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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Greek Sculpture
+       A collection of sixteen pictures of Greek marbles with
+       introduction and interpretation
+
+Author: Estelle M. Hurll
+
+Release Date: January 3, 2011 [EBook #34842]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK SCULPTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+[**Transcriber's notes:
+    italics represented by underscores e.g. _italics_
+    bold represented by $ e.g. $bold$
+    The city of Terracina was mispelled Terracino in paragraph 9,
+       section 3 of the Introduction
+    end of transcriber's note**]
+
+[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+PERICLES
+
+_British Museum, London_]
+
+
+
+
+
+ The Riverside Art Series
+
+
+ GREEK SCULPTURE
+
+ A COLLECTION OF SIXTEEN PICTURES
+ OF GREEK MARBLES
+ WITH INTRODUCTION AND
+ INTERPRETATION
+
+ BY
+
+ ESTELLE M. HURLL
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ BOSTON AND NEW YORK
+ HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
+ The Riverside Press Cambridge
+
+
+COPYRIGHT 1901, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Within the limits of this small collection of pictures an attempt is
+made to bring together as great a variety of subjects as possible.
+Portraiture is illustrated in the statue of Sophocles and the bust of
+Pericles, _genre_ studies in the Apoxyomenos and Discobolus, bas-relief
+work in the panel from the Parthenon frieze and the Orpheus and
+Eurydice, and ideal heads and statues in the representations of the
+divinities. Both the Greek treatment of the nude and the Greek
+management of drapery have due attention.
+
+As classic literature is the best interpreter of Greek sculpture, the
+text draws freely from such original sources as the Iliad and the
+Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and Ovid's Metamorphoses.
+
+    ESTELLE M. HURLL.
+
+    NEW BEDFORD, MASS.
+    January, 1901.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES
+
+
+ PERICLES     (_Frontispiece_)
+ From original in British Museum
+
+ INTRODUCTION
+     I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE     vii
+    II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE     x
+   III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED
+        IN THIS COLLECTION     xi
+
+ I. BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI     1
+ Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari
+
+ II. ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA)     7
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ III. HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE     13
+ Picture from Photograph by the London Stereoscopic
+ Co.
+
+ IV. BUST OF HERA (JUNO)     19
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ V. THE APOXYOMENOS     25
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ VI. HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE     31
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ VII. DEMETER (CERES)     37
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ VIII. THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES     43
+ Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari
+
+ IX. SOPHOCLES      49
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ X. ARES SEATED      55
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ XI. HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES      61
+ Picture from Photograph by the English Photographic
+ Co., Athens
+
+ XII. THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER)     67
+ Picture from Photograph loaned by Edward Robinson,
+ from the only negative known to exist
+
+ XIII. THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO)     73
+ Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frères
+
+ XIV. ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE     79
+ Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson
+
+ XV. NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY)     85
+ Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frères
+
+ XVI. PERICLES (See Frontispiece)     91
+
+ PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND
+ FOREIGN WORDS     95
+
+_Nine of the above illustrations are from photographs in the collection
+of the William Hayes Fogg Art Museum of Harvard University_
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE.
+
+The history of Greek sculpture covers a period of some eight or nine
+hundred years, and falls into five divisions.[1] The first is the period
+of development, extending from 600 to 480 B. C. The second is the period
+of greatest achievement, under Phidias and his followers, in the Age of
+Pericles, 480-430 B. C. The third is the period of Praxiteles and
+Scopas, in the fourth century. The fourth is the period of decline,
+characterized as the Hellenistic Age, and included between the years 320
+and 100 B. C. The fifth is the Græco-Roman period, which includes the
+work produced to meet the demand of the Roman market for Greek
+sculpture, and which extends to 300 A. D.
+
+[1] See Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, page 42.
