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diff --git a/35329-h/35329-h.htm b/35329-h/35329-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..abf6eda --- /dev/null +++ b/35329-h/35329-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7118 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. Maclean. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .pagec { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + position: absolute; + left: 86%; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .bbt {border-bottom: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px; width: 16em; margin: auto; text-align: center;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. P. MacLean + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Manual of the Antiquity of Man + +Author: J. P. MacLean + +Release Date: February 19, 2011 [EBook #35329] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN *** + + + + +Produced by Julia Miller, Joseph Cooper and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="768" height="774" alt="IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">IDEAL RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<h3>A MANUAL</h3> +<h5>OF THE</h5> +<h1>ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</h1> + +<h4>BY<br /> +<big>J. P. MACLEAN.</big></h4> + +<p class="center">"In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been."<br /> + —<span class="smcap">Prof. Max Müller.</span></p> + +<div class="bbt"> +<h3><i>REVISED EDITION.</i></h3> +</div> + +<h4>BOSTON:<br /> +<span class="smcap">Universalist Publishing House</span>,<br /> +<i>37 Cornhill,</i><br /> +1877.</h4> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + +<p class="center"> +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by<br /> +J. P. MACLEAN,<br /> +In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>In lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found +the minds of the people prepared to receive the evidences, +and ready to believe the conclusions of the geologists. I +have felt the need of a popular work to place in the hands of +the public, that would be both instructive and welcome. +The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too +expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to +give an outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable +acquaintance with the facts connected with the new science, +to such as desire the information but cannot pursue it +further, and to serve as a manual for those who intend to +become more proficient.</p> + +<p>As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Race are +so closely connected with the subject, I have added the two +chapters on these questions, hoping they will be acceptable +to the reader. It was my intention to have written a more +extended chapter on the relation of the Holy Scriptures to +this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had done in +other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits +of the book.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's +"Antiquity of Man" and "Principles of Geology," Lubbock's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +"Pre-Historic Times," Buchner's "Man in the Past, +Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive Man," Wilson's +"Pre-Historic Man," Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works +of Charles Darwin, Dana's "Manual of Geology," Huxley's +"Man's Place in Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of +Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of the Human Race," and +others, referred to in the margins.</p> + +<p>I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cushing, for the +ideal restoration of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving +was made especially for this work. The references to Buchner +are from his work entitled, "Man in the Past, Present +and Future."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> </p> +<p><span class='pagec'>PAGE</span></p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><big>CHAPTER I.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +INTRODUCTION.</p> + +<p>Interest in the subject—Influence of Lyell—Usher's Chronology—Aimé +Boué first to proclaim the high antiquity of man—Dr. +Schmerling the founder—Boucher de Perthes the apostle—Classifications +by Lubbock, Lartet, Renevier, and Westropp—Plan +of the work—No Universal Age of Stone, Bronze, or Iron—Epochs +not sharply defined—Outlines of History—Superstitious +Notions—Skull from Constatt—Stone hatchet from London—Cavern +of Gailenreuth—Axes from Hoxne—Human jaw +from Maestricht—Skeleton from Lahr—"Reliquiæ Diluvianæ"—Discoveries +by Tournal and Christol—Engis and Enghihoul +Caverns—Schmerling's labors—Lyell's opinions—Arrow mark +on skull of Cave-Bear—Boucher de Perthes and the Valley of +the Somme—Jaw of Moulin-Quignon—Kent's Hole—Fossil +Man of Denise—Remains from the Manzanares—Cave of Aurignac—Lyell +declares his belief—Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland +Neanderthal Skull—Caverns near Torquay—Cave of Massat—Cave +of Lourdes—Caverns of Ariége—Tertiary at St. Prest—Implements +near Gosport—Bones from Colmar—Implements +near Bournemouth—Trou de la Naulette—Bones near Savonia—Reindeer +Station—Foreland Cliff—Fossil Man of Mentone—Other +Discoveries near Mentone. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><big>CHAPTER II.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +GLACIAL EPOCH.</p> + +<p>Starting point for the investigation—Advance of the ice—Fauna +of Europe—Geological Period—Probable Date—Probable Duration—Evidences +of the Existence of Man—Implements +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>from Hampshire—Flint tools at Bournemouth—Oval flint from +Foreland Cliff—Implements from the Valley of the Somme—Jaw +of Moulin-Quignon—Implements from the Seine—Axes +near Madrid—Kent's Hole—Brixham Cave—Human jaw from +Maestricht—Skeleton from Lahr—Cave of La Naulette—Implements +from Hoxne—Bones from Colmar. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><big>CHAPTER III.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +GLACIAL—CONTINUED.</p> + +<p>Belgian Caverns—Caverns of Liége—Engis Skull—Remarks of +Prof. Huxley—Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt—Neanderthal +Skull—Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr. +Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull—Opinions +of Huxley, Buchner, Schaaffhausen, and Busk—Skull from the +Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of Moën, +Minsk, and Plau—Borreby Skulls—Human skulls of Arno. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><big>CHAPTER IV.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.</p> + +<p>North America during the Tertiary—Europe—Climate—Fauna of +Eocene—Of Miocene—Of Pliocene—Traces of Man—Opinions +of Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace—Man in the Pliocene—Hearth +under Osars—Human bones from Savonia—Discoveries +at St. Prest—Skull from Altaville—Prof. Denton's Statement—Man +in the Miocene—Flints from Pontlevoy—Flint-flake from +Aurillac—Marks on bones near Pouance—Implements from +Colorado and Wyoming—Eocene—Glacial Periods during the +Miocene. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><big>CHAPTER V.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.</p> + +<p>No knowledge of the first appearance of Man—Fauna of India +during the Miocene—Intellect of Man—Contests with the +Beasts—A weapon invented—Earliest type—Advancement +slow—Climate changes—Sufferings of Man—Known by the +Remains—Structure of the Neanderthal Man—Engis Man—Men +both large and small—Animal structure of jaws from +La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></span></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><big>CHAPTER VI.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.</p> + +<p>Condition of the earth—Numerous traces of Man—Cave of Aurignac—Conclusions +of Lartet and Cartailhac—Caverns of Maccagnone—Wokey +Hole—Fossil Man of Denise—Reindeer Station +on the Schusse—Dr. Buchner's Conclusions. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><big>CHAPTER VII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.</p> + +<p>Length of the Inter-Glacial—Man an improvable being—Implements +improved—Art of engraving begun—Religious nature—Denton's +description of primeval man—Language improved. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><big>CHAPTER VIII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +REINDEER EPOCH.</p> + +<p>Advance of the Glaciers—Fauna—-Reindeer epoch a distinct one—Evidences +of the existence of Man—Caves of Central and +Southern France—Implements from Les Eyzies—Relics from +La Madeleine—Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie-Basse—Cave +and rock shelters of Bruniquel—Cave of Gourdan—Fossil +Man of Mentone—Other remains near Mentone—Other +bone caves of France—Belgian Caverns—Trou de Frontal—Trou +Rosette—Trou des Nutons—Cave of Chaleux—Cave at +Furfooz—Cave of Thayngen—Cave near Cracow. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><big>CHAPTER IX.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.</p> + +<p>Man under a more favorable aspect—Type of—Dwellings—Clothing—Food—Cannibalism—The +Arts—Traffic—Burial—Dupont's +Report. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><big>CHAPTER X.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +NEOLITHIC EPOCH.</p> + +<p>How characterized—Caves of this period—Contents of—Cave of +Saint Jean d'Alcas—Danish Shell-Mounds—Danish Peat Bogs—Lake-Dwellings +of Switzerland—Enumeration of—Robenhausen—Fauna +and Flora of—Troyon and Keller on—Other +Lake-Dwellings—Chronology. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><big>CHAPTER XI.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.</p> + +<p>Type of—Advancement—Habitations—Clothing—Food—Arts and +Manufactures—Vast number of implements discovered—War—Agriculture—Burial—Dolmens, +Tumuli, Cromlechs, and +Menhirs—Victims, or Cannibalism. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_103">103</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><big>CHAPTER XII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +BRONZE EPOCH.</p> + +<p>No direct relation to Antiquity of Man—How characterized—Type—Habitation +and Food—Clothing—Implements—Arts—Agriculture—Fishing +and Navigation—Burial—Religious Belief—Stone +crescents. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_108">108</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><big>CHAPTER XIII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +IRON EPOCH.</p> + +<p>Civilization established—Swiss Lake-Dwellings—Dr. Keller's Observations. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><big>CHAPTER XIV.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.</p> + +<p>Great opportunities for the Archæologist—Aim of the chapter—Skull +from Osage Mission—Comstock lode—Charcoal at Toronto—Knife +from Kansas—Pelvic bone from Natchez—Skeleton +from New Orleans—Remains from the reefs of Florida—Caverns +of Brazil—Shell Heaps—Mound-Builders—Extent of +Mounds—Implements of—Sacrificial—Sephulchral—Temple—Symbolical—Antiquity +of—Fort Shelby—How long the Mound-Builders +remained. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><big>CHAPTER XV.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +WRITTEN HISTORY.</p> + +<p>Mystery of Ancient Empires—Rollin's difficulties—Egypt—Manetho's +list—Statement of Herodotus—Mariette's explorations—Borings +in the mud deposits of the Nile—Dr. Schliemann's discoveries +at Troy—History of Chaldea by Berosus—Astronomical +calculations—Chinese history—Mexican History. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></span></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><big>CHAPTER XVI.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +LANGUAGE.</p> + +<p>A field for study—Three divisions of language—Rhematic period—Origin +of—Various theories—Change of—Views of Ancients—Number +of—Comparative permancy of written language. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><big>CHAPTER XVII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.</p> + +<p>Objections to the Unity of the Race—Anatomical—Geographical—Disparity +of—Non-existence of medium types—Phenomena +caused by two united types—Objections answered—Both man +and animals affected by climate, food, and condition—Examples—Argument +from language—Ocean navigated by frail crafts—Examples—Captain +Tyson and party—The two extremes +exist in all nations, and even in families—People who have +retrograded—Races will amalgamate and perpetuate their +kind—Griquas—Papuas—Pitcairn Islanders—Law of hybridity—Close +affinity of the races—Slow change of. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><big>CHAPTER XVIII.</big></a><br /> +<br /> +THE BIBLE.</p> + +<p>Controversy—Perversion of meaning—Men of science branded—Design +of the chapter—Creation—"Bara"—Day—Man's appearance—Two +accounts—Case of Cain—Sons of God—Remarks +of Dr. Livingstone—Doctrine of unity of the race—Chronology—The +Deluge—Septuagint—Monarchies—The Dispersion—Opinion +of Dr. Hedge—No supernatural aid in the +formation of Language—What God may do does not imply +what he has done—Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of +Creation. <span class='pagec'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> +<h3>A MANUAL</h3> +<h5>OF THE</h5> +<h1>ANTIQUITY OF MAN.</h1> + + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + + +<p>No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the attention +of geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The +interest was greatly increased by the publication of Sir Charles +Lyell's "Antiquity of Man." This work called the attention +of the public to the subject, and so great became the interest +that many volumes and memoirs have been added to the list, +discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most +part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw +more light on the subject. The scientific men were slow to +take advantage of the discoveries continually being made of +the bones and works of man found in caves and associated +with the remains' of extinct animals. It is probable, even at +this late day, there would not have been so much discussion +of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of +his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to +doubt the correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and +so complete has been the revolution of opinion that it is +almost impossible to find an intelligent man who would limit +the period of man's existence to 6,000 years.</p> + +<p>To Aimé Boué, a French geologist, must be attributed the +honor of having been the first to proclaim the high antiquity +of the human race; to Dr. Schmerling, the learned Belgian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +osteologist, on account of his laborious investigations, untiring +zeal, and great work on the subject, the merited title +of being the founder of the new science; to M. Boucher de +Perthes, its great apostle; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir +John Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made +the new theory popular.</p> + +<p>The new science soon became permanently established, +and the geologists at once set about classifying the facts before +them, in order to assign to them their respective places +in the geological epochs. All are agreed in respect to the +chronological orders, but all have not used the same nomenclature, +in consequence of which more or less confusion has +been the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic +archæology into four great epochs, as follows:</p> + +<p>"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession +of Europe with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired +rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may +call the 'Palæolithic' period.</p> + +<p>"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period characterized +by beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of +flint and other kinds of stone; in which, however, we find no +trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which +seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we +may call the 'Neolithic' period.</p> + +<p>"III. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for +arms and cutting instruments of all kinds.</p> + +<p>"IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded +bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor.</p> + +<p>Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification:</p> + +<p class="center">I. THE STONE AGE.</p> + +<p>1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and +mammoth).</p> + +<p>2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer +epoch).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> + +<p>3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished +stone epoch).</p> + +<p class="center">II. THE METAL AGE.</p> + +<p>1st. The Bronze Epoch.</p> + +<p>2d. The Iron Epoch.</p> + +<p>This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his +"Primitive Man," by the Museum of Saint-Germain in that +portion devoted to pre-historic antiquities, and adhered to in +essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac.</p> + +<p>Professor Renevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a somewhat +different scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss +glaciation. It is as follows:</p> + +<p>"I. <i>Pre-glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously +with the elephant (<i>Elephas antiquus</i>), rhinoceros +(<i>R. hemitæchus</i>), and the cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>).</p> + +<p>"II. <i>Glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously +with the mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>), rhinoceros (<i>R. +tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear, etc.</p> + +<p>"III. <i>Post-glacial Epoch</i>, in which man lived cotemporaneously +with the mammoth and reindeer (<i>Cervus tarandus</i>).</p> + +<p>"IV. <i>Last Epoch</i>, or epoch of the <i>Pile-buildings</i>, in +which man lived cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (<i>Megaceros +hibernicus</i>), aurochs (<i>Bison Europæus</i>)," etc.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his +stages of civilization, as follows: <i>Savagery</i>, <i>hunters</i>, <i>herdsmen</i>, +and <i>agriculturists</i>.</p> + +<p>In the following pages a somewhat different classification +has been adopted, and may be thus explained:</p> + +<p>I. <i>Pre-glacial Epoch</i>; that period antedating the glaciers +of the post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously +with the animals of the tertiary, southern elephant (<i>E. +meridionalis</i>), etc.</p> + +<p>II. <i>Glacial Epoch</i>; that period of the post-tertiary when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +man was forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the +floods immediately succeeding them, when the mammoth +(<i>E. primigenius</i>), rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear, etc., +began to flourish.</p> + +<p>III. <i>Interglacial Epoch</i>; that period between the glacial +and the second advance of the ice, in which man lived cotemporaneously +with the animals of the preceding epoch, +and the cave bear became extinct.</p> + +<p>IV. <i>Reindeer Epoch</i>; that period when the glaciers again +advanced; in which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of +the reindeer (<i>C. tarandus</i>), that animal having made its way +in numerous herds as far south as the Pyrenees.</p> + +<p>V. <i>Neolithic Epoch</i>; that period in which man polished +his weapons of stone, and sought to domesticate certain animals, +the dog, etc.</p> + +<p>VI. <i>Bronze Epoch</i>; that period characterized by weapons +and implements being made chiefly of bronze.</p> + +<p>VII. <i>Iron Epoch</i>; that period in which bronze was generally +superseded by iron.</p> + +<p>This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that +could be devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evidences +of the existence of man in their relative geological +positions.</p> + +<p>Other methods have misled the student. There was no +universal Stone, Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification +given by Lubbock applies to Europe, but is too general. I +have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want of a better +term, although the signification of the word is appropriate to +the period it is intended to represent.</p> + +<p>These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one +from the other; but one merges into the other by gradual progression +covering a period of thousands of years. The growth +of the various plants and animals, and their retreat or final +extinction, have also been very slow.</p> + +<p>An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a +careful investigation of the question, and which resolved the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +question into a science, is not only one of interest but also of +importance to the careful thinker seeking information on +the subject.</p> + +<p>Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people +had so little notion of the nature and signification of the +stone axes and weapons of earlier and later times that they +were regarded with superstitious fear and hope, and as productions +of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long time they +were called thunderbolts even by the learned.... As +late as the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy +of Paris that these stones were human implements, he was +laughed at, because he had not proved that they could not +have been formed in the clouds."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of +the calcareous tuff of Constatt, in company with the bones +of the mammoth. It is preserved in the Natural History +Museum at Stuttgart.</p> + +<p>In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in +London, by the side of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar +to those which have been subsequently found in great +numbers in different parts of the world. This hatchet is still +preserved in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. F. Esper +discovered some human bones mingled with the remains +of extinct animals.</p> + +<p>In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great numbers +from a brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where +they occurred at a depth of twelve feet, mingled with the +bones of extinct species of animals. They were gathered up +and thrown by basketsful upon the neighboring road. In +the year 1801, before the Society of Antiquaries, John Frere +read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they +pointed to a very remote period. This communication, short +as it was, contained the essence of all subsequent discoveries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +and speculations as to the antiquity of man. But the society +regarded the subject as of no importance.</p> + +<p>During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hollerd, +there was found, near Maestricht, in the <i>loess</i>, a human +jaw in company with the bones of extinct animals. This +bone is preserved in the museum at Leyden.</p> + +<p>In 1823, Aimé Boué disinterred portions of a human skeleton +from ancient undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small village +nearly opposite Strasbourg. These bones were placed in +the care of Cuvier, but, having been neglected, are now lost.</p> + +<p>In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, published +his "Reliquiæ Diluvianæ," a work principally devoted +to a description of the Kirkdale Cave. The author combined +all the known facts which favored the coexistence of +man, with the extinct animals.</p> + +<p>In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous +caverns in the south of France. In the cavern of Bize, +Tournal found human bones and teeth, and fragments of rude +pottery, together with the bones of both living and extinct +species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and breccia, +cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same +chemical condition as those of the extinct species.</p> + +<p>M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes, +some human bones in the same mud with the bones of an +extinct hyena and rhinoceros.</p> + +<p>In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns +of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found +the Engis skull (now in the museum of the University of +Liége), at a depth of nearly five feet, under an osseous breccia. +The earth also contained the teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyena, +and bear, and exhibited no marks of disturbance. He also +found the skull of a young person imbedded by the side of a +mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell +to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul +he found numerous bones belonging to three human individuals, +mingled with the bones of extinct animals. In these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +caves he noted rude flint instruments, but did not collect +many of them. In the care of Chokier, he discovered a polished +and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole pierced +through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have +been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains.</p> + +<p>Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a +work which described and represented a vast quantity of +objects which had been discovered in the Belgian caverns. +The scientific men were not yet prepared to receive the new +discoveries, and it attracted but little attention at that time.</p> + +<p>Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling +for his unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell +has said: "To have undertaken, in 1832, with a view of +testing its truth (antiquity of fossil human bones) to follow +the Belgian philosopher through every stage of his observations +and proofs, would have been no easy task even for one well-skilled +in geology and osteology. To be let down, as Schmerling +was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide to +the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the best-preserved +human skulls were found; and, after thus gaining +access to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours +through a contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there +to superintend by torchlight, week after week and year after +year, the workmen who were breaking through the stalagmitic +crust as hard as marble, in order to remove piece by +piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard; to stand +for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping +from the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position +and guard against the loss of each single bone of a skeleton; +and at length, after finding leisure, strength, and courage for +all these operations, to look forward, as the fruits of one's +labor, to the publication of unwelcome intelligence, opposed +to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as the unscientific +public;—when these circumstances are taken into account, +we need scarcely wonder.... that a quarter of a +century should have elapsed before even the neighboring pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>fessors +of the University of Liége came forth to vindicate +the truthfulness of their indefatigable and clear-sighted countryman."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier, +found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozére) the skull of +a cave-bear, on which an arrow had left its mark. Close +by, was a fragment of pottery marked by the finger of the +moulder.</p> + +<p>It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of +France) that M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint-axes +of the rudest form. His explorations had been going +on for a long time. He did all he could to bring these discoveries +before the public. In the year 1836 he began to proclaim +the high antiquity of man, in a series of communications +addressed to the Société d'Emulation of Abbeville. To +the same society, in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes +he had found, but without result. In 1839, he took these +hatchets to Paris, and showed them to some of the members +of the Institute. At first they gave some encouragement +toward these researches; but this favorable feeling did not +last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which +has since become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained +workmen to dig in the diluvial beds, and in a short time he +had collected twenty specimens of flint wrought by the hand +of man, though in a very rude state. In 1846, he published +his first work on the subject, entitled "De l'Industrie Primitive, +ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he +published his "Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes," in +which he gave illustrations of these stone implements. This +work attracted no attention until the year 1854, when a +French <i>savant</i>, named Rigollot, made a personal examination +and was successful in his search for these relicts in the neighborhood +of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C. Lyell, +Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, +and other eminent scientists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was rewarded, +in the year 1863, by finding the lower half of a +human jaw bone, covered with an earthy crust, which he +extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at Abbeville. +A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They +were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone +has been called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved +in the Museum of Natural History at Paris.</p> + +<p>The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation +among English geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, +and Busk went to France and examined the locality where +the bone was found. They went away satisfied with both +its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however, +doubted its authenticity; but at the present time all, or +nearly all, recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher +de Perthes.</p> + +<p>Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in +1869, in finding a number of human bones presenting the +same character as the jaw of Moulin-Quignon.</p> + +<p>In 1840, Rev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found +in a cave, called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives +among the remains of the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena, +and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under a crust of stalagmite. +Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave as +early as 1825. He did not publish his notes on his discoveries +but they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they +were obtained by Mr. Vivian.</p> + +<p>Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geological +Society in the year 1840, states, in his description of +Kent's Hole, he found works of art in all parts of the cave.</p> + +<p>The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in +an old volcanic tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay, +Central France, an account of which was first published by +Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who have examined +these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic regions +of Central France, declared that they believed them to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in +which they are now seen.</p> + +<p>In the years 1845-1850, Casiano de Prado made discoveries +on the banks of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They +consisted of portions of the skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a +nearly perfect skeleton of an elephant in the diluvial sand. +Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were several flint axes of +human workmanship.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 763px;"> +<img src="images/fig01.jpg" width="763" height="1024" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Sir Charles Lyell.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named +Bonnemaison, in the year 1852, accidently discovered a cave +containing the remains of seventeen human skeletons. These +bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the mayor of Aurignac, who +was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the parish cemetery. +The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten, +and this treasure is now lost to science. In 1860, the cave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +was explored by Edward Lartet. After a long and patient +examination, he came to the conclusion that the cave was a +human burial place, cotemporary with the mammoth and other +great animals of the quaternary epoch.</p> + +<p>It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, +that Sir Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiquity +of the human race. He had before opposed the idea, +but was convinced of the truth by personal examination of +human bones and flint hatchets, from the quarries of St. +Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations, and, +in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific public, +he published his "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity +of Man," in 1863. In the last edition of his "Principles of +Geology," he bestows considerable space to the discussion of +the subject. He was closely followed, in the same view, by +other eminent geologists.</p> + +<p>The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland +were discovered in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter +was so dry and cold that the water of the lakes fell far below +its ordinary level. On account of this, a large tract of +ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people throwing +up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on +which stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and +stone implements, and various other relics, were discovered.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> +Dr. Keller, of Zurich, examined the objects, and at once +came to a right understanding as to their signification. He +carefully examined the remains, and described these lake +habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian +Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In +1866 these memoirs were translated into English by J. E. +Lee, together with articles from other antiquaries, under the +title of "The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, and other parts +of Europe." This work contains ninety-seven plates, besides +many wood-cuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<p>Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time +to time, been published, but they are included in the translated +work of Dr. Keller.</p> + +<p>The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr. +Fuhlrott, in the year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near Düsseldorf, +in a deep ravine known by the name of Neanderthal. +This skull, with parts of the skeleton to which it belonged, +was found under a layer of mud, about five feet in thickness. +It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfeld, Rhenish +Prussia.</p> + +<p>In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far +from Kent's Hole. This cave was examined by a scientific +commission. At first it was undertaken by the Royal Society, +but when its grants had failed, Miss Burdett-Coutts paid +the expenses of completing the work. In this cave, under a +layer of stalagmite, were found many flint knives, associated +with the bones of extinct mammals.</p> + +<p>M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department +of Ariége), in 1859, human teeth and utensils associated with +the remains of the cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave-lion +(<i>Felis spelœa</i>).</p> + +<p>In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of +human industry mingled with the fossil bones of animals, in +the cave of Lourdes, France.</p> + +<p>In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the researches +which he, in conjunction with Rames and Filhol, had +made in the caverns of Ariége. These explorers found the +jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, which had been +wrought by the hands of man.</p> + +<p>In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St. +Prest (Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desnoyers +found the bones of extinct animals which were cut or notched +by flint instruments. In the same strata Abbé Bourgeois discovered +implements of stone. He communicated his discoveries +to the International Congress held at Paris in 1867.</p> + +<p>In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midway<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +between Gosport and Southampton, included in gravel from +eight to twelve feet thick, capping a cliff which at its +greatest height is thirty-five feet above high-water mark. +These flint tools exactly resemble those found at Abbeville +and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore +Museum at Salisbury.</p> + +<p>In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near +Colmar, Alsace, human bones in the same bed with bones of +the mammoth, horse, stag, auroch, and other animals.</p> + +<p>In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the +gravel at the top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth +opening, Southampton river. Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to +the west of the valley, obtained two other flint implements. +The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867.</p> + +<p>Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer, +in the year 1866, found a fragment of a human jaw in the +Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave situated on the bank of the +river Lesse not far from Chaleux.</p> + +<p>At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported +he had found several human bones in beds of Pliocene age, +near Savonia, in Liguria.</p> + +<p>The Reindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was discovered +in 1867, during the operations undertaken for the +improvement of a mill-pond. The Schusse is a little river +which flows into the lake of Constance, and its source is upon +the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of Constance +and the upper course of the Danube.</p> + +<p>In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint implement +in gravel at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of +Wight, five miles southeast of Ryde.</p> + +<p>The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1873, by M. +Riviére, in a cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was +almost entire, and imbedded twenty feet below the surface of +the deposit.</p> + +<p>In 1873, M. Riviére discovered another human skeleton,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +by the side of which lay a few unpolished stone implements, +in one of the caves in the same neighborhood.</p> + +<p>In 1873 and 1874, M. Riviére was again so fortunate as to +discover, in neighboring caves, the remains of three persons, +two of them those of children. The skeletons were in the +same condition, and decked with similar ornaments, as those +he had previously discovered.