mound-Builders.</i>&mdash;An ancient and unknown people
+of a certain degree of civilization have left remains of their
+greatness in the fortifications and mounds in the valleys of
+the Mississippi and its tributaries. These works extend over
+a great extent of territory. They are found in Western
+New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska,
+Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
+Florida, Texas, and along the Kansas, Platte, and other
+western rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On
+the southern extremity the works gradually lose their distinctive
+character, and pass into the higher developed architecture
+of Mexico; and at the north, north-east, and north-west, the
+population seem to have been more limited and their works
+less perfectly developed. The people were pre&euml;minently
+given to agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated
+the rivers along their settlements. The fertile valleys of the
+Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha, White, Wabash, Kentucky,
+Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely populated,
+as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their
+surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their
+shape differ but little from those of Europe. The hatchets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+and knives are not only made of flint but also of obsidian,
+and other hard stones. Copper was the chief metallic
+substance. Out of this they made various implements, and
+swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior,
+where they carried on extensive mining. In these mines
+have been found their implements, some of which are very
+large diorite hatchets, used as sledges for breaking off lumps
+of copper, and so heavy that it would require more than
+one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to
+heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses
+may be given from the statement that in the State of Ohio
+alone there are from eleven thousand to twelve thousand of
+these works. The fortresses were used for the protection of
+the people against the predatory warfare of the hostile tribes,
+or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other
+Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been
+much speculation, and some arch&aelig;ologists divide them into
+sacrificial, sepulchral, temple, and symbolical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sacrificial.</i>&mdash;The sacrificial mounds are characterized by
+"their almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their
+regular construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and
+sand, disposed alternately in strata conformable to the shape
+of the mound; and their covering a symmetrical altar of
+burned clay or stone, on which are deposited numerous relics,
+in all instances exhibiting traces, more or less abundant, of
+their having been exposed to the action of fire."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Among
+the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the
+place called Mound City situated on the western bank.
+The mounds are enclosed by a simple embankment, between
+three and four feet high. The area occupied is about thirteen
+acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One of these
+is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest
+breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four succes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>sive
+altars, a bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty
+quartz arrow-heads, and copper and other relics. The
+sacrificial deposits do not disclose a miscellaneous assemblage
+of relics, for on one altar hundreds of sculptured pipes chiefly
+occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments, stone implements;
+on others, calcined shells, burned bones; and on
+others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds
+are found at Marietta and other localities.</p>
+
+<p>All the investigations which have been made prove that
+the altars were not only used for a long period, but also had
+been repeatedly renewed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sepulchral.</i>&mdash;The sepulchral mounds are numbered by
+the thousands. They are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes
+elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary in height from six to
+eighty feet. Usually they contain but one skeleton, reduced
+almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary condition and
+in a crouching position. By the side of them occur trinkets,
+and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably
+only raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished
+person.</p>
+
+<p><i>Temple.</i>&mdash;The temple mounds are truncated pyramids,
+with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes
+with terraces at different heights. Among the most noted of
+these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is seven hundred feet
+long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety feet high.
+Its level summit is several acres in extent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symbolical.</i>&mdash;The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic
+bas-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground, representing
+men, animals, and inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they
+exist in thousands, and among the devices are man, the lizard,
+turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter, raccoon, frog, bird, fish,
+cross, crescent, angle, straight-line, war-club, tobacco-pipe,
+and other familiar implements or weapons.</p>
+
+<p>In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of
+six quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one
+human figure, and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet long, and the
+figure of the man measured one hundred and twenty-five feet
+in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from the end
+of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when
+first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises.
+One of the latter measured four hundred and seventy feet.</p>
+
+<p>In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent;
+its head occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended
+jaws is a part of an oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and
+sixty feet long, eighty wide, and four feet high. The body
+of the serpent extends round the hill for about eight hundred
+feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near Granville,
+Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred
+feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme
+length is two hundred and fifty feet, average height four
+feet; the head, shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to
+a height of six feet; the paws are forty feet long, the ends
+being broader than the links, as if the spread of the toes
+were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of the effigy
+is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed
+to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a
+graded way ten feet in breadth. On examination it was
+discovered that the outline of the figure was composed of
+stones of considerable size, upon which the superstructure had
+been modelled in fine clay.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquity.</i>&mdash;There are methods of determining the
+antiquity of these mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed
+out three facts which go to prove that they belong to a
+distant period. 1. None of these ancient works occur on the
+lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence
+of the streams. As these works are raised on all the
+others, it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed
+since the works were erected. The streams generally form
+four terraces, and the period marked by the lowest must be
+the longest because the excavating power of such streams
+grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+the Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme
+decay. Only one or two skeletons have been recovered in a
+condition suitable for intelligent examination. The circumstances
+attending their burial were unusually favorable for
+preserving them. The earth around them has invariably
+been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when
+exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling
+condition. 3. Their great age is shown by their relation to
+the primeval forests. As the Mound-Builders were a settled
+agricultural people, their enclosures and fields were cleared of
+trees, and remained so until deserted. When discovered by
+the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic
+trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees
+which first made their appearance were not the regular forest
+trees. When the first trees that got possession of the soil had
+died away, they were supplanted, in many cases, by other
+kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries, that
+remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North America
+would be established.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven
+thousand to ten thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p>Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully
+examined by Frank H. Cushing, the arch&aelig;ologist. The fort
+was found to be composed of two parallel circular walls, with
+a gateway in each. The gateway in the outer wall fronted
+a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet distant.
+Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used
+for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the
+depth of seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom
+of the shaft he found the shells of living species of shell-fish.
+The natural surroundings show that this fort was built when
+the peat-bog was a lake. This is further confirmed by the
+fact that all ancient works are erected near a permanent
+supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is
+Oak Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+formation of this peat would require not less than four
+thousand years, and more probably twice that number.</p>
+
+<p>The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long
+time. These works were formed gradually, and the population
+extended slowly toward the North. Their corn-fields,
+by their raised condition, show many successive years of
+usage.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note A.</span>&mdash;In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida
+Count L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones,
+found in Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but
+in a fresh-water sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated
+with fresh-water shells of species still living in the lake, (<i>Paludina,
+Ampullaria, etc.</i>) No date can be assigned to the formation of that
+deposit, at least from present observation."&mdash;<i>American Naturalist</i>, vol.
+II., p. 443.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note B.</span>&mdash;Besides the evidences already enumerated, Col. Charles
+Whittlesey gives the following: 1. Three skeletons of Indians in a
+shelter cave near Elyria, O., were found four feet below the surface,
+resting upon the original floor of the cave, upon which were also charcoal,
+ashes, and the remains of existing animals; estimated age, two
+thousand years. 2. Several human skeletons were found in a cave near
+Louisville, Ky., cemented into a breccia. They were discovered in
+constructing the reservoir in 1853. 3. A log, worn by the feet of man,
+was found in the muck bed at High Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., at
+a depth of nine feet beneath the cave, and estimated by Dr. Henry
+McGuire to be 5,470 years old. It was discovered in 1866. 4. Mr.
+Koch claims to have found an arrow head fifteen feet below the skeleton
+of the <i>Mastodon Ohioensis</i> from the recent alluvium of the Pomme
+de Terre River, Mo., and now in the British Museum. His statement
+was, however, contradicted by one of the men who assisted him in exhuming
+the skeleton. 5. Dr. Holmes, of Charleston, S. C., found pottery
+at the base of a peat bog, on the banks of the Ashley River, in
+close connection with the remains of the Mastodon and Megatherium.
+6. Col. Whittlesey, in 1838, found fire-hearths in the ancient alluvium
+of the Ohio, at Portsmouth, O., at a depth of twenty feet, and beneath
+the works of the Mound-Builders.&mdash;<i>Col. Whittlesey before the American
+Association, in 1868.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<h3>WRITTEN HISTORY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is not generally known that written history extends so
+far back as to make worthless the present system of chronology.
+The mighty empires of antiquity must have been a
+mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far back as history
+will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with her
+millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crumbling.
+Rollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which
+hampered him. He says the Assyrian empire was founded
+by Nimrod eighteen hundred years after the creation of man,
+or two hundred and twenty-four years after the Deluge, or
+one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of Noah.
+Nimrod was succeeded by his son Ninus, who received powerful
+succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests
+from Egypt as far as India and Bactriana. Ninus enlarged
+his capital to sixty miles in circumference, built the walls
+to the height of one hundred feet, and so broad that three
+chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and fortified
+and adorned them with one thousand five hundred towers
+two hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodigious
+work he led against the Bactrians one million seven
+hundred thousand foot, two hundred thousand horse, besides
+four hundred vessels well equipped and provided. After his
+death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne.  She
+enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of
+Ethiopia. Then she led her army of three million foot and
+five hundred thousand horse, besides the camels and chariots
+of war, into India, where she suffered a severe defeat. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+making these statements, Rollin says, "I must own I am
+somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised
+against the extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis,
+as they do not seem to agree with the times so near the
+Deluge: I mean, such vast armies, such a numerous cavalry,
+so many chariots armed with scythes, and such immense
+treasures of gold and silver; ... and the magnificence
+of the buildings, ascribed to them."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The difficulties presented
+to the modern historian never would have occurred if
+discredit had not been thrown on the writings of the
+ancients.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was
+that of Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, who lived three
+hundred years before Christ. Only fragments of this work
+have been preserved. This history is taken from the ancient
+Egyptian chronicles, and records a list of thirty dynasties
+reigning in one city. His "thirty-one lists contain the
+names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to
+them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand
+four hundred and sixty-five years."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Dr. Buchner says
+Manetho "calculates for three hundred and seventy-five
+Pharaohs a reigning period of six thousand one hundred and
+seventeen years, which together with the present era, makes
+about eight thousand three hundred and thirty years."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to
+about the year 5000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span><a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their
+first king (Menes) to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos),
+the priest of Vulcan, was a period of three hundred and forty-one
+generations; such, at least, they say, was the number both
+of their kings and of their high-priests, during this interval.
+Now three hundred generations of men make ten thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+years, three generations filling up the century; and the
+remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and
+forty years. Thus the whole number of years is eleven
+thousand three hundred and forty." The priests "led me
+into the inner sanctuary, which is a spacious chamber, and
+showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in wood, which
+they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number
+they had said; the custom being for every high-priest during
+his life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they
+showed me the figures and reckoned them up, they assured
+me that each was the son of the one preceding him; and
+this they repeated throughout the whole line, beginning with
+the representation of the priest last deceased, and continuing
+till they had completed the series."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> From the time of
+Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of
+Delphi, was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple
+was burned <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> 548. The period which, then, has elapsed
+from Sethos to the present (1875) is two thousand five
+hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time of
+Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand
+eight hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation
+be reduced to twenty years then the period from Menes
+to the present is nine thousand three hundred and sixty-five
+years.</p>
+
+<p>The recent explorations made by Mariette among the
+archives of Egypt have confirmed the testimony of Manetho.
+The names of the kings, their order of succession,
+and the length of their reigns correspond with Manetho's
+table. These discoveries not only testify to the great antiquity
+of the empire, but also throw light on the nation,
+its manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane-bottomed
+chairs, work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet
+ornaments, earthenware, seeds, eggs, bread, straw baskets,
+a child's plaything, paint boxes, with colors and brushes,
+etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived
+1700 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear-rings,
+and bracelets, which no modern queen would hesitate
+to wear.</p>
+
+<p>These statements are still further confirmed by the testimony
+of geology. In the year 1850 borings were commenced
+in the mud deposit of the Nile. The most important
+results were obtained from an excavation and boring made
+near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Rameses at Memphis,
+the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361
+<span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the
+platform or foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches
+below the surface of the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it
+was laid, there had been formed between that period and the
+year <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 1850, or during the space of three thousand two
+hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet four inches
+round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and
+one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascertained,
+by sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in
+the same place, that below the level of the old plain the
+thickness of old Nile mud resting on desert sand amounted
+to thirty-two feet; and it was therefore inferred by Mr.
+Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of burned
+brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old,
+or was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety-six
+years before the year 1850."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Other excavations were
+made on a large scale. In the first sixteen or twenty-four feet
+there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a small human figure
+in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles entire.
+When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the
+progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost
+everywhere, and from all depths, even where they sank sixty
+feet below the surface, pieces of burned brick and pottery
+were extracted.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span><i>Troy.</i>&mdash;Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has
+recently been uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has
+been thrown over the ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy
+given by Homer, thought to have been a mere work of imagination,
+are now shown to be accurate, and also that he must
+have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of Troy
+the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities
+superimposed one above the other were discovered. The
+third city, below the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of
+Priam, the Sc&aelig;an gate, the massive walls and pavements, still
+remained. In the house of Priam Dr. Schlieman found a
+great mass of human bones, among them two entire skeletons
+wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden
+scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight
+thousand seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc.
+Immediately beside the house of Priam, closely packed in a
+quadrangular space, surrounded with ashes, and near by a
+copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a copper pot,
+a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound,
+several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads,
+fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a
+part of a sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by
+weight alone, of all the gold and silver found in or near the
+house of Priam, has been estimated at twenty thousand
+dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred thousand
+articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had
+been suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the implements
+and the effects of war were visible. Even the brave
+warriors who fell while defending the palace of their king
+have not yet wholly crumbled into dust.</p>
+
+<p>The four cities may be thus summed up: The topmost
+stratum is six and one-half feet in depth and covers the
+Grecian settlement which was established about the year
+700 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Beneath the Greek masonry are found the walls
+of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city&mdash;or the successive
+cities&mdash;was chiefly built of wood.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty-three
+and one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the
+surface, and form a stratum averaging ten feet in thickness.
+Troy is supposed to have been founded about <span class="smcap">1400 B. C.</span>,
+and its fall and destruction by fire to have occurred about
+1100 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span></p>
+
+<p>Under Troy there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying
+from thirteen to twenty feet in depth. The most remarkable
+feature of these oldest ruins is the superiority of the terracotta
+articles. These vases are of a shining black, red, or
+brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut into the
+pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of
+these ruins "is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissitudes
+of the city's history&mdash;frequent destruction and rebuilding&mdash;would
+have the same practical effect, or very nearly so,
+as a long interval of time. We have anywhere from two to
+five thousand years before Christ as the date of the foundation
+of the <i>first</i> Troy."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Chaldea.</i>&mdash;Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly
+three hundred years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular
+history of Chaldea, in nine books. The materials for this work
+were supplied by the archives then existing in the Temple of
+Belus at Babylon. The work was particularly devoted to a history
+of the kingdom prior to the beginning of the Assyrian
+empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by
+Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of
+ten fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true
+history, and enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings
+of Chaldea, who reigned successively from the time when the
+list begins to the rise of the Assyrian empire, about the year
+1237 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Berosus begins with a dynasty of eighty-six kings,
+and gives their names, which are now lost. He had no chro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>nology
+of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical calculation.
+His list, which has so far escaped the lapse of time and the
+change of hands, is thus preserved:</p>
+
+<p>First, eighty-six Chaldean kings; history and time
+mythical.</p>
+
+<p>Second, eight Median kings; during two hundred and
+twenty-four years.</p>
+
+<p>Third, eleven kings.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth, nine Arabian kings; during two hundred and
+forty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a
+sixth dynasty. The blank spaces in the list are doubtless
+the result of careless copying, or caused by imperfections in
+the manuscripts. In order to make the old kingdom of
+Chaldea begin about the year 2234 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> the first eighty-six
+kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the
+Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any
+show of reason, save that it does not agree with the chronology
+which the mutilators of history accept.</p>
+
+<p>Investigations which have been made among the ruined
+cities of Chaldea have given great weight to the authority of
+Berosus, and are tending to the confirmation of his history.
+In Susiana there was found a Cushite inscription, mentioned
+by Rawlinson, in which there is a date that goes back nearly to
+the year 3200 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The testimony of the records disentombed
+from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the prevalent
+hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the
+country before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm
+Berosus by showing that Chaldea was a cultivated and flourishing
+nation, governed by kings, long previous to the time
+when the city known to us as Babylon rose to eminence and
+became the seat of empire. During that long time there
+were several great political epochs in the history of the
+country, representing important dynastic changes, and several
+transfers of the seat of government from one city to another.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+Such epochs in Chaldean history are indicated by the list of
+Berosus."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>By this people, the science of astronomy was well understood.
+"Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Babylon,
+sent to Aristotle from that capital a series of astronomical
+observations which he had found preserved there, extending
+back to a period of one thousand nine hundred and three
+years from Alexander's conquest of the city.... These observations
+were recorded in tablets of baked clay.... They
+must have extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as
+2234 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, and would seem to have been commenced and
+carried on for many centuries by the primitive Chaldean
+people." A lens of considerable power, used for either magnifying
+or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at Babylon,
+in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>China.</i>&mdash;Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that
+there were long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom
+flourished, the chronology of which is not preserved, although
+there is recorded some knowledge of the rulers. One of
+these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next come
+the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion,
+and the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great
+epoch, and ruled by fifteen successive kings. In the second
+epoch, agriculture and medical science were promoted. In
+the third, the magnetic needle was discovered, the written
+characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great
+revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the
+descendants of the previous ruler reigned. Next came the
+period of Yao and Shin. After this the period of the
+"Imperial Dynasties," which began with the Emperor Yu,
+who lived two thousand two hundred years B. C. The historical
+work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically
+from the year 2637 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> to 122 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span><a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Mexico.</i>&mdash;It is known that books or manuscripts were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+abundant among the ancient Mexicans. There were persons
+duly appointed to keep a chronicle of the passing events. Las
+Casas, who saw the books, says they gave the origin of the
+kingdom as well as the founders of the different cities, and
+every different thing which transpired that was worthy of
+note: such as the history of kings, their modes of election
+and succession; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds,
+good or bad; the heroes of other days, their triumphs and
+defeats. These chroniclers calculated the days, months, and
+years. Nearly all these books were destroyed at the instigation
+of the monks, and by the more ignorant and fanatical
+Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings
+were burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumarraga.
+A few of the works, however, escaped, but none of the
+great books of annals described by Las Casas.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Thus
+Mexico must be left to the arch&aelig;ologist unassisted by written
+history.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>LANGUAGE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The origin and growth of language evidently afford a
+great field for study, in not only tracing the development of
+civilization, but also in confirming the testimony of the
+ancients and the conclusions of the geologists. If the unity
+of language could not be established, there would still be left
+a field so great as would not lessen the interest or the importance
+of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed.
+For the sake of convenience the many varieties of language
+have been grouped into three great divisions, <i>i. e.</i>, the Aryan,
+the Semitic, and the Turanian. "The English, together
+with all the Teutonic languages of the Continent, Celtic,
+Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots, such as
+French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many
+varieties of one common type of speech: that Sanskrit, the
+ancient language of the Veda, is no more distinct from the
+Greek of Homer, ... or from the Anglo-Saxon of Alfred,
+than French is from Italian. All these languages together
+form one family, one whole, in which every member shares
+certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the
+same time distinguished from the rest by certain features
+peculiarly its own. The same applies to the Semitic family
+which comprises, as its most important members, the Hebrew
+of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the Koran, and the
+ancient languages on the monuments of Ph&#339;nicia and Carthage,
+of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again,
+form a compact family, and differ entirely from the other
+family, which we called Aryan or Indo-European. The third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+group of languages, for we can hardly call it a family, comprises
+most of the remaining languages of Asia, and counts
+among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic,
+Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages
+of Siam, the Malay Islands, Thibet, and Southern India.
+Lastly, the Chinese language stands by itself as monosyllabic,
+the only remnant of the earliest formation of human speech."<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p>Anterior to these three families there was still another
+from which these were derived. It contained the germs of
+all the Turanian, as well as the Aryan and Semitic forms of
+speech. It belongs to that period in the history of man
+when ideas were first clothed in language, and has been
+called the Rhematic Period.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>As regards the origin of language, three theories have been
+proposed: the Interjectional, the Imitation, and the Root.
+The first supposes that the beginnings of human speech were
+the cries and sounds which are uttered when a human being
+is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second supposes "that
+man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and dogs,
+and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea,
+the rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the
+whisper of the breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and
+finding his mimicking cries useful as signs of the objects
+from which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and
+elaborated language." The third theory, advanced by Max
+M&uuml;ller, is that language followed as the outward sign and
+realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty
+of abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be
+reduced, express a general, not an individual idea.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is more or less truth in all these theories. At
+the very earliest period man must have possessed some
+method of communicating his wants or ideas. The casual
+observer has noticed that animals have methods of communi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>cating
+with one another. It is not improbable that at the
+very earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and
+signs. This may have lasted for a very long time. Then the
+mimicking commenced. Next, comparison was resorted to
+when he had so far advanced as to describe his thoughts
+and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary
+or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root
+words.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>Instead of new languages originating, old languages
+change. They are mutable, and from them new dialects are
+produced. In the history of man there never has been a
+new language, and the languages now spoken are but the
+modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people,
+however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same
+materials as were used in the beginnings of speech. New
+words are but old words; old in their material elements,
+though they may be renewed and dressed in various forms.
+"The modifiability of the language and its tendency to vary
+never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and
+modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with
+the mother country direct or indirect. In this respect its
+mutability will resemble that of species, and it can no more
+spring up independently in separate districts than species
+can, assuming that these last are all of derivative origin."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>There are from four thousand to six thousand living languages.
+The number of unspoken languages is not known.
+Their growth has required ages, and during their development
+many a parent stalk has ceased to exist. The changes
+in a language are slowly produced. It requires centuries to
+so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order to
+understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be
+gained by comparing the writings in the English language of
+different periods. In the year 1362 appeared a poem called
+"Piers Ploughman's Creed," which begins as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+"In a summer season,<br />
+When soft was the sun,<br />
+I shoop me into shrowds<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a><br />
+As I a sheep<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> were;<br />
+In habit as an hermit<br />
+Unholy of werkes,<br />
+Went wide in this world<br />
+Wonders to hear;<br />
+Ac<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> on a May morwening<br />
+On Malvern hills<br />
+Me befel a ferly,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a><br />
+Of fairy me thought." Etc.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the
+process of either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered
+that a language has been derived successively through
+numerous others, no special limit or time can be given,
+although a very long period would be required. The usually
+accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the
+diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time
+required for the development of the three general classes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a
+clash of opinions among men of science. It has been the
+great battle field among anthropologists, ethnologists, geologists,
+philologists, and theologists. Men of acknowledged
+ability have been arrayed on either side. Among the foremost
+in favor of a diversity of origin have been Agassiz, Sir
+Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and
+Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is
+most in favor of the unity of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin
+of the human race have advanced many objections against
+the unity, and produced arguments in favor of their opinions.
+These may be summed up under five heads. 1. The anatomical
+differences between the different races, and especially
+those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The separation
+of the races from each other for unknown ages by great
+oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental
+barriers. 3. The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in
+civilization. 4. A medium type cannot exist by itself,
+except on the condition of being supported by the two
+creating types. 5. When two types become united, two
+phenomena may arise: <i>a</i>, Either one of them will absorb the
+other; or <i>b</i>, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst
+of a greater or less number of hybrids.</p>
+
+<p>The following answers may be given to these objections,
+or arguments: 1. It is just as reasonable to suppose that
+man is affected, as well as the animals, by climate, food, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+peculiar condition. It is well known that animals have
+undergone more or less change by their situation or position.
+Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain
+extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate,
+were covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that
+the present species of both genera had lost their hairy
+covering by exposure to heat. This is confirmed by the fact
+that the elephants of the elevated and cool districts of India
+are more hairy than those on the lowlands.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> A wonderful
+change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys.
+In India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of
+rising on the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous
+appendages over the beak, enormously developed." "In the
+English climate an individual Porto Santo rabbit recovered
+the proper color of its fur in less than four years."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> Observers
+are convinced that a damp climate affects the growth
+of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ
+from the lowland breeds; in a mountainous country the
+hind limbs would be affected from exercising them more,
+which would also affect the pelvis, and, then, from the law
+of homologous variation, the front limbs and head would
+probably be affected.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> One of the most marked distinctions
+in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated or
+dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic.
+Mr. Darwin has observed that a change takes place in the
+skulls of domestic rabbits; they become elongated, while
+those of the wild rabbit are rounded. He took two skulls of
+nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild and the other
+from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15, and
+the latter 4.3 inches in length. Welcker has observed "that
+short men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to
+dolichocephaly; and tall men may be compared with the
+larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have elon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>gated
+skulls."<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> The argument from language is of great
+weight, especially in considering the differences in color.
+Professor Max M&uuml;ller has stated this clearly: "There was a
+time when the ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians,
+the Greeks and Italians, the Persians and Hindus,
+were living together beneath the same roof." "The evidence
+of language is irrefragable, and it is the only evidence
+worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It
+would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of
+relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their
+conquerors, whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony
+borne by language."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> When the great lapse of ages is
+taken into consideration, since man originated, it will be
+seen that sufficient time is given to produce the white, black,
+yellow, red, and brown varieties of man.</p>
+
+<p>2. The argument from geographical distribution would
+hardly seem valid, as it is known that the ocean can be and
+has been navigated by frail crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the
+ship Bounty, in a small boat, twenty-three feet long from stem
+to stern, deep laden with nineteen men and one hundred and
+fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of water, twenty
+pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa (South
+Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand
+six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boisterous
+sea, and great perils, but finally reached his destination.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a>
+When men began to dwell on the sea-coast they made their
+small vessels and carried on a limited navigation. Many a
+frail craft has been driven out to sea with its human freight,
+some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has often
+happened among the South Sea islanders.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> If it had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have
+been partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have
+received no attention. And yet, Captain Tyson and his
+party, consisting of twelve men, two women, and five children,
+being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated Polaris,
+drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of
+April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic
+winter. Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they
+subsisted on the flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they
+were able to kill. Every member of this party was rescued
+off the coast of Labrador. It must be further noticed that
+the surface of the earth was not always the same. The
+continents have changed more or less, and during these
+changes man must have become more or less separated.</p>
+
+<p>3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the
+two extreme points are observable in all the nations of the
+earth. Even in single families there have been those who
+were highly cultured and refined, while other members have
+been very low in organization, habits, and tastes. In these
+days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a very
+high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations
+have retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who
+pitch their tents amid the ruins of Babylon, are the descendants
+of the ancient mixed races who successively occupied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+Mesopotamia: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Persians,
+who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as
+Shalmaneser, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild
+marauding Arabs are the descendants of a people who
+invented algebra and introduced the numerals. So the list
+might be extended.</p>
+
+<p>4 and 5. The fourth and fifth amount to the assumption
+that no race will amalgamate with another. The statements
+embraced under these two heads are not warranted by facts.
+Dr. Prichard says, "Mankind of all races and varieties are
+equally capable of propagating their offspring by intermarriages,
+and that such connections are equally prolific whether
+contracted between individuals of the same or of the most
+dissimilar varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably
+in favor of the latter."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> He then gives a short account of
+several examples of new or intermediate stocks which have
+been produced and multiplied. They are Griquas, descended
+from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks of
+the Orange River, and number five thousand souls; the
+Cafusos of Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African
+Negroes; the Papuas of the island of New Guinea, a mixture
+between the Malays and Negroes. One of the best
+examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders.
+This colony originated in this way: The British government
+had sent a vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieutenant
+Bligh, to gather bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and
+introduce them into the West Indies. Bligh was an overbearing,
+tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury, and
+out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Christian
+and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen
+companions adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti; here
+they took on board provisions and live stock, nine Tahitian
+men, twelve women, and eight boys who had secreted themselves,
+and then proceeded to Toubouai, where they founded a
+settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of
+the mutineers, three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with
+their wives, and one child, and nine other women, left in the
+Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's Island, and there burned the
+Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less than nine
+years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to
+two in number, both whites, and one of them died the succeeding
+year. In the year 1808 the American ship Topaz
+touched at the island. The colonists then numbered thirty-five.
+In 1856 they had increased to the number of one
+hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was
+barely sufficient to support them they were removed by the
+British government to Norfolk Island. There are only
+eight surnames among them&mdash;five of the Bounty stock and
+three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of people;
+the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely
+distinguishable from English women. If reports be true
+concerning them, they are the most remarkable people on
+earth. They never allow the sun to go down on their wrath,
+and are noted for their honesty, truth, chastity, industry,
+benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the virtues which
+combine to form true religion.</p>
+
+<p>The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged
+against the unity of the race, has proved an argument in
+favor. The offspring of birds as much alike as the domestic
+goose and the large Muscovy duck will not propagate their
+species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The different
+varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland
+pony and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together
+but these hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind,
+thereby proving their identity of species. The same may be
+said of the cross between the most perfect and the lowest
+type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die out in a few
+generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the plain
+violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to
+a marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+issue; if the constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in
+substance too nearly the same, the issue, if any, will be either
+still-born, or die very soon after birth; if the contracting
+parties shall have an adjunctive element, the issue will be
+short-lived, although they may arrive at the years of maturity.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>
+These laws apply to both the mixed and the unmixed
+types of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the
+same general laws, their capacity for mental and moral
+improvement, and the virtual unity of their languages lead
+to the conclusion that one birth-place was common to
+all. If that place be Central Asia, or any other locality, it
+must have been long before traditional times, when the one
+tribe was broken up and nations formed.</p>
+
+<p>Races change so slow that they seem to be stationary.
+On the ancient Egyptian monuments are representations of
+the Negro, having exactly the same features which characterize
+that race at the present time; and some of these paintings
+date as far back as 2000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span></p>
+
+<p>Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in
+type, an almost incredible length of time must be assigned to
+permit of the great disparity as exhibited by the different
+types of mankind.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible.
+It has been made to answer for the folly of both its friends
+and foes. The fierce assaults made by the sceptic have been
+the legitimate result of the preposterous claims made by
+its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no
+such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its
+meaning has been perverted, sentences distorted, and words
+changed in order to suit the caprice of its advocates. If it
+were a living, speaking existence, it would certainly beg to be
+delivered from its friends. It has been made to conflict with
+the investigations of science, and those engaged in interpreting
+the laws of nature have been branded as infidels,
+although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The
+Bible is not and makes no pretensions of being a book of
+science. It is designed to be a book of religion, and a history
+of the ancient Jews, and its references to scientific questions
+are only incidental. If the references to science, or the
+account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on
+questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invalidated.
+The Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from
+the results of scientific investigation. But there is a duty
+devolving on him, and that is to leave his fanciful interpretations
+and come to the true meaning of the Scriptures, and
+there learn how the words were understood by those to whom
+they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as
+used in the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with
+their signification as used in the past. There is a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+distance that divides the present from the times of the
+Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the English
+language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were
+not given to scientific pursuits, and could have been but
+comparatively little advanced in civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of
+the points raised between the Scriptures and science, but to
+confine the inquiry to such questions as the previous chapters
+have demanded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Creation.</i>&mdash;The first and second chapters of Genesis not
+only teach that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but
+also the order of succession is given. It is not stated that
+the world was created out of nothing. The word "bara,"
+translated "created," has a variety of meanings. According
+to Gesenius it means <i>to cut</i>, <i>to cut out</i>, <i>to carve</i>, <i>to form</i>, <i>to
+create</i>, <i>to produce</i>, <i>to beget</i>, <i>to bring forth</i>, <i>to feed</i>, <i>to eat</i>, <i>to
+grow fat</i>, <i>to fashion</i>, <i>to make</i>.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The idea presented seems to
+be this: The author asserts that heaven and earth owe their
+origin to God. Then he goes back and explains the successive
+stages of creation. At the commencement of the work
+the earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition,
+and from this pre&euml;xisting mass the worlds were evolved.