+
+Modern criticism differentiates sharply the characteristics of the
+several periods and even of the individual artists, but such subtleties
+are beyond the grasp of the unlearned. The majority of people continue
+to regard Greek sculpture in its entirety, as if it were the homogeneous
+product of a single age. To the popular imagination it is as if some
+gigantic machine turned out the Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, the
+Elgin Marbles, and all the rest, in a single day. Nor is it long ago
+since even eminent writers had but vague ideas as to the distinctive
+periods of these very works. Certain it is that all works of Greek
+sculpture have a particular character which marks them as such.
+Authorities have taught us to distinguish some few of their leading
+characteristics.
+
+The most striking characteristic of Greek art is perhaps its closeness
+to nature. The sculptor showed an intimate knowledge of the human form,
+acquired by constant observation of the splendid specimens of manhood
+produced in the palæstra. It is because the artist "clung to nature as a
+kind mother," says Waldstein, that the influence of his work persists
+through the ages.
+
+Again, Greek art is distinctly an art of generalization, dealing with
+types rather than with individuals. This characteristic is of varying
+degrees in different periods and with different sculptors. It is seen in
+its perfection in the Elgin Marbles, in exaggeration in the Apollo
+Belvedere, and at the minimum in the work of Praxiteles. Yet it is
+everywhere sufficiently marked to be indissolubly connected with Greek
+sculpture.
+
+The quality of repose, so constantly associated with Greek sculpture, is
+another characteristic which varies with the period and the individual
+sculptor. Between the calm dignity of the portrait statue of Sophocles
+and the intense muscular concentration of Myron's Discobolus, a long
+range of degrees may be included. Yet on the whole, repose is an
+essential characteristic of the best Greek sculpture, provided we do not
+let our notion of repose exclude the spirited element. Fine as is the
+effect of repose in the Parthenon frieze, the composition is likewise
+full of spirit and life.
+
+A distinguishing characteristic of the best Greek sculpture is its
+simplicity. Compared with the Gothic sculptors, the Greeks appear to us,
+in Ruskin's phrase, as the "masters of all that was grand, simple, wise
+and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys of the rest of
+mankind." Their work is free from that "vain and mean decoration"--the
+"weak and monstrous error"--which disfigures the art of other peoples.
+
+As we turn from one Greek marble to another in the great sculpture
+galleries of the world, the best features of the art impress themselves
+deeply even upon the untutored eye. The Greek instinct for pose is
+unfailing and unsurpassable. Standing or seated, the attitude is always
+graceful, the lines are always fine. The best statues are equally well
+composed, viewed from any standpoint. The camera may describe a
+circumference about a marble as a centre, and a photograph made at any
+point in the circle will show lines of rhythm and beauty.
+
+The faultless regularity of the Greek profile has passed into history as
+the accepted standard of human beauty. The straight continuous line of
+brow and nose, the well moulded chin, the full lip, the small ear,
+satisfy perfectly our æsthetic ideals.
+
+The art of sculpture was an essential outgrowth of the Greek spirit, and
+perfectly suited the requirements of Greek thought. In the words of a
+recent writer, "it was the consummate expression in art of the genius of
+a nation which worshiped physical perfection as the gift of the
+immortals, which honored the gods by athletic games and choral dances,
+and whose deities wore the flesh and shared the nature of men."[2] It
+was moreover a national art, entering into every phase of public life,
+and embodying the Greek sense of national greatness.
+
+[2] From _Italian Cities_, by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield.
+
+Greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only by catching
+something of the spirit which produced it. One must shake off the
+centuries and regard life with the childlike simplicity of the young
+world: one must give imagination free rein. The same attitude of mind
+which can enjoy Greek mythology and Greek literature is the proper
+attitude for the enjoyment of Greek sculpture. The best interpreter of a
+nation's art is the nation's poetry.
+
+
+II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
+
+Many learned works on the subject of Greek Sculpture have been written
+in various languages. Three standard authorities are the English work by
+A. S. Murray, "History of Greek Sculpture," second edition, London,
+1890; the French work by Collignon, "Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque,"
+Paris, 1892; and the German work by Furtwängler, translated into English
+by E. Sellers, "The Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture," London, 1895.