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>GLACIAL EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>Happily for the Archæo-geologist, there is given him a +point from which to start in his researches into the antiquity +of his race. Without it his calculations would be very indefinite +and his efforts would be shorn of much of their interest. +The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind of both the +geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may +not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages +and number the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more +importance, in this investigation, than an understanding of +the condition of the earth prior to the glacial, and the knowledge +of the date and length of this epoch.</p> + +<p>For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been +preparing itself for the reception of man. There was an +abundance of game, the forests were beautiful, the domestic +animals had made their appearance, the climate was warm, +the soil rich, and the coal had been formed. Everything +seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who +had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were +fierce and savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but +a motive power to stir man to action and develop the resources +of his mind. Should he fail for a time to overcome the wild +beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow recesses of the +earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished. The +earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the +devastations of water, and now her long summer must come +to an end. The arctic regions had been growing colder and +colder, and the change was felt in the countries to the south.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +The northern animals were being clothed with a hairy or +woolly garment for their protection. The aspect began to be +forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy, +but foreboded he should perish along with the many species +of animals that were gradually succumbing to the cold. +Great fields of ice were slowly accumulating at both the poles, +and at last, by the power of their great weight, assisted by +some geographical changes, began to move toward the equator, +crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either driving +before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their +relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The +mountains groaned under the enormous weight of ice. Their +heads were scarred, their sides bruised, torn and cut. The +icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of earth, the lowing +of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed before the +sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal +heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The +northern ice was broken up by the time it reached latitude +39° North America, leaving its indelible traces in the bowlders, +gravel, beds of sand and clay which mark its course. +In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south as Spain +and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions extended +as far as latitude 41° south.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna of Europe.</i>—Among the Fauna may be mentioned +the gigantic elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest +individuals that now exist, which roamed in herds over +England, and extended across the Siberian plains and from +Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned rhinoceroses +wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests. Hippopotamuses +inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear, +which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave-tiger, +twice as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the animals +of less strength than themselves. Troops of hyenas, +larger than those of South America, disputed with other beasts +of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and leopard found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable +carnivorous animal called <i>Machairodus</i>, about the size of a +tiger, and from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth, +must have been a very destructive creature. The lemming +and the musk ox found a home, and the wild horse pranced +about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great Irish elks +swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been very +numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs +and marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there +was also a species of gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant, +that subsisted on the plains. All these animals followed the +retreat of the glaciers and some of them were in close proximity +to the ice.</p> + +<p><i>Geological Period.</i>—The glacial epoch occurred during +the geological period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary +had gradually passed away and its time had been recorded on +the pages of geological history. A new epoch began to dawn. +This was the epoch of ice, the birth and almost the childhood +of the post-tertiary.</p> + +<p><i>Probable Date.</i>—In discussing the probable date of the +glacial epoch, Sir Charles Lyell says, "The attempt to assign +a chronological value to any of our geological periods except +the latest, must, in the present state of science, be hopeless. +Nevertheless, independently of all astronomical considerations, +it must, I think, be conceded that the period required +for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its duration +when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was subject, +as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the 'great thaw' +or disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where +the snow was once perpetual, required not tens but hundreds +of thousands of years. Less time would not suffice for the +changes in physical geography and organic life of which we +have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not appear +startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have +been two hundred thousand years ago, although this date<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +must be considered as very conjectural, and one which may +be as likely to err in deficiency of time as in excess."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations +made by Mr. Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers +in excavating valleys and lowering the general level of the +country, says, "As regards the higher districts, however, his +data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we apply them to the +valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two hundred +feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the +palæolithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hundred +and forty thousand years."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says, +in speaking of the time required to excavate the gorge of +Niagara River, that "on both sides of the gorge near the +whirlpool, and also at Goat Island, there are beds of recent +lake shells ... the same kinds that live in still +water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found +in the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters, +when these beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirlpool. +A tooth of a mastodon (<i>M. giganteus</i>) has been found +in the same beds. This locates the time in the Champlain +epoch.... Six miles of the gorge have been excavated +since that mastodon was alive....</p> + +<p>"There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool +through the Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of +Lewiston. This valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch, +and this blocking up of the channel may have compelled it to +open a new passage.</p> + +<p>"If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we +can ascertain the probable rate of progress, we may approximate +to the length of time it required. Hall and Lyell estimated +the average rate at one foot a year,—which is certainly +large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of the falls, that +it was 'more nearly three feet a century than three feet a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will +have required over thirty-one thousand years; if at one inch +a year—which is eight and one third feet a century—three +hundred and eighty thousand years."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p>The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch. +As this epoch was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be +either thrown still farther back, or else allow the calculations +to begin with the end of the glacial.</p> + +<p><i>Probable Duration.</i>—Lyell has attempted to form an +estimate of the duration of the glacial epoch by considering +"the most simple series of changes in physical geography +which can possibly account for the phenomena of the glacial +period," and enumerates as follows:</p> + +<p>"First, a continental period, toward the close of which +the forest of Cromer flourished; when the land was at least +five hundred feet above its present level, perhaps much higher, +and its extent probably greater than that given in the map, +Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the British Isles are connected +with one another, and with the continent—the German +Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry land).</p> + +<p>"Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land +north of the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ireland, +was gradually reduced to an archipelago; and finally to +such a general prevalence of sea as is seen in map, Fig. 39." +(This map is intended to represent the British Isles as +they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged +to two thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one +thousand three hundred feet.) "This was the period of +submergence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora, +which occupied the lower grounds during the first continental +period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only +lands not covered with perpetual snow.</p> + +<p>"Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the +glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid +dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that of the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +period.... During this period there were glaciers +in the higher mountains of Scotland and Wales....</p> + +<p>"The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand +four hundred feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require +fifty-six thousand years, at the rate of two and a half feet per +century; but taking Professor Ramsay's estimate of eight +hundred feet more, that depression being required for the +deposition of some of the stratified drift, we must demand +an additional period of thirty-two thousand years, amounting +in all to eighty-eight thousand; and the same time +would be required for the reëlevation of the tract to its +present height. But if the land rose in the second continental +period no more than six hundred above the present level ... +this ... would have taken another twenty-six thousand +years; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the +submergence and reëmergence, having taken, in round numbers, +two hundred and twenty-four thousand years for its +completion; and this, even if there were no pause or stationary +period, when the downward movement ceased, and before +it was converted into an upward one."<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet +per century is a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and +there are cases where the change is even six feet a century, +yet the average rate of motion, he thinks, will not exceed +that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock believes +most geologists will agree.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<p>By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon +which a calculation can be made as to the time when this +epoch began. At the time of the most intense cold the +eccentricity of the earth's orbit was .0575; the difference in +millions of miles between the greatest and least distances of +the earth from the sun 10½; the number of days by which +winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in +perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest sum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>mer +month in the latitude of London when the summer +occurs in perihelion, 113°; the mean temperature of the +coldest winter month in the latitude of London when the +winter occurs in aphelion, 0° 7'. Sixty thousand years later the +eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332; the difference +of distance in millions of miles was 6; number of winter days +in excess, 16.1; mean of hottest month in latitude of London, +95°, and mean of coldest month 12°. It is evident then at +this time (one hundred and fifty thousand years ago) a +"great thaw" had taken place and the glaciers driven back, +although fifty thousand years later less intense cold set in +again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great +thaw" from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme +point to have been two hundred and ten thousand years ago, +then one hundred and eighty thousand years ago the glaciers +had become so broken up as to allow vegetation to spring up +in many localities, and the wild beasts to partially reassert +their dominion. If to this be added the time required for the +duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four +thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumulate +was four hundred and four thousand years ago. But if +the tables of Mr. Croll be correct, their beginning could not +have been earlier than three hundred and fifty thousand +years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit varied but +little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand +years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> + +<p>During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +melted very rapidly,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> for great rivers were formed, and the +water pouring down its icy bed sought other streams, and on +the bosom of the earth swept away loose sediment, depositing +it along the course of rivers and in caves of the earth, covering +the remains of man along with those of animals that +perished during the long winter of ice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="768" height="845" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Stream issuing from a Glacier.</span> +</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Evidences of the Existence of Man.</i>—The traces of man in +the deposits made during the glacial epoch are numerous. +Out of the many, the most noted will be given, with a view +to their chronological order.</p> + +<p>In all probability the very oldest implements of the post-tertiary, +and consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch, +if not of the pliocene, are those found in the south of Hampshire, +between Gosport and Southampton. They came from +a tabular mass of drift which caps the tertiary strata. "The +great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary strata, in which +these implements have been found, consists in most places of +half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded +pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata.... Many of +them exhibit the same colors and ochreous stain as do the +flints in the gravel in which they lay."</p> + +<p>West of the Southampton estuary, "on both sides of the +opening at Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have +been met with in the gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel +from which the flint tool was taken at Bournemouth is about +one hundred feet above the level of the sea.... The +gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from tertiary +strata."</p> + +<p>The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top +of the Foreland cliff "is of the true palæolithic type, and the +gravel in which it is imbedded at the height of about eighty +feet above the level of the sea, may have once extended to the +cliffs near Gosport; in which case we should have to infer that +the channel called the Solent had not yet been scooped out +when this region was inhabited by palæolithic man."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<p>It may be safely inferred that the implements in the +above three enumerations were imbedded at about the same +time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> + +<p>The flint implements from the valley of the Somme, +which have been of so much interest, and convinced so many +sceptical geologists, belong to the early part of this epoch. +This valley may be represented by Fig. 3.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="1024" height="205" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Section Across the Somme in Picardy.</span></span> + +<p>1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, <i>a</i>.<br /> +2. Lower level gravel, with elephants' bones and flint tools covered with fluviatile +loam, twenty to forty feet thick.<br /> +3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam. In all thirty feet +thick.<br /> +4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick.<br /> +5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches.</p> +</div> + +<p>In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that +No. 2 indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher +ones, which are from eighty to one hundred feet above the +river. Of a later date than these is the peat, No. 1, which +is from ten to thirty feet in thickness. Underneath the +peat is a bed of gravel, <i>a</i>, from three to fourteen feet thick, +resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and +the peat is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of +the valley of the Somme is a pretty fair representation of the +arrangements of the different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and +and St. Acheul.</p> + +<p>In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked +by 2 and 3. The two are separated by a layer of fresh-water +deposits, which contains river shells and is sometimes +as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower, or gray diluvium, +(No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the glaciers +of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immediately +upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint +hatchets, together with the bones of the mammoth and fossil +rhinoceros.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, the +following figure is given.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 960px;"> +<img src="images/fig04.jpg" width="960" height="768" alt="4" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Section of a Gravel-pit at St. Acheul.</span> +</span> +<p>1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick.</p> + +<p>2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few angular flints.</p> + +<p>3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and fresh-water shells, +covered with a thin layer of angular gravel from one to two feet thick.</p> + +<p>4. A bed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled tertiary pebbles. In +this bed the flint implements are chiefly found—ten to fourteen feet thick.</p> + +<p>5. Formation of chalk.<br /> + <i>a.</i> Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface.<br /> + <i>b.</i> Entire molar of mammoth (<i>E primigenius</i>), seventeen feet from surface.<br /> + <i>c.</i> Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface.<br /> + <i>d.</i> Gravel projecting five feet.</p> +</div> + + +<p>At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of +flint implements. Some of them have the shape of a spear-head, +and are over seven inches in length. The oval-shaped +hatchets are so rude in some instances as to require a practised +eye to decide their human origin. In the same bed are +found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the +centre. Dr. Rigollot has suggested that these perforated +stones or gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung +together as beads.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this bed, No. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was +found a mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth, +in densely compressed gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an +oval form.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/fig05.jpg" width="768" height="980" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Flint Implement From St. Acheul.</span></span> +<p>Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches long.<br /> + <i>a.</i> Side view.<br /> + <i>b.</i> Same seen edgewise.</p> + +<p>"These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number, proportionally +to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St. Acheul, than in any of the +lower gravels in the valley of the Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates, +especially at Abbeville."—<i>Antiquity of Man</i>, p. 114.</p> +</div> + +<p>That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +not only from the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also +from the great blocks of hard sandstone, some of which are +over four feet in diameter. These large fragments not only +abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and lower level +gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but +they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old diluvium +occurs. All of these sandstones have been derived +from the tertiary strata which once covered the chalk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 830px;"> +<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="830" height="768" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Flint Implement from Abbeville.</span></span> +<p><i>a.</i> Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half size of original, +which is five and a half inches long, from a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio-marine +stratum.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Same seen edgewise.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point <i>a</i>, or near the top. +This portion of the tool, <i>c</i>, is drawn of the natural size, the black central part being +the unaltered flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed by +discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made.</p> + +<p>The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first shaped, and the +bleaching to such a depth must have been the work of time, whether produced by +exposure to the sun and air before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep +in the soil.—<i>Antiquity of Man.</i></p> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> + +<p>As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the +same as those of St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what +has already been said will apply to them. These implements +have been found in these localities in great numbers, as several +thousand of them already taken from the beds will +amply testify.</p> + +<p>From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes, +at Abbeville, and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the +celebrated human bone known as the <i>jaw</i> of Moulin-Quignon. +It was cotemporary with the axes, and undoubtedly some of +the flint implements there found were fashioned by the man +of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part.</p> + +<p>This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as +displaying "a tendency toward the animal structure in the +shortness and breadth of the ascending ramus (the perpendicular +portion of the lower jaw), the equal height of the two +apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a continuous +part of the body of the bone), the indication of +prognathism (projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse +angle at which the ramus joins the body of the bone.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>Near the same locality other human bones were discovered +Which presented the same characteristics.</p> + +<p>Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint implements +could be found in the valley of the Seine, in beds +similar to those of Abbeville, the antiquaries were soon +rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction was fulfilled. +M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of implements +in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains of +animals of that period.</p> + +<p>The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is +very similar to those of Abbeville. "First, vegetable soil; +then about twenty-five feet of sand and pebbles, under which +was a layer of sandy loam, in which, during the year 1850, a +complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered. Under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>neath +this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in +which some flint axes, very closely resembling those of +Amiens, have been discovered."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>The remains of man are also preserved in caverns associated +with the fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired +rhinoceros, cave-bear, and other extinct quadrupeds. Among +these should be noticed Kent's Hole, which has furnished a +mine of wealth. Of his discoveries Godwin-Austen says: +"Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and +knives of flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout +the entire thickness of the clay; and no distinction founded +on condition, distribution, or relative position can be observed, +whereby the human can be separated from the other +reliquiæ," which included bones of the mammoth (<i>E. primigenius</i>), +rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), +cave-hyena (<i>H. spelæus</i>), and other mammalia. These +researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had +never been disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance, +were procured from undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick +covering of stalagmite; and all these must have been introduced +before the stalagmite flooring had been formed.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +These specimens of man's handicraft were found far below +the stalagmite floor.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brixham +Cave. The following gives the general succession of +deposits forming the contents of the cavern:</p> + +<p>1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches +in thickness.</p> + +<p>2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to +fifteen feet in thickness.</p> + +<p>3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet +in depth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the second layer there were found the remains of the +mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, reindeer, +and seven other species. Indiscriminately mixed with +these bones were found many flint knives, but chiefly from +the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth, varying in depth +from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of these cannot +be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no +other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was +discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every +bone in its natural position. From the bone earth there were +taken fifteen knives, recognized, by the experienced antiquaries, +as having been artificially formed. In the lowest gravel, +underlying all, there were found imperfect specimens of flint +knives. The fine layer of mud was deposited by the slow but +regular action of water. Since these layers were formed the +stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its +former level.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are +terraces of gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on +the left bank, one of these terraces projects into the alluvial +plain of the Meuse. During the construction of the +canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty feet. The +upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty +feet of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks, +and bones of elephants, together with those of other mammalia, +and a human lower jaw with teeth, were found in or near +this gravel. The human jaw was at a depth of nineteen feet +from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam, beneath a +stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the +gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was +intact and had never been disturbed. But the jaw was somewhat +isolated, and the nearest fossil object was the tusk of an +elephant six yards distant, though on a horizontal plane. +This fossil is probably older than that discovered at Lahr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +It was probably covered just before the gush of the water +when it first began to flow from the gorges and had washed +the ground at some distance from the ice.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the +Rhine, near Lahr, was found in nearly a horizontal position, +but in such a manner as to forbid the idea of sepulchre. +These bones were exhumed from a perpendicular cliff of +solid loess, about five feet high. The town of Lahr is situated +four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the +Rhine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the +Schutter, flowing from the Black Forest.</p> + +<p>In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the +the loess is two hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty +feet above the Schutter. At Lahr it has been denuded so as +to form a succession of terraces on the right bank. It was in +the lowest of these from which the skeleton was taken. Immediately +below this bed there were found pebbles, and still +lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of +sandstone and gneiss from the Black Forest.</p> + +<p>There are several interesting facts connected with this +discovery. M. Boué considers that the loess of the Lahr is +continuous with that of the Rhine, and before the loess had +been denuded there was not less than eighty feet of loamy deposit +above the human skeleton. The glaciers had deposited +their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melting +of them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then +when the torrents poured forth from the glaciers the loam was +formed without the pebbles. The unfortunate man, whose +remains were found, was buried far beneath the surface, during +the very first part of the course of the violent streams +pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then +on the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim +while on the chase.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone +similar to the Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a +river deposit of loam covered with a layer of stalagmite, and +at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface. Associated with +it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired rhinoceros, +and flint implements. These implements present the same +type as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a +human ulna, two human teeth, and a fragment of a worked +reindeer born. This jaw-bone is very thick, round in form, +and the projection of the chin is almost entirely absent. The +chin is said to hold an intermediate position between that of +the animals and those of the present race of men. The cavities +for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one +of the most remarkable things is that the three molars are +reversed, that is the first true molar is the smallest, and the +last the largest. The inner surface of the jaw at the point of +the suture or symphysis, forms a line obliquely directed upwards. +Taking the jaw all in all, it is the most ape-like +human jaw ever discovered.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three +different layers or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a +half in depth. The second was clay, seven and a half feet +thick. The third, a bed of sand, with shells one foot in thickness. +The fourth layer, containing the implements was a bed +of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these flints was +so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and +thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account +of the great number, this spot might have been the place +where they were manufactured. Their date is not coeval +with the bowlder clay, but undoubtedly belong, to the last +of this epoch.</p> + +<p>The human bones found in the loess of the Rhine, near +Colmar, were two fossilized fragments of the skull. They +were found in undisturbed soil along with the fossil bones of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +the extinct species of mammoth, horse, gigantic deer, aurochs, +and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull "showed a +depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches, +and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called <i>dolichocephalic</i>, +or long-headed form."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> These remains date so near +the end of the glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>GLACIAL EPOCH—CONTINUED.</h3> + + +<p><i>Belgian Caverns.</i>—The relics discovered by Dr. Schmerling, +in the caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time +of the retreat of the glaciers. The glaciers were still in +existence, but their receding had freed immense tracts of land, +and the space they now covered was small in proportion to +their former extent. Whether it be considered or not, that +vegetation greatly nourished and the great wild beasts were +rapidly increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is, +floods must have succeeded or followed closely upon the +retreat of the ice. Many remains, referred to the glacial epoch, +may in reality, have occupied the time of the floods occurring +just previous to the commencement of the inter-glacial.</p> + +<p>The Belgian Caverns, near Liége, either belong exactly to +the ice, or else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers +the older monuments of the palæolithic period to be the rude +implements found in ancient river gravel and in the mud and +stalagmite caves.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Caves of this description are those reported +on by Dr. Schmerling.</p> + +<p>The caverns of the province of Liége were not the dens +of wild beasts, but their contents had been swept in by the +action of water. The bones of man "were of the same color, +and in the same condition as to the amount of animal matter +contained in them, as those of the accompanying animals, +some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and rhinoceros, +were extinct; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild +boar, roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +were lighter than fresh bones, except such as had their pores +filled with carbonate of lime, in which case they were often +much heavier. The human remains of most frequent occurrence +were teeth detached from the jaw, and the carpal, +metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones separated +from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding +bones of the cave-bear, the most abundant of the accompanying +mammalia, were also found in the Liége caverns more +commonly than any others, and in the same scattered condition."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> +In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a +triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud. +Dr. Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he +was engrossed in his osteological inquiries. The human +bones were met with at all depths, in the cave mud and +gravel, both above and below those of the extinct mammalia.</p> + +<p>The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalagmite.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> +In the cavern at Chokier there occur "three distinct +beds of stalagmite, and between each of them a mass of +breccia, and mud mixed with quartz pebbles, and in the +three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + + +<p class="center">FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE.</p> + +<p>The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited +at a depth of about five feet, under an osseous breccia containing +a tusk of the rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the +remains of small animals. The breccia was about three and +one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the height of about five feet +above the floor of the cavern. In the earth which contained +the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides, the +teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no +marks of the earth having been disturbed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + +<p>There was also found the cranium of a young person, in +the floor of the cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. When +first observed, the skull was entire, but fell to pieces when +removed from its position. Besides these there were found a +fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar teeth +worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man; two +vertebræ, a first and last dorsal; a clavicle of the left side, +belonging to a young individual of great stature; two fragments +of the radius, indicating a man of ordinary height; a +fragment of an ulna: some metacarpal bones; six metatarsal, +three phalanges of the hand and one of the foot.</p> + +<p>Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone implement +incrusted with stalagmite and joined to a stone.</p> + +<p>Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As +Professor Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is destroyed, +and the facial bones are entirely absent; but the roof +of the cranium, consisting of the frontal, parietal, and the +greater part of the occipital bones, as far as the middle of the +occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The left temporal +bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the +immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mastoid +process, and a considerable portion of the squamous +element of the temporal, are well preserved."</p> + +<p>A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to +have missed, has since been fitted on to the rest of the cranium +by Dr. Spring, the accomplished anatomist of Liége.</p> + +<p>"The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man. +The extreme length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme +breadth, which corresponds very nearly with the interval +between the parietal protuberances, is not more than 5.4 +inches. The proportion of the length to the breadth is therefore +very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn from the +point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the +nose, and which is called the 'glabella' (<i>a</i>, Fig. 8), to the +occipital protuberance (<i>d</i>), and the distance to the highest +point of the arch of the skull be measured perpendicularly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +from this line, it will be found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed +from above, the forehead presents an evenly rounded curve, +and passes into the contour of the sides and back of the skull, +which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 654px;"> +<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="654" height="1024" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Professor T. H. Huxley.