+When this mass was created, if ever, the author of Genesis
+does not state.</p>
+
+<p>Six periods, or "days," are given for the formation of the
+earth. The use of the words "evening and morning" naturally
+leads to the conclusion that the <i>days</i> were each twenty-four
+hours in length. But doubt is thrown over this
+conclusion by the use of the word <i>day</i> in the second chapter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called
+a <i>day</i>. The word translated "day" also means <i>time</i>, but it
+is to be generally taken in the sense of the civil day&mdash;from
+sun up to sun down. Hugh Miller held to the opinion that
+the creation was represented to Moses in a vision. The
+periods passed before his mind in succession and had the
+appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and
+the morning was the beginning of another period of time.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a>
+If a description of the different orders of life had been given,
+it would have been beyond the comprehension of that primitive
+people. It was not the design to teach geology. The
+people were not prepared for such scientific knowledge. But
+the simple statement that God is the author of all things,
+could be and was understood by the Israelites.</p>
+
+<p>On the sixth day man appears; but there are two records,
+and in them he is presented in different ways and for different
+purposes. In the first account man is made in the image
+of God, and to him is given dominion over the living things,
+and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The second
+account states that there was no man to till the ground, and
+the Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and
+breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man
+became a living soul. The second account cannot be, as
+has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The two
+accounts are radically different. One account makes man to
+have dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes; the other,
+to till or cultivate the soil. This agrees with arch&aelig;o-geology.
+Men were hunters many ages before they were agriculturists.
+The one account has man made in the image of God, the
+other, a <i>living soul</i>. The "image of God" and "living soul"
+may be the same, but why the change? There may be a
+cause for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one,
+then Moses saw man in two capacities, differing one from the
+other. Man may be in the "image of God," and yet in a
+low, savage condition&mdash;subsisting on the chase. Man may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+be awakened from that condition, the "image of God" may
+assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful
+being.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> That there were two classes the record implies.
+Cain goes out into the Land of Nod, where his wife
+conceives, and he builds a city. Where did Cain get his
+wife, and why did he build a city? No account is given of
+the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained
+her in the Land of Nod.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> It has been contended that Cain
+married his sister. If this be true it would certainly have
+been mentioned. It is too important a matter to have
+escaped notice. If he married his sister he was guilty of a
+heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now. The
+city he built must have been more than an <i>encampment</i>, or a
+<i>small fortification</i>. (The word translated "city" bears this
+meaning also.) It would have been of no moment. It must
+have been a place of some consequence, and designed for
+more persons than Cain, his wife, and son. Taking all the
+circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every one
+that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object
+of this city was to provide for individuals of the pre-Adamic
+family dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingratiate
+himself into their favor.</p>
+
+<p>Then, again, in the sixth chapter, "The sons of God saw
+the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took
+them wives of all which they chose." This was followed by
+great wickedness, in consequence of which the world was
+destroyed by a flood. Who were the "sons of God," and
+who the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+God? The "sons of God" must have been the lineal descendants
+of Adam, and the "daughters of men" the offspring
+of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced
+were monsters,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> and their minds were bent continually on
+doing evil. These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or
+else they would not have sought wives from among a lower
+people. By the laws of nature their offspring was lower
+than either of the races, from the fact that to the brutish
+natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural
+wisdom of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in
+their wickedness.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> If stringent moral laws had been
+enforced upon them the result would have been reversed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Chronology.</i>&mdash;The chronology given in the margins of the
+Bible is a mere invention, and has worked much mischief.
+There is nothing to warrant it, and no excuse can be made
+for it. The Bible gives no definite chronology for those
+early times. That no dependence can be placed in these
+chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the
+Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The Septuagint dates
+the Flood eight hundred years farther back than the common
+Bible. "A margin of variation amounting to eight centuries
+between two versions of the same document, is a variation
+so enormous that it seems to cast complete doubt on the
+whole system of interpretation on which such computations
+of time are based."<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>The Deluge.</i>&mdash;Allowing the date of the Deluge to have
+been 3149 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> instead of 2349 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, still there is not sufficient
+time to repopulate the earth, and form those mighty empires
+recorded in ancient history. The Duke of Argyle has very
+justly remarked that, "The founding of a monarchy is not
+the beginning of a race. The people among whom such monarchies
+arose must have grown and gathered during many
+generations." The peopling of Egypt is not the only difficulty.
+"The existence, in the days of Abraham, of such an organized
+government as that of Chedorlaomer shows that two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+thousand years <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> there nourished in Elam, beyond Mesopotamia,
+a nation which even now would be ranked among
+'the Great Powers.'"<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Then the characteristic features of
+the Negro, one of the most strongly marked among the varieties
+of man, were as greatly marked 2000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> as at present.</p>
+
+<p>These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood
+was not universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood,
+but "the monuments of the two most ancient civilizations of
+which we have any knowledge&mdash;the Egyptian and Chinese&mdash;contain
+no account of, or allusion to, Noah's Deluge."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a>
+Many of these traditions doubtless refer to some local flood.
+The passages of Scripture seem to teach the universality of
+the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the idea
+of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and
+refer only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The
+question is one of doubt whether or not the sacred historian
+means the Noachian Deluge to have been universal, or only
+a local cataclysm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monarchies.</i>&mdash;The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod
+was the first monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom
+was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh." Nor is the
+statement made that he founded these cities. He was a
+mighty hunter, and these cities were the <i>beginning of his
+kingdom</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Dispersion.</i>&mdash;The building of the tower of Babel is
+no myth, but a veritable reality. A portion of the mighty
+fabric still stands, a mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast
+amount of work it required in its construction. The story is
+told in few words, and those words cover centuries. The
+people engaged in its construction spoke one language, but
+when this language was confounded the empire was rent
+asunder. The narrative seems to teach the use of but one
+language on the whole face of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge,
+in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion," says, "Moreover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+the phrase 'the whole earth,' as commonly used in the Bible,
+is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not
+intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater
+part thereof, but is loosely employed to designate the whole
+of that particular portion which the writer or speaker has in
+his mind at the time. In the present case it denotes the
+country bordering on the Tigris and the Euphrates."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> If
+the views of this eminent theologian be correct, then, by the
+same principle of interpretation the unity of language
+spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the
+Tigris and the Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origination
+of language. Under the view already advanced, when
+the animals were brought to Adam, he readily gave them
+names, for he had received language from his predecessors,
+and now, being an especially chosen person, his endowments
+would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use.</p>
+
+<p>It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the
+world and peopled it with myriads of beings in a period of
+six days of twenty-four hours each. It is not incredible that
+a cataclysm could destroy every living creature, save an appointed
+few, and cover the remotest boundaries of the earth.
+It is possible for God to do anything save that which is
+inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to
+do, and what He does, are two very different things. What
+He has done can only be told from the evidences which He
+has left. What He might have done is only speculation.
+Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He
+observes the course of nature, and from these observations
+his conclusions are drawn.</p>
+
+<p>The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when
+properly understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not
+to close his eyes and refuse to be guided by science, and
+with blind credulity accept the tales and prejudices of his
+grandfathers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England,
+in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes unusual
+grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that there were and
+are two modes of reconciling the letter of Scripture with geology, but
+each has totally and deservedly failed. One of these attempts to wrest
+the words of the Bible from their real meaning, and force them to
+speak the language of science; the other attempts to falsify science to
+meet the supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another
+reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of the
+affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of science and the
+spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of the general spirit of
+the Bible truths; and, secondly, there is a likeness in the methods.
+The frame of this earth was gradually brought into its present condition
+by the slow and silent action of the same causes which we see now
+operating through a long succession of ages beyond the memory and
+imagination of man. We do not expect this doctrine to agree with the
+letter of the Bible. The early biblical records could not be literal,
+prosaic, matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world. It
+is now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain two
+narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each other in
+almost every particular of time and place and order. It is now known
+that the vast epochs demanded by scientific observation are incompatible
+both with the six thousand years of the Mosaic chronology and the
+six days of the Mosaic Creation. The discoveries of geology are found
+to fill up the old religious truths with a new life, and to derive from
+them in turn a hallowing glory.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+<h2>GLOSSARY<br />
+<small>OF<br />
+SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME.</small></h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Adjunctive, having the quality of joining.</p>
+
+<p>Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of
+sand, clay, or gravel, made by river
+action.</p>
+
+<p>Amalgamate, to mix or blend different
+things or races.</p>
+
+<p>Antero-posterior, in a direction from
+behind forward.</p>
+
+<p>Aphelion, that point of a planet's or
+comet's orbit which is most distant
+from the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Arch&aelig;o-geologist, one versed in pre-historic
+remains, or familiar with
+both arch&aelig;ology and geology.</p>
+
+<p>Archives, public records and papers
+preserved as evidence of fact.</p>
+
+<p>Aryan, a term applied to all the nations
+who speak languages derived
+mainly from the Sanskrit, or ancient
+Hindoo.</p>
+
+<p>Atomic, a system of philosophy which
+accounted for the origin and formation
+of all things by assuming that
+atoms are endowed with gravity
+and motion.</p>
+
+<p>Auditory, having the power of hearing.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Baton, a staff used as an emblem of
+authority.</p>
+
+<p>Brachycephalic, a skull whose transverse
+diameter exceeds the antero-posterior
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>Breccia, a rock made up of angular
+fragments cemented together.</p>
+
+<p>Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from
+ten to thirty per cent. of tin, to
+which other metals are sometimes
+added.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Calcareous, consisting of, or containing,
+carbonate of lime.</p>
+
+<p>Calcined, reduced to a powder, or friable
+state, by the action of heat.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate, a salt formed by the union
+of carbonic acid with a base.</p>
+
+<p>Carnivora, an order of animals which
+subsist on flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Carpal, that portion of the skeleton
+pertaining to the wrist.</p>
+
+<p>Cataclysm, a deluge.</p>
+
+<p>Celt, one of an ancient race of people
+who formerly inhabited a great part
+of Central and Western Europe;
+an implement made of stone or
+metal, found in the ancient tumuli
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Cereal, edible grain.</p>
+
+<p>Champlain Epoch, a name derived from
+the beds on the borders of Lake
+Champlain. The beds are subsequent
+in origin to the glacial
+epoch.</p>
+
+<p>Chert, an impure variety of flint.</p>
+
+<p>Clavicle, the collar-bone.</p>
+
+<p>Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles
+cemented together.</p>
+
+<p>Coronoid, the process of the ulna and
+lower jaw.</p>
+
+<p>Cosmogony, the science of the origin of
+the world or universe.</p>
+
+<p>Cranium, the skull.</p>
+
+<p>Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of
+Ireland and Scotland, used by the
+ancients as places of habitation.</p>
+
+<p>Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring
+great heat, and used for melting
+ores, metals, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>of time marked by the recurrence
+of something peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Data (pl. of datum), a ground of inference
+or deduction.</p>
+
+<p>Debris (d&#257;-bre&eacute;), fragments detached
+from rocks, and piled up in masses.</p>
+
+<p>Demi-relief, the projection of one half
+the figure beyond the plane from
+which it rises.</p>
+
+<p>Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like
+markings.</p>
+
+<p>Devonian, the geological age between
+the Silurian and Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p>Diluvium, the time when the glacial
+beds were deposited.</p>
+
+<p>Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish,
+speckled with black, or greenish
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter
+from the frontal to the occipital
+bone exceeds the transverse diameter.</p>
+
+<p>Dorsal, the name given to the second
+division of the vertebr&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Drift, a collection of loose earth and
+bowlders, distributed during the
+glacial epoch over large portions of
+the earth's surface.</p>
+
+<p>Druidical, pertaining to the religious
+ceremonies of the ancient Celtic
+nations in France, Britain, and
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Dynasty, a succession of kings of the
+same line or family.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Eccentricity, the distance of the centre
+of the orbit of a heavenly body
+from the centre of the body round
+which it revolves.</p>
+
+<p>Edible, eatable.</p>
+
+<p>Elliptical, having an oval or oblong
+figure.</p>
+
+<p>Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs
+of the tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>Epoch, any period of time marked by
+some particular cause or event.</p>
+
+<p>Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Fauna, the animals of any given area
+or epoch.</p>
+
+<p>Flora, the complete system of vegetable
+species native in a given locality,
+or period.</p>
+
+<p>Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful
+colors, composed by fluorine and
+calcium.</p>
+
+<p>Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by
+the joint action of a river and the
+sea.</p>
+
+<p>Foramen, a little opening.</p>
+
+
+<p>Fossa, a depression in a bone.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in
+the strata composing the surface of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Genus (pl. genera), an assemblage of
+species possessing certain characters
+in common, by which they are
+distinguished from all others.</p>
+
+<p>Geode, an irregular shaped stone, containing
+a small cavity.</p>
+
+<p>Geognostic, pertaining to a knowledge
+of the structure of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Glabella, the middle or frontal protuberance
+of the superciliary arch.</p>
+
+<p>Glaciation, the process of becoming
+covered with glaciers.</p>
+
+<p>Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or
+snow and ice, formed in the region
+of perpetual snow, and moving
+slowly down mountain slopes or
+valleys.</p>
+
+<p>Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of
+quartz, feldspar, and mica.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Herbivora, that order of animals which
+subsists upon herbs or vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>Homologous, having the same typical
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest
+the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>Hybrid, that which is produced from
+the mixture of two species.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a
+dark green color, and capable of a
+fine polish.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Lambdoidal, the suture which connects
+the occipital with the parietal bones.</p>
+
+<p>Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock.</p>
+
+<p>Loam, a soil composed of siliceous sand,
+clay, carbonate of lime, oxide of
+iron, magnesia, and various salts,
+and also decayed vegetable and
+animal matter.</p>
+
+<p>Loess, a term usually applied to a tertiary
+deposit on the banks of the
+Rhine.</p>
+
+<p>Lumbar, the vertebr&aelig; near the loins.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Mammalia, that class of animals characterized
+by the female suckling
+its young.</p>
+
+<p>Marl, a mixed earthy substance, consisting
+of carbonate of lime, clay,
+and siliceous sand.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+<p>Mastoid, a process situated at the posterior
+part of the temporal bone.</p>
+
+<p>Matrix, a mould; the cavity in which a
+thing is held.</p>
+
+<p>Maxillary, the upper jaw bone.</p>
+
+<p>Metacarpal, the part of the hand between
+the wrist and the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>Metallurgy, the art of working metals.</p>
+
+<p>Metatarsal, the middle part of the
+foot.</p>
+
+<p>Miocene, the middle or second epoch of
+the Tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>Molar, a grinding tooth.</p>
+
+<p>Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used
+in casting; to form or shape; fine
+soft earth.</p>
+
+<p>Mollusca, an order of invertebrate animals
+having a soft, fleshy body,
+which is inarticulate, and not radiate
+internally.</p>
+
+<p>Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel extending
+along the sides of separate
+glaciers, and along the middle
+part of glaciers formed by the union
+of one or more separate ones.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Nebulous, having a faint, misty appearance;
+applied to uncondensed gaseous
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>Neolithic, new stone age; a term applied
+to the more modern age of
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>Nummulitic, composed of, or containing
+a fossil of a flattened form, resembling
+a small coin, and common
+in the early tertiary period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by
+volcanoes.</p>
+
+<p>Occipital, pertaining to the back part
+of the head.</p>
+
+<p>Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, containing
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>Olecranon, the large process at the extremity
+of the larger bone of the
+fore-arm.</p>
+
+<p>Onusprobandi, the burden of proof.</p>
+
+<p>Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is
+located; the path described by a
+heavenly body in its periodical revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel
+formed by glaciers.</p>
+
+<p>Oscillation, the act of moving backward
+and forward.</p>
+
+<p>Osseous, composed of bone.</p>
+
+<p>Osteologist, one versed in the nature,
+arrangement, and uses of the
+bones.</p>
+
+<p>Oxide, a compound of oxygen, and a
+base destitute of acid and saltish
+properties.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal,
+characterized by the thickness of
+its skin.</p>
+
+<p>Pal&aelig;olithic, the ancient stone age; a
+term applied to the earliest traces
+of man when he was cotemporary
+with many extinct mammalia.</p>
+
+<p>Pal&aelig;ontological, belonging to the science
+of the ancient life of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Parallelogram, a figure having four
+sides, the opposite sides of which
+are parallel, and consequently
+equal.</p>
+
+<p>Parietal, pertaining to the bones which
+form the sides and upper part of
+the skull.</p>
+
+<p>Pathological, pertaining to the knowledge
+of disease.</p>
+
+<p>Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony
+structure at the lower extremity of
+the body.</p>
+
+<p>Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a
+planet, or comet, in which it is
+nearest to the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Perimeter, the outer boundary of a
+body.</p>
+
+<p>Phalanges, the small bones of the fingers
+and toes.</p>
+
+<p>Philologist, one versed in the laws of
+human speech.</p>
+
+<p>Pliocene, a term applied to the most
+recent tertiary deposits.</p>
+
+<p>Post-Tertiary, the second period of the
+age of mammals.</p>
+
+<p>Prototype, a model after which anything
+is to be copied.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Quadrangular, having four angles, and
+consequently four sides.</p>
+
+<p>Quadrumana, an order of animals
+whose fore feet correspond to the
+hands of man.</p>
+
+<p>Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with
+a glassy lustre, and varying in
+color from white, or colorless, to
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Quartzite, granular quartz.</p>
+
+<p>Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Radius, the smaller and exterior bone
+of the fore-arm.</p>
+
+<p>Reliqui&aelig;, remains of the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Rhematic, that period when men first
+began to coin expressions for the
+most necessary ideas.</p>
+
+<p>Rodent, an animal that gnaws.</p>
+
+<p>Ruminant, an animal that chews the
+cud.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Sagittal, the suture which connects the
+parietal bones of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>Savant (s&auml;-v&#335;ng), a person eminent
+for acquirements.</p>
+
+<p>Scapula, the shoulder-blade.</p>
+
+<p>Schist, a rock having a slaty structure.</p>
+
+<p>Scientist, a person noted for his profound
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Sediment, the matter which subsides
+to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Semitic, pertaining to one of the families
+of nations, or languages, and
+so named from its members being
+ranked as the descendants of Shem.</p>
+
+<p>Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in
+color dark to light green.</p>
+
+<p>Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>Simian, a name given to the various
+tribes of monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>Squamous, the anterior and upper part
+of the temporal bone, scale-like in
+form.</p>
+
+<p>Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter,
+made by calcareous water dropping
+on the floors of caverns.</p>
+
+<p>Stratified, formed or deposited in layers.</p>
+
+<p>Stratum (pl. strata), a bed or layer.</p>
+
+<p>Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradually
+descending.</p>
+
+<p>Superciliary, the bony superior arch
+above the eye-brow.</p>
+
+<p>Suture, the seam which unites the
+bones of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>Symphysis, a connection of bones without
+a movable joint.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of
+rocks lying at the foot of a hill.</p>
+
+<p>Tarsal, relating to the ankle.</p>
+
+<p>Temporal, pertaining to that portion of
+the head located to the front and a
+little above the ear.</p>
+
+<p>Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made
+from fine clay, hardened by heat.</p>
+
+<p>Tertiary, the first period of the age of
+mammals.</p>
+
+<p>Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or
+chest.</p>
+
+<p>Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave.</p>
+
+<p>Truncated, cut off.</p>
+
+<p>Tufaceous, consisting of, of resembling,
+tuff.</p>
+
+<p>Tuff, a sand rock formed by agglutinated
+volcanic rock.</p>
+
+<p>Turanian, that order of languages
+known as monosyllabic.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the
+fore-arm.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Veda, the ancient sacred literature of
+the Hindoos.</p>
+
+<p>Vertebra, a joint of the back bone.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Agassiz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+
+Agriculture, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+
+Amalgamation, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+
+Amiel, Dr., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+
+Archiac, Vic. d', <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+
+Arts, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+
+Aymard, Dr., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Baldwin, A. W., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Bara, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+
+Belgian Caverns, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+
+Berosus, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+
+Blackmore, Dr., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Bligh, Lieut., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+
+Bonnemaison, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+
+Boucher de Perthes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+
+Bou&eacute;, Aim&eacute;, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+
+Bourgeois, Abb&eacute;, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Brown, James, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Buchner, Dr., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+
+Buckland. Dr., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Burdett-Coutts, Miss, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Burial, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+
+Busk, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Cain, Case of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+
+Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+
+Carpenter, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+Cartailhac, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+
+Casiano de Prado, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-74</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Brixham, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Chokier, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Feldhofner, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Furfooz, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Gourdan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of La Madeleine, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of La Naulette, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Les Eyzies, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Massat, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Mentone, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Thayngen, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Tron de Chaleux, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Trou des Nutons, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Trou Rosette, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+
+Cave of Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Ari&eacute;ge, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Bize, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Cracow, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Enghihoul, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Engis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Gailenruth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Pondres, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Cavern of Torquay, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Caverns of Brazil, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Caverns of Li&eacute;ge, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+
+Cazalis de Fondace, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+Chaldea, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>.<br />
+
+China, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+
+Christian, Fletcher, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+
+Christol, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Christy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Chronology, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+
+Chronology, Usher's, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+
+Clothing, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+
+Codrington, Thos., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Creation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+
+Croll, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+
+Cromlech, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Cushing, F. H. <a href="#Page_62">121</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Dana, J. D., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+
+Danish Shell-Mounds, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+Danish Peat Bogs, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+
+Darwin, Charles, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+
+Dawkins, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+
+Delaunay, Abb&eacute;, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Deluge, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+
+Denton, W., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+
+Desnoyers, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Desor, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+
+Dickeson, Dr. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Dolmen, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Dowler, Dr. Bennet, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Dupont, Edward, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+
+Dwellings, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Edwards, M. A. Milne, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Egypt, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Eocene, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Eocene, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Eocene, Glaciers in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Miocene, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Miocene, Flint flake from Aurillac, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Miocene, Man in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Epoch, Pliocene, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Epochs, not sharply defined, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+
+Eschricht, Prof., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Esper, J. F. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Falconer, Dr., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+
+Figuier, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+
+Filhol, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+
+Fishing and Navigation, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+
+Fontan, M. A., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Food, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+
+Forchammer, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+Ft. Shelby, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+
+Fossil Man of Denise, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+
+Fossil Man of Mentone, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+
+Fossil Remains from Florida, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Fraas, Oscar, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+
+Frere, John, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Fuhlrott, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Garrigou, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+
+Geikie, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+
+Gillieron, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial Epoch, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial Epoch, Date of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial Epoch, Duration of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial Epoch, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+
+Glacial Epoch, Geological Period of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+
+Godwin-Austen, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+
+Gosse, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+
+Gunning, W. D., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Half-castes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+
+Hall, Dr., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+
+Hauzeur, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+
+Herodotus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+
+History, Outline of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+
+Horner, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+
+Human bones from Colmar, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+
+Human bones from Savonia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+
+Huxley, Prof., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-57</a>.<br />
+
+Hybridity, law of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Implements, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+
+Implements, from Toronto, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Implements, superstitious regard for, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+India, Fauna of, in Miocene, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br />
+
+Issel, M. A., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Jaw from Maestricht, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br />
+
+Jaw from Moulin-Quignon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+
+Jaw from La Naulette, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+
+Joly, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Keller, Dr., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br />
+
+Kemp, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Kent's Hole, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+
+Kutorga, Dr., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Land of Nod, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+
+Language, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+
+Language, Change of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+
+Language, Divisions of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+
+Language, Number of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+
+Language, Origin of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+
+Language, Written, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+
+Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-101</a>.<br />
+
+Lartet, Edward, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Las Casas, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+
+Lastic, M. de, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Lee, J. E. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+
+Lepsius, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+
+Litse, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+
+Lubbock, Sir John, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Lund, Dr., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Lyell, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+MacEnery, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+Mahndel before the Academy of Paris, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Contentions, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Description of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Development of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Dispersion of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+
+Man, During Glaciers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Inventive, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Mode of living, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Origin of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+
+Man, Type, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+
+Manetho, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+
+Marks on fossil bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Mariette, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+
+Matson, James, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Max M&uuml;ller, Prof., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+
+Menhirs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+
+Mexico, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+
+Miller, Hugh, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+
+Morlot, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+
+Mound Builders, <a href="#Page_117">117-122</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Antiquity of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Extent of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Sacrificial, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Sepulchral, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Symbolical, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+Mounds, Temple, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+
+Murchison, Sir Roderick I., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Neolithic, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+
+Owen, Prof., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Pelvic bone from Natchez, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Piers Ploughman's Creed, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+
+Piette, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Pliocene beds at St. Prest, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Pouchet, Georges, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+
+Pourtalis, Count, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Pre-historic Arch&aelig;ology, Divisions of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+
+Prichard, Dr., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Quatrefages, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Rames, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Rawlinson, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+
+Reindeer Station on the Schusse, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+
+Religious Belief, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br />
+
+Renevier, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+
+Rigollot, Dr., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+
+Rivi&eacute;re, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+
+Robenhausen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br />
+
+Rock-Shelters of Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Rollin, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Schaaffhausen, Prof., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Schleicher, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+Schlieman, Dr., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br />
+
+Schmerling, Dr., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+
+Scott, P. A., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Septuagint, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+
+Shell-Heaps of America, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+
+Skeleton from Lahr, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+
+Skeleton from New Orleans, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+
+Skeleton from Plau, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Skull, Engis, <a href="#Page_45">45-51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+
+Skull, Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+
+Skull, Neanderthal, Race Type, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Altaville, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Cochrane's Cave, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Comstock Lode, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Constatt, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Osage Mission, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+
+Skull from Rhine, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Skull of Arno, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+
+Skulls from Borreby, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+
+Skulls from Minsk, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Skulls from Mo&euml;n, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Somme, Valley of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+
+Somme, Valley of, Implements from, <a href="#Page_35">35-37</a>.<br />
+
+Sons of God, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+
+Spring, Dr., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+
+Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br />
+
+Steenstrup, Prof. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+
+Stevens, Alfred, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Bournemonth, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Colorado and Wyoming, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Gosport, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Grinell Leads, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from London, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Madrid, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements from Seine, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements near Hoxne, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+
+Stone Implements, number, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Tardy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+
+Taylor, Bayard, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+
+Tertiary beds at St. Prest, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Tertiary, Climate of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+
+Tertiary, Fauna of, in America, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+
+Tertiary, Geography of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+
+Tournal, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br />
+
+Troy, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+
+Troyon, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+
+Traffic, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+
+Tylor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br />
+
+Tyson, Capt., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Unity of Race, <a href="#Page_136">136-142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+
+Unity of Race, Objections to, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+
+Vivian, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+Vogt, Carl, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+
+Wallace, A. R., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+
+War, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+
+Weirley, Dr., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+
+Welcker, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+
+Westropp, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+
+Whitney, Prof., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Wilson, Dr. Daniel, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+
+Wokey Hole, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+
+Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+
+Workshops of Laugerie-Haute, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+
+Worsaae, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+<br />
+Zawisza, Count, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+
+Zumarraga, Bishop, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Buchner, p. 269.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p. 238.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829.&mdash;Keller's "Lake-Dwellings,"
+p. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 286.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 418.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> "Manual of Geology," p. 590.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 417.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285; "Pre-Historic Times,"
+p. 411.
+</p><p>
+Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the
+earth's orbit "cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen thousand
+years; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to
+certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length
+of time; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred
+and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of
+climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years."&mdash;Darwin's
+<i>Origin of Species</i>, p. 343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more
+rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Naturalist's
+Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that "during one
+very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua,
+although it attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand
+feet. It is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is
+evaporated, rather than thawed."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. ii, pp. 567-569.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Buchner, p. 118</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 362.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 97; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The "Science Record" for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these implements
+says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were
+made half a million years ago."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 98. "Pre-Historic Times," p. 317.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 338; Buchner, 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 510; Buchner, p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Buchner, pp. 118, 306.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Buchner, p. 239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Principles," vol. ii, p. 566.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It has been estimated by the British Association that it requires
+twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite.&mdash;<i>Science Record.</i>
+1874, p. 601.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> "Principles," vol. ii, p. 527.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 146.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 143.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Buchner, p. 263.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 262.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Buchner, p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Buchner, p. 240.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Buchner, p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Buchner, p. 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Buchner, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Buchner, p. 265.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 423.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Wallace's "Natural Selection, p. 322."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Buchner, pp. 34, 252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Buchner, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Buchner, p. 31; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 420.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Buchner, p. 33; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270; "American Phrenological Journal,
+Feb." 1874.
+</p><p>
+Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this
+skull was not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote
+to Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March
+1875, inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the
+statement that he had visited the place where the skull was found;
+that certain persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the
+victim of a joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were
+prejudiced against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best
+informed had every reason to believe the statements made by Professor
+Whitney were true. The skull is a very remarkable one, and
+stands alone for the enormous size of the orbits, and I have good reasons
+to believe it to have been found as stated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that
+glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations,
+not to mention still more ancient formations."&mdash;Darwin's <i>Origin of
+Species</i>, p. 343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421; Buchner, 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Buchner, p. 32.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Buchner, p. 274.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> "Our Planet," p. 266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> "Science Record," 1874, p. 499.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> "Origin of Civilization," p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Buchner, p. 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," pp. 37, 334, 350, 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 396.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 293.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Lake Dwellings," p. 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 218; "Primitive Man," p. 281.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 400.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Science Record," p. 564. 1875.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> "American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Man," p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i.
+p. 454.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 43; "Pre-Historic Man," p. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> "Primitive Man," pp. 9, 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Man," p. 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "Ancient Monuments," p. 304.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Buchner, p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Rollin, vol. i. p. 138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Buchner, 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> "New York Tribune", June 6, 1874.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Bayard Taylor in "New York Tribune, Extra," No. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 178, 175.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> "Ancient America," p. 187.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> "Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. ii. p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Wake's "Chapters on Man," p. 33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> "Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and
+Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man.
+The first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after
+the manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till,
+associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use articulate
+sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks of
+those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate
+to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony
+which was framed by Mochus, the Ph&#339;nician, and afterward improved
+by Democritus and Epicurus."&mdash;Pouchet's <i>Plurality of the
+Human Race</i>, p. 142.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. ii. p. 475. "It is generally acknowledged
+that all organic beings have been formed on two great laws&mdash;Unity
+of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type is
+meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic
+beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their
+habits of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of
+descent."&mdash;Darwin's <i>Origin of Species</i>, p. 200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> I put myself into clothes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Shepherd.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> And.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Wonder.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Mivart's "Genesis of Species," p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Origin of Species," p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Chips," vol. i. pp. 63, 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Lady Belcher's "Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> "Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants
+of Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the distance
+between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1696,
+two canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were
+thrown by contrary winds and storms on the Island of Samar, one of
+the Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two
+canoes, one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons,
+men, women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep
+to the island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two
+hundred miles." Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his countrymen,
+while sailing in a boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm,
+and drifted about the sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on
+the produce of the sea, and finally were picked up in an insensible
+condition by the inhabitants of Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand
+five hundred miles distant from his native isle.&mdash;<i>Principles of Geology</i>,
+vol. ii. p. 472.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The idea that "bara" meant to create out of nothing is a modern
+invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews
+and Greeks at Alexandria. The Greeks believed that matter was
+co-eternal with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to
+this notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of
+nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception
+of <i>fashioning</i> or <i>arranging</i>.&mdash;<i>Chips</i>, vol. i. p. 132.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> "Testimony of the Rocks," Fifth Lecture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man
+in Genesis and Geology, p. 105); Lubbock regards him as a typical
+savage (Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great
+prototype of the human race?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> The word <i>Nod</i> means <i>to wander</i>, <i>to be driven about</i>, etc. It
+appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It
+was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have
+been roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated
+"Wandering Land"?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the Zambesi,
+described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity,
+"remarks, 'It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so
+much more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the
+case.' An inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, 'God made white men,
+and God made black men, but the devil made half castes.' When two
+races, both low in the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be eminently
+bad. Thus the noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms
+of the bad and savage disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between
+Indians and Negroes; and this conclusion has been arrived at by
+various observers. From these facts we may perhaps infer that the
+degraded state of so many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a
+primitive and savage condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral
+conditions under which they generally exist."&mdash;<i>Animals and Plants
+under Domestication</i>, vol. ii. p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the
+race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its briefness.