+Naturally these three writers are not always of one opinion, and the
+student must turn from one to another to learn all the arguments
+concerning a disputed point.
+
+For the practical every-day use of the reader who has no time to sift
+the evidences on difficult questions of archæology, Gardner's "Handbook
+of Greek Sculpture" is an excellent outline summary of the history of
+the subject.
+
+Charles Waldstein's "Essays on the Art of Pheidias," New York, 1885, is
+an exceedingly valuable and suggestive volume.
+
+Two small books, written in a somewhat popular vein, make very pleasant
+reading for those pursuing these studies: "Studies in Greek Art," by J.
+E. Harrison, London, 1885, and "Greek Art on Greek Soil," by J. M.
+Hoppin, Boston, 1897.
+
+Besides the works devoted exclusively to the subject of Greek sculpture,
+the subject receives due attention in various general histories of art,
+of which may be mentioned, Lucy Mitchell's "History of Ancient
+Sculpture," Lübke's "History of Sculpture," and Von Reber's "History of
+Ancient Art."
+
+A valuable bibliography is given in Gardner's "Handbook."
+
+
+III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED IN THIS COLLECTION.
+
+_Frontispiece._ Terminal bust of Pericles, after an original by
+Cresilas. Approximate date, 440-430 B. C. In the British Museum, London.
+
+1. _Bust of Zeus Otricoli._ Considered by Brunn and others a copy from a
+head of the statue by Phidias. Later critics do not agree with this
+opinion, and Furtwängler calls the head a Praxitelean development of the
+type of Zeus created in the time of Myron. Now in the Vatican Gallery,
+Rome.
+
+2. _Athena Giustiniana_ (_Minerva Medica_). Considered by Furtwängler a
+copy, after Euphranor, of a statue dedicated below the Capitol, called
+Minerva Catuliana, set up by A. Lutatius Catulus. The ægis and sphinx
+are copyist's additions. Found in the gardens of the convent of S. Maria
+sopra Minerva, Rome. Both arms are restored. Now in the Vatican Gallery,
+Rome.
+
+3. _Horsemen from the Parthenon Frieze._ The frieze of the Parthenon is
+part of the decorative scheme of the marble temple of Athena, built
+during the age of Pericles (480-430 B. C.) on the Acropolis, Athens, and
+decorated under the direction of Phidias. The frieze consisted of a
+series of panels or slabs, about 3 ft. 4 in. in height, and was set on
+the outer wall of the cella. Being lighted from below, the lower portion
+is cut in low relief (1¼ in.) and the upper parts in high relief
+(2¼ in.). The panel of the Horsemen is one of the Elgin Marbles,
+removed by Lord Elgin from the Parthenon in 1801-1802, and now in the
+British Museum, London.
+
+4. _Bust of Hera._ Considered by Murray a copy after Polyclitus.
+Regarded by Furtwängler as a "Roman creation based on a Praxitelean
+model." Catalogued in Hare's "Walks in Rome" as a probable copy after
+Alcamenes. In the Ludovisi Villa, Rome.
+
+5. _The Apoxyomenos._. A marble copy of the original bronze statue by
+Lysippus, who flourished in the 4th century B. C. According to Pliny the
+original was brought from Greece to Rome by Agrippa to adorn the public
+baths. This copy was found in 1849 in the Trastevere, Rome, and is now
+in the Vatican Gallery.
+
+6. _Head of the Apollo Belvedere._ According to Gardner, a marble copy
+(Roman) of a bronze original of the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.).
+Some (Winter and Furtwängler) have assigned the original to Leochares, a
+sculptor of the 4th century, and others to Calamis, in the 5th century.
+This copy was found in the 16th century at Antium, and was purchased by
+Pope Julius II. for the Belvedere Palace. Now in the Vatican Gallery,
+Rome.