</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 857px;"> +<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="857" height="768" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Side View of the Human Skull found in the Cave of Engis.</span></span> +<p> + <i>a.</i> Superciliary ridge and glabella.<br /> + <i>b.</i> Coronal suture.<br /> + <i>d.</i> The occipital protuberance.<br /> +</p> +</div> + + + + +<p>"The front view shows that the roof of the skull was very +regularly and elegantly arched in the transverse direction, +and that the transverse diameter was a little less below the +parietal protuberances, than above them. The forehead +cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of the skull, +nor can it be called a retreating forehead; on the contrary, +the antero-posterior contour of the skull is well arched, so +that the distance along that contour, from the nasal depres<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>sion +to the occipital protuberance, measures about 13.75 +inches. The transverse arc of the skull, measured from one +auditory foramen to the other, across the middle of the +sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture itself +is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow-ridges +(<i>a</i>) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are +separated by a median depression. Their principal elevation +is disposed so obliquely that I judge them to be due to large +frontal sinuses. If a line joining the glabella and the occipital +protuberance (<i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, Fig. 8) be made horizontal, no part +of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth of an +inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper +edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line +drawn parallel with this upon the outer surface of the skull."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<p>Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at +variance with those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock +reports him as saying, "There is no mark of degradation +about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair average +human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, or +might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> +Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor +Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead +was somewhat narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by +the skulls of individuals of European race."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against +Huxley. The first says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that +this cranium has belonged to a person of limited intellectual +faculties, and we conclude thence that it belonged to a man +of a low degree of civilization."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> "From the narrowness of +the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small intellectual +development."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Buchner says, "In its length and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of +the widely separated orbits and the well developed supra-orbital +arches, it resembles, especially when viewed from +above, the celebrated Neanderthal skull, but in general is far +superior to this in its structure."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Carl Vogt "regards +it, with reference to the proportion of length to breadth, +as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of +skulls."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise +from the failure to observe the fact that the older the formation +in which a skull is found, the lower is the type. The +ordinary observer, judging by the cast of the skull, would see +nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would fail to see any +indications of a philosopher.</p> + + +<p class="center">NEANDERTHAL SKULL.</p> + +<p>The Neanderthal skull was taken from a small cave or +grotto in-the valley of the Düssel, near Düsseldorf, situated +about seventy miles north-east of the region of the Liége +caverns. The grotto is in a deep ravine sixty feet above the +river, one hundred feet below the surface of the country, and +at a distance of about ten feet from the Düssel River. It is +fifteen feet deep from the entrance (<i>f</i>), which is seven or +eight feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it +opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front. The floor of +the cave was covered four or five feet in thickness with a +deposit of mud or loam, and containing some rounded fragments +of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit, first +noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in +met with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded +as of any importance, at the time of their discovery, only the +larger ones have been preserved.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="1024" height="466" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Section of the Neanderthal Cave.</span></span> +<p> <i>a.</i> Cavern sixty feet above the Düssel, and one hundred feet below the surface of +the country at <i>c</i>.<br /> + + <i>b.</i> Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which the human skeleton +was found.<br /> + + <i>c</i>, <i>a</i>. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the country.<br /> + + <i>d.</i> Superficial sandy loam.<br /> + + <i>e.</i> Devonian limestone.<br /> + + <i>f.</i> Terrace, or ledge of rock.</p> +</div> + + +<p>Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological +time of these bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the +mud or loam in which the skeleton was found, and no other +bones met with save the tusk of a bear. There is no certain +data given whereby its position may be known. Professor +Huxley declares that the bones "indicate a very high antiquity."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +Buchner is very positive in his statement, and +declares that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves +of the Neanderthal and the clefts and fissures of its limestone +mountains, and in which both the Neanderthal bones +and the fossil bones and teeth of animals were imbedded, is +exactly the same that, in the caverns of the Neanderthal, +covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten +to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which +is unmistakable."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and +general arrangement of the locality in which they were found, +place it, in my judgment, beyond doubt that the bones +belong to the diluvium, and therefore to primitive times, <i>i. e.</i> +they come down to us from a period of the past when our +native country was still inhabited by various kinds of animals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since +disappeared out of the series of living creatures."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is +still further confirmed by the discoveries made, in the +summer of 1865, in the Teufelskammer. This cavern is +situated one hundred and thirty paces from the one in which +the human bones were found, and on the same side of the +river.. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous +fossil bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, +and other extinct animals. "A great part of these +bones, especially those of the cave-bears, agree in color, +weight, density, and the preservation of their microscopic +structure, with the human bones found in the Feldhofner +Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both +are covered with the same <i>dendrites</i>, or tree-like markings."<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>Before entering into a description and discussion of this +remarkable skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be +given. All the bones are characterized by their unusual +thickness, and the great development of all the elevations +and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The two +thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus +and radius; the upper third of the right ulna; the left ulna +complete, though pathologically deformed, the coronoid +process being so much enlarged by bony growth that flexure +of the elbow beyond a right angle was impossible; the left +humerus is much slenderer than the right, and the upper +third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the +coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at +the same time, the olecranon process is curved strongly +downwards. The indications are that an injury sustained +during life was the cause of this defect. There was an ilium, +almost perfect; a fragment of the right scapula; the anterior +extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder +portions and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the +ribs of a carnivorous animal than those of man. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +abnormal condition has arisen from the powerful development +of the thoracic muscles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 949px;"> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="949" height="768" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Side View of the Human Skull from Feldhofner Cave, in +the Neanderthal, near Düsseldorf.</span></span> +<p> + <i>a.</i> The superciliary ridge and glabella.<br /> + <i>c.</i> The apex of the lambdoidal suture.<br /> + <i>b.</i> The coronal suture.<br /> + <i>d.</i> The occipital protuberance.<br /> +</p> +</div> + + + +<p>The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. "It +has an extreme length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only +5¾ inches, or in other words, its length is to its breadth as +100 is to 72. It is exceedingly depressed, measuring +only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital line to +the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way +as in the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse arc cannot +be exactly ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the +temporal bones, but was probably about the same, and certainly +exceeded 10¼ inches. The horizontal circumference is +23 inches. But this great circumference arises largely from +the vast development of the superciliary ridges, though the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large +superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating +appearance than its internal contour would bear out. To an +anatomical eye the posterior part of the skull is even more +striking than the anterior. The occipital protuberance occupies +the extreme posterior end of the skull, when the glabello-occipital +line is made horizontal, and so far from any part of +the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the +skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lambdoidal +suture is situated well upon the upper surface of the +cranium. At the same time, notwithstanding the great +length of the skull, the sagittal suture is remarkably short +(4½ inches) and the squamosal suture is very straight."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> +... "The cranium, in its present condition, contains about +sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire +skull could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches +more, its minimum capacity may be estimated at seventy-five +cubic inches.... It has certainly not undergone compression, +and, in reply to the suggestion that the skull is that +of an idiot, it may be urged that the <i>onus probandi</i> lies with +those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible with +very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know +of none which present the least resemblance to the Neanderthal +skull."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p>Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape-like +of all the human skulls he has ever seen, and in its +examination ape-like characters are met with in all its +parts.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Buchner says that the face of the Neanderthal +man must have presented a frightfully bestial and savage, or +ape-like expression (see frontispiece).<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> Professor Schaaffhausen +and Mr. Busk have stated that "this skull is the +most brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of +the apes not only in the prodigious development of the superciliary +prominences and the forward extension of the orbits,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +but still more in the depressed form of the brain-case, in the +straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the complete +retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the superior +occipital ridges."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + +<p>Professor Schaaffhausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this +skull as a race-type, and Professor Huxley has said "that it +truly forms only the extreme member of a series leading by +slow degrees to the highest and best developed forms of +human skulls."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact +that it is not an isolated case. The fragment of the skull +from the loess of the Rhine (Alsace), by its depressed forehead +and strongly projecting superciliary arches, greatly +resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the calcareous +tuff of Constatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong +superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> The cranium +found in bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar), +"resembles, in all essential particulars, including its great +thickness, the far-famed Neanderthal skull. Its discovery +adds immensely to the scientific value of the Neanderthal +specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not represent, +as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual peculiarity, +but that it may have been characteristic of a race +extending from the Rhine to the Pillars of Hercules."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> In +speaking of the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaaffhausen +says, "It is worthy of notice that a similar, although smaller +projection of the superciliary arches has generally been found +in the skulls of savage races.... The remarkably +small skull from the graves on the island of Moën, examined +by Professor Eschricht; the two human skulls, described by +Dr. Kutorga, from the government of Minsk (Russia), one of +which, especially, shows a great resemblance to the Neanderthal +skull; the human skeleton found near Plau, in Mecklenburg, +in a very ancient grave, in a squatting position, ...<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when +man stood on a very low grade of development;" and +other similar discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls likewise +presenting short, retreating foreheads and projecting +eyebrows.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, belonging +to the stone age of Denmark, "show a great resemblance +to the Neanderthal skull, a resemblance which is +manifested in the depression of the cranium, the receding +forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent superciliary +ridges."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p><i>Human Skull of Arno.</i>—The human skull, found by +Professor Cocchi in the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in +diluvial clay, together with various bones of extinct species of +animals, is considered by Carl Vogt to be of like antiquity +with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS.</h3> + + +<p>The age immediately preceding the glacial, and consequently +the post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch, +the last of the tertiary.</p> + +<p>The tertiary period began with the close of the cretaceous. +A map of the early tertiary period would represent +parts of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, the +whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama, Mississippi, +Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory on +both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with +water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and +the western part of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly +course until it emptied into the Pacific. In Europe, the +great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of chalk), the greater +part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium, Holland, +Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern +Russia, as one vast sheet of water. England and France +were connected by a band of rocks.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and +tropical fauna and flora spread over the whole of Europe. +Palms, cedars, laurels, and cinnamon trees flourished in the +valleys of Switzerland, and more than thirty different species +of oak adorned the forests of that time.</p> + +<p>In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty +species of crocodiles; many species of snakes, one twenty +feet long; a dozen species of birds; tapirs (<i>Palæothere</i> and +<i>Lophiodon</i>), two species of hogs, some ruminants and rodents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the miocene, among <i>Pachyderms</i> may be mentioned the +mastodon, elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhinoceros, +hog, horse, tapir, and hippopotamus; among +<i>Carnivores</i>, the machairodus, hyena, lion, and dog; among +<i>Ruminants</i>, the camel, deer, and antelope. There were +monkeys, and many other animals.</p> + +<p>In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the +bear, hare, and other animals.</p> + +<p>In the tertiary beds of America have been found mastodons, +elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves, +horses, whales, and other mammalia.</p> + +<p>Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected +that many traces of man will be discovered in this early +period.</p> + +<p>Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable +that man lived in the pliocene; but in relation to miocene +time, he says, "Had some other rational being, representing +man, then flourished, some signs of his existence could hardly +have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of implements of stone +or metal, more frequent and more durable than the osseous +remains of any of the mammalia."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Sir J. Lubbock, while +admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther +and says, "If man constitutes a separate family of mammalia, +as he does in the opinion of the highest authorities, then, +according to all palæontological analogies, he must have had +representatives in miocene times. We need not, however, +expect to find the proofs in Europe; our nearest relatives in +the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to tropical +climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely +to find the earliest traces of the human race."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Alfred R. +Wallace out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says, +"We are enabled to place the origin of man at a much more +remote geological epoch than has yet been thought possible. +He may even have lived in the miocene or eocene period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +when not a single mammal was identical in form with any +existing species."<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of +geologists have settled the question of tertiary man; and the +"signs of his existence," in the "shape of implements of +stone," as demanded by Lyell, have been furnished.</p> + +<p><i>Man in the Pliocene.</i>—It has already been intimated that +the evidences of man are but few in this early epoch. The +first example, in the following list, borders closely on the +glacial, but far enough removed as to be referred to the +pliocene.</p> + +<p>In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and +Gothenburg it was necessary to cut through one of those hills +called <i>osars</i>, or erratic blocks, which were deposited by the +drift-ice during the glacial epoch. Beneath an immense +accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there was +discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about +sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the +middle of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than +that of man could have performed the work.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of +Savonia in Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which +presented all the physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr. +Buchner is of the opinion that before these bones can be employed +as satisfactory evidence they must have a more +accurate test by scientific authorities.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Desnoyers +found traces of human action on the bones of animals +belonging to the tertiary. These fractures are analogous to +those of human action observed on bones from the glacial +period, and identical with those made by northern tribes of +the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The marked +bones found were those of the Southern elephant (<i>E. meridionalis</i>), +rhinoceros (<i>R. leptorinus</i>), hippopotamus major,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +several species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states +that this discovery is not only genuine, but also, the formation +in which the bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is +further characterized by the presence of the southern elephant +(<i>E. meridionalis</i>). As this elephant became extinct before +the glacial age, the bones consequently precede the glacial, +and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and tichorrhine +rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages, +confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> + +<p>The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a +doubt by the more recent discoveries of Abbé Bourgeois. +In the same tertiary strata of St. Prest, in which were found +the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois discovered worked +flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<p>A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by +James Matson, at Altaville, in Calaveras county, California, +at a depth of one hundred and thirty feet, under five beds of +gravel separated by five layers of lava, associated with the +bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and horse. The base +of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and small +pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles +that of the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span><i>Man in the Miocene.</i><a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>—M. Bourgeois has found, in a +stratum of miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints, +and other flints which have been subjected to the action of +heat. These works of man were associated with the remains +of the acerotherium (an extinct species allied to the rhinoceros), +and beneath five distinct beds, one of which contained +the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship +in the miocene beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with +the remains of <i>dinotherium giganteum</i>, and <i>machaerodus +latidens</i>.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>M. Bourgeois reports that Abbé Delaunay had found near +Pouance (Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a <i>halitherium</i> (an +herbivorous cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of +having been operated upon by cutting instruments.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming +territories, chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and +wrought shells have been found.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> + +<p><i>Eocene.</i>—As yet geologists have failed to discover any +traces of man in the Eocene epoch.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>CONDITION OF MAN IN THE EARLIEST TIMES.</h3> + + +<p>Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no +precise knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of +his birth is generally supposed to be in Central Asia. There +the geologist looks with a longing eye, and hopes ultimately +to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the birth-place of +his race, but also, how or through what natural process he +sprang into existence.</p> + +<p>If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and +Central Asia the place of his nativity, then he was ushered +upon the scene of life during the period of, and surrounded +by, the numerous fauna of India, At this time her mammalia +included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven +species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species), +horse (three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species), +hog (three species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephantine +stag, having four horns and supposed to have had the +bulk of an elephant and greater height), antelope, musk-deer, +sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium, porcupine, +species of hyena, lion, and many others.</p> + +<p>It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties +were ordinarily developed, as it would not be natural to +suppose he was superior to that of later times. Judging +from the remains of later times, man could have been but +very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose +that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence. +His food must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits +of the tree, possibly with an occasional morsel of raw meat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +His pillow was a stone, his retreat a cave or the boughs of a +wide-spreading tree, and his clothing a natural coat of hair.</p> + +<p>In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might +seem to be of short duration. Providence has ordered all +things wisely. Placed low in the scale of life—brutal, selfish, +prowling, yet cautious—man, by the very force of +circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his +mind. With the elephant and the mastodon he could not +cope nor would they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he +might fall a prey. From these he could flee, and find a +shelter in the tops of the trees or some secure fastness of the +earth. Learning his own strength by experience, he would +venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly +foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident, +that a club was a powerful weapon with which to beat back +his fierce opponent. Gradually he came to learn that a sharp +flint driven into the end of a club was a safer and more +deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an unequal +contest.</p> + +<p>The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength, +developed his muscular system. His muscles became large +and tough, and his bones thick and heavy. The earliest type +of man is generally supposed to be <i>dolichocephalic</i>, or long-headed. +The walls of the skull were thick, and the crown +low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and +of great power. His make-up was the result of his surroundings.</p> + +<p>His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire +length of the miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable. +There was no revolution in his mind; one step in advance +would have been a mighty leap. Nor could it be expected +that there should be rapid progress. The mind was brutal; +and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a +mighty change. The tropical climate should change into a +winter of snow and ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited +by the new danger. His sluggish mind should be quickened,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +and the inventive genius should be called into action. The +sun no longer could give its heat. The forests grew cold, the +chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in the +cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either +dying of cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair, +and retreating before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly +looked about him. He suffered greatly, and his numbers +grew less. Fire had been produced. How, no one can tell; +possibly by accident. He now became more careful of the +fire, and with brand in hand he went from place to place +kindling the fires at the various resting-places. Nor was this +sufficient. His ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent. +Colder and colder grew the winds. The snow, coming in +great flakes, was soon consolidated, and became as ice. The +body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had, and +this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must +assist in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen +animals would not alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives +must be invented. From the flint rude knives were fashioned, +by means of which the skins were removed and transferred to +the bodies of men. But the long winter continuing, the lives +of the living animals must be forfeited, both for the flesh and +and the skins. Rude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were +produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and +cook, and rude rafts formed, by means of which the swelling +rivers might be crossed. Then those stone hatchets of the +Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose.</p> + +<p>Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the +perils of ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not content +with his conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is +aroused against his fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly +upon each other, the blood flows freely, the bones give way, +and the weaker one has succumbed. There are fierce contentions +over the common prey, and the strong impose upon the +weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in communities; +and the more daring—the hunters—having their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +common places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie +with each other in feats of prowess.</p> + +<p>During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have +remained unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude +stone weapons. His time was spent, for the most part, in +self-preservation. He was retreating before, yet bounding +over, the frozen flood in pursuit of game. This experience +must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers began to +recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those +stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They +served against the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and +would be of great service in the ages yet to come. By a little +remodelling they could be used to greater advantage; and this +change of shape was accomplished, and other uses of flint +were made known.</p> + +<p>Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended +by the relics of the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale +which any anatomist may read, and even one not well skilled +in the art. The primitive type is no mystery, and those +fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone times.</p> + +<p>The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its +structure is animal. Its history agrees with the generally +received idea of primitive man as conceived by the geologist. +The illustration (frontispiece) presents him bestial and ape-like. +A powerful organization, and well adapted to those +times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an +old age, as the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull +was very thick. The strong, prominent superciliary arches +denote large perceptives, making him watchful and always on +the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible conflict. The left +arm was broken; who knows but in a contest with the great +cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm +dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he +received a blow, from some source, so great as to carry away +a portion of the bone. The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint +weapon in the hand of one of his race, may have produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +that fracture. Still he lived, and the wound healed. All +this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside +view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval +man.</p> + +<p>The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less +bestial. Possibly this individual did not enter upon the +chase, and engage in the manly pursuits of those times. He +may have been an adviser or a dandy; or, his ingenuity may +have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and implements +from the flint.</p> + +<p>In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as +short, heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a +clavicle belonging to a young person who must have been of +great stature.</p> + +<p>The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a +great tendency to animal structure, and confirm the impressions +as given of the primitive condition of man during the +glacial and pre-glacial ages.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again. +The forests bloom and the wild beast roams about. Many +species withstood the long siege of cold; others perished; +still others followed the ice as it retreated, preferring the +cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man +spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers +and radiant with earthly splendors.</p> + +<p>The evidences of man's existence during this period are +numerous, consisting in works of art and fossil remains. +Only a few examples are given, as not many will be required +to present the evidence and show man's condition.</p> + +<p>The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Dawkins, +affords specimens of the works of man. When discovered +this den was filled to the roof with <i>débris</i>. Under this +rubbish was found several layers of the excrement of the +cave-hyena (<i>H. spelæa</i>), each of which indicates an old floor +and a separate period of occupation.</p> + +<p>The implements were under these layers of excrement, +showing that the cave had been occupied by the hyenas after +the time of the savages. These implements had not been +disturbed by the action of water. In the bone earth along +with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of the +mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>), gigantic ox +(<i>Bos primigenius</i>), gigantic Irish deer (<i>Megaceros Hibernicus</i>), +reindeer, cave-bear, cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>), wolf (<i>Canis +lupus</i>), fox (<i>Canis vulpes</i>), and the teeth and bones of the +horse in great numbers. Intermixed with these bones were +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>chipped flints, a bleached flint weapon of the spear-head +Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="1024" height="483" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ideal Scene in the Post-Tertiary.</span></span> +<p>On the right is shown the megatherium. This animal belonged to the sloth tribe, and was a native of South America. It exceeded in +size the largest rhinocerous, and the length of its skeleton sometimes attained eighteen feet. In front, near the centre, is the glyptodon +another South American animal of the armadillo tribe. The length of its shell, along the curve, was five feet, and the total length of the +animal, nine feet. Just back of the glypodon, and holding on to a tree, is the mylodon, belonging to both North and South America, one +species of which was much larger than the western buffalo. On the left, and in the rear, is the mastodon, the remains of which are found +in both North and South America, though of different species. While this scene does not represent the animals with which we are dealing, +yet the general features give an idea of those with which we are interested.</p> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 996px;"> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="996" height="768" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Section of the Sepulchral Grotto, in the Hill of Fajoles, +Aurignac.</span></span> +<p><i>a.</i> Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in which a few human +bones, with entire bones of extinct and living species of animals, and many works +of art, were imbedded.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing broken, burned, and +gnawed bones of extinct and living mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art; +no human bones.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Deposit with similar contents; also a few scattered cinders.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above.</p> + +<p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>. Slab of rock which closed the vault.</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, <i>f</i>. Rabbit-burrow.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, <i>k</i>. Original terrace.</p> + +<p><i>N.</i> Nummulitic limestone.</p> +</div> + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were +found ashes and rude flint implements in a breccia containing +the bones of the elephant (<i>E. antiquus</i>), hyena, a large bear, +lion, (probably <i>F. spelæa</i>), and large numbers of bones<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes had +once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was +still cemented to the roof.</p> + +<p>The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physical +condition of the country was different from what it is at +present. The bone breccia cemented to the roof, and coated +with stalagmite, testifies that the cave, at some time since the +formation of the breccia, has been washed out. The exact +time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given, but, in +all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear, +if not before.</p> + +<p>The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen +human skeletons were found, was carefully examined by +Lartet eight years after its discovery. The recess was formed +in nummulitic limestone. In front of the grotto, and next to +the limestone (<i>c</i>, Fig. 12) was a layer of ashes and charcoal, +eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works of art, and +broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent +mammalia. Immediately above this layer (<i>d</i>) was another, of +made ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto; and +its contents similar to the other, save that within the grotto +were found a few human bones. The grotto was closed by a +slab, and the made earth without was covered by a talus of +rubbish (<i>e</i>), washed down from the hill above.