+A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words,
+and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the
+idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared. The
+strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 26: "Hath made of one
+blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth."
+This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair,
+but their <i>blood</i> is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no ancestors.
+When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only
+to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors,
+the leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not
+uncommon to drop the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is
+given in the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of
+his grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred
+and twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been
+dropped. If Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the
+line any farther back. The forming him of the dust of the ground
+would give his relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen,
+endowed for the purpose of elevating the race&mdash;of becoming the head
+of a new type of humanity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into
+Greek, made about three hundred years <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The oldest existing MS.
+of the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the
+tenth century after the Christian era&mdash;<i>Chips.</i> vol. i. p. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> "Primeval Man," p. 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> "Primeval Man," p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35329-h.htm or 35329-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/3/2/35329/
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig01.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77f1e5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig01.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig02.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3539029
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig02.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig03.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..79da944
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig03.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig04.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e07cd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig04.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig05.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77da79a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig05.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig06.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..790eeb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig06.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig07.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34e069b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig07.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig08.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..142eb2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig08.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig09.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0568023
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig09.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig10.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..684ef59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig10.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig11.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3d8b59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig11.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig12.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7db534c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig12.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig13.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83332d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig13.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig14.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..566174f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig14.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig15.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18a98c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig15.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig16.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig16.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90c0318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig16.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig17.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44c9091
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig17.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/fig18.jpg b/35329-h/images/fig18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31163c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/fig18.jpg
diff --git a/35329-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/35329-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d305f85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
diff --git a/35329.txt b/35329.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b80a2ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5872 @@
+Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Manual of the Antiquity of Man
+
+Author: J. P. MacLean
+
+Release Date: February 19, 2011 [EBook #35329]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+  A MANUAL
+  OF THE
+  ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+  BY
+
+  J. P. MACLEAN.
+
+  "In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been."
+                                                     --PROF. MAX MUeLLER.
+
+  _REVISED EDITION._
+
+  BOSTON:
+  UNIVERSALIST PUBLISHING HOUSE,
+  37 _Cornhill_,
+  1877.
+
+
+
+
+  Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by
+  J. P. MACLEAN,
+
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found the minds of the
+people prepared to receive the evidences, and ready to believe the
+conclusions of the geologists. I have felt the need of a popular work to
+place in the hands of the public, that would be both instructive and
+welcome. The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too
+expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to give an
+outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable acquaintance
+with the facts connected with the new science, to such as desire the
+information but cannot pursue it further, and to serve as a manual for
+those who intend to become more proficient.
+
+As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Race are so closely
+connected with the subject, I have added the two chapters on these
+questions, hoping they will be acceptable to the reader. It was my
+intention to have written a more extended chapter on the relation of the
+Holy Scriptures to this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had
+done in other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits of
+the book.
+
+In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's "Antiquity of
+Man" and "Principles of Geology," Lubbock's "Pre-Historic Times,"
+Buchner's "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive
+Man," Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works
+of Charles Darwin, Dana's "Manual of Geology," Huxley's "Man's Place in
+Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of
+the Human Race," and others, referred to in the margins.
+
+I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cushing, for the ideal restoration
+of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving was made especially for this work.
+The references to Buchner are from his work entitled, "Man in the Past,
+Present and Future."
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+                                                                    PAGE
+    Interest in the subject--Influence of Lyell--Usher's
+    Chronology--Aime Boue first to proclaim the high antiquity
+    of man--Dr. Schmerling the founder--Boucher de Perthes the
+    apostle--Classifications by Lubbock, Lartet, Renevier, and
+    Westropp--Plan of the work--No Universal Age of Stone,
+    Bronze, or Iron--Epochs not sharply defined--Outlines of
+    History--Superstitious Notions--Skull from Constatt--Stone
+    hatchet from London--Cavern of Gailenreuth--Axes from
+    Hoxne--Human jaw from Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr--
+    "Reliquiae Diluvianae"--Discoveries by Tournal and Christol--
+    Engis and Enghihoul Caverns--Schmerling's labors--Lyell's
+    opinions--Arrow mark on skull of Cave-Bear--Boucher de
+    Perthes and the Valley of the Somme--Jaw of Moulin-Quignon--
+    Kent's Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Remains from the
+    Manzanares--Cave of Aurignac--Lyell declares his belief--
+    Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland Neanderthal Skull--Caverns
+    near Torquay--Cave of Massat--Cave of Lourdes--Caverns of
+    Ariege--Tertiary at St. Prest--Implements near Gosport--
+    Bones from Colmar--Implements near Bournemouth--Trou de
+    la Naulette--Bones near Savonia--Reindeer Station--Foreland
+    Cliff--Fossil Man of Mentone--Other Discoveries near Mentone.     11
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+    Starting point for the investigation--Advance of the ice--
+    Fauna of Europe--Geological Period--Probable Date--Probable
+    Duration--Evidences of the Existence of Man--Implements from
+    Hampshire--Flint tools at Bournemouth--Oval flint from
+    Foreland Cliff--Implements from the Valley of the Somme--
+    Jaw of Moulin-Quignon--Implements from the Seine--Axes
+    near Madrid--Kent's Hole--Brixham Cave--Human jaw from
+    Maestricht--Skeleton from Lahr--Cave of La Naulette--
+    Implements from Hoxne--Bones from Colmar.                         25
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GLACIAL--CONTINUED.
+
+    Belgian Caverns--Caverns of Liege--Engis Skull--Remarks of
+    Prof. Huxley--Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt--
+    Neanderthal Skull--Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr.
+    Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull--Opinions
+    of Huxley, Buchner, Schaaffhausen, and Busk--Skull from the
+    Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of
+    Moen, Minsk, and Plau--Borreby Skulls--Human skulls of Arno.      44
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.
+
+    North America during the Tertiary--Europe--Climate--Fauna of
+    Eocene--Of Miocene--Of Pliocene--Traces of Man--Opinions of
+    Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace--Man in the Pliocene--
+    Hearth under Osars--Human bones from Savonia--Discoveries at
+    St. Prest--Skull from Altaville--Prof. Denton's Statement--
+    Man in the Miocene--Flints from Pontlevoy--Flint-flake from
+    Aurillac--Marks on bones near Pouance--Implements from
+    Colorado and Wyoming--Eocene--Glacial Periods during the
+    Miocene.                                                          58
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.
+
+    No knowledge of the first appearance of Man--Fauna of India
+    during the Miocene--Intellect of Man--Contests with the
+    Beasts--A weapon invented--Earliest type--Advancement slow--
+    Climate changes--Sufferings of Man--Known by the Remains--
+    Structure of the Neanderthal Man--Engis Man--Men both large
+    and small--Animal structure of jaws from La Naulette and
+    Moulin-Quignon.                                                   63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+    Condition of the earth--Numerous traces of Man--Cave of
+    Aurignac--Conclusions of Lartet and Cartailhac--Caverns of
+    Maccagnone--Wokey Hole--Fossil Man of Denise--Reindeer
+    Station on the Schusse--Dr. Buchner's Conclusions.                68
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.
+
+    Length of the Inter-Glacial--Man an improvable being--
+    Implements improved--Art of engraving begun--Religious
+    nature--Denton's description of primeval man--Language
+    improved.                                                         76
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+    Advance of the Glaciers--Fauna---Reindeer epoch a distinct
+    one--Evidences of the existence of Man--Caves of Central and
+    Southern France--Implements from Les Eyzies--Relics from La
+    Madeleine--Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse--
+    Cave and rock shelters of Bruniquel--Cave of Gourdan--Fossil
+    Man of Mentone--Other remains near Mentone--Other bone caves
+    of France--Belgian Caverns--Trou de Frontal--Trou Rosette--
+    Trou des Nutons--Cave of Chaleux--Cave at Furfooz--Cave of
+    Thayngen--Cave near Cracow.                                       79
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+    Man under a more favorable aspect--Type of--Dwellings--
+    Clothing--Food--Cannibalism--The Arts--Traffic--Burial--
+    Dupont's Report.                                                  89
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+NEOLITHIC EPOCH.
+
+    How characterized--Caves of this period--Contents of--Cave
+    of Saint Jean d'Alcas--Danish Shell-Mounds--Danish Peat
+    Bogs--Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland--Enumeration of--
+    Robenhausen--Fauna and Flora of--Troyon and Keller on--
+    Other Lake-Dwellings--Chronology.                                 94
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.
+
+    Type of--Advancement--Habitations--Clothing--Food--Arts and
+    Manufactures--Vast number of implements discovered--War--
+    Agriculture--Burial--Dolmens, Tumuli, Cromlechs, and Menhirs--
+    Victims, or Cannibalism.                                         103
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+    No direct relation to Antiquity of Man--How characterized--
+    Type--Habitation and Food--Clothing--Implements--Arts--
+    Agriculture--Fishing and Navigation--Burial--Religious
+    Belief--Stone crescents.                                         108
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+IRON EPOCH.
+
+    Civilization established--Swiss Lake-Dwellings--Dr. Keller's
+    Observations.                                                    112
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+    Great opportunities for the Archaeologist--Aim of the chapter--
+    Skull from Osage Mission--Comstock lode--Charcoal at Toronto--
+    Knife from Kansas--Pelvic bone from Natchez--Skeleton from New
+    Orleans--Remains from the reefs of Florida--Caverns of Brazil--
+    Shell Heaps--Mound-Builders--Extent of Mounds--Implements of--
+    Sacrificial--Sephulchral--Temple--Symbolical--Antiquity of--
+    Fort Shelby--How long the Mound-Builders remained.               114
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WRITTEN HISTORY.
+
+    Mystery of Ancient Empires--Rollin's difficulties--Egypt--
+    Manetho's list--Statement of Herodotus--Mariette's
+    explorations--Borings in the mud deposits of the Nile--
+    Dr. Schliemann's discoveries at Troy--History of Chaldea
+    by Berosus--Astronomical calculations--Chinese history--
+    Mexican History.                                                 123
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+    A field for study--Three divisions of language--Rhematic
+    period--Origin of--Various theories--Change of--Views of
+    Ancients--Number of--Comparative permancy of written
+    language.                                                        132
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.
+
+    Objections to the Unity of the Race--Anatomical--
+    Geographical--Disparity of--Non-existence of medium types--
+    Phenomena caused by two united types--Objections answered--
+    Both man and animals affected by climate, food, and
+    condition--Examples--Argument from language--Ocean navigated
+    by frail crafts--Examples--Captain Tyson and party--The two
+    extremes exist in all nations, and even in families--People
+    who have retrograded--Races will amalgamate and perpetuate
+    their kind--Griquas--Papuas--Pitcairn Islanders--Law of
+    hybridity--Close affinity of the races--Slow change of.          136
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE BIBLE.
+
+    Controversy--Perversion of meaning--Men of science branded--
+    Design of the chapter--Creation--"Bara"--Day--Man's
+    appearance--Two accounts--Case of Cain--Sons of God--Remarks
+    of Dr. Livingstone--Doctrine of unity of the race--
+    Chronology--The Deluge--Septuagint--Monarchies--The
+    Dispersion--Opinion of Dr. Hedge--No supernatural aid in the
+    formation of Language--What God may do does not imply what
+    he has done--Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of Creation.   143
+
+
+
+
+A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the attention of
+geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The interest was greatly
+increased by the publication of Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man."
+This work called the attention of the public to the subject, and so
+great became the interest that many volumes and memoirs have been added
+to the list, discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most
+part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw more light on
+the subject. The scientific men were slow to take advantage of the
+discoveries continually being made of the bones and works of man found
+in caves and associated with the remains' of extinct animals. It is
+probable, even at this late day, there would not have been so much
+discussion of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of
+his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to doubt the
+correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and so complete has been
+the revolution of opinion that it is almost impossible to find an
+intelligent man who would limit the period of man's existence to 6,000
+years.
+
+To Aime Boue, a French geologist, must be attributed the honor of having
+been the first to proclaim the high antiquity of the human race; to Dr.
+Schmerling, the learned Belgian osteologist, on account of his
+laborious investigations, untiring zeal, and great work on the subject,
+the merited title of being the founder of the new science; to M. Boucher
+de Perthes, its great apostle; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John
+Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made the new theory
+popular.
+
+The new science soon became permanently established, and the geologists
+at once set about classifying the facts before them, in order to assign
+to them their respective places in the geological epochs. All are agreed
+in respect to the chronological orders, but all have not used the same
+nomenclature, in consequence of which more or less confusion has been
+the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic archaeology into four
+great epochs, as follows:
+
+"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession of Europe with the
+mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct
+animals. This we may call the 'Palaeolithic' period.
+
+"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period characterized by
+beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of
+stone; in which, however, we find no trace of the knowledge of any
+metal, excepting gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for
+ornaments. This we may call the 'Neolithic' period.
+
+"III. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cutting
+instruments of all kinds.
+
+"IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded bronze for arms,
+axes, knives, etc."[1]
+
+These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor.
+
+Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification:
+
+I. THE STONE AGE.
+
+1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and mammoth).
+
+2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer epoch).
+
+3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished stone
+epoch).
+
+II. THE METAL AGE.
+
+1st. The Bronze Epoch.
+
+2d. The Iron Epoch.
+
+This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his "Primitive Man,"
+by the Museum of Saint-Germain in that portion devoted to pre-historic
+antiquities, and adhered to in essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac.
+
+Professor Renevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a somewhat different
+scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss glaciation. It is as follows:
+
+"I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+elephant (_Elephas antiquus_), rhinoceros (_R. hemitaechus_), and the
+cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_).
+
+"II. _Glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_),
+cave-bear, etc.
+
+"III. _Post-glacial Epoch_, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+mammoth and reindeer (_Cervus tarandus_).
+
+"IV. _Last Epoch_, or epoch of the _Pile-buildings_, in which man lived
+cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (_Megaceros hibernicus_), aurochs
+(_Bison Europaeus_)," etc.[2]
+
+Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his stages of
+civilization, as follows: _Savagery_, _hunters_, _herdsmen_, and
+_agriculturists_.
+
+In the following pages a somewhat different classification has been
+adopted, and may be thus explained:
+
+I. _Pre-glacial Epoch_; that period antedating the glaciers of the
+post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the animals of
+the tertiary, southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_), etc.
+
+II. _Glacial Epoch_; that period of the post-tertiary when man was
+forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the floods immediately
+succeeding them, when the mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R.
+tichorrhinus_), cave-bear, etc., began to flourish.
+
+III. _Interglacial Epoch_; that period between the glacial and the
+second advance of the ice, in which man lived cotemporaneously with the
+animals of the preceding epoch, and the cave bear became extinct.
+
+IV. _Reindeer Epoch_; that period when the glaciers again advanced; in
+which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of the reindeer (_C.
+tarandus_), that animal having made its way in numerous herds as far
+south as the Pyrenees.
+
+V. _Neolithic Epoch_; that period in which man polished his weapons of
+stone, and sought to domesticate certain animals, the dog, etc.
+
+VI. _Bronze Epoch_; that period characterized by weapons and implements
+being made chiefly of bronze.
+
+VII. _Iron Epoch_; that period in which bronze was generally superseded
+by iron.
+
+This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that could be
+devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evidences of the
+existence of man in their relative geological positions.
+
+Other methods have misled the student. There was no universal Stone,
+Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification given by Lubbock applies to
+Europe, but is too general. I have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want
+of a better term, although the signification of the word is appropriate
+to the period it is intended to represent.
+
+These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one from the other;
+but one merges into the other by gradual progression covering a period
+of thousands of years. The growth of the various plants and animals, and
+their retreat or final extinction, have also been very slow.
+
+An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a careful
+investigation of the question, and which resolved the question into a
+science, is not only one of interest but also of importance to the
+careful thinker seeking information on the subject.
+
+Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people had so little
+notion of the nature and signification of the stone axes and weapons of
+earlier and later times that they were regarded with superstitious fear
+and hope, and as productions of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long
+time they were called thunderbolts even by the learned.... As late as
+the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy of Paris that these
+stones were human implements, he was laughed at, because he had not
+proved that they could not have been formed in the clouds."[3]
+
+As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of the calcareous
+tuff of Constatt, in company with the bones of the mammoth. It is
+preserved in the Natural History Museum at Stuttgart.
+
+In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in London, by the side
+of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which have been
+subsequently found in great numbers in different parts of the world.
+This hatchet is still preserved in the British Museum.
+
+In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. F. Esper discovered
+some human bones mingled with the remains of extinct animals.
+
+In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great numbers from a
+brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where they occurred at a
+depth of twelve feet, mingled with the bones of extinct species of
+animals. They were gathered up and thrown by basketsful upon the
+neighboring road. In the year 1801, before the Society of Antiquaries,
+John Frere read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they pointed
+to a very remote period. This communication, short as it was, contained
+the essence of all subsequent discoveries and speculations as to the
+antiquity of man. But the society regarded the subject as of no
+importance.
+
+During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hollerd, there was
+found, near Maestricht, in the _loess_, a human jaw in company with the
+bones of extinct animals. This bone is preserved in the museum at
+Leyden.
+
+In 1823, Aime Boue disinterred portions of a human skeleton from ancient
+undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small village nearly opposite Strasbourg.
+These bones were placed in the care of Cuvier, but, having been
+neglected, are now lost.
+
+In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, published his
+"Reliquiae Diluvianae," a work principally devoted to a description of the
+Kirkdale Cave. The author combined all the known facts which favored the
+coexistence of man, with the extinct animals.
+
+In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous caverns in the
+south of France. In the cavern of Bize, Tournal found human bones and
+teeth, and fragments of rude pottery, together with the bones of both
+living and extinct species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and
+breccia, cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same
+chemical condition as those of the extinct species.
+
+M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes, some human bones
+in the same mud with the bones of an extinct hyena and rhinoceros.
+
+In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns of Engis and
+Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found the Engis skull (now in the
+museum of the University of Liege), at a depth of nearly five feet,
+under an osseous breccia. The earth also contained the teeth of
+rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and exhibited no marks of
+disturbance. He also found the skull of a young person imbedded by the
+side of a mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell
+to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul he found
+numerous bones belonging to three human individuals, mingled with the
+bones of extinct animals. In these caves he noted rude flint
+instruments, but did not collect many of them. In the care of Chokier,
+he discovered a polished and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole
+pierced through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have
+been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains.
+
+Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a work which
+described and represented a vast quantity of objects which had been
+discovered in the Belgian caverns. The scientific men were not yet
+prepared to receive the new discoveries, and it attracted but little
+attention at that time.
+
+Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling for his
+unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell has said: "To have
+undertaken, in 1832, with a view of testing its truth (antiquity of
+fossil human bones) to follow the Belgian philosopher through every
+stage of his observations and proofs, would have been no easy task even
+for one well-skilled in geology and osteology. To be let down, as
+Schmerling was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide
+to the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the
+best-preserved human skulls were found; and, after thus gaining access
+to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours through a
+contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there to superintend by
+torchlight, week after week and year after year, the workmen who were
+breaking through the stalagmitic crust as hard as marble, in order to
+remove piece by piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard; to
+stand for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping from
+the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position and guard against
+the loss of each single bone of a skeleton; and at length, after finding
+leisure, strength, and courage for all these operations, to look
+forward, as the fruits of one's labor, to the publication of unwelcome
+intelligence, opposed to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as
+the unscientific public;--when these circumstances are taken into
+account, we need scarcely wonder.... that a quarter of a century should
+have elapsed before even the neighboring professors of the University
+of Liege came forth to vindicate the truthfulness of their indefatigable
+and clear-sighted countryman."[4]
+
+In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier, found in
+the cave of Nabrigas (Lozere) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an
+arrow had left its mark. Close by, was a fragment of pottery marked by
+the finger of the moulder.
+
+It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of France) that
+M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint-axes of the rudest form.
+His explorations had been going on for a long time. He did all he could
+to bring these discoveries before the public. In the year 1836 he began
+to proclaim the high antiquity of man, in a series of communications
+addressed to the Societe d'Emulation of Abbeville. To the same society,
+in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes he had found, but without
+result. In 1839, he took these hatchets to Paris, and showed them to
+some of the members of the Institute. At first they gave some
+encouragement toward these researches; but this favorable feeling did
+not last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which has since
+become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained workmen to dig in the
+diluvial beds, and in a short time he had collected twenty specimens of
+flint wrought by the hand of man, though in a very rude state. In 1846,
+he published his first work on the subject, entitled "De l'Industrie
+Primitive, ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he
+published his "Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes," in which he
+gave illustrations of these stone implements. This work attracted no
+attention until the year 1854, when a French _savant_, named Rigollot,
+made a personal examination and was successful in his search for these
+relicts in the neighborhood of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C.
+Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, and
+other eminent scientists.
+
+Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was rewarded, in the year
+1863, by finding the lower half of a human jaw bone, covered with an
+earthy crust, which he extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at
+Abbeville. A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They
+were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone has been
+called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved in the Museum of
+Natural History at Paris.
+
+The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation among English
+geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk went to France and
+examined the locality where the bone was found. They went away satisfied
+with both its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however,
+doubted its authenticity; but at the present time all, or nearly all,
+recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher de Perthes.
+
+Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in 1869, in
+finding a number of human bones presenting the same character as the jaw
+of Moulin-Quignon.
+
+In 1840, Rev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found in a cave,
+called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives among the remains of
+the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena, and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under
+a crust of stalagmite. Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave
+as early as 1825. He did not publish his notes on his discoveries but
+they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they were obtained by Mr.
+Vivian.
+
+Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geological Society in the
+year 1840, states, in his description of Kent's Hole, he found works of
+art in all parts of the cave.
+
+The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in an old volcanic
+tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay, Central France, an account of
+which was first published by Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who
+have examined these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic
+regions of Central France, declared that they believed them to have
+been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in which they
+are now seen.
+
+In the years 1845-1850, Casiano de Prado made discoveries on the banks
+of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They consisted of portions of the
+skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a nearly perfect skeleton of an
+elephant in the diluvial sand. Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were
+several flint axes of human workmanship.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1. SIR CHARLES LYELL.]
+
+Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named Bonnemaison, in the
+year 1852, accidently discovered a cave containing the remains of
+seventeen human skeletons. These bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the
+mayor of Aurignac, who was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the
+parish cemetery. The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten, and
+this treasure is now lost to science. In 1860, the cave was explored by
+Edward Lartet. After a long and patient examination, he came to the
+conclusion that the cave was a human burial place, cotemporary with the
+mammoth and other great animals of the quaternary epoch.
+
+It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, that Sir
+Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiquity of the human
+race. He had before opposed the idea, but was convinced of the truth by
+personal examination of human bones and flint hatchets, from the
+quarries of St. Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations,
+and, in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific
+public, he published his "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,"
+in 1863. In the last edition of his "Principles of Geology," he bestows
+considerable space to the discussion of the subject. He was closely
+followed, in the same view, by other eminent geologists.
+
+The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland were discovered
+in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter was so dry and cold that the
+water of the lakes fell far below its ordinary level. On account of
+this, a large tract of ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people
+throwing up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on which
+stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and stone implements,
+and various other relics, were discovered.[5] Dr. Keller, of Zurich,
+examined the objects, and at once came to a right understanding as to
+their signification. He carefully examined the remains, and described
+these lake habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian
+Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In 1866 these
+memoirs were translated into English by J. E. Lee, together with
+articles from other antiquaries, under the title of "The Lake Dwellings
+of Switzerland, and other parts of Europe." This work contains
+ninety-seven plates, besides many wood-cuts.
+
+Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time to time, been
+published, but they are included in the translated work of Dr. Keller.
+
+The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, in the
+year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near Duesseldorf, in a deep ravine
+known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull, with parts of the skeleton
+to which it belonged, was found under a layer of mud, about five feet in
+thickness. It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfeld, Rhenish
+Prussia.
+
+In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far from Kent's Hole.
+This cave was examined by a scientific commission. At first it was
+undertaken by the Royal Society, but when its grants had failed, Miss
+Burdett-Coutts paid the expenses of completing the work. In this cave,
+under a layer of stalagmite, were found many flint knives, associated
+with the bones of extinct mammals.
+
+M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department of Ariege), in
+1859, human teeth and utensils associated with the remains of the
+cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave-lion (_Felis speloea_).
+
+In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of human industry
+mingled with the fossil bones of animals, in the cave of Lourdes,
+France.
+
+In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the researches which he,
+in conjunction with Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of Ariege.
+These explorers found the jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion,
+which had been wrought by the hands of man.
+
+In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St. Prest
+(Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desnoyers found the bones of
+extinct animals which were cut or notched by flint instruments. In the
+same strata Abbe Bourgeois discovered implements of stone. He
+communicated his discoveries to the International Congress held at Paris
+in 1867.
+
+In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midway between Gosport and
+Southampton, included in gravel from eight to twelve feet thick, capping
+a cliff which at its greatest height is thirty-five feet above
+high-water mark. These flint tools exactly resemble those found at
+Abbeville and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore Museum
+at Salisbury.
+
+In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, Alsace,
+human bones in the same bed with bones of the mammoth, horse, stag,
+auroch, and other animals.
+
+In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the gravel at the
+top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth opening, Southampton river.
+Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to the west of the valley, obtained two other
+flint implements. The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867.
+
+Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer, in the year 1866,
+found a fragment of a human jaw in the Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave
+situated on the bank of the river Lesse not far from Chaleux.
+
+At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported he had found
+several human bones in beds of Pliocene age, near Savonia, in Liguria.
+
+The Reindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was discovered in 1867,
+during the operations undertaken for the improvement of a mill-pond. The
+Schusse is a little river which flows into the lake of Constance, and
+its source is upon the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of
+Constance and the upper course of the Danube.
+
+In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint implement in gravel
+at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of Wight, five miles southeast of
+Ryde.
+
+The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1873, by M. Riviere, in a
+cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was almost entire, and imbedded
+twenty feet below the surface of the deposit.
+
+In 1873, M. Riviere discovered another human skeleton, by the side of
+which lay a few unpolished stone implements, in one of the caves in the
+same neighborhood.
+
+In 1873 and 1874, M. Riviere was again so fortunate as to discover, in
+neighboring caves, the remains of three persons, two of them those of
+children. The skeletons were in the same condition, and decked with
+similar ornaments, as those he had previously discovered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+
+Happily for the Archaeo-geologist, there is given him a point from which
+to start in his researches into the antiquity of his race. Without it
+his calculations would be very indefinite and his efforts would be shorn
+of much of their interest. The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind
+of both the geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may
+not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages and number
+the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more importance, in this
+investigation, than an understanding of the condition of the earth prior
+to the glacial, and the knowledge of the date and length of this epoch.
+
+For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been preparing itself
+for the reception of man. There was an abundance of game, the forests
+were beautiful, the domestic animals had made their appearance, the
+climate was warm, the soil rich, and the coal had been formed.
+Everything seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who
+had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were fierce and
+savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but a motive power to stir
+man to action and develop the resources of his mind. Should he fail for
+a time to overcome the wild beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow
+recesses of the earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished.
+The earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the
+devastations of water, and now her long summer must come to an end. The
+arctic regions had been growing colder and colder, and the change was
+felt in the countries to the south. The northern animals were being
+clothed with a hairy or woolly garment for their protection. The aspect
+began to be forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy,
+but foreboded he should perish along with the many species of animals
+that were gradually succumbing to the cold. Great fields of ice were
+slowly accumulating at both the poles, and at last, by the power of
+their great weight, assisted by some geographical changes, began to move
+toward the equator, crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either
+driving before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their
+relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The mountains groaned
+under the enormous weight of ice. Their heads were scarred, their sides
+bruised, torn and cut. The icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of
+earth, the lowing of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed
+before the sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal
+heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The northern ice
+was broken up by the time it reached latitude 39 deg. North America, leaving
+its indelible traces in the bowlders, gravel, beds of sand and clay
+which mark its course. In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south
+as Spain and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions extended as
+far as latitude 41 deg. south.
+
+_Fauna of Europe._--Among the Fauna may be mentioned the gigantic
+elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now
+exist, which roamed in herds over England, and extended across the
+Siberian plains and from Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned
+rhinoceroses wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests.
+Hippopotamuses inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear,
+which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave-tiger, twice
+as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the animals of less strength
+than themselves. Troops of hyenas, larger than those of South America,
+disputed with other beasts of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and
+leopard found retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable
+carnivorous animal called _Machairodus_, about the size of a tiger, and
+from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth, must have been a very
+destructive creature. The lemming and the musk ox found a home, and the
+wild horse pranced about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great
+Irish elks swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been very
+numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs and
+marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there was also a species of
+gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant, that subsisted on the
+plains. All these animals followed the retreat of the glaciers and some
+of them were in close proximity to the ice.
+
+_Geological Period._--The glacial epoch occurred during the geological
+period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary had gradually passed
+away and its time had been recorded on the pages of geological history.
+A new epoch began to dawn. This was the epoch of ice, the birth and
+almost the childhood of the post-tertiary.
+
+_Probable Date._--In discussing the probable date of the glacial epoch,
+Sir Charles Lyell says, "The attempt to assign a chronological value to
+any of our geological periods except the latest, must, in the present
+state of science, be hopeless. Nevertheless, independently of all
+astronomical considerations, it must, I think, be conceded that the
+period required for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its
+duration when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was
+subject, as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the 'great thaw' or
+disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where the snow was once
+perpetual, required not tens but hundreds of thousands of years. Less
+time would not suffice for the changes in physical geography and organic
+life of which we have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not
+appear startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have been
+two hundred thousand years ago, although this date must be considered
+as very conjectural, and one which may be as likely to err in deficiency
+of time as in excess."[6]
+
+Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations made by Mr.
+Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers in excavating valleys
+and lowering the general level of the country, says, "As regards the
+higher districts, however, his data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we
+apply them to the valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two
+hundred feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the
+palaeolithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hundred and forty
+thousand years."[7]
+
+Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says, in speaking
+of the time required to excavate the gorge of Niagara River, that "on
+both sides of the gorge near the whirlpool, and also at Goat Island,
+there are beds of recent lake shells ... the same kinds that live in
+still water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found in
+the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters, when these
+beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirlpool. A tooth of a
+mastodon (_M. giganteus_) has been found in the same beds. This locates
+the time in the Champlain epoch.... Six miles of the gorge have been
+excavated since that mastodon was alive....
+
+"There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool through the
+Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of Lewiston. This
+valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch, and this blocking up
+of the channel may have compelled it to open a new passage.