+
+7. _Demeter_ (_Ceres_) Considered by Furtwängler a copy from an original
+by Agoracritus, who was a pupil of Phidias, and whose works are closely
+allied to those of Alcamenes. By the same authority the statue is called
+the Nemesis. In the Vatican Gallery, Rome.
+
+8. _The Faun of Praxiteles._ A copy of the original statue by
+Praxiteles, which was in the street of the Tripods, Athens. In the
+Capitol Museum, Rome.
+
+9. _Sophocles._ Referred to by Collignon as a faithful copy of the
+bronze statue raised by Lycurgus. Found at Terracina in 1838, and now in
+the Lateran Museum, Rome.
+
+10. _Ares Seated._ Considered by Furtwängler and others a copy on a
+reduced scale of a colossal statue by Scopas. The little god Eros is the
+copyist's addition. Found in the portico of Octavia, and restored by
+Bernini. Now in the Ludovisi Villa, Rome.
+
+11. _Head of the Olympian Hermes._ An undisputed original work of
+Praxiteles, dating from the middle of the 4th century B. C. It was in
+the Heræum (or Temple of Hera) at Olympia, and was discovered by German
+excavators, May 8, 1877. Now in the museum at Olympia, Greece.
+
+12. _The Discobolus_, a copy from an original by Myron, one of the last
+masters of the "severe style," whose career culminated 465-450 B. C. In
+the Lancelotti Palace, Rome.
+
+13. _The Aphrodite of Melos (The Venus of Milo)._ Formerly attributed to
+the period of transition between Phidias and Praxiteles, but assigned by
+late critics to the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). Believed by
+Furtwängler to be based on a work by Scopas, with considerable
+modification of the original. Found in 1820 on the island of Melos at
+the entrance of the Greek Archipelago. Purchased by the French
+government for 6000 francs, and now in the Louvre, Paris.
+
+14. _Orpheus and Eurydice._ One of several copies of an original
+bas-relief referred by Collignon to the second half of 5th century B. C.
+In the Albani Villa, Rome.
+
+15. _Nike (The Winged Victory)._ A marble statue believed to have been
+set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes to celebrate a naval victory in 306 B.
+C. Found in 1863 by the French consul on the island of Samothrace. Now
+in the Louvre, Paris.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI
+
+
+From the earliest times men have sought to explain in one way and
+another the common facts of daily life. Sunrise and sunset, seedtime and
+harvest, life, death, and the hereafter are some of the mysteries which
+have always puzzled the human mind. The primitive races, knowing nothing
+of science, looked upon the forces of nature as gigantic personalities,
+or gods, who controlled human destiny.
+
+The most refined and imaginative of the ancient nations were the Greeks.
+They invented innumerable tales or myths, in which all the changes of
+nature and all the affairs of life were attributed to the workings of
+the gods. When the sun rose, they said that Apollo had begun to drive
+his chariot across the sky. When the wind blew, Zeus was sending his
+messenger from the sky to the earth. When a man did a courageous deed,
+it was because Athena had whispered to him what to do.
+
+In this way the beliefs gradually took form which made the Greek
+religion. Great temples were built for the worship of the gods, and
+statues were set up in their honor. The finest works of Greek art were
+connected with religious worship.
+
+The gods were conceived as having the same form as human beings, but of
+colossal size. They lived in an ideal country called Olympus,
+
+    "Olympus, where the gods have made,
+    So saith tradition, their eternal seat.
+    The tempest shakes it not, nor is it drenched
+    By showers, and there the snow doth never fall.
+    The calm, clear ether is without a cloud,
+    And in the golden light that lies on all,
+    Day after day the blessed gods rejoice."[3]
+
+[3] Odyssey, Book vi., lines 54-60 in Bryant's translation.
+
+Here each god had a separate dwelling, and in the midst was the palace
+of their supreme ruler, Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter or Jove.