</p> + +<p>In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint +instruments, consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones, +chips, and a stone made for the purpose of modelling the +flints. The bone implements were barbless arrows, a well-shaped +and sharply pointed bodkin made of the horn of the +roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides +these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates, +of a white shelly substance, made of some species of cockle +(<i>cardium</i>), pierced through the middle; also the tusk of a +young cave-bear, the crown of which had been carved in imitation +of the head of a bird.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the different species found in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +layers, together with the approximate number of individuals +belonging to each:</p> + +<p class="center">I.—CARNIVORA.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><th align='left'></th><th align='right'>Number of Individuals.</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1. Cave Bear (<i>U. Spelæus</i>)</td><td align='right'>5-6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Brown Bear (<i>U. arctos</i>) </td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Badger (<i>Meles taxus</i>) </td><td align='right'> 1-2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Polecat (<i>Putorius vulgaris</i>) </td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. Cave Lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>) </td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Wild Cat (<i>Felis Catus ferus</i>) </td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. Hyena (<i>H. spelæa</i>) </td><td align='right'> 5-6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. Wolf (<i>Canis lupus</i>) </td><td align='right'> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. Fox (<i>C. vulpes</i>) </td><td align='right'> 18-20</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p class="center">II.—HERBIVORA.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="70%"> +<tr><td align='left'>1. Mammoth (<i>E. primigenius</i>)</td><td align='right'> Two molars and an astragalus.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>2. Rhinoceros (<i>R. tichorrhinus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3. Horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 12-15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4. Ass (<i>E. asinus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5. Boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>)</td><td align='right'> Two incisors.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6. Stag (<i>Cervus elephas</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>7. Gigantic Irish Deer (<i>Megaceros Hibernicus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8. Roebuck (<i>C. capreolus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 3-4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>9. Reindeer (<i>C. tarandus</i>)</td><td align='right'> 10-12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10. Aurochs (<i>Bison Europæus</i>) </td><td align='right'> 12-15</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be +split open, as if for the extraction of the marrow, and many +of them burned. The spongy parts were wanting, having +been gnawed off by the hyenas.</p> + +<p>M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a +place of sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the +remnants of the funeral feasts. This he argued from the +fact that the bones within the grotto were not split, broken +or gnawed, save the astragalus of the mammoth. This meat +was placed in the grotto, probably as an offering to the dead. +The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men +were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled +about the spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +flesh that remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred +their entrance, and consequently the bones and human +remains within were left untouched.</p> + +<p>The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to +different conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a +difference in the color of the walls of the cave, indicating that +the lower deposit was of a yellow color, and the next above +of a much lighter tint. In the crevices of the lower he +found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the reindeer, and +some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher deposit +occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and +a fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac +inferred that the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded +with that outside of it, and the layer containing human bones +was formed at a subsequent time.</p> + +<p>That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early +period is proven from the numerous remains of the cave-bear. +This animal was one of the first of those great post-tertiary +mammalia to become extinct. The exact position of +the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were +intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as +the other layers, it would indicate that the climate was not +very warm during the deposit of the layers, but to have been +similar to that of Switzerland of the present day. The +probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur in the lowest +layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical +climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were +consigned to the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial, +or beginning of the reindeer epoch.</p> + +<p>The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff, +must be assigned to this period, since there have been found, +in similar blocks of tuff in the same region, the remains of +the cave-hyena and hippopotamus major. This fossil man +consists of a frontal part of the skull, the upper jaw, with +teeth, belonging to both an adult and young individual; a +radius, some lumbar vertebræ, and some metatarsal bones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate +into the more compact rock.</p> + +<p>In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of +the Schusse, there were discovered more than six hundred +split flints, with a quantity of partly worked antlers and bones +of the reindeer. The bones were so numerous that Mr. Oscar +Fraas was enabled to put together a complete skeleton of the +reindeer which is now preserved in the museum of Stuttgart. +Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of extracting +the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and +a fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were +also the bones of other animals, such as the glutton, arctic +fox, and other animals now living in high northern latitudes.</p> + +<p>Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the +careful investigations of the geognostic conditions of the +place, but also the flora of the time (for remains of mosses +were found which now live only in the extreme north), leave +no doubt that the reindeer station on the Schusse belongs to +the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs exactly to the +interval between the two glacial epochs which in all probability +Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared +this deposit to be <i>the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier</i>, +which was formerly very large. Moreover, according to him, +this discovery is particularly remarkable, because it is the +first example of a station of the reindeer-men in a free and +open deposit, their remains having hitherto been found only +in caves."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<p>From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of +bones of the reindeer, and some show of advancement in the +arts, it may be safe to conclude that this station belongs to +the close of the inter-glacial.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL.</h3> + + +<p>The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of +time, covering many thousands of years.</p> + +<p>Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may +be expected in his condition. His mode of life, and continued +conflicts with the fierce wild beasts, would tax his +every device. Necessity compelled him to be inventive. +The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not +grapple with the higher problems of existence. United +efforts and fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those +old axes of flint were great objects to his mind, and one step +beyond them was a great stride in progress. That they +developed but little cannot be wondered at, not only from +their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the +era of history there are nations whose civilization has become +fixed and stereotyped for ages; others, who, instead of advancing, +have been retrograding.</p> + +<p>The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted +beneficially throughout this period. The rude axes and +flints were retained, but improvements were made in utilizing +the bones and horns of animals. Out of these, bodkins, +fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of wild +animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells, +were used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling-places, +being destitute of water, this necessary of life was +supplied and carried thither in rude vessels made of clay and +dried in the sun. The arrows, flint knives, and axes were +used for killing and skinning the animals, splitting the bones +containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements, felling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for +clothing, after having been softened by beating. He commenced +the art of engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of +the great cave-bear wrought on a curious stone found in the +cave of Massat (Ariége), the bird's head formed from the bone +of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples. The lower +jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of +hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves of Lherm +and in Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them +cooked his food. That he paid honors to the dead, and sheltered +them from the ravages of beasts of prey, at present, +must remain an open question. If he did, it might seem to +imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is considered +that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be +inferred that this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an +evil genius. Or it may be a faint idea of a ghost state and +that these feasts were made to dissuade the ghost from +molesting him. That they had a conception of a Supreme +Ruler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man, +would be too preposterous to believe.</p> + +<p>Professor Denton has given a description of primeval +time which, by a little change, would represent inter-glacial +times: "The seasons are fairly established; and spring +follows winter, and fall summer, as now; though the summer +is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in +those countries at the present time, and the winters colder. +The country is covered with dense forests, through which +ramble mighty elephants in herds, with immense curved +tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and flowing manes.... +Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his rocky den—as +large as a horse: fierce, shaggy, conscious of his strength, +he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies +the cave-tiger (<i>Felis spelæa</i>); and, as the wild cattle come +down to drink, he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible +combat ensues. It is as large as an elephant, and its horns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +of enormous size; and even cave-tigers could not always +master such cattle as they.</p> + +<p>"Are these the highest forms of life that the country +contains? What being is that sitting on yon fallen tree? +His long arms are in front of his hairy body, and his +hands between his knees; while his long legs are dangling +down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's; his +beard short, and like the hair of his body; the unkempt hair +of his head is bushy and thick; his eyebrows are short and +crisp; and with his sloping forehead and brutal countenance, +he seems like the caricature of a man, rather than an +actual human being.</p> + +<p>"Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may behold +a group—one old man ... and women and children, +lounging and lying upon the ground. How dirty! What +forbidding countenances!—more like furies than women. +One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from +a neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing +the trees, and passing from branch to branch, as they gather +the wild fruit that abounds on every side. Some are catching +fish in the shallows of the river, and yell with triumph as +they hold their captives by the gills, dragging them to the +shore."<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p>They have improved their language, and instead of the +rude signs and undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may +now be heard short, but occasional sentences, which were the +forerunners of the polished tongues of modern Europe.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>REINDEER EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced. +The gigantic animals of the past age have either disappeared +or are fast becoming extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion, +cave-hyena, mammoth, and woolly-haired rhinoceros have +almost become extinct. They have given way to a less fierce +and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is +announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are +overrunning the forests of Western Europe, and extending as +far south as the Pyrenees. In the forests there now existed +the horse, bison, wild bull (<i>Bos primigenius</i>), musk-ox, elk, +deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat, lemming, and many +others. These animals were capable of withstanding and +flourishing in a rigorous climate. When the glaciers were +again broken up and the climate became warmer, the reindeer, +musk-ox, elk, chamois, wild-goat, hamster-rat, and +lemming retired to the high northern latitudes in close proximity +to the snow, or else to the lofty summits of great +mountain-chains.</p> + +<p>The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and +that it immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous. +The vast number of the reindeer bones and horns attest to a +distinct epoch, and by the remains of arctic animals, as well as +the traces of glaciers, the climate must have been unlike that +of the present time. The remains of the mammoth, cave-bear, +and cave-lion, would not only connect this period with +the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers continued +to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer epoch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss lake-villages, +or Danish shell mounds, may be shown by the weapons +or implements which point to a more primitive people, +the absence of the remains of the dog, and, also, by the +absence of the remains of the reindeer in the shell-mounds.</p> + +<p>There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be +told how long this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length +of time to permit the reindeer to increase greatly its species.</p> + +<p><i>Evidences of the Existence of Man.</i>—M. Christy and M. +Lartet examined in conjunction the caves of Central and +Southern France. Those which have been most carefully +examined are ten in number, and belong to the Department +of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a +settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the +principal ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute, +and Laugerie-Basse.</p> + +<p>At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone +needle used for sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer +horn and still fixed in a bone, a flint whistle made from the +first joint of the foot of the reindeer, and two slabs of schist, +on both of which were scratched animal forms, but deficient +in any special characteristic.</p> + +<p>At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and +very thick, which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking +vessel, as one side of it had been subjected to fire; an +engraving of a reindeer on the horn of that animal; on +another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on either +side; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn; on +another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human +figure, and two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into +five pieces, had an outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13). +This was so accurately drawn that the small eye, curved +tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane, could readily be +distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head, the +figure of a tadpole.</p> + +<p>There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>-Basse, +where weapons and utensils were manufactured; and +they are noted for the abundance of instruments made of +reindeer horn. Among the works of art found at the latter +station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle, spoon made in +the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in the +middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the +horn of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is +carved a mammoth's head; there is a representation of the +hind-quarters of some herbivorous animal, sketched out with +a bold and practiced touch; an animal's head, with ears laid +back, and of considerable length, is carved on a round shaft +of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for what purpose +this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed, +and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the +harpoon of some chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in outline, +a reindeer fight. On a fragment of a spear-head there is +a series of human hands, provided with four fingers only, +and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of fish are +principally on wands of authority—on one of which is a series +following one another.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="1024" height="563" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of Ivory +from La Madeleine.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The cave and <i>rock shelters</i> of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne) +have been carefully examined by competent explorers. These +relics are so numerous that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of +the cavern, sold to the agent of the British Museum fifteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +hundred specimens, of every description, which had been +found on his property. In the cave there were found, +engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and +the head of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone, +on which were representations of the above-mentioned +animals. The engravings are mostly on the horn of the reindeer. +The cave has also furnished two almost perfect +human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the +Moulin-Quignon.</p> + +<p>The <i>rock-shelters</i> are overhanging rocks, under the projections +of which man found a shelter and built his rude +dwellings of boughs and sticks. In these shelters have been +found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made of splinters of bone, +saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the mammoth +engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the +shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clearness, +on a fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers +made of ivory.</p> + +<p>In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters, +was found a quantity of human bones, including two skulls—one +of an old man, the other that of an adult.</p> + +<p>The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the +largest collection of implements of bone and horn ever discovered. +The stones and reindeer horns are carved with +great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic taste. There +are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat, bison, +horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and +birds, and also the representations of some plants. In the +lowest layer of the soil the most perfect works occur, and +they grow less as the surface is approached. Several of those +implements called "batons of command" occurred, ornamented +with animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was +carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various +figures—plants, reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made +the subject of a report by M. Piette before the Paris Anthropological +Society.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="1024" height="681" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Fossil Man of Mentone.</span></span> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +The fossil man of Mentone, found in a grotto of Mentone, +a village near Nice, for some time past has produced much +comment among scientists. The skeleton was discovered in +undisturbed earth; at a depth of twenty-one feet. The cause +of the discussion is that the skeleton is accompanied by a +multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of command, +a necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the +reindeer epoch, but surrounded also by the remains of the +cave-bear, cave-hyena, and woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr. +Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that this cave was first +inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or inter-glacial, +and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of burial.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> +The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig. 14). +It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibiæ, or shin-bones, +present a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in +the European of the present time.</p> + +<p>In the same neighborhood there have more recently been +discovered, in different caves, four other human skeletons. +They were all stained with oxide of iron, and two of them +surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth of the stag, constituting +the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With one +skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were discovered +implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear, +bones of other animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks. +The other two skeletons were those of children, and not +accompanied by either implements or ornaments.</p> + +<p>The other bone caves of France, which have afforded +much valuable information, and belonging to this epoch, are: +La Gorge d'Enfer, Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le +Moustier and Badegoule (Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude), +cave of La Vache (Ariége), cave of Savigné (Vienne), grottos +of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphiné, the settlement of +Solutré, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), and the cave +of Espalungue (Basses-Pyrénées)—the last two date back to +the most ancient period of the reindeer epoch.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + +<p>The principal objects found in these caves, and the rock-shelters +are worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, +cutters, hammers, and mortar-stones. These works, though +unpolished, are but little ruder than those of the Esquimaux +or the North American Indian.</p> + +<p><i>Belgian Caverns.</i>—Under the auspices of the Belgian +government M. Edward Dupont examined more than twenty +caves on the banks of the Lesse, in the province of Namur. +Among these were four, in which occurred numerous traces +of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou Rosette, +Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux.</p> + +<p>The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and +similar to the cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was +closed by a slab of sandstone, and within were the remains of +fourteen human beings belonging to persons of various ages, +and some of them to infants scarcely a year old. In front of +the cave was an esplanade, where were celebrated the funeral +feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone, traces of fire, +flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human bones +were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of +the reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds +of implements. Among the remains were two perfect human +skulls, in a good state of preservation. The bones were discovered +in a state of great confusion, which M. Dupont +thinks was caused by the disturbance of water. Sir John +Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to foxes +and badgers.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p>Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which +the bones of three persons were found, mingled with those of +the reindeer and beaver. It also contained fragments of a +blackish kind of pottery, which were hollowed out in rough +grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion that the +three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the +time of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse.</p> + +<p>In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>four +feet above the Lesse, were found a great many bones of +the reindeer, wild bull, and many other species. In the cave, +indiscriminately mixed up with these bones, were one hundred +and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones of the goat, +polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a +goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="768" height="863" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz, Belgium.</span></span> +</div> + + +<p>The cave of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish +caused by the falling in of the roof, consequently preserving +all its implements. There were found the split bones of +mammals and the bones of birds and fishes. There was an +immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured from reindeer +horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks. +Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of +slate with engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of +very coarse pottery, hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last +but not least, thirty thousand worked flints mingled with the +broken bones. In the hearth, placed in the centre of the +cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but unintelligible +signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty +pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorched or +roasted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> + +<p>In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen +of rough pottery (Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones. +It was partly broken; by the care of M. Hauzeur it has been +put together again.</p> + +<p>France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of +the reindeer epoch, for settlements of this epoch have been +discovered in Germany, Switzerland, and Poland.</p> + +<p>In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, +have been discovered a few remains of the mammoth, +rhinoceros, and cave-lion; the remains of two hundred and +fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty Alpine hares; also +the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch, glutton, +wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably +appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking +them were found in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of +the swan, grouse, and duck predominate. The implements +consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and arrow-heads made of +the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving and +carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The +most notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer +in the act of browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that +animal.</p> + +<p>Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently +discovered and examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper +part of the floor (four feet in depth), consisting of vegetable +earth, mould, and <i>débris</i>, occurred ashes, flint implements, +and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer, horse, elk, and +other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken bones +of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated +teeth of the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two +thousand flint implements were obtained; and from the +frequent occurrence of flint the cave was used by the troglodytes, +or cave-men, as a dwelling; and by the remains of the +fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial, +and at the beginning of the reindeer epoch.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age +than those already enumerated, presents man under a more +favorable aspect, and affords a better view of his traits of +character and manner of living. Not only the sturdy climate +spurs him to action, but a higher type is supplanting +the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed, +has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought +with him the art of making more perfect implements. This +new type was of short stature, having small hands and feet. +If Asia be the home of man, then from that country, +advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were +destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts, +and conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are +found in the Lapps and Fins. Between the two existing +races—dolichocephalic and brachycephalic—there may have +been a long and bitter strife. The former was large, stout, +fearless, and cruel; the latter, small, hardy, and more intelligent. +It was a conflict between brute force and intelligence. +The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully +against the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It +could not have been a war of extermination, for finally an +intermixture took place, producing a medium, as may be +judged from the exhumed skulls.</p> + +<p><i>Dwellings.</i>—As in the past ages, man continued to dwell, +for the most part, in caves. If the cave was small, he occupied +every portion; but if large, only that part near the +opening was used. In the centre of this dwelling he made a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with the fire +placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body. +This mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured +out, and under the projection of an overhanging rock he built +him a booth, or rude hut, out of boughs, and the poles of +fallen timber. These dwellings, whether in caves or under +the rocks, were near some stream.</p> + +<p><i>Clothing.</i>—The climate being cold, he probably ceased to +use the inner bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins +of animals. The skins were prepared by the flint scrapers, +and then rendered supple by rubbing into them the brains +and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long bones of +the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically +shaped, for they understood the art of sewing. With the +bodkin they pierced the skin, and with the needle, end was +held to end and side to side, and the same made permanent +by the sinew of some animal.</p> + +<p><i>Food.</i>—These people were essentially hunters, and lived +principally upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their +spears and arrows. The horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the +chamois, formed a considerable part of their food. The meat +was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and the long +bones were split open in order to extract the brains and +marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also +added fish and, occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath-cock, +swan, and owl. The chase did not always afford them +sufficient food, and at times they were forced to subsist on +the water-rat.</p> + +<p>Enough evidence has been produced to show that these +people were cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered +among the remains of cooking at Solutré in Mâconnais. M. +Issel found, at a point on the road from Genoa to Nice, some +human bones which had been calcined, and were of a whitish +color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their surface +still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them +showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +the grottos of Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found +the small shin-bone of a child, which had been carefully +emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen thinks he can recognize +the trace of human teeth on some human skulls and +children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed +with sculptured flints and the remains of pottery.</p> + +<p><i>The Arts.</i>—Man had not yet discovered the value of +metal, but formed his instruments out of flint, bone, and the +horn of the reindeer. The hatchet was but little used, and +the principal weapons were the flint-knife, arrow-heads, and +occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the cave-bear, with its +pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use were +rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and +other wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting +his person and pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads, +and the whistle for delighting his ear. The art of engraving +was practised to a great extent, and so admirably did he +execute his designs that, after the lapse of thousands of years, +the figures are easily recognized.</p> + +<p>The staff of authority would imply that there were +certain individuals who were recognized as chiefs or leaders. +Some system must have prevailed, for without it the manufactories +at Laugeriè-Basse and Laugerie-Haute could not +have been carried on. In the first of these workshops the +fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the second +reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements.</p> + +<p><i>Traffic.</i>—Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Belgium +sought their flints in that part of France now called +Champagne. From the same locality they also brought back +fossil shells, which were strung together and used for necklaces. +There can be no doubt of this, as already fifty-four of +these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they are not +found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne.</p> + +<p><i>Burial.</i>—As in the previous epoch, the dead were consigned +to the same kind of caves as were used for habitations, +and the entombment was celebrated by the funeral-feast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +These banquets afford no evidence of worship. Some have +thought they not only saw signs of worship in the banquets, +but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found. +That they should have no notion of a future state is not +surprising, for Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are +tribes at the present time without this belief.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<p>M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister +of the Interior, on the excavations carried on in the caves, has +concisely but eloquently given a synopsis of man of the +reindeer epoch, in the following language:</p> + +<p>"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together +with those which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, +present us with a striking picture of the primitive ages of +mankind in Belgium. These ancient tribes, and all their +customs, after having been buried in oblivion for thousands +and thousands of years, are again vividly brought before our +eyes; and, ... antiquity lives again in the relics of its +former existence.</p> + +<p>"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark +and subterranean retreats, crouching round their hearths, +and skilfully and patiently chipping out their flint instruments +and shaping their reindeer-horn tools, in the midst of all +the pestilential emanations arising from the various animal remains +which their carelessness has allowed to remain in their +dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, +and, by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. +In our mind's eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, +and hunting wild animals—their only weapons being darts +and spears, the fatal points of which are formed of nothing +but a splinter of flint. Again, we are present at their feasts, +in which, during the period when their hunting has been +fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more +noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole +resource in the time of famine.</p> + +<p>"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +the region now called France, and procuring the jet and fossil +shells with which they love to adorn themselves, and the flint +which is to them so precious a material. On one side they +are picking up the fluor spar, the color of which is pleasing +to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the great +slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones +round their fire.</p> + +<p>"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive." The roof of their +principal cave falls in, burying their weapons and utensils, +and forcing them "to fly and take up their abode in another +spot. The ravages of death break in upon them.... +They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre; some +weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of +the funeral furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of +wild beasts. Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated +close by the abode of the dead; a fire is lighted, great animals +are cut up, and portions of their smoking flesh are +distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must +then have taken place! ceremonies like those told us of the +savages of the Indian and African solitudes. Imagination +may easily depict the songs, the dances, and the invocations, +but science is powerless to call them into life....