+
+"If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we can ascertain
+the probable rate of progress, we may approximate to the length of time
+it required. Hall and Lyell estimated the average rate at one foot a
+year,--which is certainly large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of
+the falls, that it was 'more nearly three feet a century than three feet
+a year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will have
+required over thirty-one thousand years; if at one inch a year--which is
+eight and one third feet a century--three hundred and eighty thousand
+years."[8]
+
+The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch. As this epoch
+was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be either thrown still
+farther back, or else allow the calculations to begin with the end of
+the glacial.
+
+_Probable Duration._--Lyell has attempted to form an estimate of the
+duration of the glacial epoch by considering "the most simple series of
+changes in physical geography which can possibly account for the
+phenomena of the glacial period," and enumerates as follows:
+
+"First, a continental period, toward the close of which the forest of
+Cromer flourished; when the land was at least five hundred feet above
+its present level, perhaps much higher, and its extent probably greater
+than that given in the map, Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the
+British Isles are connected with one another, and with the
+continent--the German Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry
+land).
+
+"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land north of the
+Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, was gradually reduced
+to an archipelago; and finally to such a general prevalence of sea as is
+seen in map, Fig. 39." (This map is intended to represent the British
+Isles as they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged to two
+thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one thousand three hundred
+feet.) "This was the period of submergence and of floating ice, when the
+Scandinavian flora, which occupied the lower grounds during the first
+continental period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only
+lands not covered with perpetual snow.
+
+"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the glacial sea,
+with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid dry, and when the
+quantity of land equalled that of the first period.... During this
+period there were glaciers in the higher mountains of Scotland and
+Wales....
+
+"The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand four hundred
+feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require fifty-six thousand
+years, at the rate of two and a half feet per century; but taking
+Professor Ramsay's estimate of eight hundred feet more, that depression
+being required for the deposition of some of the stratified drift, we
+must demand an additional period of thirty-two thousand years, amounting
+in all to eighty-eight thousand; and the same time would be required for
+the reelevation of the tract to its present height. But if the land rose
+in the second continental period no more than six hundred above the
+present level ... this ... would have taken another twenty-six thousand
+years; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the submergence
+and reemergence, having taken, in round numbers, two hundred and
+twenty-four thousand years for its completion; and this, even if there
+were no pause or stationary period, when the downward movement ceased,
+and before it was converted into an upward one."[9]
+
+Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet per century is
+a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and there are cases where the
+change is even six feet a century, yet the average rate of motion, he
+thinks, will not exceed that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock
+believes most geologists will agree.[10]
+
+By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon which a
+calculation can be made as to the time when this epoch began. At the
+time of the most intense cold the eccentricity of the earth's orbit
+was .0575; the difference in millions of miles between the greatest and
+least distances of the earth from the sun 10-1/2; the number of days by
+which winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in
+perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest summer month in
+the latitude of London when the summer occurs in perihelion, 113 deg.; the
+mean temperature of the coldest winter month in the latitude of London
+when the winter occurs in aphelion, 0 deg. 7'. Sixty thousand years later
+the eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332; the difference of
+distance in millions of miles was 6; number of winter days in
+excess, 16.1; mean of hottest month in latitude of London, 95 deg., and mean
+of coldest month 12 deg.. It is evident then at this time (one hundred and
+fifty thousand years ago) a "great thaw" had taken place and the
+glaciers driven back, although fifty thousand years later less intense
+cold set in again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great
+thaw" from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme point to have
+been two hundred and ten thousand years ago, then one hundred and eighty
+thousand years ago the glaciers had become so broken up as to allow
+vegetation to spring up in many localities, and the wild beasts to
+partially reassert their dominion. If to this be added the time required
+for the duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four
+thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumulate was four
+hundred and four thousand years ago. But if the tables of Mr. Croll be
+correct, their beginning could not have been earlier than three hundred
+and fifty thousand years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit
+varied but little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand
+years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.[11]
+
+During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have melted very
+rapidly,[12] for great rivers were formed, and the water pouring down
+its icy bed sought other streams, and on the bosom of the earth swept
+away loose sediment, depositing it along the course of rivers and in
+caves of the earth, covering the remains of man along with those of
+animals that perished during the long winter of ice.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2. STREAM ISSUING FROM A GLACIER.]
+
+_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--The traces of man in the deposits
+made during the glacial epoch are numerous. Out of the many, the most
+noted will be given, with a view to their chronological order.
+
+In all probability the very oldest implements of the post-tertiary, and
+consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch, if not of the pliocene,
+are those found in the south of Hampshire, between Gosport and
+Southampton. They came from a tabular mass of drift which caps the
+tertiary strata. "The great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary
+strata, in which these implements have been found, consists in most
+places of half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded
+pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata.... Many of them exhibit the
+same colors and ochreous stain as do the flints in the gravel in which
+they lay."
+
+West of the Southampton estuary, "on both sides of the opening at
+Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have been met with in the
+gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel from which the flint tool was
+taken at Bournemouth is about one hundred feet above the level of the
+sea.... The gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from
+tertiary strata."
+
+The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top of the Foreland
+cliff "is of the true palaeolithic type, and the gravel in which it is
+imbedded at the height of about eighty feet above the level of the sea,
+may have once extended to the cliffs near Gosport; in which case we
+should have to infer that the channel called the Solent had not yet
+been scooped out when this region was inhabited by palaeolithic man."[13]
+
+It may be safely inferred that the implements in the above three
+enumerations were imbedded at about the same time.
+
+The flint implements from the valley of the Somme, which have been of so
+much interest, and convinced so many sceptical geologists, belong to the
+early part of this epoch. This valley may be represented by Fig. 3.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3. SECTION ACROSS THE SOMME IN PICARDY.
+
+    1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, _a_.
+
+    2. Lower level gravel, with elephants' bones and flint tools
+       covered with fluviatile loam, twenty to forty feet thick.
+
+    3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam.
+       In all thirty feet thick.
+
+    4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick.
+
+    5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches.]
+
+In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that No. 2
+indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher ones, which are
+from eighty to one hundred feet above the river. Of a later date than
+these is the peat, No. 1, which is from ten to thirty feet in thickness.
+Underneath the peat is a bed of gravel, _a_, from three to fourteen feet
+thick, resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and the peat
+is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of the valley of the
+Somme is a pretty fair representation of the arrangements of the
+different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and and St. Acheul.
+
+In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked by 2 and 3.
+The two are separated by a layer of fresh-water deposits, which contains
+river shells and is sometimes as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower,
+or gray diluvium, (No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the
+glaciers of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immediately
+upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint hatchets, together
+with the bones of the mammoth and fossil rhinoceros.
+
+In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, the following
+figure is given.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4. SECTION OF A GRAVEL-PIT AT ST. ACHEUL.
+
+    1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick.
+
+    2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few
+       angular flints.
+
+    3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and
+       fresh-water shells, covered with a thin layer of angular gravel
+       from one to two feet thick.
+
+    4. A bed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled
+       tertiary pebbles. In this bed the flint implements are chiefly
+       found--ten to fourteen feet thick.
+
+    5. Formation of chalk.
+        _a._ Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface.
+        _b._ Entire molar of mammoth (_E primigenius_), seventeen feet
+             from surface.
+        _c._ Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface.
+        _d._ Gravel projecting five feet.]
+
+At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of flint
+implements. Some of them have the shape of a spear-head, and are over
+seven inches in length. The oval-shaped hatchets are so rude in some
+instances as to require a practised eye to decide their human origin. In
+the same bed are found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the
+centre. Dr. Rigollot has suggested that these perforated stones or
+gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung together as beads.
+
+In this bed, No. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was found a
+mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth, in densely compressed
+gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an oval form.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ST. ACHEUL.
+
+    Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches
+    long.
+
+      _a._ Side view.
+      _b._ Same seen edgewise.
+
+    "These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number,
+    proportionally to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St.
+    Acheul, than in any of the lower gravels in the valley of the
+    Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates, especially at
+    Abbeville."--_Antiquity of Man_, p. 114.]
+
+That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown, not only from
+the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also from the great blocks of
+hard sandstone, some of which are over four feet in diameter. These
+large fragments not only abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and
+lower level gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but
+they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old diluvium occurs.
+All of these sandstones have been derived from the tertiary strata which
+once covered the chalk.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. FLINT IMPLEMENT FROM ABBEVILLE.
+
+    _a._ Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half
+         size of original, which is five and a half inches long, from
+         a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio-marine stratum.
+
+    _b._ Same seen edgewise.
+
+    _c._ Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point
+         _a_, or near the top. This portion of the tool, _c_, is drawn
+         of the natural size, the black central part being the unaltered
+         flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed
+         by discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made.
+
+    The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first
+    shaped, and the bleaching to such a depth must have been the
+    work of time, whether produced by exposure to the sun and air
+    before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep in the
+    soil.--_Antiquity of Man._]
+
+As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the same as those of
+St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what has already been said will
+apply to them. These implements have been found in these localities in
+great numbers, as several thousand of them already taken from the beds
+will amply testify.
+
+From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes, at Abbeville,
+and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the celebrated human bone
+known as the _jaw_ of Moulin-Quignon. It was cotemporary with the axes,
+and undoubtedly some of the flint implements there found were fashioned
+by the man of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part.
+
+This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as displaying "a
+tendency toward the animal structure in the shortness and breadth of the
+ascending ramus (the perpendicular portion of the lower jaw), the equal
+height of the two apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a
+continuous part of the body of the bone), the indication of prognathism
+(projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse angle at which the ramus
+joins the body of the bone.[14]
+
+Near the same locality other human bones were discovered Which presented
+the same characteristics.
+
+Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint implements could be
+found in the valley of the Seine, in beds similar to those of Abbeville,
+the antiquaries were soon rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction
+was fulfilled. M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of
+implements in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains
+of animals of that period.
+
+The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is very similar to
+those of Abbeville. "First, vegetable soil; then about twenty-five feet
+of sand and pebbles, under which was a layer of sandy loam, in which,
+during the year 1850, a complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered.
+Underneath this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in which
+some flint axes, very closely resembling those of Amiens, have been
+discovered."[15]
+
+The remains of man are also preserved in caverns associated with the
+fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, cave-bear,
+and other extinct quadrupeds. Among these should be noticed Kent's Hole,
+which has furnished a mine of wealth. Of his discoveries Godwin-Austen
+says: "Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and knives of
+flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout the entire
+thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded on condition,
+distribution, or relative position can be observed, whereby the human
+can be separated from the other reliquiae," which included bones of the
+mammoth (_E. primigenius_), rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_), cave-bear
+(_Ursus spelaeus_), cave-hyena (_H. spelaeus_), and other mammalia. These
+researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had never been
+disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance, were procured from
+undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick covering of stalagmite; and
+all these must have been introduced before the stalagmite flooring had
+been formed.[16] These specimens of man's handicraft were found far
+below the stalagmite floor.[17] Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brixham
+Cave. The following gives the general succession of deposits forming the
+contents of the cavern:
+
+1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches in
+thickness.
+
+2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to fifteen feet in
+thickness.
+
+3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet in depth.
+
+In the second layer there were found the remains of the mammoth,
+rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, reindeer, and seven other
+species. Indiscriminately mixed with these bones were found many flint
+knives, but chiefly from the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth,
+varying in depth from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of
+these cannot be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no
+other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was
+discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every bone in
+its natural position. From the bone earth there were taken fifteen
+knives, recognized, by the experienced antiquaries, as having been
+artificially formed. In the lowest gravel, underlying all, there were
+found imperfect specimens of flint knives. The fine layer of mud was
+deposited by the slow but regular action of water. Since these layers
+were formed the stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its
+former level.[18]
+
+On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are terraces of
+gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on the left bank, one of
+these terraces projects into the alluvial plain of the Meuse. During the
+construction of the canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty
+feet. The upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty feet
+of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks, and bones of
+elephants, together with those of other mammalia, and a human lower jaw
+with teeth, were found in or near this gravel. The human jaw was at a
+depth of nineteen feet from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam,
+beneath a stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the
+gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was intact and had
+never been disturbed. But the jaw was somewhat isolated, and the nearest
+fossil object was the tusk of an elephant six yards distant, though on a
+horizontal plane. This fossil is probably older than that discovered at
+Lahr. It was probably covered just before the gush of the water when it
+first began to flow from the gorges and had washed the ground at some
+distance from the ice.[19]
+
+The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the Rhine, near Lahr,
+was found in nearly a horizontal position, but in such a manner as to
+forbid the idea of sepulchre. These bones were exhumed from a
+perpendicular cliff of solid loess, about five feet high. The town of
+Lahr is situated four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the
+Rhine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the Schutter,
+flowing from the Black Forest.
+
+In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the the loess is two
+hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty feet above the Schutter. At
+Lahr it has been denuded so as to form a succession of terraces on the
+right bank. It was in the lowest of these from which the skeleton was
+taken. Immediately below this bed there were found pebbles, and still
+lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of sandstone
+and gneiss from the Black Forest.
+
+There are several interesting facts connected with this discovery. M.
+Boue considers that the loess of the Lahr is continuous with that of the
+Rhine, and before the loess had been denuded there was not less than
+eighty feet of loamy deposit above the human skeleton. The glaciers had
+deposited their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melting of
+them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then when the torrents
+poured forth from the glaciers the loam was formed without the pebbles.
+The unfortunate man, whose remains were found, was buried far beneath
+the surface, during the very first part of the course of the violent
+streams pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then on
+the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim while on the
+chase.[20]
+
+The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone similar to the
+Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a river deposit of loam covered with
+a layer of stalagmite, and at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface.
+Associated with it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired
+rhinoceros, and flint implements. These implements present the same type
+as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a human ulna, two
+human teeth, and a fragment of a worked reindeer born. This jaw-bone is
+very thick, round in form, and the projection of the chin is almost
+entirely absent. The chin is said to hold an intermediate position
+between that of the animals and those of the present race of men. The
+cavities for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one of
+the most remarkable things is that the three molars are reversed, that
+is the first true molar is the smallest, and the last the largest. The
+inner surface of the jaw at the point of the suture or symphysis, forms
+a line obliquely directed upwards. Taking the jaw all in all, it is the
+most ape-like human jaw ever discovered.[21]
+
+The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three different layers
+or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a half in depth. The second
+was clay, seven and a half feet thick. The third, a bed of sand, with
+shells one foot in thickness. The fourth layer, containing the
+implements was a bed of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these
+flints was so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and
+thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account of the great
+number, this spot might have been the place where they were
+manufactured. Their date is not coeval with the bowlder clay, but
+undoubtedly belong, to the last of this epoch.
+
+The human bones found in the loess of the Rhine, near Colmar, were two
+fossilized fragments of the skull. They were found in undisturbed soil
+along with the fossil bones of the extinct species of mammoth, horse,
+gigantic deer, aurochs, and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull
+"showed a depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches,
+and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called _dolichocephalic_,
+or long-headed form."[22] These remains date so near the end of the
+glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GLACIAL EPOCH--CONTINUED.
+
+
+_Belgian Caverns._--The relics discovered by Dr. Schmerling, in the
+caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time of the retreat of the
+glaciers. The glaciers were still in existence, but their receding had
+freed immense tracts of land, and the space they now covered was small
+in proportion to their former extent. Whether it be considered or not,
+that vegetation greatly nourished and the great wild beasts were rapidly
+increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is, floods must have
+succeeded or followed closely upon the retreat of the ice. Many remains,
+referred to the glacial epoch, may in reality, have occupied the time of
+the floods occurring just previous to the commencement of the
+inter-glacial.
+
+The Belgian Caverns, near Liege, either belong exactly to the ice, or
+else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers the older monuments of
+the palaeolithic period to be the rude implements found in ancient river
+gravel and in the mud and stalagmite caves.[23] Caves of this
+description are those reported on by Dr. Schmerling.
+
+The caverns of the province of Liege were not the dens of wild beasts,
+but their contents had been swept in by the action of water. The bones
+of man "were of the same color, and in the same condition as to the
+amount of animal matter contained in them, as those of the accompanying
+animals, some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and
+rhinoceros, were extinct; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild boar,
+roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils were lighter
+than fresh bones, except such as had their pores filled with carbonate
+of lime, in which case they were often much heavier. The human remains
+of most frequent occurrence were teeth detached from the jaw, and the
+carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones separated
+from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding bones of the cave-bear,
+the most abundant of the accompanying mammalia, were also found in the
+Liege caverns more commonly than any others, and in the same scattered
+condition."[24] In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a
+triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud. Dr.
+Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he was engrossed in
+his osteological inquiries. The human bones were met with at all depths,
+in the cave mud and gravel, both above and below those of the extinct
+mammalia.
+
+The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalagmite.[25] In the
+cavern at Chokier there occur "three distinct beds of stalagmite, and
+between each of them a mass of breccia, and mud mixed with quartz
+pebbles, and in the three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds."[26]
+
+
+FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE.
+
+The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited at a depth of
+about five feet, under an osseous breccia containing a tusk of the
+rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the remains of small animals.
+The breccia was about three and one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the
+height of about five feet above the floor of the cavern. In the earth
+which contained the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides,
+the teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no marks
+of the earth having been disturbed.
+
+There was also found the cranium of a young person, in the floor of the
+cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. When first observed, the skull was
+entire, but fell to pieces when removed from its position. Besides these
+there were found a fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar
+teeth worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man; two
+vertebrae, a first and last dorsal; a clavicle of the left side,
+belonging to a young individual of great stature; two fragments of the
+radius, indicating a man of ordinary height; a fragment of an ulna: some
+metacarpal bones; six metatarsal, three phalanges of the hand and one of
+the foot.
+
+Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone implement incrusted
+with stalagmite and joined to a stone.
+
+Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As Professor
+Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed, and the facial
+bones are entirely absent; but the roof of the cranium, consisting of
+the frontal, parietal, and the greater part of the occipital bones, as
+far as the middle of the occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The
+left temporal bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the
+immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mastoid process, and
+a considerable portion of the squamous element of the temporal, are well
+preserved."
+
+A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to have missed,
+has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium by Dr. Spring, the
+accomplished anatomist of Liege.
+
+"The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man. The extreme
+length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme breadth, which
+corresponds very nearly with the interval between the parietal
+protuberances, is not more than 5.4 inches. The proportion of the length
+to the breadth is therefore very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn
+from the point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the nose,
+and which is called the 'glabella' (_a_, Fig. 8), to the occipital
+protuberance (_d_), and the distance to the highest point of the arch of
+the skull be measured perpendicularly from this line, it will be
+found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed from above, the forehead presents an
+evenly rounded curve, and passes into the contour of the sides and back
+of the skull, which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7. PROFESSOR T. H. HUXLEY.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FOUND IN THE CAVE
+  OF ENGIS.
+
+    _a._ Superciliary ridge and glabella.
+    _b._ Coronal suture.
+    _d._ The occipital protuberance.]
+
+"The front view shows that the roof of the skull was very regularly and
+elegantly arched in the transverse direction, and that the transverse
+diameter was a little less below the parietal protuberances, than above
+them. The forehead cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of
+the skull, nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the contrary,
+the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so that the
+distance along that contour, from the nasal depression to the occipital
+protuberance, measures about 13.75 inches. The transverse arc of the
+skull, measured from one auditory foramen to the other, across the
+middle of the sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture
+itself is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow-ridges
+(_a_) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are separated by a
+median depression. Their principal elevation is disposed so obliquely
+that I judge them to be due to large frontal sinuses. If a line joining
+the glabella and the occipital protuberance (_a_, _d_, Fig. 8) be made
+horizontal, no part of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth
+of an inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper
+edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line drawn
+parallel with this upon the outer surface of the skull."[27]
+
+Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at variance with
+those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock reports him as saying, "There
+is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure. It is, in
+fact, a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a
+philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a
+savage."[28] Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor
+Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead was somewhat
+narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by the skulls of individuals of
+European race."[29]
+
+Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against Huxley. The first
+says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that this cranium has belonged to a
+person of limited intellectual faculties, and we conclude thence that it
+belonged to a man of a low degree of civilization."[30] "From the
+narrowness of the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small
+intellectual development."[31] Buchner says, "In its length and
+narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of the widely
+separated orbits and the well developed supra-orbital arches, it
+resembles, especially when viewed from above, the celebrated Neanderthal
+skull, but in general is far superior to this in its structure."[32]
+Carl Vogt "regards it, with reference to the proportion of length to
+breadth, as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of
+skulls."[33]
+
+The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise from the failure
+to observe the fact that the older the formation in which a skull is
+found, the lower is the type. The ordinary observer, judging by the cast
+of the skull, would see nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would
+fail to see any indications of a philosopher.
+
+
+NEANDERTHAL SKULL.
+
+The Neanderthal skull was taken from a small cave or grotto in-the
+valley of the Duessel, near Duesseldorf, situated about seventy miles
+north-east of the region of the Liege caverns. The grotto is in a deep
+ravine sixty feet above the river, one hundred feet below the surface of
+the country, and at a distance of about ten feet from the Duessel River.
+It is fifteen feet deep from the entrance (_f_), which is seven or eight
+feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it opened upon a narrow
+plateau lying in front. The floor of the cave was covered four or five
+feet in thickness with a deposit of mud or loam, and containing some
+rounded fragments of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit,
+first noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in met
+with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded as of any
+importance, at the time of their discovery, only the larger ones have
+been preserved.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9. SECTION OF THE NEANDERTHAL CAVE.
+
+    _a._ Cavern sixty feet above the Duessel, and one hundred feet
+         below the surface of the country at _c_.
+
+    _b._ Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which
+         the human skeleton was found.
+
+    _c_, _a_. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the
+              country.
+
+    _d._ Superficial sandy loam.
+
+    _e._ Devonian limestone.
+
+    _f._ Terrace, or ledge of rock.]
+
+Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological time of these
+bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the mud or loam in which the
+skeleton was found, and no other bones met with save the tusk of a bear.
+There is no certain data given whereby its position may be known.
+Professor Huxley declares that the bones "indicate a very high
+antiquity."[34] Buchner is very positive in his statement, and declares
+that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves of the Neanderthal
+and the clefts and fissures of its limestone mountains, and in which
+both the Neanderthal bones and the fossil bones and teeth of animals
+were imbedded, is exactly the same that, in the caverns of the
+Neanderthal, covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten
+to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which is
+unmistakable."[35] Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and general
+arrangement of the locality in which they were found, place it, in my
+judgment, beyond doubt that the bones belong to the diluvium, and
+therefore to primitive times, _i. e._ they come down to us from a period
+of the past when our native country was still inhabited by various kinds
+of animals, especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since
+disappeared out of the series of living creatures."[36]
+
+The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is still further
+confirmed by the discoveries made, in the summer of 1865, in the
+Teufelskammer. This cavern is situated one hundred and thirty paces from
+the one in which the human bones were found, and on the same side of the
+river.. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous fossil
+bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, and other
+extinct animals. "A great part of these bones, especially those of the
+cave-bears, agree in color, weight, density, and the preservation of
+their microscopic structure, with the human bones found in the
+Feldhofner Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both are
+covered with the same _dendrites_, or tree-like markings."[37]
+
+Before entering into a description and discussion of this remarkable
+skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be given. All the bones
+are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great development
+of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The
+two thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus and
+radius; the upper third of the right ulna; the left ulna complete,
+though pathologically deformed, the coronoid process being so much
+enlarged by bony growth that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle
+was impossible; the left humerus is much slenderer than the right, and
+the upper third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the
+coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at the same time,
+the olecranon process is curved strongly downwards. The indications are
+that an injury sustained during life was the cause of this defect. There
+was an ilium, almost perfect; a fragment of the right scapula; the
+anterior extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder portions
+and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the ribs of a carnivorous
+animal than those of man. This abnormal condition has arisen from the
+powerful development of the thoracic muscles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10. SIDE VIEW OF THE HUMAN SKULL FROM FELDHOFNER
+  CAVE, IN THE NEANDERTHAL, NEAR DUeSSELDORF.
+
+    _a._ The superciliary ridge and glabella.
+    _c._ The apex of the lambdoidal suture.
+    _b._ The coronal suture.
+    _d._ The occipital protuberance.]
+
+The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. "It has an extreme
+length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 5-3/4 inches, or in other
+words, its length is to its breadth as 100 is to 72. It is exceedingly
+depressed, measuring only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital
+line to the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way as in
+the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc cannot be exactly
+ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the temporal bones, but
+was probably about the same, and certainly exceeded 10-1/4 inches. The
+horizontal circumference is 23 inches. But this great circumference
+arises largely from the vast development of the superciliary ridges,
+though the perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large
+superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating appearance
+than its internal contour would bear out. To an anatomical eye the
+posterior part of the skull is even more striking than the anterior. The
+occipital protuberance occupies the extreme posterior end of the skull,
+when the glabello-occipital line is made horizontal, and so far from any
+part of the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the
+skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lambdoidal suture
+is situated well upon the upper surface of the cranium. At the same
+time, notwithstanding the great length of the skull, the sagittal suture
+is remarkably short (4-1/2 inches) and the squamosal suture is very
+straight."[38] ... "The cranium, in its present condition, contains
+about sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire skull
+could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches more, its minimum
+capacity may be estimated at seventy-five cubic inches.... It has
+certainly not undergone compression, and, in reply to the suggestion
+that the skull is that of an idiot, it may be urged that the _onus
+probandi_ lies with those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible
+with very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know of
+none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal skull."[39]
+
+Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape-like of all the
+human skulls he has ever seen, and in its examination ape-like
+characters are met with in all its parts.[40] Buchner says that the face
+of the Neanderthal man must have presented a frightfully bestial and
+savage, or ape-like expression (see frontispiece).[41] Professor
+Schaaffhausen and Mr. Busk have stated that "this skull is the most
+brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of the apes not only
+in the prodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the
+forward extension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form
+of the brain-case, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in
+the complete retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the
+superior occipital ridges."[42]
+
+Professor Schaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this skull as a
+race-type, and Professor Huxley has said "that it truly forms only the
+extreme member of a series leading by slow degrees to the highest and
+best developed forms of human skulls."[43]
+
+That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact that it is not
+an isolated case. The fragment of the skull from the loess of the Rhine
+(Alsace), by its depressed forehead and strongly projecting superciliary
+arches, greatly resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the
+calcareous tuff of Constatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong
+superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal.[44] The cranium found in
+bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar), "resembles, in all
+essential particulars, including its great thickness, the far-famed
+Neanderthal skull. Its discovery adds immensely to the scientific value
+of the Neanderthal specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not
+represent, as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual
+peculiarity, but that it may have been characteristic of a race
+extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules."[45] In speaking of
+the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaaffhausen says, "It is worthy of
+notice that a similar, although smaller projection of the superciliary
+arches has generally been found in the skulls of savage races.... The
+remarkably small skull from the graves on the island of Moen, examined
+by Professor Eschricht; the two human skulls, described by Dr. Kutorga,
+from the government of Minsk (Russia), one of which, especially, shows a
+great resemblance to the Neanderthal skull; the human skeleton found
+near Plau, in Mecklenburg, in a very ancient grave, in a squatting
+position, ... the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when
+man stood on a very low grade of development;" and other similar
+discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls likewise presenting short,
+retreating foreheads and projecting eyebrows.[46]
+
+Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, belonging to the
+stone age of Denmark, "show a great resemblance to the Neanderthal
+skull, a resemblance which is manifested in the depression of the
+cranium, the receding forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent
+superciliary ridges."[47]
+
+_Human Skull of Arno._--The human skull, found by Professor Cocchi in
+the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in diluvial clay, together with
+various bones of extinct species of animals, is considered by Carl Vogt
+to be of like antiquity with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls.[48]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.
+
+
+The age immediately preceding the glacial, and consequently the
+post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch, the last of the tertiary.
+
+The tertiary period began with the close of the cretaceous. A map of the
+early tertiary period would represent parts of Maryland, Virginia, the
+Carolinas, Georgia, the whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama,
+Mississippi, Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory
+on both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with
+water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and the western part
+of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly course until it emptied into the
+Pacific. In Europe, the great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of
+chalk), the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium,
+Holland, Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern Russia,
+as one vast sheet of water. England and France were connected by a band
+of rocks.
+
+About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and tropical fauna
+and flora spread over the whole of Europe. Palms, cedars, laurels, and
+cinnamon trees flourished in the valleys of Switzerland, and more than
+thirty different species of oak adorned the forests of that time.
+
+In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty species of
+crocodiles; many species of snakes, one twenty feet long; a dozen
+species of birds; tapirs (_Palaeothere_ and _Lophiodon_), two species of
+hogs, some ruminants and rodents.
+
+In the miocene, among _Pachyderms_ may be mentioned the mastodon,
+elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhinoceros, hog, horse,
+tapir, and hippopotamus; among _Carnivores_, the machairodus, hyena,
+lion, and dog; among _Ruminants_, the camel, deer, and antelope. There
+were monkeys, and many other animals.
+
+In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the bear, hare, and
+other animals.
+
+In the tertiary beds of America have been found mastodons, elephants,
+rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves, horses, whales, and other
+mammalia.
+
+Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected that many traces
+of man will be discovered in this early period.
+
+Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable that man lived
+in the pliocene; but in relation to miocene time, he says, "Had some
+other rational being, representing man, then flourished, some signs of
+his existence could hardly have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of
+implements of stone or metal, more frequent and more durable than the
+osseous remains of any of the mammalia."[49] Sir J. Lubbock, while
+admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther and says,
+"If man constitutes a separate family of mammalia, as he does in the
+opinion of the highest authorities, then, according to all
+palaeontological analogies, he must have had representatives in miocene
+times. We need not, however, expect to find the proofs in Europe; our
+nearest relatives in the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to
+tropical climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely
+to find the earliest traces of the human race."[50] Alfred R. Wallace
+out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says, "We are enabled to
+place the origin of man at a much more remote geological epoch than has
+yet been thought possible. He may even have lived in the miocene or
+eocene period, when not a single mammal was identical in form with any
+existing species."[51]
+
+Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of geologists have
+settled the question of tertiary man; and the "signs of his existence,"
+in the "shape of implements of stone," as demanded by Lyell, have been
+furnished.
+
+_Man in the Pliocene._--It has already been intimated that the evidences
+of man are but few in this early epoch. The first example, in the
+following list, borders closely on the glacial, but far enough removed
+as to be referred to the pliocene.
+
+In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and Gothenburg it was
+necessary to cut through one of those hills called _osars_, or erratic
+blocks, which were deposited by the drift-ice during the glacial epoch.
+Beneath an immense accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there
+was discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about
+sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the middle
+of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than that of man could
+have performed the work.[52]
+
+In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of Savonia in
+Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which presented all the
+physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr. Buchner is of the opinion
+that before these bones can be employed as satisfactory evidence they
+must have a more accurate test by scientific authorities.[53]
+
+In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Desnoyers found
+traces of human action on the bones of animals belonging to the
+tertiary. These fractures are analogous to those of human action
+observed on bones from the glacial period, and identical with those made
+by northern tribes of the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The
+marked bones found were those of the Southern elephant (_E.
+meridionalis_), rhinoceros (_R. leptorinus_), hippopotamus major,
+several species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states that this
+discovery is not only genuine, but also, the formation in which the
+bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is further characterized by
+the presence of the southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_). As this
+elephant became extinct before the glacial age, the bones consequently
+precede the glacial, and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and
+tichorrhine rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages,
+confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.[54]
+
+The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a doubt by the more
+recent discoveries of Abbe Bourgeois. In the same tertiary strata of St.
+Prest, in which were found the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois
+discovered worked flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers.[55]
+
+A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by James Matson, at
+Altaville, in Calaveras county, California, at a depth of one hundred
+and thirty feet, under five beds of gravel separated by five layers of
+lava, associated with the bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and
+horse. The base of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and
+small pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles that of
+the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness.[56]
+
+_Man in the Miocene._[57]--M. Bourgeois has found, in a stratum of
+miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints, and other flints which
+have been subjected to the action of heat. These works of man were
+associated with the remains of the acerotherium (an extinct species
+allied to the rhinoceros), and beneath five distinct beds, one of which
+contained the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium.[58]
+
+M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship in the miocene
+beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with the remains of _dinotherium
+giganteum_, and _machaerodus latidens_.[59]
+
+M. Bourgeois reports that Abbe Delaunay had found near Pouance
+(Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a _halitherium_ (an herbivorous
+cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of having been operated
+upon by cutting instruments.[60]
+
+In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming territories,
+chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and wrought shells have been
+found.[61]
+
+_Eocene._--As yet geologists have failed to discover any traces of man
+in the Eocene epoch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.
+
+
+Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no precise
+knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of his birth is generally
+supposed to be in Central Asia. There the geologist looks with a longing
+eye, and hopes ultimately to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the
+birth-place of his race, but also, how or through what natural process
+he sprang into existence.
+
+If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and Central Asia
+the place of his nativity, then he was ushered upon the scene of life
+during the period of, and surrounded by, the numerous fauna of India, At
+this time her mammalia included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven
+species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species), horse
+(three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species), hog (three
+species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephantine stag, having four
+horns and supposed to have had the bulk of an elephant and greater
+height), antelope, musk-deer, sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium,
+porcupine, species of hyena, lion, and many others.
+
+It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties were ordinarily
+developed, as it would not be natural to suppose he was superior to that
+of later times. Judging from the remains of later times, man could have
+been but very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose
+that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence. His food
+must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits of the tree, possibly
+with an occasional morsel of raw meat. His pillow was a stone, his
+retreat a cave or the boughs of a wide-spreading tree, and his clothing
+a natural coat of hair.
+
+In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might seem to be of
+short duration. Providence has ordered all things wisely. Placed low in
+the scale of life--brutal, selfish, prowling, yet cautious--man, by the
+very force of circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his
+mind. With the elephant and the mastodon he could not cope nor would
+they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he might fall a prey. From
+these he could flee, and find a shelter in the tops of the trees or some
+secure fastness of the earth. Learning his own strength by experience,
+he would venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly
+foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident, that a club
+was a powerful weapon with which to beat back his fierce opponent.
+Gradually he came to learn that a sharp flint driven into the end of a
+club was a safer and more deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an
+unequal contest.
+
+The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength, developed
+his muscular system. His muscles became large and tough, and his bones
+thick and heavy. The earliest type of man is generally supposed to be
+_dolichocephalic_, or long-headed. The walls of the skull were thick,
+and the crown low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and
+of great power. His make-up was the result of his surroundings.
+
+His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire length of the
+miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable. There was no revolution
+in his mind; one step in advance would have been a mighty leap. Nor
+could it be expected that there should be rapid progress. The mind was
+brutal; and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a mighty
+change. The tropical climate should change into a winter of snow and
+ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited by the new danger. His
+sluggish mind should be quickened, and the inventive genius should be
+called into action. The sun no longer could give its heat. The forests
+grew cold, the chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in
+the cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either dying of
+cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair, and retreating
+before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly looked about him. He
+suffered greatly, and his numbers grew less. Fire had been produced.
+How, no one can tell; possibly by accident. He now became more careful
+of the fire, and with brand in hand he went from place to place kindling
+the fires at the various resting-places. Nor was this sufficient. His
+ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent. Colder and colder grew the
+winds. The snow, coming in great flakes, was soon consolidated, and
+became as ice. The body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had,
+and this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must assist
+in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen animals would not
+alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives must be invented. From the
+flint rude knives were fashioned, by means of which the skins were
+removed and transferred to the bodies of men. But the long winter
+continuing, the lives of the living animals must be forfeited, both for
+the flesh and and the skins. Rude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were
+produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and cook, and rude rafts
+formed, by means of which the swelling rivers might be crossed. Then
+those stone hatchets of the Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose.
+
+Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the perils of
+ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not content with his
+conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is aroused against his
+fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly upon each other, the blood
+flows freely, the bones give way, and the weaker one has succumbed.
+There are fierce contentions over the common prey, and the strong impose
+upon the weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in
+communities; and the more daring--the hunters--having their common
+places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie with each other in
+feats of prowess.
+
+During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have remained
+unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude stone weapons. His
+time was spent, for the most part, in self-preservation. He was
+retreating before, yet bounding over, the frozen flood in pursuit of
+game. This experience must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers
+began to recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those
+stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They served against
+the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and would be of great service in
+the ages yet to come. By a little remodelling they could be used to
+greater advantage; and this change of shape was accomplished, and other
+uses of flint were made known.
+
+Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended by the relics of
+the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale which any anatomist may
+read, and even one not well skilled in the art. The primitive type is no
+mystery, and those fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone
+times.
+
+The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its structure is animal.
+Its history agrees with the generally received idea of primitive man as
+conceived by the geologist. The illustration (frontispiece) presents him
+bestial and ape-like. A powerful organization, and well adapted to those
+times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an old age, as
+the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull was very thick. The
+strong, prominent superciliary arches denote large perceptives, making
+him watchful and always on the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible
+conflict. The left arm was broken; who knows but in a contest with the
+great cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm
+dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he received a
+blow, from some source, so great as to carry away a portion of the bone.
+The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint weapon in the hand of one of his
+race, may have produced that fracture. Still he lived, and the wound
+healed. All this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside
+view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval man.
+
+The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less bestial. Possibly
+this individual did not enter upon the chase, and engage in the manly
+pursuits of those times. He may have been an adviser or a dandy; or, his
+ingenuity may have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and
+implements from the flint.
+
+In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as short,
+heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a clavicle belonging
+to a young person who must have been of great stature.
+
+The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a great tendency to
+animal structure, and confirm the impressions as given of the primitive
+condition of man during the glacial and pre-glacial ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.
+
+
+The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again. The forests bloom and
+the wild beast roams about. Many species withstood the long siege of
+cold; others perished; still others followed the ice as it retreated,
+preferring the cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man
+spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers and
+radiant with earthly splendors.
+
+The evidences of man's existence during this period are numerous,
+consisting in works of art and fossil remains. Only a few examples are
+given, as not many will be required to present the evidence and show
+man's condition.
+
+The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Dawkins, affords specimens
+of the works of man. When discovered this den was filled to the roof
+with _debris_. Under this rubbish was found several layers of the
+excrement of the cave-hyena (_H. spelaea_), each of which indicates an
+old floor and a separate period of occupation.
+
+The implements were under these layers of excrement, showing that the
+cave had been occupied by the hyenas after the time of the savages.
+These implements had not been disturbed by the action of water. In the
+bone earth along with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of
+the mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (_R. tichorrhinus_), gigantic ox (_Bos
+primigenius_), gigantic Irish deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_), reindeer,
+cave-bear, cave-lion (_Felis spelaea_), wolf (_Canis lupus_), fox (_Canis
+vulpes_), and the teeth and bones of the horse in great numbers.
+Intermixed with these bones were chipped flints, a bleached flint
+weapon of the spear-head Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11. IDEAL SCENE IN THE POST-TERTIARY.
+
+    On the right is shown the megatherium. This animal belonged to the
+    sloth tribe, and was a native of South America. It exceeded in
+    size the largest rhinocerous, and the length of its skeleton
+    sometimes attained eighteen feet. In front, near the centre, is
+    the glyptodon another South American animal of the armadillo
+    tribe. The length of its shell, along the curve, was five feet,
+    and the total length of the animal, nine feet. Just back of the
+    glypodon, and holding on to a tree, is the mylodon, belonging to
+    both North and South America, one species of which was much larger
+    than the western buffalo. On the left, and in the rear, is the
+    mastodon, the remains of which are found in both North and South
+    America, though of different species. While this scene does not
+    represent the animals with which we are dealing, yet the general
+    features give an idea of those with which we are interested.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12. SECTION OF THE SEPULCHRAL GROTTO, IN THE HILL
+  OF FAJOLES, AURIGNAC.
+
+    _a._ Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found.
+
+    _b._ Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in
+         which a few human bones, with entire bones of extinct and
+         living species of animals, and many works of art, were
+         imbedded.
+
+    _c._ Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing
+         broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and living
+         mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art; no human
+         bones.
+
+    _d._ Deposit with similar contents; also a few scattered cinders.
+
+    _e._ Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above.
+
+    _f_, _g._ Slab of rock which closed the vault.
+
+    _i_, _f._ Rabbit-burrow.
+
+    _h_, _k._ Original terrace.
+
+    _N._ Nummulitic limestone.]
+
+In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were found ashes and rude
+flint implements in a breccia containing the bones of the elephant (_E.
+antiquus_), hyena, a large bear, lion, (probably _F. spelaea_), and large
+numbers of bones belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes
+had once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was still
+cemented to the roof.
+
+The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physical condition of
+the country was different from what it is at present. The bone breccia
+cemented to the roof, and coated with stalagmite, testifies that the
+cave, at some time since the formation of the breccia, has been washed
+out. The exact time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given,
+but, in all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear,
+if not before.
+
+The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen human skeletons
+were found, was carefully examined by Lartet eight years after its
+discovery. The recess was formed in nummulitic limestone. In front of
+the grotto, and next to the limestone (_c_, Fig. 12) was a layer of
+ashes and charcoal, eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works
+of art, and broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent
+mammalia. Immediately above this layer (_d_) was another, of made
+ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto; and its contents
+similar to the other, save that within the grotto were found a few human
+bones. The grotto was closed by a slab, and the made earth without was
+covered by a talus of rubbish (_e_), washed down from the hill above.
+
+In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint instruments,
+consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones, chips, and a stone made
+for the purpose of modelling the flints. The bone implements were
+barbless arrows, a well-shaped and sharply pointed bodkin made of the
+horn of the roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides
+these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates, of a white
+shelly substance, made of some species of cockle (_cardium_), pierced
+through the middle; also the tusk of a young cave-bear, the crown of
+which had been carved in imitation of the head of a bird.
+
+The following is a list of the different species found in the layers,
+together with the approximate number of individuals belonging to each:
+
+I.--CARNIVORA.
+
+                                               Number of Individuals.
+  1. Cave Bear (_U. Spelaeus_)                                    5-6
+  2. Brown Bear (_U. arctos_)                                      1
+  3. Badger (_Meles taxus_)                                      1-2
+  4. Polecat (_Putorius vulgaris_)                                 1
+  5. Cave Lion (_Felis spelaea_)                                    1
+  6. Wild Cat (_Felis Catus ferus_)                                1
+  7. Hyena (_H. spelaea_)                                         5-6
+  8. Wolf (_Canis lupus_)                                          3
+  9. Fox (_C. vulpes_)                                         18-20
+
+II.--HERBIVORA.
+
+   1. Mammoth (_E. primigenius_)        Two molars and an astragalus.
+   2. Rhinoceros (_R. tichorrhinus_)                               1
+   3. Horse (_Equus caballus_)                                 12-15
+   4. Ass (_E. asinus_)                                            1
+   5. Boar (_Sus scrofa_)                               Two incisors.
+   6. Stag (_Cervus elephas_)                                      1
+   7. Gigantic Irish Deer (_Megaceros Hibernicus_)                 1
+   8. Roebuck (_C. capreolus_)                                   3-4
+   9. Reindeer (_C. tarandus_)                                 10-12
+  10. Aurochs (_Bison Europaeus_)                               12-15
+
+The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be split open, as
+if for the extraction of the marrow, and many of them burned. The spongy
+parts were wanting, having been gnawed off by the hyenas.
+
+M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a place of
+sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the remnants of the
+funeral feasts. This he argued from the fact that the bones within the
+grotto were not split, broken or gnawed, save the astragalus of the
+mammoth. This meat was placed in the grotto, probably as an offering to
+the dead. The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men
+were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled about the
+spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the flesh that
+remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred their entrance, and
+consequently the bones and human remains within were left untouched.
+
+The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to different
+conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a difference in the
+color of the walls of the cave, indicating that the lower deposit was of
+a yellow color, and the next above of a much lighter tint. In the
+crevices of the lower he found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the
+reindeer, and some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher
+deposit occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and a
+fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac inferred that
+the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded with that outside of it,
+and the layer containing human bones was formed at a subsequent time.
+
+That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early period is proven
+from the numerous remains of the cave-bear. This animal was one of the
+first of those great post-tertiary mammalia to become extinct. The exact
+position of the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were
+intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as the other
+layers, it would indicate that the climate was not very warm during the
+deposit of the layers, but to have been similar to that of Switzerland
+of the present day. The probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur
+in the lowest layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical
+climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were consigned to
+the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial, or beginning of the
+reindeer epoch.
+
+The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff, must be
+assigned to this period, since there have been found, in similar blocks
+of tuff in the same region, the remains of the cave-hyena and
+hippopotamus major. This fossil man consists of a frontal part of the
+skull, the upper jaw, with teeth, belonging to both an adult and young
+individual; a radius, some lumbar vertebrae, and some metatarsal bones.
+The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate into the
+more compact rock.
+
+In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of the Schusse,
+there were discovered more than six hundred split flints, with a
+quantity of partly worked antlers and bones of the reindeer. The bones
+were so numerous that Mr. Oscar Fraas was enabled to put together a
+complete skeleton of the reindeer which is now preserved in the museum
+of Stuttgart. Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of
+extracting the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and a
+fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were also the bones of
+other animals, such as the glutton, arctic fox, and other animals now
+living in high northern latitudes.
+
+Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the careful
+investigations of the geognostic conditions of the place, but also the
+flora of the time (for remains of mosses were found which now live only
+in the extreme north), leave no doubt that the reindeer station on the
+Schusse belongs to the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs
+exactly to the interval between the two glacial epochs which in all
+probability Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared this
+deposit to be _the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier_, which was
+formerly very large. Moreover, according to him, this discovery is
+particularly remarkable, because it is the first example of a station of
+the reindeer-men in a free and open deposit, their remains having
+hitherto been found only in caves."[62]
+
+From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of bones of the
+reindeer, and some show of advancement in the arts, it may be safe to
+conclude that this station belongs to the close of the inter-glacial.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.
+
+
+The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of time, covering many
+thousands of years.
+
+Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may be expected in his
+condition. His mode of life, and continued conflicts with the fierce
+wild beasts, would tax his every device. Necessity compelled him to be
+inventive. The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not
+grapple with the higher problems of existence. United efforts and
+fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those old axes of flint were
+great objects to his mind, and one step beyond them was a great stride
+in progress. That they developed but little cannot be wondered at, not
+only from their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the
+era of history there are nations whose civilization has become fixed and
+stereotyped for ages; others, who, instead of advancing, have been
+retrograding.
+
+The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted beneficially
+throughout this period. The rude axes and flints were retained, but
+improvements were made in utilizing the bones and horns of animals. Out
+of these, bodkins, fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of
+wild animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells, were
+used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling-places, being
+destitute of water, this necessary of life was supplied and carried
+thither in rude vessels made of clay and dried in the sun. The arrows,
+flint knives, and axes were used for killing and skinning the animals,
+splitting the bones containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements,
+felling trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for
+clothing, after having been softened by beating. He commenced the art of
+engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of the great cave-bear wrought on
+a curious stone found in the cave of Massat (Ariege), the bird's head
+formed from the bone of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples.
+The lower jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of
+hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves of Lherm and in
+Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them cooked his food. That he
+paid honors to the dead, and sheltered them from the ravages of beasts
+of prey, at present, must remain an open question. If he did, it might
+seem to imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is considered
+that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be inferred that
+this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an evil genius. Or it may
+be a faint idea of a ghost state and that these feasts were made to
+dissuade the ghost from molesting him. That they had a conception of a
+Supreme Ruler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man, would
+be too preposterous to believe.
+
+Professor Denton has given a description of primeval time which, by a
+little change, would represent inter-glacial times: "The seasons are
+fairly established; and spring follows winter, and fall summer, as now;
+though the summer is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in
+those countries at the present time, and the winters colder. The country
+is covered with dense forests, through which ramble mighty elephants in
+herds, with immense curved tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and
+flowing manes.... Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his
+rocky den--as large as a horse: fierce, shaggy, conscious of his
+strength, he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies the
+cave-tiger (_Felis spelaea_); and, as the wild cattle come down to drink,
+he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible combat ensues. It is as
+large as an elephant, and its horns of enormous size; and even
+cave-tigers could not always master such cattle as they.
+
+"Are these the highest forms of life that the country contains? What
+being is that sitting on yon fallen tree? His long arms are in front of
+his hairy body, and his hands between his knees; while his long legs are
+dangling down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's; his beard
+short, and like the hair of his body; the unkempt hair of his head is
+bushy and thick; his eyebrows are short and crisp; and with his sloping
+forehead and brutal countenance, he seems like the caricature of a man,
+rather than an actual human being.
+
+"Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may behold a group--one
+old man ... and women and children, lounging and lying upon the ground.
+How dirty! What forbidding countenances!--more like furies than women.
+One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from a
+neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing the trees, and
+passing from branch to branch, as they gather the wild fruit that
+abounds on every side. Some are catching fish in the shallows of the
+river, and yell with triumph as they hold their captives by the gills,
+dragging them to the shore."[63]
+
+They have improved their language, and instead of the rude signs and
+undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may now be heard short, but
+occasional sentences, which were the forerunners of the polished tongues
+of modern Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+
+The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced. The gigantic
+animals of the past age have either disappeared or are fast becoming
+extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-hyena, mammoth, and
+woolly-haired rhinoceros have almost become extinct. They have given way
+to a less fierce and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is
+announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are overrunning the
+forests of Western Europe, and extending as far south as the Pyrenees.
+In the forests there now existed the horse, bison, wild bull (_Bos
+primigenius_), musk-ox, elk, deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat,
+lemming, and many others. These animals were capable of withstanding and
+flourishing in a rigorous climate. When the glaciers were again broken
+up and the climate became warmer, the reindeer, musk-ox, elk, chamois,
+wild-goat, hamster-rat, and lemming retired to the high northern
+latitudes in close proximity to the snow, or else to the lofty summits
+of great mountain-chains.
+
+The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and that it
+immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous. The vast number of
+the reindeer bones and horns attest to a distinct epoch, and by the
+remains of arctic animals, as well as the traces of glaciers, the
+climate must have been unlike that of the present time. The remains of
+the mammoth, cave-bear, and cave-lion, would not only connect this
+period with the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers
+continued to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer
+epoch had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss
+lake-villages, or Danish shell mounds, may be shown by the weapons or
+implements which point to a more primitive people, the absence of the
+remains of the dog, and, also, by the absence of the remains of the
+reindeer in the shell-mounds.
+
+There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be told how long
+this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length of time to permit the
+reindeer to increase greatly its species.
+
+_Evidences of the Existence of Man._--M. Christy and M. Lartet examined
+in conjunction the caves of Central and Southern France. Those which
+have been most carefully examined are ten in number, and belong to the
+Department of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a
+settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the principal
+ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute, and Laugerie-Basse.
+
+At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone needle used for
+sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer horn and still fixed in a bone,
+a flint whistle made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer,
+and two slabs of schist, on both of which were scratched animal forms,
+but deficient in any special characteristic.
+
+At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and very thick,
+which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking vessel, as one side of it
+had been subjected to fire; an engraving of a reindeer on the horn of
+that animal; on another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on
+either side; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn; on
+another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human figure, and
+two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into five pieces, had an
+outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13). This was so accurately drawn
+that the small eye, curved tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane,
+could readily be distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head,
+the figure of a tadpole.
+
+There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse, where
+weapons and utensils were manufactured; and they are noted for the
+abundance of instruments made of reindeer horn. Among the works of art
+found at the latter station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle,
+spoon made in the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in
+the middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the horn
+of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is carved a
+mammoth's head; there is a representation of the hind-quarters of some
+herbivorous animal, sketched out with a bold and practiced touch; an
+animal's head, with ears laid back, and of considerable length, is
+carved on a round shaft of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for
+what purpose this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed,
+and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the harpoon of some
+chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in outline, a reindeer fight. On a
+fragment of a spear-head there is a series of human hands, provided with
+four fingers only, and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of
+fish are principally on wands of authority--on one of which is a series
+following one another.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13. SKETCH OF A MAMMOTH, GRAVEN ON A SLAB OF IVORY
+  FROM LA MADELEINE.]
+
+The cave and _rock shelters_ of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne) have been
+carefully examined by competent explorers. These relics are so numerous
+that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of the cavern, sold to the agent of
+the British Museum fifteen hundred specimens, of every description,
+which had been found on his property. In the cave there were found,
+engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and the head
+of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone, on which were
+representations of the above-mentioned animals. The engravings are
+mostly on the horn of the reindeer. The cave has also furnished two
+almost perfect human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the
+Moulin-Quignon.
+
+The _rock-shelters_ are overhanging rocks, under the projections of
+which man found a shelter and built his rude dwellings of boughs and
+sticks. In these shelters have been found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made
+of splinters of bone, saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the
+mammoth engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the
+shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clearness, on a
+fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers made of ivory.
+
+In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters, was found a
+quantity of human bones, including two skulls--one of an old man, the
+other that of an adult.
+
+The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the largest collection of
+implements of bone and horn ever discovered. The stones and reindeer
+horns are carved with great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic
+taste. There are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat,
+bison, horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and birds,
+and also the representations of some plants. In the lowest layer of the
+soil the most perfect works occur, and they grow less as the surface is
+approached. Several of those implements called "batons of command"
+occurred, ornamented with animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was
+carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various figures--plants,
+reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made the subject of a report by M.
+Piette before the Paris Anthropological Society.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14. THE FOSSIL MAN OF MENTONE.]
+
+The fossil man of Mentone, found in a grotto of Mentone, a village near
+Nice, for some time past has produced much comment among scientists. The
+skeleton was discovered in undisturbed earth; at a depth of twenty-one
+feet. The cause of the discussion is that the skeleton is accompanied by
+a multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of command, a
+necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the reindeer epoch,
+but surrounded also by the remains of the cave-bear, cave-hyena, and
+woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr. Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that
+this cave was first inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or
+inter-glacial, and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of
+burial.[64] The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig.
+14). It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibiae, or shin-bones, present
+a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in the European of the
+present time.
+
+In the same neighborhood there have more recently been discovered, in
+different caves, four other human skeletons. They were all stained with
+oxide of iron, and two of them surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth
+of the stag, constituting the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With
+one skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were discovered
+implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear, bones of other
+animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks. The other two skeletons
+were those of children, and not accompanied by either implements or
+ornaments.
+
+The other bone caves of France, which have afforded much valuable
+information, and belonging to this epoch, are: La Gorge d'Enfer,
+Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le Moustier and Badegoule
+(Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude), cave of La Vache (Ariege), cave of
+Savigne (Vienne), grottos of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphine, the
+settlement of Solutre, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees), and the
+cave of Espalungue (Basses-Pyrenees)--the last two date back to the most
+ancient period of the reindeer epoch.
+
+The principal objects found in these caves, and the rock-shelters are
+worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, cutters, hammers, and
+mortar-stones. These works, though unpolished, are but little ruder than
+those of the Esquimaux or the North American Indian.
+
+_Belgian Caverns._--Under the auspices of the Belgian government M.
+Edward Dupont examined more than twenty caves on the banks of the Lesse,
+in the province of Namur. Among these were four, in which occurred
+numerous traces of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou
+Rosette, Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux.
+
+The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and similar to the
+cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was closed by a slab of
+sandstone, and within were the remains of fourteen human beings
+belonging to persons of various ages, and some of them to infants
+scarcely a year old. In front of the cave was an esplanade, where were
+celebrated the funeral feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone,
+traces of fire, flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human
+bones were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of the
+reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds of
+implements. Among the remains were two perfect human skulls, in a good
+state of preservation. The bones were discovered in a state of great
+confusion, which M. Dupont thinks was caused by the disturbance of
+water. Sir John Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to
+foxes and badgers.[65]
+
+Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which the bones of
+three persons were found, mingled with those of the reindeer and beaver.
+It also contained fragments of a blackish kind of pottery, which were
+hollowed out in rough grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion
+that the three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the time
+of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse.
+
+In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty-four feet above
+the Lesse, were found a great many bones of the reindeer, wild bull, and
+many other species. In the cave, indiscriminately mixed up with these
+bones, were one hundred and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones
+of the goat, polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a
+goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15. EARTHEN VASE, FOUND IN THE CAVE OF FURFOOZ,
+  BELGIUM.]
+
+The cave of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish caused by the
+falling in of the roof, consequently preserving all its implements.
+There were found the split bones of mammals and the bones of birds and
+fishes. There was an immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured
+from reindeer horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks.
+Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of slate with
+engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of very coarse pottery,
+hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last but not least, thirty thousand
+worked flints mingled with the broken bones. In the hearth, placed in
+the centre of the cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but
+unintelligible signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty
+pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorched or roasted.
+
+In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen of rough pottery
+(Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones. It was partly broken; by the
+care of M. Hauzeur it has been put together again.
+
+France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of the reindeer
+epoch, for settlements of this epoch have been discovered in Germany,
+Switzerland, and Poland.
+
+In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, have been
+discovered a few remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-lion; the
+remains of two hundred and fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty
+Alpine hares; also the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch,
+glutton, wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably
+appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking them were found
+in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of the swan, grouse, and duck
+predominate. The implements consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and
+arrow-heads made of the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving
+and carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The most
+notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer in the act of
+browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that animal.
+
+Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently discovered and
+examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper part of the floor (four feet in
+depth), consisting of vegetable earth, mould, and _debris_, occurred
+ashes, flint implements, and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer,
+horse, elk, and other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken
+bones of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated teeth of
+the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two thousand flint implements
+were obtained; and from the frequent occurrence of flint the cave was
+used by the troglodytes, or cave-men, as a dwelling; and by the remains
+of the fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial, and
+at the beginning of the reindeer epoch.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.
+
+
+The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age than those
+already enumerated, presents man under a more favorable aspect, and
+affords a better view of his traits of character and manner of living.
+Not only the sturdy climate spurs him to action, but a higher type is
+supplanting the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed,
+has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought with him
+the art of making more perfect implements. This new type was of short
+stature, having small hands and feet. If Asia be the home of man, then
+from that country, advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were
+destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts, and
+conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are found in the Lapps
+and Fins. Between the two existing races--dolichocephalic and
+brachycephalic--there may have been a long and bitter strife. The former
+was large, stout, fearless, and cruel; the latter, small, hardy, and
+more intelligent. It was a conflict between brute force and
+intelligence. The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully against
+the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It could not have been
+a war of extermination, for finally an intermixture took place,
+producing a medium, as may be judged from the exhumed skulls.
+
+_Dwellings._--As in the past ages, man continued to dwell, for the most
+part, in caves. If the cave was small, he occupied every portion; but if
+large, only that part near the opening was used. In the centre of this
+dwelling he made a hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with
+the fire placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body. This
+mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured out, and under
+the projection of an overhanging rock he built him a booth, or rude hut,
+out of boughs, and the poles of fallen timber. These dwellings, whether
+in caves or under the rocks, were near some stream.
+
+_Clothing._--The climate being cold, he probably ceased to use the inner
+bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins of animals. The skins
+were prepared by the flint scrapers, and then rendered supple by rubbing
+into them the brains and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long
+bones of the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically shaped,
+for they understood the art of sewing. With the bodkin they pierced the
+skin, and with the needle, end was held to end and side to side, and the
+same made permanent by the sinew of some animal.
+
+_Food._--These people were essentially hunters, and lived principally
+upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their spears and arrows. The
+horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the chamois, formed a considerable part of
+their food. The meat was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and
+the long bones were split open in order to extract the brains and
+marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also added fish and,
+occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath-cock, swan, and owl. The
+chase did not always afford them sufficient food, and at times they were
+forced to subsist on the water-rat.
+
+Enough evidence has been produced to show that these people were
+cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered among the remains of
+cooking at Solutre in Maconnais. M. Issel found, at a point on the road
+from Genoa to Nice, some human bones which had been calcined, and were
+of a whitish color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their
+surface still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them
+showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of the grottos of
+Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found the small shin-bone of a
+child, which had been carefully emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen
+thinks he can recognize the trace of human teeth on some human skulls
+and children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed with
+sculptured flints and the remains of pottery.
+
+_The Arts._--Man had not yet discovered the value of metal, but formed
+his instruments out of flint, bone, and the horn of the reindeer. The
+hatchet was but little used, and the principal weapons were the
+flint-knife, arrow-heads, and occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the
+cave-bear, with its pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use
+were rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and other
+wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting his person and
+pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads, and the whistle for
+delighting his ear. The art of engraving was practised to a great
+extent, and so admirably did he execute his designs that, after the
+lapse of thousands of years, the figures are easily recognized.
+
+The staff of authority would imply that there were certain individuals
+who were recognized as chiefs or leaders. Some system must have
+prevailed, for without it the manufactories at Laugerie-Basse and
+Laugerie-Haute could not have been carried on. In the first of these
+workshops the fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the
+second reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements.
+
+_Traffic._--Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Belgium sought their
+flints in that part of France now called Champagne. From the same
+locality they also brought back fossil shells, which were strung
+together and used for necklaces. There can be no doubt of this, as
+already fifty-four of these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they
+are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne.
+
+_Burial._--As in the previous epoch, the dead were consigned to the same
+kind of caves as were used for habitations, and the entombment was
+celebrated by the funeral-feast. These banquets afford no evidence of
+worship. Some have thought they not only saw signs of worship in the
+banquets, but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found.
+That they should have no notion of a future state is not surprising, for
+Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are tribes at the present time
+without this belief.[66]
+
+M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister of the Interior,
+on the excavations carried on in the caves, has concisely but eloquently
+given a synopsis of man of the reindeer epoch, in the following
+language:
+
+"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with those
+which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present us with a
+striking picture of the primitive ages of mankind in Belgium. These
+ancient tribes, and all their customs, after having been buried in
+oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again vividly brought
+before our eyes; and, ... antiquity lives again in the relics of its
+former existence.
+
+"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and subterranean
+retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully and patiently
+chipping out their flint instruments and shaping their reindeer-horn
+tools, in the midst of all the pestilential emanations arising from the
+various animal remains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in
+their dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and,
+by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's
+eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild
+animals--their only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of
+which are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint. Again, we are
+present at their feasts, in which, during the period when their hunting
+has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more
+noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole resource
+in the time of famine.
+
+"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the region now
+called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells with which they
+love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is to them so precious a
+material. On one side they are picking up the fluor spar, the color of
+which is pleasing to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the
+great slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones round
+their fire.
+
+"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive." The roof of their principal cave
+falls in, burying their weapons and utensils, and forcing them "to fly
+and take up their abode in another spot. The ravages of death break in
+upon them.... They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre; some
+weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of the funeral
+furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of wild beasts. Then
+begins the funeral banquet, celebrated close by the abode of the dead; a
+fire is lighted, great animals are cut up, and portions of their smoking
+flesh are distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must then
+have taken place! ceremonies like those told us of the savages of the
+Indian and African solitudes. Imagination may easily depict the songs,
+the dances, and the invocations, but science is powerless to call them
+into life....