</p> + +<p>"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. +Torrents of water break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, +driven from their abodes, in vain take refuge on +the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes them, +and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, +at Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3>NEOLITHIC EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is characterized +by stone implements, polished or made smooth by a +process of grinding and cutting, the greater development +attained in the art of pottery, and by the presence of the +bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in which no +remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the reindeer +epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries +made in the so called <i>alluvial</i> soil, the most ancient remains +of the so called Celts, the shell-heaps of Denmark, the +tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the earlier Swiss +pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the caves +of France.</p> + +<p><i>Caverns.</i>—The caves belonging to this period, and explored +by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the +Pyrenees and the caves of Pradiérs, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, +Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these caverns have been used +in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of extinct mammals. +The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to +this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag, +sheep, goat, antelope, chamois, wild boar, wolf, dog, fox, +badger, hare, and horse, intermingled with the remains of +hearths, also piercers, spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of +bone; hatchets, knives, scrapers made of flints, and various +other substances, such as silicious schist, quartzite, leptinite, +and serpentine stone. These implements were carefully +wrought, and mostly polished.</p> + +<p>The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +different times by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a +place of sepulture. It was first examined about twenty-five +years ago, and at that time five human skulls, in a good state +of preservation, were found, but have been lost, as their importance +was not then known. Intermingled with these +bones were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved +bones, remains of rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells +of shell-fish, but no remains of funeral banquets. At the +mouth of the cave were two large flag-stones lying across one +another. The most recent discoveries in the cave have +furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a +habitation, to the last of the neolithic.</p> + +<p><i>Danish Kjökken-Möddings, or Shell-Mounds, or kitchen-refuse +heaps.</i>—The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully +examined by Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchammer, +a geologist, and Worsaae, the archæologist, commissioned +by the Danish government, their reports being +presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen.</p> + +<p>They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark, +and consist of the shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster, +cockle, mussel, and periwinkle. These deposits are from +three to ten feet in thickness, from one hundred to two +hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as much as +one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons +and other instruments of stone, horn, and bone; fragments +of rough pottery, stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abundance, +accompanied with charcoal and ashes; no traces of +coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic animals, except the dog. +The bones of animals are very numerous, but no human +bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup +estimates that ninety-seven per cent. of the bones belong to +the stag, the roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains +are those of the urus (<i>Bos primigenius</i>), dog, fox, wolf, marten, +wild-cat, hedgehog, bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>), and the mouse, +and the bones of birds and fishes. The auroch, musk ox, +domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are absent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which +are never obtained by the representatives of the same species +now living on the Baltic. They are not more than one-half +or even one-third the size. At the time of the formation of +these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or an arm of the +ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the +Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely +brackish, and the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except +at its entrance into the ocean.</p> + +<p>These deposits have been found several miles inland, +which would indicate that the sea had once covered the +intervening space. On the western coast they have not been +found, in consequence of their having possibly been swept +away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also found +on the adjacent islands.</p> + +<p>These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark; for +they are found in England, Scotland, France, and America.</p> + +<p><i>Danish Peat Bogs.</i>—The peat bogs of Denmark, so faithfully +investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods +of deposition. The most ancient is called the <i>Scotch-Fir</i>; +the second, immediately above, the <i>Oak</i>, and the uppermost, +the <i>Beech</i>. The peat is from ten to forty feet in thickness, +and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet thick would +require, according to Steenstrup, <i>at least</i> four thousand years, +and perhaps even from three to four times that period.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> +These three epochs denote three periods of time. The lowest +belongs to the neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and +the last to the iron epoch. In the lowest, or <i>Fir</i> period, +have been found worked flints and bones. Human bones +have been found, which correspond with the bones taken +from the tumuli of this epoch.</p> + +<p><i>The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland.</i>—Dr. Ferdinand +Keller and his associates have made known to the world the +wonderful remains of villages situated in the lakes of Switzerland +and other countries. The villages of Switzerland do not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +all belong to the same period, and they represent the neolithic, +bronze, and iron epochs; but there was no hard line +of demarcation between these three periods. These habitations +are so numerous that more than two hundred settlements +hare been discovered in Switzerland alone. Among +the lakes furnishing these remains may be counted the Lake +of Neuchâtel (forty-six settlements); Lake Constance (thirty-two +settlements); Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements); +Lake of Bienne (twenty-one settlements); Lake of Morat +(sixteen settlements); Lake of Zurich (three settlements); +Lake of Pfæffikon (six settlements); Lake of Sempach (six +settlements); Lake of Moosseedorf (two settlements); Lake +of Inkwyl (one settlement); Lake of Nussbaumen (one settlement); +Lake Greiffensee (one settlement); Lake of Zug +(six settlements); Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and +others.</p> + +<p>The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Constance +thirty, Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements; one +each at Morat, Bienne, Zurick, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, +Nussbaumen, the settlement of Concise, the bridge +Thiéle, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others.</p> + +<p>These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of +various kinds of wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and +driven into the mud at the shallow bottom of the lake. In +some of the settlements the piles were fastened by heaping +stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed +together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level +and then the platform beams were fastened upon them. +This basis served for the foundation of the rude rectangular +huts they erected. These piles are not now seen above the +water, yet they are visible above the bottom of the lake. +The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high +as one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than +seventy thousand square yards. It has been estimated that +the population of the Lake-villages during the neolithic was +over thirty thousand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> + +<p>The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabitants +from wild animals, the attacks of enemies, and for the +ready obtaining of food by fishing. They were not only +occupied by the inhabitants, but also by their herds and the +stores of fodder.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p><i>Robenhausen.</i>—It is not necessary to go into an account +of a number of these settlements to represent the neolithic +epoch, for the settlement at Robenhausen (Lake Pfæffikon) +takes the first rank in giving the domestic arrangements of +the ancient inhabitants. This settlement covered a space of +nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles were used +in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quadrangle. +It was about two thousand paces from the ancient +western shore of the lake, and about three thousand from the +shore in the opposite direction. With the last-named side +there was a communication by means of a bridge, the piles of +which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and +pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate, +as their habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they +rallied and rebuilt their huts. They remained a long time as +would seem from the depth of the peat and the vast amount +of relics found.</p> + +<p>At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most +ancient relics; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the +first conflagration—charcoal, stone and bone implements, +pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at seven and one-half +feet, flooring, relics of the second settlement, and +excrement of cows, sheep, and goats; at six and one half +feet, remains of second conflagration—charcoal, stone and +bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc.; at +three and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of +the third settlement; at two and one half feet, stone celts, +pottery, but no traces of fire. Above this was two feet of +peat and one-half foot of mould.</p> + +<p>Without going into detail, the objects found in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +various beds are as follows: Made out of wood, are knives, +ladles, plates, clubs of ash, in which is fixed a socket of stag's +horn containing a stone celt, a boat made of a single trunk, +twelve feet long, two and one-half feet wide, and five inches +deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched at both +ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets, suspension +hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying +vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all +made out of yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel +bush. Out of stag's horn—arrow-heads, daggers, piercing +and scraping tools, implements for knitting and for agriculture. +The implements of stone were polished, and of the +usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in +the shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance. +There were also found spoons, and a perforated cone, supposed +to have been used as a weight for the loom. Several +crucibles or melting pots have been found, which were used +for melting copper. The third building of this village was +on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages.</p> + +<p>The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf +and Wauwyl, all of the neolithic, belong to the brown bear, +badger, marten, pine-marten, polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat, +beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer, wild-boar, marsh-boar; +the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox, goat, sheep, +and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from +all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl.</p> + +<p>Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties +of wheat and barley; fruits and berries—service-tree, dog-rose, +elder, bilberry, and wayfaring tree; the nuts—hazel, +beech, and water-chestnut; the oil-producing plants—opium, +or garden poppy, and dogwood; the fibrous plants—flax; +plants used for dying—weld; forest trees and shrubs—silver +fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak; water and marsh plants—lake +scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraw, +buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh +pennywort.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<p>Besides these there have been found many specimens of +plaited and woven cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of +a linseed cake.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + +<p>In the different settlements the same axes and knives +abound, and are of small size. The arrow-heads and saws +are an improvement on those of the preceding epoch. +Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude earthenware +were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers +are occasionally met with from two to three inches in diameter. +About five hundred implements of stone have been +found at Wauwyl, consisting of axes, small flint arrow-heads, +flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones used as hammers, +whetstones, and sling-stones.</p> + +<p>As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of +the neolithic, but extend beyond, they naturally have a place +in the close of this period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of +this period came suddenly to an "end by the irruption of a +people provided with bronze implements. The lake-dwellings +were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive +inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote +places. This catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of +East Switzerland, which entirely disappeared, and also a +number of those on the shore of the western lakes. Some few +settlements, however—namely, those of the so-called transition +period—are said not to have been destroyed by the new +people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of +bronze implements."<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there +is no sudden leap from one class of civilization to another, +and that the metals came gradually into use. The lake-dwellings +were not burned down by the irruption of a foreign +people; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements of the +Unter-See, no traces of fire have been observed. The fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +that but a very few human skeletons have been found in the +whole settlements, contradicts the supposition of a battle +having taken place between the aborigines and the supposed +conquerors, and of the destruction of the former by the +latter.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<p>Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have +been found in Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, +France, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus +says that the Pæonians lived this way in Lake Prasias +(Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake +Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The +town of Tcherkask in Russia, is constructed over the river +Don, and Venice itself is but a lacustrine city.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> + +<p>Several attempts have been made to estimate the time +which has elapsed since the neolithic period. The estimates +of M. Morlot are based on the discoveries made in a hillock +formed by the river Tinière at its entrance into the lake of +Geneva. This cone contained three distinct layers of vegetable +earth placed at different depths between the deposits of +alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half feet +from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in +it were found relics of the Roman period; the second was +five and one-fourth feet lower, and six inches thick, in which +were fragments of bronze; the third was at a depth of eighteen +feet from the top, and varied in thickness from six to +seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone age. +History proves that the layer containing the Roman relics is +from thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch +the cone has increased three and one-half feet, and if the +increase was the same in previous ages, then the bed containing +the bronze is from twenty-nine hundred to forty-two +hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging to the +stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten +thousand years old.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> + +<p>The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the +discoveries near the bridge of Thièle. About one thousand +two hundred and thirty feet from the present shore is the old +abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year 1100. There is a +document which seems to show that the abbey was built on +the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years +the lake retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet. +The distance of the present shore from the settlement of the +bridge of Thièle is eleven thousand and seventy-two feet, and +consequently the settlement is not less than six thousand +seven hundred and fifty years old.</p> + +<p>M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of +from six to seven thousand years before the Christian era.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3>MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC.</h3> + + +<p>From the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli, +man is represented as having a narrow but round skull, +with a projecting ridge above the eyebrows, showing he was +round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small of stature +though stout, and having a great resemblance to the Laplanders. +In many respects the race was much superior to +that of the preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the +arts, and made great progress in civilization. He had passed +out of the barbarous, and might be called a semi-barbarian.</p> + +<p><i>Habitations.</i>—Man's habitation varied according to the +locality. In the extreme south of France he continued for a +considerable length of time to occupy the caves and rock-shelters; +in Switzerland, the pile-buildings, and in Denmark +he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close together and in +proximity to the shell-heaps.</p> + +<p><i>Clothing.</i>—Clothing also varied according to locality. +Where the wild animals were numerous their skins were +used—there being no incentive to substitute other material. +Coarse material made of fibrous plants had come into use. +The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material, and +completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for +their feet, as these have been found with the usual indications +of usage.</p> + +<p><i>Food.</i>—Where wild animals could be obtained they were +used, and the marrow of the long bones extracted. To this, +fish and birds were added. In Denmark the principal food +was the different species of the edible mollusk. In Switzer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>land +a higher order and greater variety of food was used. +The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied +with bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries. +The meat was not only obtained from the wild animal, but +they provided against the uncertainty of the chase by domesticating +the boar, ox, sheep, and goat. The horse and dog +were domesticated to assist in the chase, but sometimes +served for food, probably during a famine.</p> + +<p>If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest +solely on the human bones discovered at a dolmen near the +village of Hammer, Denmark, which had been subjected to +the action of fire. They were found together with some flint +implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead to the +conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used +along with the roasted stag.</p> + +<p><i>Arts and Manufactures.</i>—The flint hatchets of the refuse-heaps +are generally of an imperfect type; the long knives +indicate a considerable amount of skill; the bodkins, spear-heads, +and scrapers are but little improved. In the latter +part of this epoch, the various kinds of implements, especially +in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree of perfection, +in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was +achieved without the use of metal. They were made into +various shapes, and with the design of pleasing the eye.</p> + +<p>Besides the various types of implements common to the +different countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a +drilled hatchet, which is combined in various ways with the +hammer. A specimen of this type is represented in Fig. 16, +now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced with a +round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge +describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought +into sharp angular edges.</p> + +<p>New inventions were brought into use. Among them was +a comb which, according to shape, might be compared to the +dung-fork of the American stables. Ornaments for the body, +made of various materials were fashioned. Pottery was still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +in a rough state, though gradually improving. The loom was +invented, and various kinds of cloth were manufactured. +Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which again +was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various +places have been found, showing that they were not only used +for fishing but also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were +established, and there the stone implements were made and +polished; one of these shops was at Pressigny.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 744px;"> +<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="744" height="396" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Danish Axe-Hammer, Drilled for Handle.</span></span> +</div> + + + +<p>Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone implements +which occur, when it is considered that in the Museum +of Copenhagen there are about twelve thousand, consisting of +flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and hollow chisels; poniards, +lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and half-moon-shaped +implements. In other collections in Denmark there +are twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stockholm +contains about sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish +Academy owns seven hundred flint-flakes, five hundred and +twelve celts, more than four hundred arrow-heads, fifty spear-heads, +seventy-five scrapers, and numerous other objects of +stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, grain-crushers, +etc.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Some of these implements, however, may +belong to other epochs.</p> + +<p>War must have been carried on to a considerable extent, +as fortified camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Furfooz, +and other places. Their weapons were the axe, the +arrow, the spear, and possibly the knife. These were wrought +with great care.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Man commenced to till the ground in this +age, and thus laid the true foundation of civilization. He +probably was forced to do it. The beasts of the forest were +gradually decreasing. They had nourished him in the +infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to look to the +soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain his +life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been +the sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated +the cereals, made his corn-mill, and stored the grain for +winter use.</p> + +<p><i>Burial.</i>—How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed +of their dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other +places, the dead were buried in dolmens or tumuli. A dolmen +is a monument consisting of several perpendicular stones +covered with a great block or slab. When it is surrounded +by circles of stone it takes the name <i>cromlech</i>. The dolmens +occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They +were formerly considered to have been Druidical sacrificial +altars. They were usually covered over with earth, and in +them were buried from one to twenty persons, accompanied +with their implements. When a person died, the tomb was +reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire +was used for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the +tomb. In Brittany, in the vicinity of the tombs, there +were set up in the ground enormous blocks of stone, that +have received the name of <i>menhirs</i>, the most noted of which +is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state +in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take +the name of <i>tumuli</i>. Comparatively few of the tumuli +belong to the neolithic. In these, large numbers of bodies +have been found, and none of them in a natural position, but +cramped up and their heads resting between the knees.</p> + +<p>Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently +met with at the tomb, it may be inferred that victims were +offered during the funeral ceremonies, perchance a slave, or +the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that when a woman died<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +in giving birth to a child, or even while still suckling it, the +child was interred alive with her.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> + +<p>This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of +cases in which the skeleton of a woman and child have been +found together. In the ceremonies at the tomb, some read +the belief in a future state of existence. The evidence, however, +is no clearer than that in the previous epochs. Man +undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not reveal it.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3>BRONZE EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the antiquity +of man, for it is largely embraced in written history. +Although history does not record the events of the age of +bronze in Western Europe, yet history covers the time which +embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to do +with the archæologist than the geologist. It is marked by the +abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives, +ornaments, and other articles made of bronze. The bronze +implements are principally found in England, Scotland, +Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and Switzerland. +The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to +this epoch are: Geneva, ten settlements; Neuchatel, twenty-five +settlements; Bienne, ten settlements; Morat, three settlements; +and Sempach, two settlements. To these may be +added some of the crannoges of Ireland; also many tumuli +and mounds.</p> + +<p><i>Type.</i>—The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the +preceding. His head was rather broad than long, he was +small, energetic, and muscular; his hands were small, as is +proven by the remarkably small handles of their swords, +which are too small for a hand of the present day. This +type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzerland +to the present time.</p> + +<p><i>Habitations and Food.</i>—The caves and rock-shelters gave +way entirely to the rude huts which now protected man. If +they were resorted to, it was only from some peculiar cause or +danger. The food was the same as in the neolithic, with +additions to the cereals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Clothing.</i>—The skins of animals were used less than +formerly for clothing. Garments made of other material +have been found, and even the whole dress of a chief. In a +tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick woollen cap, a +coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form, scalloped +out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet +four inches long, and wide in proportion; two woollen shawls, +a woollen shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of +leather boots. Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort +of man, and were possibly used for summer wear, and under +garments in winter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="768" height="791" alt="Fig. 17." title="Fig. 17." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, Found in 1861, in +a Tumulus in Jutland.</span></span> +</div> + + + +<p><i>Implements.</i>—The people of this age made great improvements +in their weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist +of bronze celts, swords, hammers, knives, hair-pins, small +rings, ear-rings, bracelets, fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads, +arrow-heads, buttons, needles, various ornaments, +saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed pins. There were +also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged celt, +has been found, which bore an inscription.</p> + +<p><i>Arts.</i>—Progress was made in the art of weaving. Solder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>ing +and the moulding of metal were practised; foundries +were established, the remains of which have been discovered +at Devaine and Walflinger in Switzerland; stone moulds +were used, one of which, on trial, produced a hatchet exactly +similar to those which have been collected. The moulds +were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the +melting of the metal was made out of pottery which was +placed over a hole in the earth filled with burning charcoal; +when the metal was melted, it was poured into the mould. +Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various +patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Phœnician +origin, was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads, +of a blue or green color, have been found in the tombs of this +epoch.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. +The ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem +of the tree, used as a plough. The grain was stored for +winter use, and when required was crushed by being rubbed +between two stones serving as a mortar.</p> + +<p><i>Fishing and Navigation.</i>—There are no distinct traces of +improvement beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation, +unless it be in the improved hooks made of bronze.</p> + +<p><i>Burial.</i>—The custom of burning the dead was almost +universal in Denmark, and was more or less practised in +other countries. The ashes and fragments of the bone were +collected and placed either in or under an urn. When +buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted position, +but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their +implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered +in a tumulus in Jutland, where the clothing was found, +was buried in a coffin nine and two-third feet long, over two +feet in breadth, and covered by a movable lid. The body +was in a good state of preservation, owing to the action on it +of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in +the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. +Buried with it were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +caps, two small boxes, a bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword +in a wooden sheath, and a long woollen band. In other +coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches, awls, tweezers, +and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found +an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet.</p> + +<p><i>Religious Belief.</i>—Many crescents, made of stone and +earthenware, have been found which are regarded, by some +archæologists, as religious emblems. Dr. Keller calls them +"moon images," and has devoted a short chapter to their +consideration.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl Vogt +regard them as resting-places for the head at night.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> They +carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed +comfort for vanity. They carried a long pin with which to +scratch the head. This kind of a pillow is still used by the +Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have their hair elaborately +decorated; and in some cases this is never disturbed. If the +people were worshippers the crescent is the only evidence +from archæology. No idols have ever been discovered. That +the people were already worshippers may be learned from the +traditions recorded in history.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3>IRON EPOCH.</h3> + + +<p>As the <i>Iron Epoch</i> fairly establishes civilization, and +belongs almost wholly to the historical epoch, it will be +here briefly noticed, and then dismissed after giving a quotation +from Dr. Keller. The bronze had not only prepared the +way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great impulse to +succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new +importance and gave new life to every movement that tended +to the assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to +those of iron. A knife made of iron is represented in Fig. +18. Knives of this pattern were, however, made of bronze, +and served for the same purpose. The workshops of this age +were so numerous that four hundred of them have been discovered +in one province. The potter's wheel was invented; +money was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="1024" height="273" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">A Knife of the Iron Epoch.</span></span> +</div> + + +<p>Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne +belong to this epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his +observations, has made use of the following language: "The +phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so important in the history +of civilization, the time of their first establishment, their +original design, their development, and their final extinction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects +clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning +of this peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its +existence, while outward circumstances remained the same, a +quiet advance to a better development of the conditions of life +may be observed, in which there was neither retrogression +nor any sudden advance by the intervention of foreign +elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country +which had none, is explained simply by the barter which +existed throughout Europe in the very earliest ages. The +question why the inhabitants of a lake-dwelling of the stone +age abandoned their settlements, while those of another, not +many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained quietly +living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than +the inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities +have disappeared, the names and situations of which are +known to us. The presence of objects of industry on the +area of the lake-dwellings has nothing in it very surprising, if +we consider what misfortunes villages of straw-covered huts +were exposed to, in which not only the houses themselves, +but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of +very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take +Cæsar's account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose +arrival in the country is neither mentioned in history nor +shown by archæology, withdrew, the lake-dwellings then +existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there can also be +no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after +the return of the population. Their continuing down to the +Roman time is only astonishing to any one who imagines that +at this time the whole population had gone over to the +Roman manner of life, while the proof lies before him that +the lower class adhered to their own manners and customs +till the entrance of the German races."<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h3>TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.</h3> + + +<p>America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than +the old world. Her ancient remains are not so much injured +by the decay of empires and the rude hand of war. Succeeding +ages have not so much effaced these marks, and many of +the remains still stand as left by the original occupants, save +only the change and decay which time itself produces. +America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are +known; but these have not been investigated so diligently as +the remains of man in Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and +the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come. Until they do, the +history of primitive man in America must be surrounded +with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the +investigation of this subject, and many works written, all +looking toward an early development which must sooner or +later come.</p> + +<p>In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of +these traces.</p> + +<p><i>Enumeration.</i>—The implements from the gravel beds of +Colorado and the skull from Calaveras county, California, +have already been referred to (pp. 61, 62).</p> + +<p>Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human +skull imbedded in a solid rock, which was broken open by +blasting. It was examined by Dr. Weirley, who compared +it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the latter in +general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of +this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and +was imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +and found several feet beneath the surface. Parts of the +frontal, parietal, and occipital bones were carried away by +the explosion. The piece of rock holding the remains weighs +some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of marine +shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the +cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a +microscope presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the +Neanderthal man comes nearest to it.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> + +<p>In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five +hundred feet, Judge A. W. Baldwin found a human skull of +unusual and peculiar shape. It is very short from base to +summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The skull +is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull +has never been examined by a competent person.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> + +<p>In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two +feet from the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of +a deer, amidst an accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and +with them a rude stone chisel or hatchet.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> + +<p>In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell +leads (Kansas), was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth +of fourteen feet. Above the implement the gravel, composed +of quartz and reddish clay, was ten feet thick, and above this +was four feet of rich black soil. This implement was given +to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi +at Natchez, a human pelvic bone along with the bones of the +mastodon and megalonyx. They were found at a depth of +thirty feet from the surface, and the human bone had the +same black color which characterized the others. Sir +Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand +years to form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the +conclusions arrived at by the United States engineers be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +correct, in respect to the annual amount of sediment discharged +at the delta, the growth would be reduced to thirty-three +thousand five hundred years. Taking either of these +estimates, the same would give the number of years which +have elapsed since these bones were deposited.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of +sixteen feet from the surface, beneath four cypress forests +superimposed one upon the other, the workmen found a +complete human skeleton, and some charcoal. The cranium +is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This +discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler +assigned to the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the +Mississippi, of fifty-seven thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting +of jaws, teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a +calcareous conglomerate forming a part of the series of reefs +of Florida. The whole series of reefs is of post-tertiary +origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been one +hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this +calculation be correct, then these bones must have an +antiquity of ten thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred +caverns in Brazil, belonging to different epochs, and exhumed +in them a great number of unknown animal species. In a +calcareous cave, near the lake of Semidouro, he found the +bones of not less than thirty persons of different ages, and +showing a similar state of decomposition to that of the bones +of animals with which they were associated. From the discoveries +there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that +man was cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the +mylodon—animals belonging to the post-tertiary.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>The shell-heaps of America are coeval with those of +Denmark. Those at Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined +by Professor W. D. Gunning. He estimates that +within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in +width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster +shells. One dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet +in height. The only human relics found among the shells +are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone needles, pottery, and +copper knives. These shells were probably deposited by but +a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster was a +native of that coast, but within the memory of man the +oyster has not lived there.</p> + +<p><i>The Mound-Builders.</i>—An ancient and unknown people +of a certain degree of civilization have left remains of their +greatness in the fortifications and mounds in the valleys of +the Mississippi and its tributaries. These works extend over +a great extent of territory. They are found in Western +New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, +Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, +Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, +Florida, Texas, and along the Kansas, Platte, and other +western rivers.</p> + +<p>The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On +the southern extremity the works gradually lose their distinctive +character, and pass into the higher developed architecture +of Mexico; and at the north, north-east, and north-west, the +population seem to have been more limited and their works +less perfectly developed. The people were preëminently +given to agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated +the rivers along their settlements. The fertile valleys of the +Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha, White, Wabash, Kentucky, +Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely populated, +as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their +surfaces.</p> + +<p>The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their +shape differ but little from those of Europe. The hatchets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +and knives are not only made of flint but also of obsidian, +and other hard stones. Copper was the chief metallic +substance. Out of this they made various implements, and +swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior, +where they carried on extensive mining. In these mines +have been found their implements, some of which are very +large diorite hatchets, used as sledges for breaking off lumps +of copper, and so heavy that it would require more than +one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to +heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was +desired.</p> + +<p>Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses +may be given from the statement that in the State of Ohio +alone there are from eleven thousand to twelve thousand of +these works. The fortresses were used for the protection of +the people against the predatory warfare of the hostile tribes, +or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other +Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been +much speculation, and some archæologists divide them into +sacrificial, sepulchral, temple, and symbolical.</p> + +<p><i>Sacrificial.</i>—The sacrificial mounds are characterized by +"their almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their +regular construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and +sand, disposed alternately in strata conformable to the shape +of the mound; and their covering a symmetrical altar of +burned clay or stone, on which are deposited numerous relics, +in all instances exhibiting traces, more or less abundant, of +their having been exposed to the action of fire."<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Among +the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the +place called Mound City situated on the western bank. +The mounds are enclosed by a simple embankment, between +three and four feet high. The area occupied is about thirteen +acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One of these +is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest +breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four succes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>sive +altars, a bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty +quartz arrow-heads, and copper and other relics. The +sacrificial deposits do not disclose a miscellaneous assemblage +of relics, for on one altar hundreds of sculptured pipes chiefly +occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments, stone implements; +on others, calcined shells, burned bones; and on +others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds +are found at Marietta and other localities.</p> + +<p>All the investigations which have been made prove that +the altars were not only used for a long period, but also had +been repeatedly renewed.</p> + +<p><i>Sepulchral.</i>—The sepulchral mounds are numbered by +the thousands. They are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes +elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary in height from six to +eighty feet. Usually they contain but one skeleton, reduced +almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary condition and +in a crouching position. By the side of them occur trinkets, +and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably +only raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished +person.</p> + +<p><i>Temple.</i>—The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, +with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes +with terraces at different heights. Among the most noted of +these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is seven hundred feet +long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety feet high. +Its level summit is several acres in extent.</p> + +<p><i>Symbolical.</i>—The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic +bas-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground, representing +men, animals, and inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they +exist in thousands, and among the devices are man, the lizard, +turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter, raccoon, frog, bird, fish, +cross, crescent, angle, straight-line, war-club, tobacco-pipe, +and other familiar implements or weapons.</p> + +<p>In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of +six quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one +human figure, and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet long, and the +figure of the man measured one hundred and twenty-five feet +in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from the end +of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when +first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. +One of the latter measured four hundred and seventy feet.</p> + +<p>In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent; +its head occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended +jaws is a part of an oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and +sixty feet long, eighty wide, and four feet high. The body +of the serpent extends round the hill for about eight hundred +feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near Granville, +Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred +feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme +length is two hundred and fifty feet, average height four +feet; the head, shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to +a height of six feet; the paws are forty feet long, the ends +being broader than the links, as if the spread of the toes +were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of the effigy +is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed +to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a +graded way ten feet in breadth. On examination it was +discovered that the outline of the figure was composed of +stones of considerable size, upon which the superstructure had +been modelled in fine clay.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquity.</i>—There are methods of determining the +antiquity of these mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed +out three facts which go to prove that they belong to a +distant period. 1. None of these ancient works occur on the +lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence +of the streams. As these works are raised on all the +others, it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed +since the works were erected. The streams generally form +four terraces, and the period marked by the lowest must be +the longest because the excavating power of such streams +grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +the Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme +decay. Only one or two skeletons have been recovered in a +condition suitable for intelligent examination. The circumstances +attending their burial were unusually favorable for +preserving them. The earth around them has invariably +been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when +exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling +condition. 3. Their great age is shown by their relation to +the primeval forests. As the Mound-Builders were a settled +agricultural people, their enclosures and fields were cleared of +trees, and remained so until deserted. When discovered by +the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic +trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees +which first made their appearance were not the regular forest +trees. When the first trees that got possession of the soil had +died away, they were supplanted, in many cases, by other +kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries, that +remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North America +would be established.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven +thousand to ten thousand years.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> + +<p>Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully +examined by Frank H. Cushing, the archæologist. The fort +was found to be composed of two parallel circular walls, with +a gateway in each. The gateway in the outer wall fronted +a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet distant. +Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used +for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the +depth of seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom +of the shaft he found the shells of living species of shell-fish. +The natural surroundings show that this fort was built when +the peat-bog was a lake. This is further confirmed by the +fact that all ancient works are erected near a permanent +supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is +Oak Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +formation of this peat would require not less than four +thousand years, and more probably twice that number.</p> + +<p>The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long +time. These works were formed gradually, and the population +extended slowly toward the North. Their corn-fields, +by their raised condition, show many successive years of +usage.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note A.</span>—In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida +Count L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones, +found in Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but +in a fresh-water sandstone on the shore of Lake Monroe, associated +with fresh-water shells of species still living in the lake, (<i>Paludina, +Ampullaria, etc.</i>) No date can be assigned to the formation of that +deposit, at least from present observation."—<i>American Naturalist</i>, vol. +II., p. 443.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note B.</span>—Besides the evidences already enumerated, Col. Charles +Whittlesey gives the following: 1. Three skeletons of Indians in a +shelter cave near Elyria, O., were found four feet below the surface, +resting upon the original floor of the cave, upon which were also charcoal, +ashes, and the remains of existing animals; estimated age, two +thousand years. 2. Several human skeletons were found in a cave near +Louisville, Ky., cemented into a breccia. They were discovered in +constructing the reservoir in 1853. 3. A log, worn by the feet of man, +was found in the muck bed at High Rock Spring, Saratoga, N. Y., at +a depth of nine feet beneath the cave, and estimated by Dr. Henry +McGuire to be 5,470 years old. It was discovered in 1866. 4. Mr. +Koch claims to have found an arrow head fifteen feet below the skeleton +of the <i>Mastodon Ohioensis</i> from the recent alluvium of the Pomme +de Terre River, Mo., and now in the British Museum. His statement +was, however, contradicted by one of the men who assisted him in exhuming +the skeleton. 5. Dr. Holmes, of Charleston, S. C., found pottery +at the base of a peat bog, on the banks of the Ashley River, in +close connection with the remains of the Mastodon and Megatherium. +6. Col. Whittlesey, in 1838, found fire-hearths in the ancient alluvium +of the Ohio, at Portsmouth, O., at a depth of twenty feet, and beneath +the works of the Mound-Builders.—<i>Col. Whittlesey before the American +Association, in 1868.</i></p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h3>WRITTEN HISTORY.</h3> + + +<p>It is not generally known that written history extends so +far back as to make worthless the present system of chronology. +The mighty empires of antiquity must have been a +mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far back as history +will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with her +millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crumbling. +Rollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which +hampered him. He says the Assyrian empire was founded +by Nimrod eighteen hundred years after the creation of man, +or two hundred and twenty-four years after the Deluge, or +one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of Noah. +Nimrod was succeeded by his son Ninus, who received powerful +succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests +from Egypt as far as India and Bactriana. Ninus enlarged +his capital to sixty miles in circumference, built the walls +to the height of one hundred feet, and so broad that three +chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and fortified +and adorned them with one thousand five hundred towers +two hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodigious +work he led against the Bactrians one million seven +hundred thousand foot, two hundred thousand horse, besides +four hundred vessels well equipped and provided. After his +death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne. She +enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of +Ethiopia. Then she led her army of three million foot and +five hundred thousand horse, besides the camels and chariots +of war, into India, where she suffered a severe defeat. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +making these statements, Rollin says, "I must own I am +somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised +against the extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis, +as they do not seem to agree with the times so near the +Deluge: I mean, such vast armies, such a numerous cavalry, +so many chariots armed with scythes, and such immense +treasures of gold and silver; ... and the magnificence +of the buildings, ascribed to them."<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> The difficulties presented +to the modern historian never would have occurred if +discredit had not been thrown on the writings of the +ancients.</p> + +<p><i>Egypt.</i>—The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was +that of Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, who lived three +hundred years before Christ. Only fragments of this work +have been preserved. This history is taken from the ancient +Egyptian chronicles, and records a list of thirty dynasties +reigning in one city. His "thirty-one lists contain the +names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to +them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand +four hundred and sixty-five years."<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Dr. Buchner says +Manetho "calculates for three hundred and seventy-five +Pharaohs a reigning period of six thousand one hundred and +seventeen years, which together with the present era, makes +about eight thousand three hundred and thirty years."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> +Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to +about the year 5000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span><a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p>Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their +first king (Menes) to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos), +the priest of Vulcan, was a period of three hundred and forty-one +generations; such, at least, they say, was the number both +of their kings and of their high-priests, during this interval. +Now three hundred generations of men make ten thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +years, three generations filling up the century; and the +remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and +forty years. Thus the whole number of years is eleven +thousand three hundred and forty." The priests "led me +into the inner sanctuary, which is a spacious chamber, and +showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in wood, which +they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number +they had said; the custom being for every high-priest during +his life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they +showed me the figures and reckoned them up, they assured +me that each was the son of the one preceding him; and +this they repeated throughout the whole line, beginning with +the representation of the priest last deceased, and continuing +till they had completed the series."<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> From the time of +Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of +Delphi, was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple +was burned <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> 548. The period which, then, has elapsed +from Sethos to the present (1875) is two thousand five +hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time of +Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand +eight hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation +be reduced to twenty years then the period from Menes +to the present is nine thousand three hundred and sixty-five +years.</p> + +<p>The recent explorations made by Mariette among the +archives of Egypt have confirmed the testimony of Manetho. +The names of the kings, their order of succession, +and the length of their reigns correspond with Manetho's +table. These discoveries not only testify to the great antiquity +of the empire, but also throw light on the nation, +its manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane-bottomed +chairs, work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet +ornaments, earthenware, seeds, eggs, bread, straw baskets, +a child's plaything, paint boxes, with colors and brushes, +etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old. There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived +1700 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear-rings, +and bracelets, which no modern queen would hesitate +to wear.</p> + +<p>These statements are still further confirmed by the testimony +of geology. In the year 1850 borings were commenced +in the mud deposit of the Nile. The most important +results were obtained from an excavation and boring made +near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Rameses at Memphis, +the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361 +<span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the +platform or foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches +below the surface of the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it +was laid, there had been formed between that period and the +year <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 1850, or during the space of three thousand two +hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet four inches +round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and +one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascertained, +by sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in +the same place, that below the level of the old plain the +thickness of old Nile mud resting on desert sand amounted +to thirty-two feet; and it was therefore inferred by Mr. +Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of burned +brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old, +or was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety-six +years before the year 1850."<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Other excavations were +made on a large scale. In the first sixteen or twenty-four feet +there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a small human figure +in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles entire. +When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the +progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost +everywhere, and from all depths, even where they sank sixty +feet below the surface, pieces of burned brick and pottery +were extracted.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span><i>Troy.</i>—Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has +recently been uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has +been thrown over the ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy +given by Homer, thought to have been a mere work of imagination, +are now shown to be accurate, and also that he must +have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of Troy +the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities +superimposed one above the other were discovered. The +third city, below the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of +Priam, the Scæan gate, the massive walls and pavements, still +remained. In the house of Priam Dr. Schlieman found a +great mass of human bones, among them two entire skeletons +wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden +scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight +thousand seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc. +Immediately beside the house of Priam, closely packed in a +quadrangular space, surrounded with ashes, and near by a +copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a copper pot, +a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound, +several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads, +fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a +part of a sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by +weight alone, of all the gold and silver found in or near the +house of Priam, has been estimated at twenty thousand +dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred thousand +articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had +been suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the implements +and the effects of war were visible. Even the brave +warriors who fell while defending the palace of their king +have not yet wholly crumbled into dust.</p> + +<p>The four cities may be thus summed up: The topmost +stratum is six and one-half feet in depth and covers the +Grecian settlement which was established about the year +700 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Beneath the Greek masonry are found the walls +of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city—or the successive +cities—was chiefly built of wood.</p> + +<p>The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty-three +and one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the +surface, and form a stratum averaging ten feet in thickness. +Troy is supposed to have been founded about <span class="smcap">1400 B. C.</span>, +and its fall and destruction by fire to have occurred about +1100 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span></p> + +<p>Under Troy there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying +from thirteen to twenty feet in depth. The most remarkable +feature of these oldest ruins is the superiority of the terracotta +articles. These vases are of a shining black, red, or +brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut into the +pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of +these ruins "is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissitudes +of the city's history—frequent destruction and rebuilding—would +have the same practical effect, or very nearly so, +as a long interval of time. We have anywhere from two to +five thousand years before Christ as the date of the foundation +of the <i>first</i> Troy."<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> + +<p><i>Chaldea.</i>—Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly +three hundred years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular +history of Chaldea, in nine books. The materials for this work +were supplied by the archives then existing in the Temple of +Belus at Babylon. The work was particularly devoted to a history +of the kingdom prior to the beginning of the Assyrian +empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by +Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of +ten fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true +history, and enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings +of Chaldea, who reigned successively from the time when the +list begins to the rise of the Assyrian empire, about the year +1237 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Berosus begins with a dynasty of eighty-six kings, +and gives their names, which are now lost. He had no chro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>nology +of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical calculation. +His list, which has so far escaped the lapse of time and the +change of hands, is thus preserved:</p> + +<p>First, eighty-six Chaldean kings; history and time +mythical.</p> + +<p>Second, eight Median kings; during two hundred and +twenty-four years.</p> + +<p>Third, eleven kings.</p> + +<p>Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings.</p> + +<p>Fifth, nine Arabian kings; during two hundred and +forty-five years.</p> + +<p>The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a +sixth dynasty. The blank spaces in the list are doubtless +the result of careless copying, or caused by imperfections in +the manuscripts. In order to make the old kingdom of +Chaldea begin about the year 2234 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> the first eighty-six +kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the +Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any +show of reason, save that it does not agree with the chronology +which the mutilators of history accept.</p> + +<p>Investigations which have been made among the ruined +cities of Chaldea have given great weight to the authority of +Berosus, and are tending to the confirmation of his history. +In Susiana there was found a Cushite inscription, mentioned +by Rawlinson, in which there is a date that goes back nearly to +the year 3200 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The testimony of the records disentombed +from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the prevalent +hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the +country before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm +Berosus by showing that Chaldea was a cultivated and flourishing +nation, governed by kings, long previous to the time +when the city known to us as Babylon rose to eminence and +became the seat of empire. During that long time there +were several great political epochs in the history of the +country, representing important dynastic changes, and several +transfers of the seat of government from one city to another.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +Such epochs in Chaldean history are indicated by the list of +Berosus."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> + +<p>By this people, the science of astronomy was well understood. +"Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Babylon, +sent to Aristotle from that capital a series of astronomical +observations which he had found preserved there, extending +back to a period of one thousand nine hundred and three +years from Alexander's conquest of the city.... These observations +were recorded in tablets of baked clay.... They +must have extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as +2234 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, and would seem to have been commenced and +carried on for many centuries by the primitive Chaldean +people." A lens of considerable power, used for either magnifying +or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at Babylon, +in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> + +<p><i>China.</i>—Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that +there were long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom +flourished, the chronology of which is not preserved, although +there is recorded some knowledge of the rulers. One of +these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next come +the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion, +and the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great +epoch, and ruled by fifteen successive kings. In the second +epoch, agriculture and medical science were promoted. In +the third, the magnetic needle was discovered, the written +characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great +revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the +descendants of the previous ruler reigned. Next came the +period of Yao and Shin. After this the period of the +"Imperial Dynasties," which began with the Emperor Yu, +who lived two thousand two hundred years B. C. The historical +work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically +from the year 2637 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> to 122 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span><a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> + +<p><i>Mexico.</i>—It is known that books or manuscripts were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +abundant among the ancient Mexicans. There were persons +duly appointed to keep a chronicle of the passing events. Las +Casas, who saw the books, says they gave the origin of the +kingdom as well as the founders of the different cities, and +every different thing which transpired that was worthy of +note: such as the history of kings, their modes of election +and succession; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds, +good or bad; the heroes of other days, their triumphs and +defeats. These chroniclers calculated the days, months, and +years. Nearly all these books were destroyed at the instigation +of the monks, and by the more ignorant and fanatical +Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings +were burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumarraga. +A few of the works, however, escaped, but none of the +great books of annals described by Las Casas.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Thus +Mexico must be left to the archæologist unassisted by written +history.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +<h3>LANGUAGE.</h3> + + +<p>The origin and growth of language evidently afford a +great field for study, in not only tracing the development of +civilization, but also in confirming the testimony of the +ancients and the conclusions of the geologists. If the unity +of language could not be established, there would still be left +a field so great as would not lessen the interest or the importance +of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed. +For the sake of convenience the many varieties of language +have been grouped into three great divisions, <i>i. e.</i>, the Aryan, +the Semitic, and the Turanian. "The English, together +with all the Teutonic languages of the Continent, Celtic, +Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots, such as +French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many +varieties of one common type of speech: that Sanskrit, the +ancient language of the Veda, is no more distinct from the +Greek of Homer, ... or from the Anglo-Saxon of Alfred, +than French is from Italian. All these languages together +form one family, one whole, in which every member shares +certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the +same time distinguished from the rest by certain features +peculiarly its own. The same applies to the Semitic family +which comprises, as its most important members, the Hebrew +of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the Koran, and the +ancient languages on the monuments of Phœnicia and Carthage, +of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again, +form a compact family, and differ entirely from the other +family, which we called Aryan or Indo-European. The third<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +group of languages, for we can hardly call it a family, comprises +most of the remaining languages of Asia, and counts +among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic, +Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages +of Siam, the Malay Islands, Thibet, and Southern India. +Lastly, the Chinese language stands by itself as monosyllabic, +the only remnant of the earliest formation of human speech."<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> + +<p>Anterior to these three families there was still another +from which these were derived. It contained the germs of +all the Turanian, as well as the Aryan and Semitic forms of +speech. It belongs to that period in the history of man +when ideas were first clothed in language, and has been +called the Rhematic Period.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p>As regards the origin of language, three theories have been +proposed: the Interjectional, the Imitation, and the Root. +The first supposes that the beginnings of human speech were +the cries and sounds which are uttered when a human being +is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second supposes "that +man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and dogs, +and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea, +the rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the +whisper of the breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and +finding his mimicking cries useful as signs of the objects +from which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and +elaborated language." The third theory, advanced by Max +Müller, is that language followed as the outward sign and +realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty +of abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be +reduced, express a general, not an individual idea.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>There is more or less truth in all these theories. At +the very earliest period man must have possessed some +method of communicating his wants or ideas. The casual +observer has noticed that animals have methods of communi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>cating +with one another. It is not improbable that at the +very earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and +signs. This may have lasted for a very long time. Then the +mimicking commenced. Next, comparison was resorted to +when he had so far advanced as to describe his thoughts +and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary +or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root +words.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> + +<p>Instead of new languages originating, old languages +change. They are mutable, and from them new dialects are +produced. In the history of man there never has been a +new language, and the languages now spoken are but the +modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people, +however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same +materials as were used in the beginnings of speech. New +words are but old words; old in their material elements, +though they may be renewed and dressed in various forms. +"The modifiability of the language and its tendency to vary +never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and +modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with +the mother country direct or indirect. In this respect its +mutability will resemble that of species, and it can no more +spring up independently in separate districts than species +can, assuming that these last are all of derivative origin."