+
+"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of water
+break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from their abodes, in
+vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes
+them, and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, at
+Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe."[67]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+NEOLITHIC EPOCH.
+
+
+The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is characterized by stone
+implements, polished or made smooth by a process of grinding and
+cutting, the greater development attained in the art of pottery, and by
+the presence of the bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in
+which no remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the reindeer
+epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries made in the so
+called _alluvial_ soil, the most ancient remains of the so called Celts,
+the shell-heaps of Denmark, the tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the
+earlier Swiss pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the
+caves of France.
+
+_Caverns._--The caves belonging to this period, and explored by MM.
+Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the Pyrenees and the caves of
+Pradiers, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these
+caverns have been used in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of
+extinct mammals. The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to
+this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag, sheep,
+goat, antelope, chamois, wild boar, wolf, dog, fox, badger, hare, and
+horse, intermingled with the remains of hearths, also piercers,
+spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of bone; hatchets, knives, scrapers
+made of flints, and various other substances, such as silicious schist,
+quartzite, leptinite, and serpentine stone. These implements were
+carefully wrought, and mostly polished.
+
+The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at different times
+by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a place of sepulture. It was first
+examined about twenty-five years ago, and at that time five human
+skulls, in a good state of preservation, were found, but have been lost,
+as their importance was not then known. Intermingled with these bones
+were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved bones, remains of
+rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, but no
+remains of funeral banquets. At the mouth of the cave were two large
+flag-stones lying across one another. The most recent discoveries in the
+cave have furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a
+habitation, to the last of the neolithic.
+
+_Danish Kjoekken-Moeddings, or Shell-Mounds, or kitchen-refuse
+heaps._--The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully examined by
+Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchammer, a geologist, and
+Worsaae, the archaeologist, commissioned by the Danish government, their
+reports being presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen.
+
+They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark, and consist of the
+shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster, cockle, mussel, and
+periwinkle. These deposits are from three to ten feet in thickness, from
+one hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as
+much as one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons and other
+instruments of stone, horn, and bone; fragments of rough pottery,
+stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abundance, accompanied with
+charcoal and ashes; no traces of coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic
+animals, except the dog. The bones of animals are very numerous, but no
+human bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup estimates
+that ninety-seven per cent. of the bones belong to the stag, the
+roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains are those of the urus
+(_Bos primigenius_), dog, fox, wolf, marten, wild-cat, hedgehog, bear
+(_Ursus arctos_), and the mouse, and the bones of birds and fishes. The
+auroch, musk ox, domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are
+absent.
+
+The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which are never
+obtained by the representatives of the same species now living on the
+Baltic. They are not more than one-half or even one-third the size. At
+the time of the formation of these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or
+an arm of the ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the
+Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely brackish, and
+the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except at its entrance into the
+ocean.
+
+These deposits have been found several miles inland, which would
+indicate that the sea had once covered the intervening space. On the
+western coast they have not been found, in consequence of their having
+possibly been swept away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also
+found on the adjacent islands.
+
+These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark; for they are found in
+England, Scotland, France, and America.
+
+_Danish Peat Bogs._--The peat bogs of Denmark, so faithfully
+investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods of deposition.
+The most ancient is called the _Scotch-Fir_; the second, immediately
+above, the _Oak_, and the uppermost, the _Beech_. The peat is from ten
+to forty feet in thickness, and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet
+thick would require, according to Steenstrup, _at least_ four thousand
+years, and perhaps even from three to four times that period.[68] These
+three epochs denote three periods of time. The lowest belongs to the
+neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and the last to the iron epoch. In
+the lowest, or _Fir_ period, have been found worked flints and bones.
+Human bones have been found, which correspond with the bones taken from
+the tumuli of this epoch.
+
+_The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland._--Dr. Ferdinand Keller and his
+associates have made known to the world the wonderful remains of
+villages situated in the lakes of Switzerland and other countries. The
+villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same period, and they
+represent the neolithic, bronze, and iron epochs; but there was no hard
+line of demarcation between these three periods. These habitations are
+so numerous that more than two hundred settlements hare been discovered
+in Switzerland alone. Among the lakes furnishing these remains may be
+counted the Lake of Neuchatel (forty-six settlements); Lake Constance
+(thirty-two settlements); Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements); Lake
+of Bienne (twenty-one settlements); Lake of Morat (sixteen settlements);
+Lake of Zurich (three settlements); Lake of Pfaeffikon (six settlements);
+Lake of Sempach (six settlements); Lake of Moosseedorf (two
+settlements); Lake of Inkwyl (one settlement); Lake of Nussbaumen (one
+settlement); Lake Greiffensee (one settlement); Lake of Zug (six
+settlements); Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and others.
+
+The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Constance thirty,
+Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements; one each at Morat, Bienne,
+Zurick, Pfaeffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, the settlement of
+Concise, the bridge Thiele, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others.
+
+These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of various kinds of
+wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and driven into the mud at the
+shallow bottom of the lake. In some of the settlements the piles were
+fastened by heaping stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed
+together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level and then
+the platform beams were fastened upon them. This basis served for the
+foundation of the rude rectangular huts they erected. These piles are
+not now seen above the water, yet they are visible above the bottom of
+the lake. The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high as
+one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than seventy
+thousand square yards. It has been estimated that the population of the
+Lake-villages during the neolithic was over thirty thousand.
+
+The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabitants from wild
+animals, the attacks of enemies, and for the ready obtaining of food by
+fishing. They were not only occupied by the inhabitants, but also by
+their herds and the stores of fodder.[69]
+
+_Robenhausen._--It is not necessary to go into an account of a number of
+these settlements to represent the neolithic epoch, for the settlement
+at Robenhausen (Lake Pfaeffikon) takes the first rank in giving the
+domestic arrangements of the ancient inhabitants. This settlement
+covered a space of nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles
+were used in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quadrangle.
+It was about two thousand paces from the ancient western shore of the
+lake, and about three thousand from the shore in the opposite direction.
+With the last-named side there was a communication by means of a bridge,
+the piles of which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and
+pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate, as their
+habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they rallied and rebuilt
+their huts. They remained a long time as would seem from the depth of
+the peat and the vast amount of relics found.
+
+At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most ancient
+relics; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the first
+conflagration--charcoal, stone and bone implements, pottery, woven
+cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at seven and one-half feet, flooring, relics
+of the second settlement, and excrement of cows, sheep, and goats; at
+six and one half feet, remains of second conflagration--charcoal, stone
+and bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at three
+and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of the third
+settlement; at two and one half feet, stone celts, pottery, but no
+traces of fire. Above this was two feet of peat and one-half foot of
+mould.
+
+Without going into detail, the objects found in these various beds are
+as follows: Made out of wood, are knives, ladles, plates, clubs of ash,
+in which is fixed a socket of stag's horn containing a stone celt, a
+boat made of a single trunk, twelve feet long, two and one-half feet
+wide, and five inches deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched
+at both ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets,
+suspension hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying
+vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all made out of
+yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel bush. Out of stag's
+horn--arrow-heads, daggers, piercing and scraping tools, implements for
+knitting and for agriculture. The implements of stone were polished, and
+of the usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in the
+shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance. There were also
+found spoons, and a perforated cone, supposed to have been used as a
+weight for the loom. Several crucibles or melting pots have been found,
+which were used for melting copper. The third building of this village
+was on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages.
+
+The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl, all of
+the neolithic, belong to the brown bear, badger, marten, pine-marten,
+polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat, beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer,
+wild-boar, marsh-boar; the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox,
+goat, sheep, and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from
+all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl.
+
+Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties of wheat and
+barley; fruits and berries--service-tree, dog-rose, elder, bilberry, and
+wayfaring tree; the nuts--hazel, beech, and water-chestnut; the
+oil-producing plants--opium, or garden poppy, and dogwood; the fibrous
+plants--flax; plants used for dying--weld; forest trees and
+shrubs--silver fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak; water and marsh
+plants--lake scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraw,
+buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh pennywort.
+
+Besides these there have been found many specimens of plaited and woven
+cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of a linseed cake.[70]
+
+In the different settlements the same axes and knives abound, and are of
+small size. The arrow-heads and saws are an improvement on those of the
+preceding epoch. Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude
+earthenware were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers are
+occasionally met with from two to three inches in diameter. About five
+hundred implements of stone have been found at Wauwyl, consisting of
+axes, small flint arrow-heads, flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones
+used as hammers, whetstones, and sling-stones.
+
+As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of the neolithic,
+but extend beyond, they naturally have a place in the close of this
+period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of this period came suddenly to an
+"end by the irruption of a people provided with bronze implements. The
+lake-dwellings were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive
+inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote places. This
+catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of East Switzerland, which
+entirely disappeared, and also a number of those on the shore of the
+western lakes. Some few settlements, however--namely, those of the
+so-called transition period--are said not to have been destroyed by the
+new people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of bronze
+implements."[71]
+
+Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there is no sudden
+leap from one class of civilization to another, and that the metals came
+gradually into use. The lake-dwellings were not burned down by the
+irruption of a foreign people; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements
+of the Unter-See, no traces of fire have been observed. The fact that
+but a very few human skeletons have been found in the whole settlements,
+contradicts the supposition of a battle having taken place between the
+aborigines and the supposed conquerors, and of the destruction of the
+former by the latter.[72]
+
+Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have been found in
+Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, France, England,
+Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus says that the Paeonians lived this way
+in Lake Prasias (Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake
+Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The town of
+Tcherkask in Russia, is constructed over the river Don, and Venice
+itself is but a lacustrine city.[73]
+
+Several attempts have been made to estimate the time which has elapsed
+since the neolithic period. The estimates of M. Morlot are based on the
+discoveries made in a hillock formed by the river Tiniere at its
+entrance into the lake of Geneva. This cone contained three distinct
+layers of vegetable earth placed at different depths between the
+deposits of alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half
+feet from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in it were
+found relics of the Roman period; the second was five and one-fourth
+feet lower, and six inches thick, in which were fragments of bronze; the
+third was at a depth of eighteen feet from the top, and varied in
+thickness from six to seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone
+age. History proves that the layer containing the Roman relics is from
+thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch the cone has
+increased three and one-half feet, and if the increase was the same in
+previous ages, then the bed containing the bronze is from twenty-nine
+hundred to forty-two hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging
+to the stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten thousand
+years old.
+
+The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the discoveries near the
+bridge of Thiele. About one thousand two hundred and thirty feet from
+the present shore is the old abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year
+1100. There is a document which seems to show that the abbey was built
+on the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years the lake
+retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet. The distance of the
+present shore from the settlement of the bridge of Thiele is eleven
+thousand and seventy-two feet, and consequently the settlement is not
+less than six thousand seven hundred and fifty years old.
+
+M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of from six to
+seven thousand years before the Christian era.[74]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.
+
+
+From the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli, man is represented
+as having a narrow but round skull, with a projecting ridge above the
+eyebrows, showing he was round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small
+of stature though stout, and having a great resemblance to the
+Laplanders. In many respects the race was much superior to that of the
+preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the arts, and made great
+progress in civilization. He had passed out of the barbarous, and might
+be called a semi-barbarian.
+
+_Habitations._--Man's habitation varied according to the locality. In
+the extreme south of France he continued for a considerable length of
+time to occupy the caves and rock-shelters; in Switzerland, the
+pile-buildings, and in Denmark he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close
+together and in proximity to the shell-heaps.
+
+_Clothing._--Clothing also varied according to locality. Where the wild
+animals were numerous their skins were used--there being no incentive to
+substitute other material. Coarse material made of fibrous plants had
+come into use. The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material,
+and completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for their
+feet, as these have been found with the usual indications of usage.
+
+_Food._--Where wild animals could be obtained they were used, and the
+marrow of the long bones extracted. To this, fish and birds were added.
+In Denmark the principal food was the different species of the edible
+mollusk. In Switzerland a higher order and greater variety of food was
+used. The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied with
+bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries. The meat was not
+only obtained from the wild animal, but they provided against the
+uncertainty of the chase by domesticating the boar, ox, sheep, and goat.
+The horse and dog were domesticated to assist in the chase, but
+sometimes served for food, probably during a famine.
+
+If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest solely on the
+human bones discovered at a dolmen near the village of Hammer, Denmark,
+which had been subjected to the action of fire. They were found together
+with some flint implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead
+to the conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used
+along with the roasted stag.
+
+_Arts and Manufactures._--The flint hatchets of the refuse-heaps are
+generally of an imperfect type; the long knives indicate a considerable
+amount of skill; the bodkins, spear-heads, and scrapers are but little
+improved. In the latter part of this epoch, the various kinds of
+implements, especially in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree
+of perfection, in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was
+achieved without the use of metal. They were made into various shapes,
+and with the design of pleasing the eye.
+
+Besides the various types of implements common to the different
+countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a drilled hatchet, which
+is combined in various ways with the hammer. A specimen of this type is
+represented in Fig. 16, now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced
+with a round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge
+describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought into sharp
+angular edges.
+
+New inventions were brought into use. Among them was a comb which,
+according to shape, might be compared to the dung-fork of the American
+stables. Ornaments for the body, made of various materials were
+fashioned. Pottery was still in a rough state, though gradually
+improving. The loom was invented, and various kinds of cloth were
+manufactured. Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which
+again was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various places
+have been found, showing that they were not only used for fishing but
+also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were established, and there the
+stone implements were made and polished; one of these shops was at
+Pressigny.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16. DANISH AXE-HAMMER, DRILLED FOR HANDLE.]
+
+Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone implements which occur,
+when it is considered that in the Museum of Copenhagen there are about
+twelve thousand, consisting of flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and
+hollow chisels; poniards, lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and
+half-moon-shaped implements. In other collections in Denmark there are
+twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stockholm contains about
+sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish Academy owns seven hundred
+flint-flakes, five hundred and twelve celts, more than four hundred
+arrow-heads, fifty spear-heads, seventy-five scrapers, and numerous
+other objects of stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones,
+grain-crushers, etc.[75] Some of these implements, however, may belong
+to other epochs.
+
+War must have been carried on to a considerable extent, as fortified
+camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Furfooz, and other places.
+Their weapons were the axe, the arrow, the spear, and possibly the
+knife. These were wrought with great care.
+
+_Agriculture._--Man commenced to till the ground in this age, and thus
+laid the true foundation of civilization. He probably was forced to do
+it. The beasts of the forest were gradually decreasing. They had
+nourished him in the infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to
+look to the soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain
+his life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been the
+sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated the cereals, made
+his corn-mill, and stored the grain for winter use.
+
+_Burial._--How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed of their
+dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other places, the dead were buried
+in dolmens or tumuli. A dolmen is a monument consisting of several
+perpendicular stones covered with a great block or slab. When it is
+surrounded by circles of stone it takes the name _cromlech_. The dolmens
+occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They were formerly
+considered to have been Druidical sacrificial altars. They were usually
+covered over with earth, and in them were buried from one to twenty
+persons, accompanied with their implements. When a person died, the tomb
+was reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire was used
+for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the tomb. In Brittany, in
+the vicinity of the tombs, there were set up in the ground enormous
+blocks of stone, that have received the name of _menhirs_, the most
+noted of which is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state
+in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take the name of
+_tumuli_. Comparatively few of the tumuli belong to the neolithic. In
+these, large numbers of bodies have been found, and none of them in a
+natural position, but cramped up and their heads resting between the
+knees.
+
+Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently met with at the
+tomb, it may be inferred that victims were offered during the funeral
+ceremonies, perchance a slave, or the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that
+when a woman died in giving birth to a child, or even while still
+suckling it, the child was interred alive with her.[76]
+
+This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of cases in which
+the skeleton of a woman and child have been found together. In the
+ceremonies at the tomb, some read the belief in a future state of
+existence. The evidence, however, is no clearer than that in the
+previous epochs. Man undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not
+reveal it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+
+The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the antiquity of man, for
+it is largely embraced in written history. Although history does not
+record the events of the age of bronze in Western Europe, yet history
+covers the time which embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to
+do with the archaeologist than the geologist. It is marked by the
+abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives, ornaments, and
+other articles made of bronze. The bronze implements are principally
+found in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and
+Switzerland. The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to this
+epoch are: Geneva, ten settlements; Neuchatel, twenty-five settlements;
+Bienne, ten settlements; Morat, three settlements; and Sempach, two
+settlements. To these may be added some of the crannoges of Ireland;
+also many tumuli and mounds.
+
+_Type._--The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the preceding. His
+head was rather broad than long, he was small, energetic, and muscular;
+his hands were small, as is proven by the remarkably small handles of
+their swords, which are too small for a hand of the present day. This
+type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzerland to the
+present time.
+
+_Habitations and Food._--The caves and rock-shelters gave way entirely
+to the rude huts which now protected man. If they were resorted to, it
+was only from some peculiar cause or danger. The food was the same as in
+the neolithic, with additions to the cereals.
+
+_Clothing._--The skins of animals were used less than formerly for
+clothing. Garments made of other material have been found, and even the
+whole dress of a chief. In a tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick
+woollen cap, a coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form,
+scalloped out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet four
+inches long, and wide in proportion; two woollen shawls, a woollen
+shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of leather boots.
+Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort of man, and were possibly
+used for summer wear, and under garments in winter.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17. WOOLLEN CLOAK OF THE BRONZE EPOCH, FOUND IN
+  1861, IN A TUMULUS IN JUTLAND.]
+
+_Implements._--The people of this age made great improvements in their
+weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist of bronze celts, swords,
+hammers, knives, hair-pins, small rings, ear-rings, bracelets,
+fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads, arrow-heads, buttons,
+needles, various ornaments, saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed
+pins. There were also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged
+celt, has been found, which bore an inscription.
+
+_Arts._--Progress was made in the art of weaving. Soldering and the
+moulding of metal were practised; foundries were established, the
+remains of which have been discovered at Devaine and Walflinger in
+Switzerland; stone moulds were used, one of which, on trial, produced a
+hatchet exactly similar to those which have been collected. The moulds
+were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the melting of the
+metal was made out of pottery which was placed over a hole in the earth
+filled with burning charcoal; when the metal was melted, it was poured
+into the mould. Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various
+patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Phoenician origin,
+was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads, of a blue or green
+color, have been found in the tombs of this epoch.
+
+_Agriculture._--The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. The
+ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem of the tree, used
+as a plough. The grain was stored for winter use, and when required was
+crushed by being rubbed between two stones serving as a mortar.
+
+_Fishing and Navigation._--There are no distinct traces of improvement
+beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation, unless it be in the
+improved hooks made of bronze.
+
+_Burial._--The custom of burning the dead was almost universal in
+Denmark, and was more or less practised in other countries. The ashes
+and fragments of the bone were collected and placed either in or under
+an urn. When buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted
+position, but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their
+implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered in a tumulus
+in Jutland, where the clothing was found, was buried in a coffin nine
+and two-third feet long, over two feet in breadth, and covered by a
+movable lid. The body was in a good state of preservation, owing to the
+action on it of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in
+the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. Buried with it
+were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and caps, two small boxes, a
+bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword in a wooden sheath, and a long
+woollen band. In other coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches,
+awls, tweezers, and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found
+an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet.
+
+_Religious Belief._--Many crescents, made of stone and earthenware, have
+been found which are regarded, by some archaeologists, as religious
+emblems. Dr. Keller calls them "moon images," and has devoted a short
+chapter to their consideration.[77] On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl
+Vogt regard them as resting-places for the head at night.[78] They
+carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed comfort for
+vanity. They carried a long pin with which to scratch the head. This
+kind of a pillow is still used by the Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have
+their hair elaborately decorated; and in some cases this is never
+disturbed. If the people were worshippers the crescent is the only
+evidence from archaeology. No idols have ever been discovered. That the
+people were already worshippers may be learned from the traditions
+recorded in history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+IRON EPOCH.
+
+
+As the _Iron Epoch_ fairly establishes civilization, and belongs almost
+wholly to the historical epoch, it will be here briefly noticed, and
+then dismissed after giving a quotation from Dr. Keller. The bronze had
+not only prepared the way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great
+impulse to succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new
+importance and gave new life to every movement that tended to the
+assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to those of iron. A
+knife made of iron is represented in Fig. 18. Knives of this pattern
+were, however, made of bronze, and served for the same purpose. The
+workshops of this age were so numerous that four hundred of them have
+been discovered in one province. The potter's wheel was invented; money
+was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18. A KNIFE OF THE IRON EPOCH.]
+
+Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne belong to this
+epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his observations, has made use
+of the following language: "The phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so
+important in the history of civilization, the time of their first
+establishment, their original design, their development, and their final
+extinction, in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects
+clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning of this
+peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its existence, while
+outward circumstances remained the same, a quiet advance to a better
+development of the conditions of life may be observed, in which there
+was neither retrogression nor any sudden advance by the intervention of
+foreign elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country which had
+none, is explained simply by the barter which existed throughout Europe
+in the very earliest ages. The question why the inhabitants of a
+lake-dwelling of the stone age abandoned their settlements, while those
+of another, not many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained
+quietly living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than the
+inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities have
+disappeared, the names and situations of which are known to us. The
+presence of objects of industry on the area of the lake-dwellings has
+nothing in it very surprising, if we consider what misfortunes villages
+of straw-covered huts were exposed to, in which not only the houses
+themselves, but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of
+very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take Caesar's
+account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose arrival in the country
+is neither mentioned in history nor shown by archaeology, withdrew, the
+lake-dwellings then existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there
+can also be no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after
+the return of the population. Their continuing down to the Roman time is
+only astonishing to any one who imagines that at this time the whole
+population had gone over to the Roman manner of life, while the proof
+lies before him that the lower class adhered to their own manners and
+customs till the entrance of the German races."[79]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+
+America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than the old world.
+Her ancient remains are not so much injured by the decay of empires and
+the rude hand of war. Succeeding ages have not so much effaced these
+marks, and many of the remains still stand as left by the original
+occupants, save only the change and decay which time itself produces.
+America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are known; but
+these have not been investigated so diligently as the remains of man in
+Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come.
+Until they do, the history of primitive man in America must be
+surrounded with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the
+investigation of this subject, and many works written, all looking
+toward an early development which must sooner or later come.
+
+In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of these traces.
+
+_Enumeration._--The implements from the gravel beds of Colorado and the
+skull from Calaveras county, California, have already been referred to
+(pp. 61, 62).
+
+Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human skull imbedded in a
+solid rock, which was broken open by blasting. It was examined by Dr.
+Weirley, who compared it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the
+latter in general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of
+this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and was
+imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class, and found several
+feet beneath the surface. Parts of the frontal, parietal, and occipital
+bones were carried away by the explosion. The piece of rock holding the
+remains weighs some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of
+marine shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the
+cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a microscope
+presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the Neanderthal man comes
+nearest to it.[80]
+
+In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five hundred feet, Judge A.
+W. Baldwin found a human skull of unusual and peculiar shape. It is very
+short from base to summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The
+skull is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull has
+never been examined by a competent person.[81]
+
+In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two feet from
+the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of a deer, amidst an
+accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and with them a rude stone chisel or
+hatchet.[82]
+
+In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell leads (Kansas),
+was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth of fourteen feet. Above
+the implement the gravel, composed of quartz and reddish clay, was ten
+feet thick, and above this was four feet of rich black soil. This
+implement was given to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.[83]
+
+Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi at Natchez, a
+human pelvic bone along with the bones of the mastodon and megalonyx.
+They were found at a depth of thirty feet from the surface, and the
+human bone had the same black color which characterized the others. Sir
+Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand years to
+form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the conclusions
+arrived at by the United States engineers be correct, in respect to the
+annual amount of sediment discharged at the delta, the growth would be
+reduced to thirty-three thousand five hundred years. Taking either of
+these estimates, the same would give the number of years which have
+elapsed since these bones were deposited.[84]
+
+In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet from
+the surface, beneath four cypress forests superimposed one upon the
+other, the workmen found a complete human skeleton, and some charcoal.
+The cranium is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This
+discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler assigned to
+the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the Mississippi, of
+fifty-seven thousand years.[85]
+
+Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting of jaws,
+teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a calcareous conglomerate forming
+a part of the series of reefs of Florida. The whole series of reefs is
+of post-tertiary origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been
+one hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this
+calculation be correct, then these bones must have an antiquity of ten
+thousand years.[86]
+
+Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred caverns in Brazil,
+belonging to different epochs, and exhumed in them a great number of
+unknown animal species. In a calcareous cave, near the lake of
+Semidouro, he found the bones of not less than thirty persons of
+different ages, and showing a similar state of decomposition to that of
+the bones of animals with which they were associated. From the
+discoveries there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that man was
+cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the mylodon--animals belonging
+to the post-tertiary.[87]
+
+The shell-heaps of America are coeval with those of Denmark. Those at
+Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined by Professor W. D. Gunning. He
+estimates that within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in
+width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster shells. One
+dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet in height. The only human
+relics found among the shells are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone
+needles, pottery, and copper knives. These shells were probably
+deposited by but a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster
+was a native of that coast, but within the memory of man the oyster has
+not lived there.
+
+_The Mound-Builders._--An ancient and unknown people of a certain degree
+of civilization have left remains of their greatness in the
+fortifications and mounds in the valleys of the Mississippi and its
+tributaries. These works extend over a great extent of territory. They
+are found in Western New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri,
+Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and
+along the Kansas, Platte, and other western rivers.
+
+The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On the southern extremity
+the works gradually lose their distinctive character, and pass into the
+higher developed architecture of Mexico; and at the north, north-east,
+and north-west, the population seem to have been more limited and their
+works less perfectly developed. The people were preeminently given to
+agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated the rivers along their
+settlements. The fertile valleys of the Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha,
+White, Wabash, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely
+populated, as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their
+surfaces.
+
+The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their shape differ but
+little from those of Europe. The hatchets and knives are not only made
+of flint but also of obsidian, and other hard stones. Copper was the
+chief metallic substance. Out of this they made various implements, and
+swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior, where they
+carried on extensive mining. In these mines have been found their
+implements, some of which are very large diorite hatchets, used as
+sledges for breaking off lumps of copper, and so heavy that it would
+require more than one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to
+heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was desired.
+
+Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses may be given from
+the statement that in the State of Ohio alone there are from eleven
+thousand to twelve thousand of these works. The fortresses were used for
+the protection of the people against the predatory warfare of the
+hostile tribes, or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other
+Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been much
+speculation, and some archaeologists divide them into sacrificial,
+sepulchral, temple, and symbolical.
+
+_Sacrificial._--The sacrificial mounds are characterized by "their
+almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their regular
+construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand, disposed
+alternately in strata conformable to the shape of the mound; and their
+covering a symmetrical altar of burned clay or stone, on which are
+deposited numerous relics, in all instances exhibiting traces, more or
+less abundant, of their having been exposed to the action of fire."[88]
+Among the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the place
+called Mound City situated on the western bank. The mounds are enclosed
+by a simple embankment, between three and four feet high. The area
+occupied is about thirteen acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One
+of these is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest
+breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four successive altars, a
+bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty quartz arrow-heads, and
+copper and other relics. The sacrificial deposits do not disclose a
+miscellaneous assemblage of relics, for on one altar hundreds of
+sculptured pipes chiefly occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments,
+stone implements; on others, calcined shells, burned bones; and on
+others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds are found at
+Marietta and other localities.
+
+All the investigations which have been made prove that the altars were
+not only used for a long period, but also had been repeatedly renewed.
+
+_Sepulchral._--The sepulchral mounds are numbered by the thousands. They
+are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary
+in height from six to eighty feet. Usually they contain but one
+skeleton, reduced almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary
+condition and in a crouching position. By the side of them occur
+trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably only
+raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished person.
+
+_Temple._--The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, with paths or steps
+leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces at different heights.
+Among the most noted of these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is
+seven hundred feet long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety
+feet high. Its level summit is several acres in extent.
+
+_Symbolical._--The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic bas-reliefs
+formed on the surface of the ground, representing men, animals, and
+inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they exist in thousands, and among the
+devices are man, the lizard, turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter,
+raccoon, frog, bird, fish, cross, crescent, angle, straight-line,
+war-club, tobacco-pipe, and other familiar implements or weapons.
+
+In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of six
+quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one human figure,
+and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from one hundred to one hundred
+and twenty feet long, and the figure of the man measured one hundred and
+twenty-five feet in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from
+the end of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when
+first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. One of the
+latter measured four hundred and seventy feet.
+
+In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent; its head
+occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended jaws is a part of an
+oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and sixty feet long, eighty wide,
+and four feet high. The body of the serpent extends round the hill for
+about eight hundred feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near
+Granville, Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred
+feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme length is
+two hundred and fifty feet, average height four feet; the head,
+shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to a height of six feet; the
+paws are forty feet long, the ends being broader than the links, as if
+the spread of the toes were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of
+the effigy is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed
+to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a graded way
+ten feet in breadth. On examination it was discovered that the outline
+of the figure was composed of stones of considerable size, upon which
+the superstructure had been modelled in fine clay.
+
+_Antiquity._--There are methods of determining the antiquity of these
+mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed out three facts which go to prove
+that they belong to a distant period. 1. None of these ancient works
+occur on the lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the
+subsidence of the streams. As these works are raised on all the others,
+it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed since the works were
+erected. The streams generally form four terraces, and the period marked
+by the lowest must be the longest because the excavating power of such
+streams grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of the
+Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme decay. Only one or
+two skeletons have been recovered in a condition suitable for
+intelligent examination. The circumstances attending their burial were
+unusually favorable for preserving them. The earth around them has
+invariably been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when
+exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling condition. 3.
+Their great age is shown by their relation to the primeval forests. As
+the Mound-Builders were a settled agricultural people, their enclosures
+and fields were cleared of trees, and remained so until deserted. When
+discovered by the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic
+trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees which first made
+their appearance were not the regular forest trees. When the first trees
+that got possession of the soil had died away, they were supplanted, in
+many cases, by other kinds, till at last, after a great number of
+centuries, that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North
+America would be established.[89]
+
+Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven thousand to ten
+thousand years.[90]
+
+Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully examined by
+Frank H. Cushing, the archaeologist. The fort was found to be composed of
+two parallel circular walls, with a gateway in each. The gateway in the
+outer wall fronted a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet
+distant. Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used
+for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the depth of
+seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom of the shaft he found
+the shells of living species of shell-fish. The natural surroundings
+show that this fort was built when the peat-bog was a lake. This is
+further confirmed by the fact that all ancient works are erected near a
+permanent supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is Oak
+Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The formation of this
+peat would require not less than four thousand years, and more probably
+twice that number.
+
+The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long time. These works were
+formed gradually, and the population extended slowly toward the North.
+Their corn-fields, by their raised condition, show many successive years
+of usage.
+
+    NOTE A.--In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida Count
+    L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones, found in
+    Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in
+    a fresh-water sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated
+    with fresh-water shells of species still living in the lake,
+    (_Paludina, Ampullaria, etc._) No date can be assigned to
+    the formation of that deposit, at least from present
+    observation."--_American Naturalist_, vol. II., p. 443.
+
+    NOTE B.--Besides the evidences already enumerated, Col. Charles
+    Whittlesey gives the following: 1. Three skeletons of Indians in
+    a shelter cave near Elyria, O., were found four feet below the
+    surface, resting upon the original floor of the cave, upon which
+    were also charcoal, ashes, and the remains of existing animals;
+    estimated age, two thousand years. 2. Several human skeletons were
+    found in a cave near Louisville, Ky., cemented into a breccia.