<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>There are from four thousand to six thousand living languages. +The number of unspoken languages is not known. +Their growth has required ages, and during their development +many a parent stalk has ceased to exist. The changes +in a language are slowly produced. It requires centuries to +so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order to +understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be +gained by comparing the writings in the English language of +different periods. In the year 1362 appeared a poem called +"Piers Ploughman's Creed," which begins as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +"In a summer season,<br /> +When soft was the sun,<br /> +I shoop me into shrowds<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a><br /> +As I a sheep<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> were;<br /> +In habit as an hermit<br /> +Unholy of werkes,<br /> +Went wide in this world<br /> +Wonders to hear;<br /> +Ac<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> on a May morwening<br /> +On Malvern hills<br /> +Me befel a ferly,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a><br /> +Of fairy me thought." Etc.<br /> +</p></div> + +<p>Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the +process of either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered +that a language has been derived successively through +numerous others, no special limit or time can be given, +although a very long period would be required. The usually +accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the +diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time +required for the development of the three general classes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +<h3>UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE.</h3> + + +<p>The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a +clash of opinions among men of science. It has been the +great battle field among anthropologists, ethnologists, geologists, +philologists, and theologists. Men of acknowledged +ability have been arrayed on either side. Among the foremost +in favor of a diversity of origin have been Agassiz, Sir +Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and +Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is +most in favor of the unity of the human race.</p> + +<p>The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin +of the human race have advanced many objections against +the unity, and produced arguments in favor of their opinions. +These may be summed up under five heads. 1. The anatomical +differences between the different races, and especially +those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The separation +of the races from each other for unknown ages by great +oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental +barriers. 3. The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in +civilization. 4. A medium type cannot exist by itself, +except on the condition of being supported by the two +creating types. 5. When two types become united, two +phenomena may arise: <i>a</i>, Either one of them will absorb the +other; or <i>b</i>, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst +of a greater or less number of hybrids.</p> + +<p>The following answers may be given to these objections, +or arguments: 1. It is just as reasonable to suppose that +man is affected, as well as the animals, by climate, food, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +peculiar condition. It is well known that animals have +undergone more or less change by their situation or position. +Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain +extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate, +were covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that +the present species of both genera had lost their hairy +covering by exposure to heat. This is confirmed by the fact +that the elephants of the elevated and cool districts of India +are more hairy than those on the lowlands.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> A wonderful +change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys. +In India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of +rising on the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous +appendages over the beak, enormously developed." "In the +English climate an individual Porto Santo rabbit recovered +the proper color of its fur in less than four years."<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> Observers +are convinced that a damp climate affects the growth +of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ +from the lowland breeds; in a mountainous country the +hind limbs would be affected from exercising them more, +which would also affect the pelvis, and, then, from the law +of homologous variation, the front limbs and head would +probably be affected.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> One of the most marked distinctions +in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated or +dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic. +Mr. Darwin has observed that a change takes place in the +skulls of domestic rabbits; they become elongated, while +those of the wild rabbit are rounded. He took two skulls of +nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild and the other +from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15, and +the latter 4.3 inches in length. Welcker has observed "that +short men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to +dolichocephaly; and tall men may be compared with the +larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have elon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>gated +skulls."<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> The argument from language is of great +weight, especially in considering the differences in color. +Professor Max Müller has stated this clearly: "There was a +time when the ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavonians, +the Greeks and Italians, the Persians and Hindus, +were living together beneath the same roof." "The evidence +of language is irrefragable, and it is the only evidence +worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It +would have been next to impossible to discover any traces of +relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their +conquerors, whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testimony +borne by language."<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> When the great lapse of ages is +taken into consideration, since man originated, it will be +seen that sufficient time is given to produce the white, black, +yellow, red, and brown varieties of man.</p> + +<p>2. The argument from geographical distribution would +hardly seem valid, as it is known that the ocean can be and +has been navigated by frail crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the +ship Bounty, in a small boat, twenty-three feet long from stem +to stern, deep laden with nineteen men and one hundred and +fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of water, twenty +pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa (South +Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand +six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boisterous +sea, and great perils, but finally reached his destination.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> +When men began to dwell on the sea-coast they made their +small vessels and carried on a limited navigation. Many a +frail craft has been driven out to sea with its human freight, +some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has often +happened among the South Sea islanders.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> If it had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have +been partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have +received no attention. And yet, Captain Tyson and his +party, consisting of twelve men, two women, and five children, +being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated Polaris, +drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of +April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic +winter. Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they +subsisted on the flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they +were able to kill. Every member of this party was rescued +off the coast of Labrador. It must be further noticed that +the surface of the earth was not always the same. The +continents have changed more or less, and during these +changes man must have become more or less separated.</p> + +<p>3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the +two extreme points are observable in all the nations of the +earth. Even in single families there have been those who +were highly cultured and refined, while other members have +been very low in organization, habits, and tastes. In these +days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a very +high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations +have retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who +pitch their tents amid the ruins of Babylon, are the descendants +of the ancient mixed races who successively occupied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +Mesopotamia: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Persians, +who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as +Shalmaneser, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild +marauding Arabs are the descendants of a people who +invented algebra and introduced the numerals. So the list +might be extended.</p> + +<p>4 and 5. The fourth and fifth amount to the assumption +that no race will amalgamate with another. The statements +embraced under these two heads are not warranted by facts. +Dr. Prichard says, "Mankind of all races and varieties are +equally capable of propagating their offspring by intermarriages, +and that such connections are equally prolific whether +contracted between individuals of the same or of the most +dissimilar varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably +in favor of the latter."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> He then gives a short account of +several examples of new or intermediate stocks which have +been produced and multiplied. They are Griquas, descended +from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks of +the Orange River, and number five thousand souls; the +Cafusos of Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African +Negroes; the Papuas of the island of New Guinea, a mixture +between the Malays and Negroes. One of the best +examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders. +This colony originated in this way: The British government +had sent a vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieutenant +Bligh, to gather bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and +introduce them into the West Indies. Bligh was an overbearing, +tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury, and +out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Christian +and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen +companions adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti; here +they took on board provisions and live stock, nine Tahitian +men, twelve women, and eight boys who had secreted themselves, +and then proceeded to Toubouai, where they founded a +settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of +the mutineers, three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with +their wives, and one child, and nine other women, left in the +Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's Island, and there burned the +Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less than nine +years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to +two in number, both whites, and one of them died the succeeding +year. In the year 1808 the American ship Topaz +touched at the island. The colonists then numbered thirty-five. +In 1856 they had increased to the number of one +hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was +barely sufficient to support them they were removed by the +British government to Norfolk Island. There are only +eight surnames among them—five of the Bounty stock and +three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of people; +the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely +distinguishable from English women. If reports be true +concerning them, they are the most remarkable people on +earth. They never allow the sun to go down on their wrath, +and are noted for their honesty, truth, chastity, industry, +benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the virtues which +combine to form true religion.</p> + +<p>The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged +against the unity of the race, has proved an argument in +favor. The offspring of birds as much alike as the domestic +goose and the large Muscovy duck will not propagate their +species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The different +varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland +pony and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together +but these hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind, +thereby proving their identity of species. The same may be +said of the cross between the most perfect and the lowest +type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die out in a few +generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the plain +violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to +a marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +issue; if the constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in +substance too nearly the same, the issue, if any, will be either +still-born, or die very soon after birth; if the contracting +parties shall have an adjunctive element, the issue will be +short-lived, although they may arrive at the years of maturity.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> +These laws apply to both the mixed and the unmixed +types of mankind.</p> + +<p>The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the +same general laws, their capacity for mental and moral +improvement, and the virtual unity of their languages lead +to the conclusion that one birth-place was common to +all. If that place be Central Asia, or any other locality, it +must have been long before traditional times, when the one +tribe was broken up and nations formed.</p> + +<p>Races change so slow that they seem to be stationary. +On the ancient Egyptian monuments are representations of +the Negro, having exactly the same features which characterize +that race at the present time; and some of these paintings +date as far back as 2000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span></p> + +<p>Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in +type, an almost incredible length of time must be assigned to +permit of the great disparity as exhibited by the different +types of mankind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> + +<h3>THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE.</h3> + + +<p>No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible. +It has been made to answer for the folly of both its friends +and foes. The fierce assaults made by the sceptic have been +the legitimate result of the preposterous claims made by +its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no +such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its +meaning has been perverted, sentences distorted, and words +changed in order to suit the caprice of its advocates. If it +were a living, speaking existence, it would certainly beg to be +delivered from its friends. It has been made to conflict with +the investigations of science, and those engaged in interpreting +the laws of nature have been branded as infidels, +although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The +Bible is not and makes no pretensions of being a book of +science. It is designed to be a book of religion, and a history +of the ancient Jews, and its references to scientific questions +are only incidental. If the references to science, or the +account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on +questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invalidated. +The Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from +the results of scientific investigation. But there is a duty +devolving on him, and that is to leave his fanciful interpretations +and come to the true meaning of the Scriptures, and +there learn how the words were understood by those to whom +they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as +used in the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with +their signification as used in the past. There is a great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +distance that divides the present from the times of the +Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the English +language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were +not given to scientific pursuits, and could have been but +comparatively little advanced in civilization.</p> + +<p>It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of +the points raised between the Scriptures and science, but to +confine the inquiry to such questions as the previous chapters +have demanded.</p> + +<p><i>Creation.</i>—The first and second chapters of Genesis not +only teach that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but +also the order of succession is given. It is not stated that +the world was created out of nothing. The word "bara," +translated "created," has a variety of meanings. According +to Gesenius it means <i>to cut</i>, <i>to cut out</i>, <i>to carve</i>, <i>to form</i>, <i>to +create</i>, <i>to produce</i>, <i>to beget</i>, <i>to bring forth</i>, <i>to feed</i>, <i>to eat</i>, <i>to +grow fat</i>, <i>to fashion</i>, <i>to make</i>.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The idea presented seems to +be this: The author asserts that heaven and earth owe their +origin to God. Then he goes back and explains the successive +stages of creation. At the commencement of the work +the earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition, +and from this preëxisting mass the worlds were evolved. +When this mass was created, if ever, the author of Genesis +does not state.</p> + +<p>Six periods, or "days," are given for the formation of the +earth. The use of the words "evening and morning" naturally +leads to the conclusion that the <i>days</i> were each twenty-four +hours in length. But doubt is thrown over this +conclusion by the use of the word <i>day</i> in the second chapter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called +a <i>day</i>. The word translated "day" also means <i>time</i>, but it +is to be generally taken in the sense of the civil day—from +sun up to sun down. Hugh Miller held to the opinion that +the creation was represented to Moses in a vision. The +periods passed before his mind in succession and had the +appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and +the morning was the beginning of another period of time.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> +If a description of the different orders of life had been given, +it would have been beyond the comprehension of that primitive +people. It was not the design to teach geology. The +people were not prepared for such scientific knowledge. But +the simple statement that God is the author of all things, +could be and was understood by the Israelites.</p> + +<p>On the sixth day man appears; but there are two records, +and in them he is presented in different ways and for different +purposes. In the first account man is made in the image +of God, and to him is given dominion over the living things, +and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The second +account states that there was no man to till the ground, and +the Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and +breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man +became a living soul. The second account cannot be, as +has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The two +accounts are radically different. One account makes man to +have dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes; the other, +to till or cultivate the soil. This agrees with archæo-geology. +Men were hunters many ages before they were agriculturists. +The one account has man made in the image of God, the +other, a <i>living soul</i>. The "image of God" and "living soul" +may be the same, but why the change? There may be a +cause for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one, +then Moses saw man in two capacities, differing one from the +other. Man may be in the "image of God," and yet in a +low, savage condition—subsisting on the chase. Man may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +be awakened from that condition, the "image of God" may +assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful +being.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> That there were two classes the record implies. +Cain goes out into the Land of Nod, where his wife +conceives, and he builds a city. Where did Cain get his +wife, and why did he build a city? No account is given of +the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained +her in the Land of Nod.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> It has been contended that Cain +married his sister. If this be true it would certainly have +been mentioned. It is too important a matter to have +escaped notice. If he married his sister he was guilty of a +heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now. The +city he built must have been more than an <i>encampment</i>, or a +<i>small fortification</i>. (The word translated "city" bears this +meaning also.) It would have been of no moment. It must +have been a place of some consequence, and designed for +more persons than Cain, his wife, and son. Taking all the +circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every one +that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object +of this city was to provide for individuals of the pre-Adamic +family dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingratiate +himself into their favor.</p> + +<p>Then, again, in the sixth chapter, "The sons of God saw +the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took +them wives of all which they chose." This was followed by +great wickedness, in consequence of which the world was +destroyed by a flood. Who were the "sons of God," and +who the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +God? The "sons of God" must have been the lineal descendants +of Adam, and the "daughters of men" the offspring +of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced +were monsters,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> and their minds were bent continually on +doing evil. These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or +else they would not have sought wives from among a lower +people. By the laws of nature their offspring was lower +than either of the races, from the fact that to the brutish +natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural +wisdom of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in +their wickedness.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> If stringent moral laws had been +enforced upon them the result would have been reversed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Chronology.</i>—The chronology given in the margins of the +Bible is a mere invention, and has worked much mischief. +There is nothing to warrant it, and no excuse can be made +for it. The Bible gives no definite chronology for those +early times. That no dependence can be placed in these +chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the +Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> The Septuagint dates +the Flood eight hundred years farther back than the common +Bible. "A margin of variation amounting to eight centuries +between two versions of the same document, is a variation +so enormous that it seems to cast complete doubt on the +whole system of interpretation on which such computations +of time are based."<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> + +<p><i>The Deluge.</i>—Allowing the date of the Deluge to have +been 3149 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> instead of 2349 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, still there is not sufficient +time to repopulate the earth, and form those mighty empires +recorded in ancient history. The Duke of Argyle has very +justly remarked that, "The founding of a monarchy is not +the beginning of a race. The people among whom such monarchies +arose must have grown and gathered during many +generations." The peopling of Egypt is not the only difficulty. +"The existence, in the days of Abraham, of such an organized +government as that of Chedorlaomer shows that two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +thousand years <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> there nourished in Elam, beyond Mesopotamia, +a nation which even now would be ranked among +'the Great Powers.'"<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Then the characteristic features of +the Negro, one of the most strongly marked among the varieties +of man, were as greatly marked 2000 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> as at present.</p> + +<p>These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood +was not universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood, +but "the monuments of the two most ancient civilizations of +which we have any knowledge—the Egyptian and Chinese—contain +no account of, or allusion to, Noah's Deluge."<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> +Many of these traditions doubtless refer to some local flood. +The passages of Scripture seem to teach the universality of +the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the idea +of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and +refer only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The +question is one of doubt whether or not the sacred historian +means the Noachian Deluge to have been universal, or only +a local cataclysm.</p> + +<p><i>Monarchies.</i>—The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod +was the first monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom +was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh." Nor is the +statement made that he founded these cities. He was a +mighty hunter, and these cities were the <i>beginning of his +kingdom</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Dispersion.</i>—The building of the tower of Babel is +no myth, but a veritable reality. A portion of the mighty +fabric still stands, a mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast +amount of work it required in its construction. The story is +told in few words, and those words cover centuries. The +people engaged in its construction spoke one language, but +when this language was confounded the empire was rent +asunder. The narrative seems to teach the use of but one +language on the whole face of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge, +in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion," says, "Moreover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +the phrase 'the whole earth,' as commonly used in the Bible, +is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not +intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater +part thereof, but is loosely employed to designate the whole +of that particular portion which the writer or speaker has in +his mind at the time. In the present case it denotes the +country bordering on the Tigris and the Euphrates."<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> If +the views of this eminent theologian be correct, then, by the +same principle of interpretation the unity of language +spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the +Tigris and the Euphrates.</p> + +<p>There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origination +of language. Under the view already advanced, when +the animals were brought to Adam, he readily gave them +names, for he had received language from his predecessors, +and now, being an especially chosen person, his endowments +would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use.</p> + +<p>It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the +world and peopled it with myriads of beings in a period of +six days of twenty-four hours each. It is not incredible that +a cataclysm could destroy every living creature, save an appointed +few, and cover the remotest boundaries of the earth. +It is possible for God to do anything save that which is +inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to +do, and what He does, are two very different things. What +He has done can only be told from the evidences which He +has left. What He might have done is only speculation. +Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He +observes the course of nature, and from these observations +his conclusions are drawn.</p> + +<p>The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when +properly understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not +to close his eyes and refuse to be guided by science, and +with blind credulity accept the tales and prejudices of his +grandfathers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England, +in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes unusual +grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that there were and +are two modes of reconciling the letter of Scripture with geology, but +each has totally and deservedly failed. One of these attempts to wrest +the words of the Bible from their real meaning, and force them to +speak the language of science; the other attempts to falsify science to +meet the supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another +reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of the +affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of science and the +spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of the general spirit of +the Bible truths; and, secondly, there is a likeness in the methods. +The frame of this earth was gradually brought into its present condition +by the slow and silent action of the same causes which we see now +operating through a long succession of ages beyond the memory and +imagination of man. We do not expect this doctrine to agree with the +letter of the Bible. The early biblical records could not be literal, +prosaic, matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world. It +is now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain two +narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each other in +almost every particular of time and place and order. It is now known +that the vast epochs demanded by scientific observation are incompatible +both with the six thousand years of the Mosaic chronology and the +six days of the Mosaic Creation. The discoveries of geology are found +to fill up the old religious truths with a new life, and to derive from +them in turn a hallowing glory.</p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> +<h2>GLOSSARY<br /> +<small>OF<br /> +SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME.</small></h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Adjunctive, having the quality of joining.</p> + +<p>Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of +sand, clay, or gravel, made by river +action.</p> + +<p>Amalgamate, to mix or blend different +things or races.</p> + +<p>Antero-posterior, in a direction from +behind forward.</p> + +<p>Aphelion, that point of a planet's or +comet's orbit which is most distant +from the sun.</p> + +<p>Archæo-geologist, one versed in pre-historic +remains, or familiar with +both archæology and geology.</p> + +<p>Archives, public records and papers +preserved as evidence of fact.</p> + +<p>Aryan, a term applied to all the nations +who speak languages derived +mainly from the Sanskrit, or ancient +Hindoo.</p> + +<p>Atomic, a system of philosophy which +accounted for the origin and formation +of all things by assuming that +atoms are endowed with gravity +and motion.</p> + +<p>Auditory, having the power of hearing.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Baton, a staff used as an emblem of +authority.</p> + +<p>Brachycephalic, a skull whose transverse +diameter exceeds the antero-posterior +diameter.</p> + +<p>Breccia, a rock made up of angular +fragments cemented together.</p> + +<p>Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from +ten to thirty per cent. of tin, to +which other metals are sometimes +added.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p>Calcareous, consisting of, or containing, +carbonate of lime.</p> + +<p>Calcined, reduced to a powder, or friable +state, by the action of heat.</p> + +<p>Carbonate, a salt formed by the union +of carbonic acid with a base.</p> + +<p>Carnivora, an order of animals which +subsist on flesh.</p> + +<p>Carpal, that portion of the skeleton +pertaining to the wrist.</p> + +<p>Cataclysm, a deluge.</p> + +<p>Celt, one of an ancient race of people +who formerly inhabited a great part +of Central and Western Europe; +an implement made of stone or +metal, found in the ancient tumuli +of Europe.</p> + +<p>Cereal, edible grain.</p> + +<p>Champlain Epoch, a name derived from +the beds on the borders of Lake +Champlain. The beds are subsequent +in origin to the glacial +epoch.</p> + +<p>Chert, an impure variety of flint.</p> + +<p>Clavicle, the collar-bone.</p> + +<p>Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles +cemented together.</p> + +<p>Coronoid, the process of the ulna and +lower jaw.</p> + +<p>Cosmogony, the science of the origin of +the world or universe.</p> + +<p>Cranium, the skull.</p> + +<p>Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of +Ireland and Scotland, used by the +ancients as places of habitation.</p> + +<p>Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring +great heat, and used for melting +ores, metals, etc.</p> + +<p>Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>of time marked by the recurrence +of something peculiar.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Data (pl. of datum), a ground of inference +or deduction.</p> + +<p>Debris (dā-breé), fragments detached +from rocks, and piled up in masses.</p> + +<p>Demi-relief, the projection of one half +the figure beyond the plane from +which it rises.</p> + +<p>Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like +markings.</p> + +<p>Devonian, the geological age between +the Silurian and Carboniferous.</p> + +<p>Diluvium, the time when the glacial +beds were deposited.</p> + +<p>Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish, +speckled with black, or greenish +black.</p> + +<p>Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter +from the frontal to the occipital +bone exceeds the transverse diameter.</p> + +<p>Dorsal, the name given to the second +division of the vertebræ.</p> + +<p>Drift, a collection of loose earth and +bowlders, distributed during the +glacial epoch over large portions of +the earth's surface.</p> + +<p>Druidical, pertaining to the religious +ceremonies of the ancient Celtic +nations in France, Britain, and +Germany.</p> + +<p>Dynasty, a succession of kings of the +same line or family.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Eccentricity, the distance of the centre +of the orbit of a heavenly body +from the centre of the body round +which it revolves.</p> + +<p>Edible, eatable.</p> + +<p>Elliptical, having an oval or oblong +figure.</p> + +<p>Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs +of the tertiary.</p> + +<p>Epoch, any period of time marked by +some particular cause or event.</p> + +<p>Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Fauna, the animals of any given area +or epoch.</p> + +<p>Flora, the complete system of vegetable +species native in a given locality, +or period.</p> + +<p>Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful +colors, composed by fluorine and +calcium.</p> + +<p>Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by +the joint action of a river and the +sea.</p> + +<p>Foramen, a little opening.</p> + + +<p>Fossa, a depression in a bone.</p> + +<p>Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in +the strata composing the surface of +the earth.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Genus (pl. genera), an assemblage of +species possessing certain characters +in common, by which they are +distinguished from all others.</p> + +<p>Geode, an irregular shaped stone, containing +a small cavity.</p> + +<p>Geognostic, pertaining to a knowledge +of the structure of the earth.</p> + +<p>Glabella, the middle or frontal protuberance +of the superciliary arch.</p> + +<p>Glaciation, the process of becoming +covered with glaciers.</p> + +<p>Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or +snow and ice, formed in the region +of perpetual snow, and moving +slowly down mountain slopes or +valleys.</p> + +<p>Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of +quartz, feldspar, and mica.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Herbivora, that order of animals which +subsists upon herbs or vegetables.</p> + +<p>Homologous, having the same typical +structure.</p> + +<p>Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest +the shoulder.</p> + +<p>Hybrid, that which is produced from +the mixture of two species.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a +dark green color, and capable of a +fine polish.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Lambdoidal, the suture which connects +the occipital with the parietal bones.</p> + +<p>Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock.</p> + +<p>Loam, a soil composed of siliceous sand, +clay, carbonate of lime, oxide of +iron, magnesia, and various salts, +and also decayed vegetable and +animal matter.</p> + +<p>Loess, a term usually applied to a tertiary +deposit on the banks of the +Rhine.</p> + +<p>Lumbar, the vertebræ near the loins.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Mammalia, that class of animals characterized +by the female suckling +its young.</p> + +<p>Marl, a mixed earthy substance, consisting +of carbonate of lime, clay, +and siliceous sand.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> +<p>Mastoid, a process situated at the posterior +part of the temporal bone.</p> + +<p>Matrix, a mould; the cavity in which a +thing is held.</p> + +<p>Maxillary, the upper jaw bone.</p> + +<p>Metacarpal, the part of the hand between +the wrist and the fingers.</p> + +<p>Metallurgy, the art of working metals.</p> + +<p>Metatarsal, the middle part of the +foot.</p> + +<p>Miocene, the middle or second epoch of +the Tertiary.</p> + +<p>Molar, a grinding tooth.</p> + +<p>Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used +in casting; to form or shape; fine +soft earth.</p> + +<p>Mollusca, an order of invertebrate animals +having a soft, fleshy body, +which is inarticulate, and not radiate +internally.</p> + +<p>Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel extending +along the sides of separate +glaciers, and along the middle +part of glaciers formed by the union +of one or more separate ones.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Nebulous, having a faint, misty appearance; +applied to uncondensed gaseous +matter.</p> + +<p>Neolithic, new stone age; a term applied +to the more modern age of +stone.</p> + +<p>Nummulitic, composed of, or containing +a fossil of a flattened form, resembling +a small coin, and common +in the early tertiary period.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by +volcanoes.</p> + +<p>Occipital, pertaining to the back part +of the head.</p> + +<p>Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, containing +iron.</p> + +<p>Olecranon, the large process at the extremity +of the larger bone of the +fore-arm.</p> + +<p>Onusprobandi, the burden of proof.</p> + +<p>Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is +located; the path described by a +heavenly body in its periodical revolution.</p> + +<p>Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel +formed by glaciers.</p> + +<p>Oscillation, the act of moving backward +and forward.</p> + +<p>Osseous, composed of bone.</p> + +<p>Osteologist, one versed in the nature, +arrangement, and uses of the +bones.</p> + +<p>Oxide, a compound of oxygen, and a +base destitute of acid and saltish +properties.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal, +characterized by the thickness of +its skin.</p> + +<p>Palæolithic, the ancient stone age; a +term applied to the earliest traces +of man when he was cotemporary +with many extinct mammalia.</p> + +<p>Palæontological, belonging to the science +of the ancient life of the earth.</p> + +<p>Parallelogram, a figure having four +sides, the opposite sides of which +are parallel, and consequently +equal.</p> + +<p>Parietal, pertaining to the bones which +form the sides and upper part of +the skull.</p> + +<p>Pathological, pertaining to the knowledge +of disease.</p> + +<p>Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony +structure at the lower extremity of +the body.</p> + +<p>Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a +planet, or comet, in which it is +nearest to the sun.</p> + +<p>Perimeter, the outer boundary of a +body.</p> + +<p>Phalanges, the small bones of the fingers +and toes.</p> + +<p>Philologist, one versed in the laws of +human speech.</p> + +<p>Pliocene, a term applied to the most +recent tertiary deposits.</p> + +<p>Post-Tertiary, the second period of the +age of mammals.</p> + +<p>Prototype, a model after which anything +is to be copied.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Quadrangular, having four angles, and +consequently four sides.</p> + +<p>Quadrumana, an order of animals +whose fore feet correspond to the +hands of man.</p> + +<p>Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with +a glassy lustre, and varying in +color from white, or colorless, to +black.</p> + +<p>Quartzite, granular quartz.</p> + +<p>Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Radius, the smaller and exterior bone +of the fore-arm.</p> + +<p>Reliquiæ, remains of the dead.</p> + +<p>Rhematic, that period when men first +began to coin expressions for the +most necessary ideas.</p> + +<p>Rodent, an animal that gnaws.</p> + +<p>Ruminant, an animal that chews the +cud.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Sagittal, the suture which connects the +parietal bones of the skull.</p> + +<p>Savant (sä-vŏng), a person eminent +for acquirements.</p> + +<p>Scapula, the shoulder-blade.</p> + +<p>Schist, a rock having a slaty structure.</p> + +<p>Scientist, a person noted for his profound +knowledge.</p> + +<p>Sediment, the matter which subsides +to the bottom.</p> + +<p>Semitic, pertaining to one of the families +of nations, or languages, and +so named from its members being +ranked as the descendants of Shem.</p> + +<p>Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in +color dark to light green.</p> + +<p>Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty +matter.</p> + +<p>Simian, a name given to the various +tribes of monkeys.</p> + +<p>Squamous, the anterior and upper part +of the temporal bone, scale-like in +form.</p> + +<p>Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter, +made by calcareous water dropping +on the floors of caverns.</p> + +<p>Stratified, formed or deposited in layers.</p> + +<p>Stratum (pl. strata), a bed or layer.</p> + +<p>Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradually +descending.</p> + +<p>Superciliary, the bony superior arch +above the eye-brow.</p> + +<p>Suture, the seam which unites the +bones of the skull.</p> + +<p>Symphysis, a connection of bones without +a movable joint.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of +rocks lying at the foot of a hill.</p> + +<p>Tarsal, relating to the ankle.</p> + +<p>Temporal, pertaining to that portion of +the head located to the front and a +little above the ear.</p> + +<p>Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made +from fine clay, hardened by heat.</p> + +<p>Tertiary, the first period of the age of +mammals.</p> + +<p>Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or +chest.</p> + +<p>Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave.</p> + +<p>Truncated, cut off.</p> + +<p>Tufaceous, consisting of, of resembling, +tuff.</p> + +<p>Tuff, a sand rock formed by agglutinated +volcanic rock.</p> + +<p>Turanian, that order of languages +known as monosyllabic.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the +fore-arm.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p>Veda, the ancient sacred literature of +the Hindoos.</p> + +<p>Vertebra, a joint of the back bone.</p> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +Agassiz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> + +Agriculture, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Amalgamation, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +Amiel, Dr., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> + +Archiac, Vic. d', <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> + +Arts, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> + +Aymard, Dr., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Baldwin, A. W., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Bara, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> + +Belgian Caverns, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> + +Berosus, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> + +Blackmore, Dr., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Bligh, Lieut., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +Bonnemaison, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> + +Boucher de Perthes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> + +Boué, Aimé, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> + +Bourgeois, Abbé, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Brown, James, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Buchner, Dr., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Buckland. Dr., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Burdett-Coutts, Miss, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Burial, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Busk, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Cain, Case of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> + +Cannibalism, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> + +Carpenter, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +Cartailhac, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> + +Casiano de Prado, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72-74</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Brixham, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Chokier, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Feldhofner, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Furfooz, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Gourdan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Cave of La Madeleine, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Cave of La Naulette, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Les Eyzies, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Massat, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Mentone, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Thayngen, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Tron de Chaleux, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Trou des Nutons, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Trou Rosette, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> + +Cave of Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Ariége, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Bize, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Cracow, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Enghihoul, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Engis, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Gailenruth, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Pondres, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Cavern of Torquay, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Caverns of Brazil, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Caverns of Liége, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> + +Cazalis de Fondace, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +Chaldea, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>.<br /> + +China, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> + +Christian, Fletcher, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +Christol, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Christy, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Chronology, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> + +Chronology, Usher's, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> + +Clothing, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> + +Codrington, Thos., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Creation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> + +Croll, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> + +Cromlech, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> + +Cushing, F. H. <a href="#Page_62">121</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Dana, J. D., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> + +Danish Shell-Mounds, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +Danish Peat Bogs, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> + +Darwin, Charles, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> + +Dawkins, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> + +Delaunay, Abbé, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Deluge, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> + +Denton, W., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> + +Desnoyers, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Desor, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> + +Dickeson, Dr. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Dolmen, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> + +Dowler, Dr. Bennet, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Dupont, Edward, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> + +Dwellings, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Edwards, M. A. Milne, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Egypt, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Eocene, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Eocene, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Eocene, Glaciers in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Miocene, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Miocene, Flint flake from Aurillac, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Miocene, Man in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Epoch, Pliocene, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Epochs, not sharply defined, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> + +Eschricht, Prof., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Esper, J. F. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Falconer, Dr., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> + +Figuier, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> + +Filhol, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> + +Fishing and Navigation, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> + +Fontan, M. A., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Food, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> + +Forchammer, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +Ft. Shelby, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> + +Fossil Man of Denise, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> + +Fossil Man of Mentone, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> + +Fossil Remains from Florida, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Fraas, Oscar, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> + +Frere, John, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Fuhlrott, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Garrigou, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> + +Geikie, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> + +Gillieron, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> + +Glacial Epoch, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> + +Glacial Epoch, Date of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> + +Glacial Epoch, Duration of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> + +Glacial Epoch, Fauna of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> + +Glacial Epoch, Geological Period of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> + +Godwin-Austen, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> + +Gosse, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> + +Gunning, W. D., <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Half-castes, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> + +Hall, Dr., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> + +Hauzeur, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> + +Herodotus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +History, Outline of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> + +Horner, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> + +Human bones from Colmar, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> + +Human bones from Savonia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> + +Huxley, Prof., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-57</a>.<br /> + +Hybridity, law of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Implements, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> + +Implements, from Toronto, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Implements, superstitious regard for, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +India, Fauna of, in Miocene, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> + +Issel, M. A., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Jaw from Maestricht, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> + +Jaw from Moulin-Quignon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> + +Jaw from La Naulette, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> + +Joly, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Keller, Dr., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br /> + +Kemp, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Kent's Hole, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> + +Kutorga, Dr., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Land of Nod, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> + +Language, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> + +Language, Change of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> + +Language, Divisions of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> + +Language, Number of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> + +Language, Origin of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> + +Language, Written, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> + +Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-101</a>.<br /> + +Lartet, Edward, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> + +Las Casas, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> + +Lastic, M. de, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Lee, J. E. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> + +Lepsius, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> + +Litse, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> + +Lubbock, Sir John, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> + +Lund, Dr., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Lyell, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +MacEnery, Rev. J., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +Mahndel before the Academy of Paris, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Man, Contentions, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> + +Man, Description of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> + +Man, Development of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> + +Man, Dispersion of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> + +Man, During Glaciers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> + +Man, Inventive, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> + +Man, Mode of living, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> + +Man, Origin of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> + +Man, Type, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> + +Manetho, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Marks on fossil bones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Mariette, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> + +Matson, James, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Max Müller, Prof., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> + +Menhirs, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> + +Mexico, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> + +Miller, Hugh, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> + +Morlot, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> + +Mound Builders, <a href="#Page_117">117-122</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Antiquity of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Extent of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Sacrificial, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Sepulchral, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Symbolical, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> + +Mounds, Temple, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> + +Murchison, Sir Roderick I., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Neolithic, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> + +Owen, Prof., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Pelvic bone from Natchez, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Piers Ploughman's Creed, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> + +Piette, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> + +Pliocene beds at St. Prest, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Pouchet, Georges, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> + +Pourtalis, Count, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Pre-historic Archæology, Divisions of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> + +Prichard, Dr., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Quatrefages, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Rames, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> + +Rawlinson, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> + +Reindeer Station on the Schusse, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> + +Religious Belief, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> + +Renevier, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> + +Rigollot, Dr., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> + +Riviére, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> + +Robenhausen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> + +Rock-Shelters of Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> + +Rollin, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Schaaffhausen, Prof., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Schleicher, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +Schlieman, Dr., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> + +Schmerling, Dr., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> + +Scott, P. A., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Septuagint, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> + +Shell-Heaps of America, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> + +Skeleton from Lahr, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> + +Skeleton from New Orleans, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> + +Skeleton from Plau, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Skull, Engis, <a href="#Page_45">45-51</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> + +Skull, Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> + +Skull, Neanderthal, Race Type, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Altaville, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Cochrane's Cave, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Comstock Lode, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Constatt, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Osage Mission, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> + +Skull from Rhine, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Skull of Arno, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> + +Skulls from Borreby, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> + +Skulls from Minsk, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Skulls from Moën, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> + +Somme, Valley of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> + +Somme, Valley of, Implements from, <a href="#Page_35">35-37</a>.<br /> + +Sons of God, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> + +Spring, Dr., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> + +Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> + +Steenstrup, Prof. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> + +Stevens, Alfred, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Bournemonth, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Colorado and Wyoming, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Gosport, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Grinell Leads, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from London, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Madrid, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements from Seine, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements near Hoxne, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> + +Stone Implements, number, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Tardy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> + +Taylor, Bayard, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> + +Tertiary beds at St. Prest, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> + +Tertiary, Climate of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> + +Tertiary, Fauna of, in America, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> + +Tertiary, Geography of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> + +Tournal, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> + +Troy, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> + +Troyon, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> + +Traffic, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> + +Tylor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> + +Tyson, Capt., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Unity of Race, <a href="#Page_136">136-142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> + +Unity of Race, Objections to, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> + +Vivian, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> + +Vogt, Carl, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> + +Wallace, A. R., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> + +War, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> + +Weirley, Dr., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> + +Welcker, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br /> + +Westropp, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> + +Whitney, Prof., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> + +Wilson, Dr. Daniel, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> + +Wokey Hole, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> + +Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> + +Workshops of Laugerie-Haute, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> + +Worsaae, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> + +<br /> +Zawisza, Count, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> + +Zumarraga, Bishop, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +</p></div> + + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Buchner, p. 269.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> "Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p. 238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 68.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829.—Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," +p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 286.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 418.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> "Manual of Geology," p. 590.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 417.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285; "Pre-Historic Times," +p. 411. +</p><p> +Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the +earth's orbit "cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen thousand +years; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to +certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length +of time; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred +and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of +climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years."—Darwin's +<i>Origin of Species</i>, p. 343.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more +rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Naturalist's +Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that "during one +very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, +although it attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand +feet. It is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is +evaporated, rather than thawed."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. ii, pp. 567-569.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Buchner, p. 118</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 362.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 97; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The "Science Record" for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these implements +says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were +made half a million years ago."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 98. "Pre-Historic Times," p. 317.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 338; Buchner, 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 510; Buchner, p. 27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Buchner, pp. 118, 306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Buchner, p. 239.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Principles," vol. ii, p. 566.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It has been estimated by the British Association that it requires +twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite.—<i>Science Record.</i> +1874, p. 601.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> "Principles," vol. ii, p. 527.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 146.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 143.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Buchner, p. 263.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 262.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 158.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Buchner, p. 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Buchner, p. 240.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> "Man's Place in Nature," p. 164.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Buchner, p. 116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 53.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 84.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Buchner, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Buchner, p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Buchner, p. 265.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 423.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Wallace's "Natural Selection, p. 322."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Buchner, pp. 34, 252.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Buchner, p. 242.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Buchner, p. 31; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 420.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Buchner, p. 33; "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Denton's "Our Planet," p. 270; "American Phrenological Journal, +Feb." 1874. +</p><p> +Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this +skull was not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote +to Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March +1875, inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the +statement that he had visited the place where the skull was found; +that certain persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the +victim of a joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were +prejudiced against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best +informed had every reason to believe the statements made by Professor +Whitney were true. The skull is a very remarkable one, and +stands alone for the enormous size of the orbits, and I have good reasons +to believe it to have been found as stated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that +glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations, +not to mention still more ancient formations."—Darwin's <i>Origin of +Species</i>, p. 343.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 421; Buchner, 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Buchner, p. 32.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> "American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Buchner, p. 274.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> "Our Planet," p. 266.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> "Science Record," 1874, p. 499.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> "Origin of Civilization," p. 121.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 116.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Buchner, p. 248.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," pp. 37, 334, 350, 360.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 396.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 219.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 293.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 76.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> "Primitive Man," p. 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Lake Dwellings," p. 319.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Times," p. 218; "Primitive Man," p. 281.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> "Lake-Dwellings," p. 400.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> "Science Record," p. 564. 1875.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> "American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Wilson's "Pre-Historic Man," p. 40.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Man," p. 46.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i. +p. 454.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 43; "Pre-Historic Man," p. 47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> "Primitive Man," pp. 9, 77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Man," p. 236.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> "Ancient Monuments," p. 304.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Buchner, p. 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Rollin, vol. i. p. 138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Buchner, 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> "New York Tribune", June 6, 1874.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> "Antiquity of Man," p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Bayard Taylor in "New York Tribune, Extra," No. 15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 178, 175.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> "Pre-Historic Nations," p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> "Ancient America," p. 187.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> "Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. ii. p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Wake's "Chapters on Man," p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> "Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and +Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man. +The first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after +the manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till, +associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use articulate +sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks of +those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate +to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony +which was framed by Mochus, the Phœnician, and afterward improved +by Democritus and Epicurus."—Pouchet's <i>Plurality of the +Human Race</i>, p. 142.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> "Principles of Geology," vol. ii. p. 475. "It is generally acknowledged +that all organic beings have been formed on two great laws—Unity +of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type is +meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic +beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their +habits of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of +descent."—Darwin's <i>Origin of Species</i>, p. 200.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> I put myself into clothes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Shepherd.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> And.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Wonder.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Mivart's "Genesis of Species," p. 114.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> "Origin of Species," p. 193.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> "Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> "Chips," vol. i. pp. 63, 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Lady Belcher's "Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> "Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants +of Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the distance +between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1696, +two canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were +thrown by contrary winds and storms on the Island of Samar, one of +the Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two +canoes, one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, +men, women, and children, were drifted from an island called Farroilep +to the island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two +hundred miles." Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his countrymen, +while sailing in a boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm, +and drifted about the sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on +the produce of the sea, and finally were picked up in an insensible +condition by the inhabitants of Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand +five hundred miles distant from his native isle.—<i>Principles of Geology</i>, +vol. ii. p. 472.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> "Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The idea that "bara" meant to create out of nothing is a modern +invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews +and Greeks at Alexandria. The Greeks believed that matter was +co-eternal with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to +this notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of +nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception +of <i>fashioning</i> or <i>arranging</i>.—<i>Chips</i>, vol. i. p. 132.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> "Testimony of the Rocks," Fifth Lecture.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man +in Genesis and Geology, p. 105); Lubbock regards him as a typical +savage (Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great +prototype of the human race?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> The word <i>Nod</i> means <i>to wander</i>, <i>to be driven about</i>, etc. It +appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It +was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have +been roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated +"Wandering Land"?</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the Zambesi, +described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity, +"remarks, 'It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so +much more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the +case.' An inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, 'God made white men, +and God made black men, but the devil made half castes.' When two +races, both low in the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be eminently +bad. Thus the noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms +of the bad and savage disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between +Indians and Negroes; and this conclusion has been arrived at by +various observers. From these facts we may perhaps infer that the +degraded state of so many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a +primitive and savage condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral +conditions under which they generally exist."—<i>Animals and Plants +under Domestication</i>, vol. ii. p. 63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the +race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its briefness. +A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words, +and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the +idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared. The +strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 26: "Hath made of one +blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth." +This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair, +but their <i>blood</i> is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no ancestors. +When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only +to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors, +the leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not +uncommon to drop the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is +given in the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of +his grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred +and twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been +dropped. If Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the +line any farther back. The forming him of the dust of the ground +would give his relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen, +endowed for the purpose of elevating the race—of becoming the head +of a new type of humanity.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into +Greek, made about three hundred years <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The oldest existing MS. +of the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the +tenth century after the Christian era—<i>Chips.</i> vol. i. p. 11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> "Primeval Man," p. 86.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> "Primeval Man," p. 87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222.</p></div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of the Antiquity of Man, by J. 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