+    They were discovered in constructing the reservoir in 1853. 3. A
+    log, worn by the feet of man, was found in the muck bed at High
+    Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., at a depth of nine feet beneath the
+    cave, and estimated by Dr. Henry McGuire to be 5,470 years old. It
+    was discovered in 1866. 4. Mr. Koch claims to have found an arrow
+    head fifteen feet below the skeleton of the _Mastodon Ohioensis_
+    from the recent alluvium of the Pomme de Terre River, Mo., and now
+    in the British Museum. His statement was, however, contradicted by
+    one of the men who assisted him in exhuming the skeleton. 5. Dr.
+    Holmes, of Charleston, S. C., found pottery at the base of a peat
+    bog, on the banks of the Ashley River, in close connection with
+    the remains of the Mastodon and Megatherium. 6. Col. Whittlesey,
+    in 1838, found fire-hearths in the ancient alluvium of the Ohio,
+    at Portsmouth, O., at a depth of twenty feet, and beneath the
+    works of the Mound-Builders.--_Col. Whittlesey before the American
+    Association, in 1868._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+WRITTEN HISTORY.
+
+
+It is not generally known that written history extends so far back as to
+make worthless the present system of chronology. The mighty empires of
+antiquity must have been a mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far
+back as history will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with
+her millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crumbling.
+Rollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which hampered him. He
+says the Assyrian empire was founded by Nimrod eighteen hundred years
+after the creation of man, or two hundred and twenty-four years after
+the Deluge, or one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of
+Noah. Nimrod was succeeded by his son Ninus, who received powerful
+succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests from Egypt as far
+as India and Bactriana. Ninus enlarged his capital to sixty miles in
+circumference, built the walls to the height of one hundred feet, and so
+broad that three chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and
+fortified and adorned them with one thousand five hundred towers two
+hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodigious work he led
+against the Bactrians one million seven hundred thousand foot, two
+hundred thousand horse, besides four hundred vessels well equipped and
+provided. After his death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne. She
+enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of Ethiopia. Then
+she led her army of three million foot and five hundred thousand horse,
+besides the camels and chariots of war, into India, where she suffered a
+severe defeat. After making these statements, Rollin says, "I must own
+I am somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised against the
+extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis, as they do not seem
+to agree with the times so near the Deluge: I mean, such vast armies,
+such a numerous cavalry, so many chariots armed with scythes, and such
+immense treasures of gold and silver; ... and the magnificence of the
+buildings, ascribed to them."[91] The difficulties presented to the
+modern historian never would have occurred if discredit had not been
+thrown on the writings of the ancients.
+
+_Egypt._--The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was that of
+Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, who lived three hundred years
+before Christ. Only fragments of this work have been preserved. This
+history is taken from the ancient Egyptian chronicles, and records a
+list of thirty dynasties reigning in one city. His "thirty-one lists
+contain the names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to
+them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand four hundred
+and sixty-five years."[92] Dr. Buchner says Manetho "calculates for
+three hundred and seventy-five Pharaohs a reigning period of six
+thousand one hundred and seventeen years, which together with the
+present era, makes about eight thousand three hundred and thirty
+years."[93] Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to
+about the year 5000 B. C.[94]
+
+Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their first king (Menes)
+to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos), the priest of Vulcan, was a
+period of three hundred and forty-one generations; such, at least, they
+say, was the number both of their kings and of their high-priests,
+during this interval. Now three hundred generations of men make ten
+thousand years, three generations filling up the century; and the
+remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and forty years.
+Thus the whole number of years is eleven thousand three hundred and
+forty." The priests "led me into the inner sanctuary, which is a
+spacious chamber, and showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in
+wood, which they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number
+they had said; the custom being for every high-priest during his
+life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they showed me the
+figures and reckoned them up, they assured me that each was the son of
+the one preceding him; and this they repeated throughout the whole line,
+beginning with the representation of the priest last deceased, and
+continuing till they had completed the series."[95] From the time of
+Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of Delphi,
+was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple was burned B. C. 548.
+The period which, then, has elapsed from Sethos to the present (1875) is
+two thousand five hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time
+of Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand eight
+hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation be reduced to
+twenty years then the period from Menes to the present is nine thousand
+three hundred and sixty-five years.
+
+The recent explorations made by Mariette among the archives of Egypt
+have confirmed the testimony of Manetho. The names of the kings, their
+order of succession, and the length of their reigns correspond with
+Manetho's table. These discoveries not only testify to the great
+antiquity of the empire, but also throw light on the nation, its
+manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane-bottomed chairs,
+work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet ornaments, earthenware, seeds,
+eggs, bread, straw baskets, a child's plaything, paint boxes, with
+colors and brushes, etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old.
+There were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived 1700 B.
+C., consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear-rings, and bracelets,
+which no modern queen would hesitate to wear.
+
+These statements are still further confirmed by the testimony of
+geology. In the year 1850 borings were commenced in the mud deposit of
+the Nile. The most important results were obtained from an excavation
+and boring made near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Rameses
+at Memphis, the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361 B.
+C. Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the platform or
+foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches below the surface of
+the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it was laid, there had been
+formed between that period and the year A. D. 1850, or during the space
+of three thousand two hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet
+four inches round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and
+one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascertained, by
+sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in the same place, that
+below the level of the old plain the thickness of old Nile mud resting
+on desert sand amounted to thirty-two feet; and it was therefore
+inferred by Mr. Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of
+burned brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old, or
+was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety-six years before
+the year 1850."[96] Other excavations were made on a large scale. In the
+first sixteen or twenty-four feet there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a
+small human figure in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles
+entire. When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the
+progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost everywhere,
+and from all depths, even where they sank sixty feet below the surface,
+pieces of burned brick and pottery were extracted.[97]
+
+_Troy._--Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has recently been
+uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has been thrown over the
+ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy given by Homer, thought to have
+been a mere work of imagination, are now shown to be accurate, and also
+that he must have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of
+Troy the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities
+superimposed one above the other were discovered. The third city, below
+the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of Priam, the Scaean gate, the
+massive walls and pavements, still remained. In the house of Priam Dr.
+Schlieman found a great mass of human bones, among them two entire
+skeletons wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden
+scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight thousand
+seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc. Immediately beside the
+house of Priam, closely packed in a quadrangular space, surrounded with
+ashes, and near by a copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a
+copper pot, a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound,
+several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads,
+fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a part of a
+sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by weight alone, of all the
+gold and silver found in or near the house of Priam, has been estimated
+at twenty thousand dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred
+thousand articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had been
+suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the implements and the effects
+of war were visible. Even the brave warriors who fell while defending
+the palace of their king have not yet wholly crumbled into dust.
+
+The four cities may be thus summed up: The topmost stratum is six and
+one-half feet in depth and covers the Grecian settlement which was
+established about the year 700 B. C. Beneath the Greek masonry are found
+the walls of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the
+abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city--or the successive
+cities--was chiefly built of wood.
+
+The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty-three and
+one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the surface, and form a
+stratum averaging ten feet in thickness. Troy is supposed to have been
+founded about 1400 B. C., and its fall and destruction by fire to have
+occurred about 1100 B. C.
+
+Under Troy there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying from thirteen to
+twenty feet in depth. The most remarkable feature of these oldest ruins
+is the superiority of the terracotta articles. These vases are of a
+shining black, red, or brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut
+into the pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of
+these ruins "is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissitudes of
+the city's history--frequent destruction and rebuilding--would have the
+same practical effect, or very nearly so, as a long interval of time. We
+have anywhere from two to five thousand years before Christ as the date
+of the foundation of the _first_ Troy."[98]
+
+_Chaldea._--Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly three hundred
+years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular history of Chaldea, in
+nine books. The materials for this work were supplied by the archives
+then existing in the Temple of Belus at Babylon. The work was
+particularly devoted to a history of the kingdom prior to the beginning
+of the Assyrian empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by
+Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of ten
+fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true history, and
+enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings of Chaldea, who reigned
+successively from the time when the list begins to the rise of the
+Assyrian empire, about the year 1237 B. C. Berosus begins with a dynasty
+of eighty-six kings, and gives their names, which are now lost. He had
+no chronology of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical
+calculation. His list, which has so far escaped the lapse of time and
+the change of hands, is thus preserved:
+
+First, eighty-six Chaldean kings; history and time mythical.
+
+Second, eight Median kings; during two hundred and twenty-four years.
+
+Third, eleven kings.
+
+Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings.
+
+Fifth, nine Arabian kings; during two hundred and forty-five years.
+
+The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a sixth dynasty.
+The blank spaces in the list are doubtless the result of careless
+copying, or caused by imperfections in the manuscripts. In order to make
+the old kingdom of Chaldea begin about the year 2234 B. C. the first
+eighty-six kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the
+Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any show of
+reason, save that it does not agree with the chronology which the
+mutilators of history accept.
+
+Investigations which have been made among the ruined cities of Chaldea
+have given great weight to the authority of Berosus, and are tending to
+the confirmation of his history. In Susiana there was found a Cushite
+inscription, mentioned by Rawlinson, in which there is a date that goes
+back nearly to the year 3200 B. C. The testimony of the records
+disentombed from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the
+prevalent hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the country
+before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm Berosus by showing that
+Chaldea was a cultivated and flourishing nation, governed by kings, long
+previous to the time when the city known to us as Babylon rose to
+eminence and became the seat of empire. During that long time there were
+several great political epochs in the history of the country,
+representing important dynastic changes, and several transfers of the
+seat of government from one city to another. Such epochs in Chaldean
+history are indicated by the list of Berosus."[99]
+
+By this people, the science of astronomy was well understood.
+"Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Babylon, sent to Aristotle
+from that capital a series of astronomical observations which he had
+found preserved there, extending back to a period of one thousand nine
+hundred and three years from Alexander's conquest of the city.... These
+observations were recorded in tablets of baked clay.... They must have
+extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as 2234 B. C., and would
+seem to have been commenced and carried on for many centuries by the
+primitive Chaldean people." A lens of considerable power, used for
+either magnifying or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at
+Babylon, in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.[100]
+
+_China._--Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that there were
+long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom flourished, the chronology
+of which is not preserved, although there is recorded some knowledge of
+the rulers. One of these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next
+come the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion, and
+the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great epoch, and ruled by
+fifteen successive kings. In the second epoch, agriculture and medical
+science were promoted. In the third, the magnetic needle was discovered,
+the written characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great
+revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the descendants of
+the previous ruler reigned. Next came the period of Yao and Shin. After
+this the period of the "Imperial Dynasties," which began with the
+Emperor Yu, who lived two thousand two hundred years B. C. The
+historical work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically from
+the year 2637 B. C. to 122 B. C.[101]
+
+_Mexico._--It is known that books or manuscripts were abundant among
+the ancient Mexicans. There were persons duly appointed to keep a
+chronicle of the passing events. Las Casas, who saw the books, says they
+gave the origin of the kingdom as well as the founders of the different
+cities, and every different thing which transpired that was worthy of
+note: such as the history of kings, their modes of election and
+succession; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds, good or bad;
+the heroes of other days, their triumphs and defeats. These chroniclers
+calculated the days, months, and years. Nearly all these books were
+destroyed at the instigation of the monks, and by the more ignorant and
+fanatical Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings were
+burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumarraga. A few of the
+works, however, escaped, but none of the great books of annals described
+by Las Casas.[102] Thus Mexico must be left to the archaeologist
+unassisted by written history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+
+The origin and growth of language evidently afford a great field for
+study, in not only tracing the development of civilization, but also in
+confirming the testimony of the ancients and the conclusions of the
+geologists. If the unity of language could not be established, there
+would still be left a field so great as would not lessen the interest or
+the importance of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed. For
+the sake of convenience the many varieties of language have been grouped
+into three great divisions, _i. e._, the Aryan, the Semitic, and the
+Turanian. "The English, together with all the Teutonic languages of the
+Continent, Celtic, Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots,
+such as French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many varieties
+of one common type of speech: that Sanskrit, the ancient language of the
+Veda, is no more distinct from the Greek of Homer, ... or from the
+Anglo-Saxon of Alfred, than French is from Italian. All these languages
+together form one family, one whole, in which every member shares
+certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the same time
+distinguished from the rest by certain features peculiarly its own. The
+same applies to the Semitic family which comprises, as its most
+important members, the Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the
+Koran, and the ancient languages on the monuments of Phoenicia and
+Carthage, of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again, form a compact
+family, and differ entirely from the other family, which we called Aryan
+or Indo-European. The third group of languages, for we can hardly call
+it a family, comprises most of the remaining languages of Asia, and
+counts among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic,
+Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages of Siam, the Malay
+Islands, Thibet, and Southern India. Lastly, the Chinese language stands
+by itself as monosyllabic, the only remnant of the earliest formation of
+human speech."[103]
+
+Anterior to these three families there was still another from which
+these were derived. It contained the germs of all the Turanian, as well
+as the Aryan and Semitic forms of speech. It belongs to that period in
+the history of man when ideas were first clothed in language, and has
+been called the Rhematic Period.[104]
+
+As regards the origin of language, three theories have been proposed:
+the Interjectional, the Imitation, and the Root. The first supposes that
+the beginnings of human speech were the cries and sounds which are
+uttered when a human being is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second
+supposes "that man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and
+dogs, and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea, the
+rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the whisper of the
+breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and finding his mimicking
+cries useful as signs of the objects from which they proceeded, he
+followed up the idea and elaborated language." The third theory,
+advanced by Max Mueller, is that language followed as the outward sign
+and realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty of
+abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be reduced, express a
+general, not an individual idea.[105]
+
+There is more or less truth in all these theories. At the very earliest
+period man must have possessed some method of communicating his wants or
+ideas. The casual observer has noticed that animals have methods of
+communicating with one another. It is not improbable that at the very
+earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and signs. This may
+have lasted for a very long time. Then the mimicking commenced. Next,
+comparison was resorted to when he had so far advanced as to describe
+his thoughts and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary
+or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root words.[106]
+
+Instead of new languages originating, old languages change. They are
+mutable, and from them new dialects are produced. In the history of man
+there never has been a new language, and the languages now spoken are
+but the modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people,
+however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same materials as
+were used in the beginnings of speech. New words are but old words; old
+in their material elements, though they may be renewed and dressed in
+various forms. "The modifiability of the language and its tendency to
+vary never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and
+modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with the mother
+country direct or indirect. In this respect its mutability will resemble
+that of species, and it can no more spring up independently in separate
+districts than species can, assuming that these last are all of
+derivative origin."[107]
+
+There are from four thousand to six thousand living languages. The
+number of unspoken languages is not known. Their growth has required
+ages, and during their development many a parent stalk has ceased to
+exist. The changes in a language are slowly produced. It requires
+centuries to so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order
+to understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be gained by
+comparing the writings in the English language of different periods. In
+the year 1362 appeared a poem called "Piers Ploughman's Creed," which
+begins as follows:
+
+  "In a summer season,
+  When soft was the sun,
+  I shoop me into shrowds[108]
+  As I a sheep[109] were;
+  In habit as an hermit
+  Unholy of werkes,
+  Went wide in this world
+  Wonders to hear;
+  Ac[110] on a May morwening
+  On Malvern hills
+  Me befel a ferly,[111]
+  Of fairy me thought." Etc.
+
+Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the process of
+either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered that a language has
+been derived successively through numerous others, no special limit or
+time can be given, although a very long period would be required. The
+usually accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the
+diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time required for
+the development of the three general classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.
+
+
+The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a clash of opinions
+among men of science. It has been the great battle field among
+anthropologists, ethnologists, geologists, philologists, and
+theologists. Men of acknowledged ability have been arrayed on either
+side. Among the foremost in favor of a diversity of origin have been
+Agassiz, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and
+Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is most in favor of
+the unity of the human race.
+
+The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin of the human
+race have advanced many objections against the unity, and produced
+arguments in favor of their opinions. These may be summed up under five
+heads. 1. The anatomical differences between the different races, and
+especially those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The
+separation of the races from each other for unknown ages by great
+oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental barriers. 3.
+The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in civilization. 4. A
+medium type cannot exist by itself, except on the condition of being
+supported by the two creating types. 5. When two types become united,
+two phenomena may arise: _a_, Either one of them will absorb the other;
+or _b_, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst of a greater or
+less number of hybrids.
+
+The following answers may be given to these objections, or arguments: 1.
+It is just as reasonable to suppose that man is affected, as well as the
+animals, by climate, food, or peculiar condition. It is well known that
+animals have undergone more or less change by their situation or
+position. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain
+extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate, were
+covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that the present species
+of both genera had lost their hairy covering by exposure to heat. This
+is confirmed by the fact that the elephants of the elevated and cool
+districts of India are more hairy than those on the lowlands.[112] A
+wonderful change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys. In
+India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of rising on
+the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous appendages over the
+beak, enormously developed." "In the English climate an individual Porto
+Santo rabbit recovered the proper color of its fur in less than four
+years."[113] Observers are convinced that a damp climate affects the
+growth of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ from the
+lowland breeds; in a mountainous country the hind limbs would be
+affected from exercising them more, which would also affect the pelvis,
+and, then, from the law of homologous variation, the front limbs and
+head would probably be affected.[114] One of the most marked
+distinctions in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated
+or dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic. Mr. Darwin
+has observed that a change takes place in the skulls of domestic
+rabbits; they become elongated, while those of the wild rabbit are
+rounded. He took two skulls of nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild
+and the other from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15,
+and the latter 4.3 inches in length. Welcker has observed "that short
+men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to dolichocephaly; and
+tall men may be compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all
+of which have elongated skulls."[115] The argument from language is of
+great weight, especially in considering the differences in color.
+Professor Max Mueller has stated this clearly: "There was a time when the
+ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, the Greeks and
+Italians, the Persians and Hindus, were living together beneath the same
+roof." "The evidence of language is irrefragable, and it is the only
+evidence worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It
+would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of
+relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their conquerors,
+whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony borne by
+language."[116] When the great lapse of ages is taken into
+consideration, since man originated, it will be seen that sufficient
+time is given to produce the white, black, yellow, red, and brown
+varieties of man.
+
+2. The argument from geographical distribution would hardly seem valid,
+as it is known that the ocean can be and has been navigated by frail
+crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the ship Bounty, in a small boat,
+twenty-three feet long from stem to stern, deep laden with nineteen men
+and one hundred and fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of
+water, twenty pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa
+(South Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand
+six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boisterous sea, and
+great perils, but finally reached his destination.[117] When men began
+to dwell on the sea-coast they made their small vessels and carried on a
+limited navigation. Many a frail craft has been driven out to sea with
+its human freight, some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has
+often happened among the South Sea islanders.[118] If it had been
+asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have been
+partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have received no attention.
+And yet, Captain Tyson and his party, consisting of twelve men, two
+women, and five children, being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated
+Polaris, drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of
+April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic winter.
+Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they subsisted on the
+flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they were able to kill. Every
+member of this party was rescued off the coast of Labrador. It must be
+further noticed that the surface of the earth was not always the same.
+The continents have changed more or less, and during these changes man
+must have become more or less separated.
+
+3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the two extreme
+points are observable in all the nations of the earth. Even in single
+families there have been those who were highly cultured and refined,
+while other members have been very low in organization, habits, and
+tastes. In these days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a
+very high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations have
+retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who pitch their tents amid
+the ruins of Babylon, are the descendants of the ancient mixed races who
+successively occupied Mesopotamia: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes,
+and Persians, who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as Shalmaneser,
+Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild marauding Arabs are the
+descendants of a people who invented algebra and introduced the
+numerals. So the list might be extended.
+
+4 and 5. The fourth and fifth amount to the assumption that no race will
+amalgamate with another. The statements embraced under these two heads
+are not warranted by facts. Dr. Prichard says, "Mankind of all races and
+varieties are equally capable of propagating their offspring by
+intermarriages, and that such connections are equally prolific whether
+contracted between individuals of the same or of the most dissimilar
+varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably in favor of the
+latter."[119] He then gives a short account of several examples of new
+or intermediate stocks which have been produced and multiplied. They are
+Griquas, descended from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks
+of the Orange River, and number five thousand souls; the Cafusos of
+Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African Negroes; the Papuas of
+the island of New Guinea, a mixture between the Malays and Negroes. One
+of the best examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders.
+This colony originated in this way: The British government had sent a
+vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieutenant Bligh, to gather
+bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and introduce them into the West Indies.
+Bligh was an overbearing, tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury,
+and out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Christian
+and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen companions
+adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti; here they took on board
+provisions and live stock, nine Tahitian men, twelve women, and eight
+boys who had secreted themselves, and then proceeded to Toubouai, where
+they founded a settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and
+removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of the mutineers,
+three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with their wives, and one child,
+and nine other women, left in the Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's
+Island, and there burned the Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less
+than nine years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to two
+in number, both whites, and one of them died the succeeding year. In the
+year 1808 the American ship Topaz touched at the island. The colonists
+then numbered thirty-five. In 1856 they had increased to the number of
+one hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was barely
+sufficient to support them they were removed by the British government
+to Norfolk Island. There are only eight surnames among them--five of the
+Bounty stock and three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of
+people; the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely
+distinguishable from English women. If reports be true concerning them,
+they are the most remarkable people on earth. They never allow the sun
+to go down on their wrath, and are noted for their honesty, truth,
+chastity, industry, benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the
+virtues which combine to form true religion.
+
+The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged against the unity
+of the race, has proved an argument in favor. The offspring of birds as
+much alike as the domestic goose and the large Muscovy duck will not
+propagate their species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The
+different varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland pony
+and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together but these
+hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind, thereby proving their
+identity of species. The same may be said of the cross between the most
+perfect and the lowest type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die
+out in a few generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the
+plain violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to a
+marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no issue; if the
+constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in substance too nearly the
+same, the issue, if any, will be either still-born, or die very soon
+after birth; if the contracting parties shall have an adjunctive
+element, the issue will be short-lived, although they may arrive at the
+years of maturity.[120] These laws apply to both the mixed and the
+unmixed types of mankind.
+
+The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the same
+general laws, their capacity for mental and moral improvement, and the
+virtual unity of their languages lead to the conclusion that one
+birth-place was common to all. If that place be Central Asia, or any
+other locality, it must have been long before traditional times, when
+the one tribe was broken up and nations formed.
+
+Races change so slow that they seem to be stationary. On the ancient
+Egyptian monuments are representations of the Negro, having exactly the
+same features which characterize that race at the present time; and some
+of these paintings date as far back as 2000 B. C.
+
+Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in type, an almost
+incredible length of time must be assigned to permit of the great
+disparity as exhibited by the different types of mankind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE.
+
+
+No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible. It has been made to
+answer for the folly of both its friends and foes. The fierce assaults
+made by the sceptic have been the legitimate result of the preposterous
+claims made by its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no
+such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its meaning has
+been perverted, sentences distorted, and words changed in order to suit
+the caprice of its advocates. If it were a living, speaking existence,
+it would certainly beg to be delivered from its friends. It has been
+made to conflict with the investigations of science, and those engaged
+in interpreting the laws of nature have been branded as infidels,
+although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The Bible is not and
+makes no pretensions of being a book of science. It is designed to be a
+book of religion, and a history of the ancient Jews, and its references
+to scientific questions are only incidental. If the references to
+science, or the account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on
+questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invalidated. The
+Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from the results of
+scientific investigation. But there is a duty devolving on him, and that
+is to leave his fanciful interpretations and come to the true meaning of
+the Scriptures, and there learn how the words were understood by those
+to whom they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as used in
+the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with their signification
+as used in the past. There is a great distance that divides the present
+from the times of the Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the
+English language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were not given
+to scientific pursuits, and could have been but comparatively little
+advanced in civilization.
+
+It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of the points
+raised between the Scriptures and science, but to confine the inquiry to
+such questions as the previous chapters have demanded.
+
+_Creation._--The first and second chapters of Genesis not only teach
+that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but also the order of
+succession is given. It is not stated that the world was created out of
+nothing. The word "bara," translated "created," has a variety of
+meanings. According to Gesenius it means _to cut_, _to cut out_, _to
+carve_, _to form_, _to create_, _to produce_, _to beget_, _to bring
+forth_, _to feed_, _to eat_, _to grow fat_, _to fashion_, _to
+make_.[121] The idea presented seems to be this: The author asserts that
+heaven and earth owe their origin to God. Then he goes back and explains
+the successive stages of creation. At the commencement of the work the
+earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition, and from this
+preexisting mass the worlds were evolved. When this mass was created, if
+ever, the author of Genesis does not state.
+
+Six periods, or "days," are given for the formation of the earth. The
+use of the words "evening and morning" naturally leads to the conclusion
+that the _days_ were each twenty-four hours in length. But doubt is
+thrown over this conclusion by the use of the word _day_ in the second
+chapter and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called a
+_day_. The word translated "day" also means _time_, but it is to be
+generally taken in the sense of the civil day--from sun up to sun down.
+Hugh Miller held to the opinion that the creation was represented to
+Moses in a vision. The periods passed before his mind in succession and
+had the appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and the
+morning was the beginning of another period of time.[122] If a
+description of the different orders of life had been given, it would
+have been beyond the comprehension of that primitive people. It was not
+the design to teach geology. The people were not prepared for such
+scientific knowledge. But the simple statement that God is the author of
+all things, could be and was understood by the Israelites.
+
+On the sixth day man appears; but there are two records, and in them he
+is presented in different ways and for different purposes. In the first
+account man is made in the image of God, and to him is given dominion
+over the living things, and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The
+second account states that there was no man to till the ground, and the
+Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his
+nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. The second
+account cannot be, as has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The
+two accounts are radically different. One account makes man to have
+dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes; the other, to till or
+cultivate the soil. This agrees with archaeo-geology. Men were hunters
+many ages before they were agriculturists. The one account has man made
+in the image of God, the other, a _living soul_. The "image of God" and
+"living soul" may be the same, but why the change? There may be a cause
+for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one, then Moses saw man
+in two capacities, differing one from the other. Man may be in the
+"image of God," and yet in a low, savage condition--subsisting on the
+chase. Man may be awakened from that condition, the "image of God" may
+assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful being.[123]
+That there were two classes the record implies. Cain goes out into the
+Land of Nod, where his wife conceives, and he builds a city. Where did
+Cain get his wife, and why did he build a city? No account is given of
+the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained her in
+the Land of Nod.[124] It has been contended that Cain married his
+sister. If this be true it would certainly have been mentioned. It is
+too important a matter to have escaped notice. If he married his sister
+he was guilty of a heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now.
+The city he built must have been more than an _encampment_, or a _small
+fortification_. (The word translated "city" bears this meaning also.) It
+would have been of no moment. It must have been a place of some
+consequence, and designed for more persons than Cain, his wife, and son.
+Taking all the circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every
+one that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object of
+this city was to provide for individuals of the pre-Adamic family
+dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingratiate himself into
+their favor.
+
+Then, again, in the sixth chapter, "The sons of God saw the daughters of
+men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they
+chose." This was followed by great wickedness, in consequence of which
+the world was destroyed by a flood. Who were the "sons of God," and who
+the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of God? The "sons of God"
+must have been the lineal descendants of Adam, and the "daughters of
+men" the offspring of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced
+were monsters,[125] and their minds were bent continually on doing evil.
+These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or else they would not have
+sought wives from among a lower people. By the laws of nature their
+offspring was lower than either of the races, from the fact that to the
+brutish natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural wisdom
+of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in their
+wickedness.[126] If stringent moral laws had been enforced upon them the
+result would have been reversed.
+
+_Chronology._--The chronology given in the margins of the Bible is a
+mere invention, and has worked much mischief. There is nothing to
+warrant it, and no excuse can be made for it. The Bible gives no
+definite chronology for those early times. That no dependence can be
+placed in these chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the
+Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.[127] The Septuagint dates the Flood
+eight hundred years farther back than the common Bible. "A margin of
+variation amounting to eight centuries between two versions of the same
+document, is a variation so enormous that it seems to cast complete
+doubt on the whole system of interpretation on which such computations
+of time are based."[128]
+
+_The Deluge._--Allowing the date of the Deluge to have been 3149 B. C.
+instead of 2349 B. C., still there is not sufficient time to repopulate
+the earth, and form those mighty empires recorded in ancient history.
+The Duke of Argyle has very justly remarked that, "The founding of a
+monarchy is not the beginning of a race. The people among whom such
+monarchies arose must have grown and gathered during many generations."
+The peopling of Egypt is not the only difficulty. "The existence, in the
+days of Abraham, of such an organized government as that of Chedorlaomer
+shows that two thousand years B. C. there nourished in Elam, beyond
+Mesopotamia, a nation which even now would be ranked among 'the Great
+Powers.'"[129] Then the characteristic features of the Negro, one of the
+most strongly marked among the varieties of man, were as greatly marked
+2000 B. C. as at present.
+
+These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood was not
+universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood, but "the monuments
+of the two most ancient civilizations of which we have any
+knowledge--the Egyptian and Chinese--contain no account of, or allusion
+to, Noah's Deluge."[130] Many of these traditions doubtless refer to
+some local flood. The passages of Scripture seem to teach the
+universality of the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the
+idea of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and refer
+only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The question is one of
+doubt whether or not the sacred historian means the Noachian Deluge to
+have been universal, or only a local cataclysm.
+
+_Monarchies._--The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod was the first
+monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and
+Accad, and Calneh." Nor is the statement made that he founded these
+cities. He was a mighty hunter, and these cities were the _beginning of
+his kingdom_.
+
+_The Dispersion._--The building of the tower of Babel is no myth, but a
+veritable reality. A portion of the mighty fabric still stands, a
+mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast amount of work it required in
+its construction. The story is told in few words, and those words cover
+centuries. The people engaged in its construction spoke one language,
+but when this language was confounded the empire was rent asunder. The
+narrative seems to teach the use of but one language on the whole face
+of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge, in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion,"
+says, "Moreover, the phrase 'the whole earth,' as commonly used in the
+Bible, is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not
+intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater part thereof,
+but is loosely employed to designate the whole of that particular
+portion which the writer or speaker has in his mind at the time. In the
+present case it denotes the country bordering on the Tigris and the
+Euphrates."[131] If the views of this eminent theologian be correct,
+then, by the same principle of interpretation the unity of language
+spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the Tigris and the
+Euphrates.
+
+There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origination of
+language. Under the view already advanced, when the animals were brought
+to Adam, he readily gave them names, for he had received language from
+his predecessors, and now, being an especially chosen person, his
+endowments would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use.
+
+It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the world and peopled
+it with myriads of beings in a period of six days of twenty-four hours
+each. It is not incredible that a cataclysm could destroy every living
+creature, save an appointed few, and cover the remotest boundaries of
+the earth. It is possible for God to do anything save that which is
+inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to do, and
+what He does, are two very different things. What He has done can only
+be told from the evidences which He has left. What He might have done is
+only speculation. Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He
+observes the course of nature, and from these observations his
+conclusions are drawn.
+
+The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when properly
+understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not to close his eyes and
+refuse to be guided by science, and with blind credulity accept the
+tales and prejudices of his grandfathers.
+
+    NOTE.--Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England,
+    in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes
+    unusual grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that
+    there were and are two modes of reconciling the letter of
+    Scripture with geology, but each has totally and deservedly
+    failed. One of these attempts to wrest the words of the Bible from
+    their real meaning, and force them to speak the language of
+    science; the other attempts to falsify science to meet the
+    supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another
+    reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of
+    the affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of
+    science and the spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of
+    the general spirit of the Bible truths; and, secondly, there is a
+    likeness in the methods. The frame of this earth was gradually
+    brought into its present condition by the slow and silent action
+    of the same causes which we see now operating through a long
+    succession of ages beyond the memory and imagination of man. We do
+    not expect this doctrine to agree with the letter of the Bible.
+    The early biblical records could not be literal, prosaic,
+    matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world. It is
+    now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain
+    two narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each
+    other in almost every particular of time and place and order. It
+    is now known that the vast epochs demanded by scientific
+    observation are incompatible both with the six thousand years of
+    the Mosaic chronology and the six days of the Mosaic Creation. The
+    discoveries of geology are found to fill up the old religious
+    truths with a new life, and to derive from them in turn a
+    hallowing glory.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+  Adjunctive, having the quality of joining.
+
+  Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of sand, clay, or gravel, made by
+  river action.
+
+  Amalgamate, to mix or blend different things or races.
+
+  Antero-posterior, in a direction from behind forward.
+
+  Aphelion, that point of a planet's or comet's orbit which is most
+  distant from the sun.
+
+  Archaeo-geologist, one versed in pre-historic remains, or familiar with
+  both archaeology and geology.
+
+  Archives, public records and papers preserved as evidence of fact.
+
+  Aryan, a term applied to all the nations who speak languages derived
+  mainly from the Sanskrit, or ancient Hindoo.
+
+  Atomic, a system of philosophy which accounted for the origin and
+  formation of all things by assuming that atoms are endowed with
+  gravity and motion.
+
+  Auditory, having the power of hearing.
+
+
+  Baton, a staff used as an emblem of authority.
+
+  Brachycephalic, a skull whose transverse diameter exceeds the
+  antero-posterior diameter.
+
+  Breccia, a rock made up of angular fragments cemented together.
+
+  Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from ten to thirty per cent. of tin,
+  to which other metals are sometimes added.
+
+
+  Calcareous, consisting of, or containing, carbonate of lime.
+
+  Calcined, reduced to a powder, or friable state, by the action of
+  heat.
+
+  Carbonate, a salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with a base.
+
+  Carnivora, an order of animals which subsist on flesh.
+
+  Carpal, that portion of the skeleton pertaining to the wrist.
+
+  Cataclysm, a deluge.
+
+  Celt, one of an ancient race of people who formerly inhabited a great
+  part of Central and Western Europe; an implement made of stone or
+  metal, found in the ancient tumuli of Europe.
+
+  Cereal, edible grain.
+
+  Champlain Epoch, a name derived from the beds on the borders of Lake
+  Champlain. The beds are subsequent in origin to the glacial epoch.
+
+  Chert, an impure variety of flint.
+
+  Clavicle, the collar-bone.
+
+  Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles cemented together.
+
+  Coronoid, the process of the ulna and lower jaw.
+
+  Cosmogony, the science of the origin of the world or universe.
+
+  Cranium, the skull.
+
+  Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, used by
+  the ancients as places of habitation.
+
+  Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring great heat, and used for
+  melting ores, metals, etc.
+
+  Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space of time marked by the
+  recurrence of something peculiar.
+
+
+  Data (pl. of datum), a ground of inference or deduction.
+
+  Debris (d[=a]-bree), fragments detached from rocks, and piled up in
+  masses.
+
+  Demi-relief, the projection of one half the figure beyond the plane
+  from which it rises.
+
+  Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like markings.
+
+  Devonian, the geological age between the Silurian and Carboniferous.
+
+  Diluvium, the time when the glacial beds were deposited.
+
+  Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish, speckled with black, or
+  greenish black.
+
+  Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter from the frontal to the
+  occipital bone exceeds the transverse diameter.
+
+  Dorsal, the name given to the second division of the vertebrae.
+
+  Drift, a collection of loose earth and bowlders, distributed during
+  the glacial epoch over large portions of the earth's surface.
+
+  Druidical, pertaining to the religious ceremonies of the ancient
+  Celtic nations in France, Britain, and Germany.
+
+  Dynasty, a succession of kings of the same line or family.
+
+
+  Eccentricity, the distance of the centre of the orbit of a heavenly
+  body from the centre of the body round which it revolves.
+
+  Edible, eatable.
+
+  Elliptical, having an oval or oblong figure.
+
+  Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs of the tertiary.
+
+  Epoch, any period of time marked by some particular cause or event.
+
+  Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat.
+
+
+  Fauna, the animals of any given area or epoch.
+
+  Flora, the complete system of vegetable species native in a given
+  locality, or period.
+
+  Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful colors, composed by fluorine and
+  calcium.
+
+  Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by the joint action of a river and
+  the sea.
+
+  Foramen, a little opening.
+
+
+  Fossa, a depression in a bone.
+
+  Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in the strata composing the
+  surface of the earth.
+
+
+  Genus (pl. genera), an assemblage of species possessing certain
+  characters in common, by which they are distinguished from all others.
+
+  Geode, an irregular shaped stone, containing a small cavity.
+
+  Geognostic, pertaining to a knowledge of the structure of the earth.
+
+  Glabella, the middle or frontal protuberance of the superciliary arch.
+
+  Glaciation, the process of becoming covered with glaciers.
+
+  Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or snow and ice, formed in the region
+  of perpetual snow, and moving slowly down mountain slopes or valleys.
+
+  Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
+
+
+  Herbivora, that order of animals which subsists upon herbs or
+  vegetables.
+
+  Homologous, having the same typical structure.
+
+  Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest the shoulder.
+
+  Hybrid, that which is produced from the mixture of two species.
+
+
+  Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone.
+
+
+  Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a dark green color, and capable of
+  a fine polish.
+
+
+  Lambdoidal, the suture which connects the occipital with the parietal
+  bones.
+
+  Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock.
+
+  Loam, a soil composed of siliceous sand, clay, carbonate of lime,
+  oxide of iron, magnesia, and various salts, and also decayed vegetable
+  and animal matter.
+
+  Loess, a term usually applied to a tertiary deposit on the banks of
+  the Rhine.
+
+  Lumbar, the vertebrae near the loins.
+
+
+  Mammalia, that class of animals characterized by the female suckling
+  its young.
+
+  Marl, a mixed earthy substance, consisting of carbonate of lime, clay,
+  and siliceous sand.
+
+  Mastoid, a process situated at the posterior part of the temporal
+  bone.
+
+  Matrix, a mould; the cavity in which a thing is held.
+
+  Maxillary, the upper jaw bone.
+
+  Metacarpal, the part of the hand between the wrist and the fingers.
+
+  Metallurgy, the art of working metals.
+
+  Metatarsal, the middle part of the foot.
+
+  Miocene, the middle or second epoch of the Tertiary.
+
+  Molar, a grinding tooth.
+
+  Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used in casting; to form or shape;
+  fine soft earth.
+
+  Mollusca, an order of invertebrate animals having a soft, fleshy body,
+  which is inarticulate, and not radiate internally.
+
+  Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel extending along the sides of
+  separate glaciers, and along the middle part of glaciers formed by the
+  union of one or more separate ones.
+
+
+  Nebulous, having a faint, misty appearance; applied to uncondensed
+  gaseous matter.
+
+  Neolithic, new stone age; a term applied to the more modern age of
+  stone.
+
+  Nummulitic, composed of, or containing a fossil of a flattened form,
+  resembling a small coin, and common in the early tertiary period.
+
+
+  Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by volcanoes.
+
+  Occipital, pertaining to the back part of the head.
+
+  Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, containing iron.
+
+  Olecranon, the large process at the extremity of the larger bone of
+  the fore-arm.
+
+  Onusprobandi, the burden of proof.
+
+  Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is located; the path described by a
+  heavenly body in its periodical revolution.
+
+  Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel formed by glaciers.
+
+  Oscillation, the act of moving backward and forward.
+
+  Osseous, composed of bone.
+
+  Osteologist, one versed in the nature, arrangement, and uses of the
+  bones.
+
+  Oxide, a compound of oxygen, and a base destitute of acid and saltish
+  properties.
+
+
+  Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal, characterized by the thickness of
+  its skin.
+
+  Palaeolithic, the ancient stone age; a term applied to the earliest
+  traces of man when he was cotemporary with many extinct mammalia.
+
+  Palaeontological, belonging to the science of the ancient life of the
+  earth.
+
+  Parallelogram, a figure having four sides, the opposite sides of which
+  are parallel, and consequently equal.
+
+  Parietal, pertaining to the bones which form the sides and upper part
+  of the skull.
+
+  Pathological, pertaining to the knowledge of disease.
+
+  Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony structure at the lower extremity
+  of the body.
+
+  Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a planet, or comet, in which it
+  is nearest to the sun.
+
+  Perimeter, the outer boundary of a body.
+
+  Phalanges, the small bones of the fingers and toes.
+
+  Philologist, one versed in the laws of human speech.
+
+  Pliocene, a term applied to the most recent tertiary deposits.
+
+  Post-Tertiary, the second period of the age of mammals.
+
+  Prototype, a model after which anything is to be copied.
+
+
+  Quadrangular, having four angles, and consequently four sides.
+
+  Quadrumana, an order of animals whose fore feet correspond to the
+  hands of man.
+
+  Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with a glassy lustre, and varying
+  in color from white, or colorless, to black.
+
+  Quartzite, granular quartz.
+
+  Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary.
+
+
+  Radius, the smaller and exterior bone of the fore-arm.
+
+  Reliquiae, remains of the dead.
+
+  Rhematic, that period when men first began to coin expressions for the
+  most necessary ideas.
+
+  Rodent, an animal that gnaws.
+
+  Ruminant, an animal that chews the cud.
+
+
+  Sagittal, the suture which connects the parietal bones of the skull.
+
+  Savant (sae-v[)o]ng), a person eminent for acquirements.
+
+  Scapula, the shoulder-blade.
+
+  Schist, a rock having a slaty structure.
+
+  Scientist, a person noted for his profound knowledge.
+
+  Sediment, the matter which subsides to the bottom.
+
+  Semitic, pertaining to one of the families of nations, or languages,
+  and so named from its members being ranked as the descendants of Shem.
+
+  Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in color dark to light green.
+
+  Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty matter.
+
+  Simian, a name given to the various tribes of monkeys.
+
+  Squamous, the anterior and upper part of the temporal bone, scale-like
+  in form.
+
+  Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter, made by calcareous water
+  dropping on the floors of caverns.
+
+  Stratified, formed or deposited in layers.
+
+  Stratum (pl. strata), a bed or layer.
+
+  Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradually descending.
+
+  Superciliary, the bony superior arch above the eye-brow.
+
+  Suture, the seam which unites the bones of the skull.
+
+  Symphysis, a connection of bones without a movable joint.
+
+
+  Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of rocks lying at the foot of a
+  hill.
+
+  Tarsal, relating to the ankle.
+
+  Temporal, pertaining to that portion of the head located to the front
+  and a little above the ear.
+
+  Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made from fine clay, hardened by heat.
+
+  Tertiary, the first period of the age of mammals.
+
+  Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or chest.
+
+  Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave.
+
+  Truncated, cut off.
+
+  Tufaceous, consisting of, of resembling, tuff.
+
+  Tuff, a sand rock formed by agglutinated volcanic rock.
+
+  Turanian, that order of languages known as monosyllabic.
+
+
+  Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the fore-arm.
+
+
+  Veda, the ancient sacred literature of the Hindoos.
+
+  Vertebra, a joint of the back bone.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Agassiz, 136.
+  Agriculture, 106, 110.
+  Amalgamation, 140.
+  Amiel, Dr., 20.
+  Archiac, Vic. d', 13.
+  Arts, 77, 91, 104, 109.
+  Aymard, Dr., 19.
+
+  Baldwin, A. W., 115.
+  Bara, 144.
+  Belgian Caverns, 44, 86.
+  Berosus, 128.
+  Blackmore, Dr., 23.
+  Bligh, Lieut., 138, 140.
+  Bonnemaison, 20.
+  Boucher de Perthes, 12, 18, 19, 38.
+  Boue, Aime, 11, 16, 41.
+  Bourgeois, Abbe, 22, 61, 62.
+  Brown, James, 22.
+  Buchner, Dr., 50, 52, 55, 56, 60, 75, 121, 124.
+  Buckland. Dr., 16.
+  Burdett-Coutts, Miss, 22.
+  Burial, 91, 106, 110.
+  Busk, 19, 50, 55.
+
+  Cain, Case of, 146.
+  Cannibalism, 90.
+  Carpenter, 19.
+  Cartailhac, 74.
+  Casiano de Prado, 20, 38.
+  Cave of Aurignac, 20, 72-74.
+  Cave of Brixham, 39.
+  Cave of Chokier, 17, 45.
+  Cave of Feldhofner, 53.
+  Cave of Furfooz, 88.
+  Cave of Gourdan, 82.
+  Cave of Kirkdale, 16.
+  Cave of La Madeleine, 80.
+  Cave of La Naulette, 42.
+  Cave of Les Eyzies, 80.
+  Cave of Massat, 22.
+  Cave of Mentone, 23, 24.
+  Cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas, 94.
+  Cave of Thayngen, 88.
+  Cave of Tron de Chaleux, 86, 87.
+  Cave of Trou des Nutons, 86.
+  Cave of Trou Rosette, 86.
+  Cave of Trou du Frontal, 86.
+  Cavern of Ariege, 22.
+  Cavern of Bize, 16.
+  Cavern of Cracow, 88.
+  Cavern of Enghihoul, 16, 17.
+  Cavern of Engis, 16, 17.
+  Cavern of Gailenruth, 15.
+  Cavern of Maccagnone, 71.
+  Cavern of Pondres, 16.
+  Cavern of Torquay, 22.
+  Caverns of Brazil, 116.
+  Caverns of Liege, 44.
+  Cazalis de Fondace, 95.
+  Chaldea, 128-130.
+  China, 130.
+  Christian, Fletcher, 140.
+  Christol, 16.
+  Christy, 19, 80.
+  Chronology, 101, 148.
+  Chronology, Usher's, 11.
+  Clothing, 77, 90, 103, 109.
+  Codrington, Thos., 23.
+  Creation, 144.
+  Croll, 31.
+  Cromlech, 106.
+  Cushing, F. H. 121.
+
+  Dana, J. D., 28.
+  Danish Shell-Mounds, 95.
+  Danish Peat Bogs, 96.
+  Darwin, Charles, 137.
+  Dawkins, 68.
+  Delaunay, Abbe, 62.
+  Deluge, 148.
+  Denton, W., 61, 77.
+  Desnoyers, 22, 60, 61.
+  Desor, 28, 75.
+  Dickeson, Dr. 115.
+  Dolmen, 106.
+  Dowler, Dr. Bennet, 116.
+  Dupont, Edward, 23, 86, 87, 92.
+  Dwellings, 89, 103, 108.
+
+  Edwards, M. A. Milne, 22.
+  Egypt, 124-126.
+  Epoch, Eocene, 62.
+  Epoch, Eocene, Fauna of, 58.
+  Epoch, Eocene, Glaciers in, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Fauna of, 59.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Flint flake from Aurillac, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, 62.
+  Epoch, Miocene, Man in, 62.
+  Epoch, Pliocene, 58.
+  Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, 60, 61.
+  Epochs, not sharply defined, 14.
+  Eschricht, Prof., 56.
+  Esper, J. F. 15.
+
+  Falconer, Dr., 18, 19.
+  Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, 79.
+  Figuier, 13, 102.
+  Filhol, 22, 94.
+  Fishing and Navigation, 110.
+  Fontan, M. A., 22.
+  Food, 90, 103, 108.
+  Forchammer, 95.
+  Ft. Shelby, 121.
+  Fossil Man of Denise, 19, 74.
+  Fossil Man of Mentone, 23, 85.
+  Fossil Remains from Florida, 116.
+  Fraas, Oscar, 75.
+  Frere, John, 15.
+  Fuhlrott, Dr., 22, 52.
+
+  Garrigou, Dr., 22, 85, 94
+  Geikie, 28.
+  Gillieron, 102.
+  Glacial Epoch, 52.
+  Glacial Epoch, Date of, 27.
+  Glacial Epoch, Duration of, 28.
+  Glacial Epoch, Fauna of, 26.
+  Glacial Epoch, Geological Period of, 27.
+  Godwin-Austen, 19, 39.
+  Gosse, 38.
+  Gunning, W. D., 117.
+
+  Half-castes, 147.
+  Hall, Dr., 28.
+  Hauzeur, 88.
+  Herodotus, 101, 124.
+  History, Outline of, 14.
+  Horner, 126.
+  Human bones from Colmar, 23, 42.
+  Human bones from Savonia, 23, 60.
+  Huxley, Prof., 46, 50, 52, 54-57.
+  Hybridity, law of, 141.
+
+  Implements, 104, 109.
+  Implements, from Toronto, 115.
+  Implements, superstitious regard for, 15.
+  India, Fauna of, in Miocene, 63.
+  Issel, M. A., 60, 90.
+
+  Jaw from Maestricht, 16, 40.
+  Jaw from Moulin-Quignon, 19, 38, 67.
+  Jaw from La Naulette, 23, 42, 67.
+  Joly, 18.
+
+  Keller, Dr., 21, 96, 100, 112.
+  Kemp, 15.
+  Kent's Hole, 19, 39.
+  Kutorga, Dr., 56.
+
+  Land of Nod, 146.
+  Language, 78.
+  Language, Change of, 134.
+  Language, Divisions of, 132.
+  Language, Number of, 135.
+  Language, Origin of, 134.
+  Language, Written, 135.
+  Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, 21, 96-101.
+  Lartet, Edward, 12, 21, 72, 73, 80.
+  Las Casas, 131.
+  Lastic, M. de, 81.
+  Lee, J. E. 21.
+  Lepsius, 126.
+  Litse, 130.
+  Lubbock, Sir John, 12, 14, 28, 30, 50, 59, 86, 92, 106.
+  Lund, Dr., 116.
+  Lyell, Sir Charles, 11, 12, 17, 21, 27, 29, 50, 59.
+
+  MacEnery, Rev. J., 19.
+  Mahndel before the Academy of Paris, 15.
+  Man, Contentions, 64.
+  Man, Description of, 77, 92.
+  Man, Development of, 63, 76, 89.
+  Man, Dispersion of, 149.
+  Man, During Glaciers, 65.
+  Man, Inventive, 65, 76.
+  Man, Mode of living, 65, 66.
+  Man, Origin of, 63, 145.
+  Man, Type, 64, 66, 89, 103, 108.
+  Manetho, 124.
+  Marks on fossil bones, 18, 62.
+  Mariette, 125.
+  Matson, James, 61.
+  Max Mueller, Prof., 133, 138.
+  Menhirs, 106.
+  Mexico, 130.
+  Miller, Hugh, 145.
+  Morlot, 101.
+  Mound Builders, 117-122.
+  Mounds, Antiquity of, 120.
+  Mounds, Extent of, 117.
+  Mounds, Sacrificial, 118.
+  Mounds, Sepulchral, 119.
+  Mounds, Symbolical, 119.
+  Mounds, Temple, 119.
+  Murchison, Sir Roderick I., 18, 136.
+
+  Neolithic, 14.
+
+  Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, 60.
+  Owen, Prof., 91.
+
+  Pelvic bone from Natchez, 115.
+  Piers Ploughman's Creed, 135.
+  Piette, 82.
+  Pliocene beds at St. Prest, 23, 60, 61.
+  Pouchet, Georges, 136.
+  Pourtalis, Count, 116.
+  Pre-historic Archaeology, Divisions of, 12, 13.
+  Prichard, Dr., 140.
+
+  Quatrefages, 61.
+
+  Rames, 22.
+  Rawlinson, 129.
+  Reindeer Station on the Schusse, 23, 75.
+  Religious Belief, 111.
+  Renevier, 13.
+  Rigollot, Dr., 35.
+  Riviere, 23, 24.
+  Robenhausen, 98, 99.
+  Rock-Shelters of Bruniquel, 81.
+  Rollin, 123.
+
+  Schaaffhausen, Prof., 55, 56.
+  Schleicher, 136.
+  Schlieman, Dr., 127.
+  Schmerling, Dr., 11, 16, 17, 44-46, 50.
+  Scott, P. A., 115.
+  Septuagint, 148.
+  Shell-Heaps of America, 117.
+  Skeleton from Lahr, 16, 41.
+  Skeleton from New Orleans, 116.
+  Skeleton from Plau, 56.
+  Skull, Engis, 45-51, 67.
+  Skull, Neanderthal, 22, 51-56, 66.
+  Skull, Neanderthal, Race Type, 56.
+  Skull from Altaville, 61.
+  Skull from Cochrane's Cave, 56.
+  Skull from Comstock Lode, 115.
+  Skull from Constatt, 15.
+  Skull from Osage Mission, 114.
+  Skull from Rhine, 56.
+  Skull of Arno, 57.
+  Skulls from Borreby, 57.
+  Skulls from Minsk, 56.
+  Skulls from Moen, 56.
+  Somme, Valley of, 18, 34.
+  Somme, Valley of, Implements from, 35-37.
+  Sons of God, 146.
+  Spring, Dr., 46.
+  Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, 151.
+  Steenstrup, Prof. 95, 96.
+  Stevens, Alfred, 23.
+  Stone Implements from Bournemonth, 23.
+  Stone Implements from Colorado and Wyoming, 62, 114.
+  Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, 23, 33.
+  Stone Implements from Gosport, 22, 33.
+  Stone Implements from Grinell Leads, 115.
+  Stone Implements from London, 15.
+  Stone Implements from Madrid, 20, 38.
+  Stone Implements from Seine, 38.
+  Stone Implements near Hoxne, 15.
+  Stone Implements, number, 105.
+
+  Tardy, 62.
+  Taylor, Bayard, 124.
+  Tertiary beds at St. Prest, 23.
+  Tertiary, Climate of, 58.
+  Tertiary, Fauna of, in America, 59.
+  Tertiary, Geography of, 58.
+  Tournal, 16.
+  Troy, 127, 128.
+  Troyon, 13, 100.
+  Traffic, 91.
+  Tylor, 12.
+  Tyson, Capt., 139.
+
+  Unity of Race, 136-142, 147.
+  Unity of Race, Objections to, 136.
+
+  Vivian, 19.
+  Vogt, Carl, 50, 51, 57, 61.
+
+  Wallace, A. R., 59, 136.
+  War, 105.
+  Weirley, Dr., 114.
+  Welcker, 137.
+  Westropp, 13.
+  Whitney, Prof., 61.
+  Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 115.
+  Wokey Hole, 68.
+  Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, 80, 91.
+  Workshops of Laugerie-Haute, 80, 91.
+  Worsaae, 95.
+
+  Zawisza, Count, 88.
+  Zumarraga, Bishop, 131.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 2.
+
+[2] Buchner, p. 269.
+
+[3] "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p. 238.
+
+[4] "Antiquity of Man," p. 68.
+
+[5] Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829.--Keller's
+"Lake-Dwellings," p. 11.
+
+[6] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 286.
+
+[7] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 418.
+
+[8] "Manual of Geology," p. 590.
+
+[9] "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285.
+
+[10] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 417.
+
+[11] Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285; "Pre-Historic Times," p.
+411.
+
+Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the
+earth's orbit "cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen
+thousand years; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to
+certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length
+of time; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred
+and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of
+climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years."--Darwin's
+_Origin of Species_, p. 343.
+
+[12] It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more
+rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Naturalist's
+Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that "during one very dry and
+long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it
+attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand feet. It is
+probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated,
+rather than thawed."
+
+[13] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii, pp. 567-569.
+
+[14] Buchner, p. 118
+
+[15] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 362.
+
+[16] "Antiquity of Man," p. 97; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.
+
+[17] The "Science Record" for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these
+implements says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were
+made half a million years ago."
+
+[18] "Antiquity of Man," p. 98. "Pre-Historic Times," p. 317.
+
+[19] "Antiquity of Man," p. 338; Buchner, 27.
+
+[20] "Antiquity of Man," p. 510; Buchner, p. 27.
+
+[21] Buchner, pp. 118, 306.
+
+[22] Buchner, p. 239.
+
+[23] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 566.
+
+[24] "Antiquity of Man," p. 63.
+
+[25] It has been estimated by the British Association that it requires
+twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite.--_Science
+Record._ 1874, p. 601.
+
+[26] "Principles," vol. ii, p. 527.
+
+[27] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 146.
+
+[28] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337.
+
+[29] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.
+
+[30] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 143.
+
+[31] "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.
+
+[32] Buchner, p. 263.
+
+[33] _Ibid._ p. 262.
+
+[34] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 158.
+
+[35] Buchner, p. 241.
+
+[36] Buchner, p. 240.
+
+[37] _Ibid._ p. 241.
+
+[38] "Man's Place in Nature," p. 164.
+
+[39] Buchner, p. 116.
+
+[40] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, p. 53.
+
+[42] "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.
+
+[43] Buchner, p. 54.
+
+[44] Buchner, p. 242.
+
+[45] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270.
+
+[46] Buchner, p. 265.
+
+[47] _Ibid._, p. 54.
+
+[48] _Ibid._, p. 242.
+
+[49] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.
+
+[50] _Ibid._, p. 423.
+
+[51] Wallace's "Natural Selection, p. 322."
+
+[52] Buchner, pp. 34, 252.
+
+[53] Buchner, p. 242.
+
+[54] Buchner, p. 31; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 420.
+
+[55] Buchner, p. 33; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421.
+
+[56] Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270; "American Phrenological Journal,
+Feb." 1874.
+
+Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this skull was
+not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote to
+Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March 1875,
+inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the statement
+that he had visited the place where the skull was found; that certain
+persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the victim of a
+joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were prejudiced
+against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best informed had every
+reason to believe the statements made by Professor Whitney were true.
+The skull is a very remarkable one, and stands alone for the enormous
+size of the orbits, and I have good reasons to believe it to have been
+found as stated.
+
+[57] "Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that
+glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations, not
+to mention still more ancient formations."--Darwin's _Origin of
+Species_, p. 343.
+
+[58] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421; Buchner, 32.
+
+[59] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.
+
+[60] Buchner, p. 32.
+
+[61] "American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874.
+
+[62] Buchner, p. 274.
+
+[63] "Our Planet," p. 266.
+
+[64] "Science Record," 1874, p. 499.
+
+[65] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.
+
+[66] "Origin of Civilization," p. 121.
+
+[67] Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 116.
+
+[68] Buchner, p. 248.
+
+[69] Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings."
+
+[70] "Lake-Dwellings," pp. 37, 334, 350, 360.
+
+[71] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394.
+
+[72] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 396.
+
+[73] "Primitive Man," p. 219.
+
+[74] "Primitive Man," p. 293.
+
+[75] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 76.
+
+[76] "Primitive Man," p. 200.
+
+[77] "Lake Dwellings," p. 319.
+
+[78] "Pre-Historic Times," p. 218; "Primitive Man," p. 281.
+
+[79] "Lake-Dwellings," p. 400.
+
+[80] "Science Record," p. 564. 1875.
+
+[81] "American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874.
+
+[82] Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," p. 40.
+
+[83] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 46.
+
+[84] "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p.
+454.
+
+[85] "Antiquity of Man," p. 43; "Pre-Historic Man," p. 47.
+
+[86] "Antiquity of Man," p. 44.
+
+[87] "Primitive Man," pp. 9, 77.
+
+[88] "Pre-Historic Man," p. 236.
+
+[89] "Ancient Monuments," p. 304.
+
+[90] Buchner, p. 35.
+
+[91] Rollin, vol. i. p. 138.
+
+[92] Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788.
+
+[93] Buchner, 254.
+
+[94] "New York Tribune", June 6, 1874.
+
+[95] Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189.
+
+[96] "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432.
+
+[97] "Antiquity of Man," p. 36.
+
+[98] Bayard Taylor in "New York Tribune, Extra," No. 15.
+
+[99] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190.
+
+[100] _Ibid._ pp. 178, 175.
+
+[101] "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 37.
+
+[102] "Ancient America," p. 187.
+
+[103] "Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21.
+
+[104] _Ibid._ vol. ii. p. 8.
+
+[105] Wake's "Chapters on Man," p. 33.
+
+[106] "Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and
+Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man. The
+first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after the
+manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till,
+associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use
+articulate sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks
+of those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate
+to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony which was
+framed by Mochus, the Phoenician, and afterward improved by Democritus
+and Epicurus."--Pouchet's _Plurality of the Human Race_, p. 142.
+
+[107] "Principles of Geology," vol. ii. p. 475. "It is generally
+acknowledged that all organic beings have been formed on two great
+laws--Unity of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type
+is meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic
+beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their habits
+of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of
+descent."--Darwin's _Origin of Species_, p. 200.
+
+[108] I put myself into clothes.
+
+[109] Shepherd.
+
+[110] And.
+
+[111] Wonder.
+
+[112] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143.
+
+[113] Mivart's "Genesis of Species," p. 114.
+
+[114] "Origin of Species," p. 193.
+
+[115] "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142.
+
+[116] "Chips," vol. i. pp. 63, 62.
+
+[117] Lady Belcher's "Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61.
+
+[118] "Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants of
+Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the distance
+between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1696, two
+canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were thrown by
+contrary winds and storms on the Island of Samar, one of the
+Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two canoes,
+one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, men,
+women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep to the
+island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two hundred miles."
+Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his countrymen, while sailing in a
+boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm, and drifted about the
+sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on the produce of the sea, and
+finally were picked up in an insensible condition by the inhabitants of
+Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand five hundred miles distant from his
+native isle.--_Principles of Geology_, vol. ii. p. 472.
+
+[119] "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 16.
+
+[120] Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180.
+
+[121] The idea that "bara" meant to create out of nothing is a modern
+invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews and
+Greeks at Alexandria. The Greeks believed that matter was co-eternal
+with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to this
+notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of
+nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception of
+_fashioning_ or _arranging_.--_Chips_, vol. i. p. 132.
+
+[122] "Testimony of the Rocks," Fifth Lecture.
+
+[123] Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man in
+Genesis and Geology, p. 105); Lubbock regards him as a typical savage
+(Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great
+prototype of the human race?
+
+[124] The word _Nod_ means _to wander_, _to be driven about_, etc. It
+appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It
+was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have been
+roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated "Wandering
+Land"?
+
+[125] Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the
+Zambesi, described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity,
+"remarks, 'It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so much
+more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the case.' An
+inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, 'God made white men, and God made
+black men, but the devil made half castes.' When two races, both low in
+the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be eminently bad. Thus the
+noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage
+disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between Indians and Negroes; and
+this conclusion has been arrived at by various observers. From these
+facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so many
+half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage
+condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral conditions under which
+they generally exist."--_Animals and Plants under Domestication_, vol.
+ii. p. 63.
+
+[126] This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the
+race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its
+briefness. A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words,
+and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the
+idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared.
+The strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 26: "Hath made of one
+blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth."
+This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair,
+but their _blood_ is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no
+ancestors. When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only
+to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors, the
+leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not uncommon to drop
+the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is given in
+the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of his
+grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred and
+twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been dropped. If
+Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the line any farther
+back. The forming him of the dust of the ground would give his
+relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen, endowed for the
+purpose of elevating the race--of becoming the head of a new type of
+humanity.
+
+[127] The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into
+Greek, made about three hundred years B. C. The oldest existing MS. of
+the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the tenth
+century after the Christian era--_Chips._ vol. i. p. 11.
+
+[128] "Primeval Man," p. 86.
+
+[129] "Primeval Man," p. 87.
+
+[130] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195.
+
+[131] "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35329.txt or 35329.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/3/2/35329/
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/35329.zip b/35329.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ccbc64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/35329.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ddc5a85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #35329 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35329)