+
+Zeus was the sky god, "the father of gods and men," and the ruler of
+heaven and earth. He was the "cloud compeller" at whose will the clouds
+gathered or scattered across the sky, the "ruler of the storms," the
+"thunderer," by whom were hurled the ruddy lightnings. How far he
+surpassed all other gods in power is explained in the Iliad in an
+address made by Zeus himself to the gods:--
+
+                      "Suspend from heaven
+    A golden chain; let all the immortal host
+    Cling to it from below: ye could not draw,
+    Strive as ye might, the all-disposing Jove
+    From heaven to earth. And yet if I should choose
+    To draw it upward to me, I should lift,
+    With it and you, the earth itself and sea
+    Together, and I then would bind the chain
+    Around the summit of the Olympian mount,
+    And they should hang aloft."[4]
+
+[4] Iliad, Book viii., lines 21-30 in Bryant's translation.
+
+[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI
+
+_Vatican Gallery, Rome_]
+
+In the imagination of the Greeks Zeus was endowed with all the noblest
+elements in human character. He ruled the affairs of men with fatherly
+benevolence. He rewarded goodness, punished the wicked, and was withal
+the fountain-head of justice. By a nod of his head he made known his
+will, and there was no appeal from his decrees.
+
+Naturally, the Greeks pictured this god as a being of majestic stature
+and grand, benignant countenance, and sculptors did their best to make
+statues worthy of this conception. By common consent a certain type of
+countenance was accepted as the most fitting expression of this ideal.
+At last a great artist named Phidias produced a statue which perfectly
+carried out all the ideas at which other sculptors had aimed. It was of
+colossal size, made of gold and ivory, and was set up in a temple of
+Olympia. From this time forth every sculptor who had to represent Zeus
+had only to repeat the design of Phidias.
+
+Now we know that the farther an imitator gets from the original
+standard, the weaker is his copy. The first successors of Phidias made
+direct studies from his statue, but those coming after worked from
+copies. Still later artists took for their models copies of these
+copies, until at last much of the original grandeur of Phidias's
+conception was lost.
+
+The bust of Zeus reproduced in our illustration is thought to be a
+far-away copy of the head of Phidias's statue. From the marble of which
+it is made we know that it was executed in Italy, probably by some Greek
+sculptor who had come thither after his own nation had been conquered by
+Rome. The marvel is that he preserved so well the noble dignity of the
+ideal Zeus. This is the father of gods and men in his most benign
+aspect. The massive head is crowned like that of a lion with long,
+overhanging locks with which the flowing beard is mingled. These are the
+
+                               "Ambrosial curls
+    Upon the Sovereign One's immortal head,"
+
+of which Homer writes in the Iliad. The symmetrical arrangement of hair
+and beard carry out the character of perfect evenness belonging to the
+supreme ruler.
+
+The forehead has the full bar of flesh which denotes virility. The brows
+are straight, the nose finely modeled, the lips rather full, the
+expression benignant. Altogether the impression is of a being of mental
+and moral equipoise, full of energy and noble dignity.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA)
+
+
+Athena was the air goddess of the Greeks, or, in Ruskin's phrase, "the
+queen of the air." She was known also by the name Pallas, and among the
+Romans as Minerva. As the air comes to us from out the great dome of the
+sky, so Athena was said to have sprung fully armed from the head of her
+father Zeus. The old Homeric hymn tells how
+
+                       "Wonder strange possessed
+    The everlasting gods that shape to see,
+    Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously
+    Rush from the crest of ægis-bearing Jove."[5]
+
+[5] In Shelley's translation.
+
+Her eyes were blue, the color of the sky; her hair hung in ringlets over
+her shoulders. Her dress was
+
+                          "A gorgeous robe
+    Of many hues, which her own hands had wrought."[6]
+
+[6] Iliad, Book viii., lines 483, 484.
+
+When arrayed for war she wore a golden helmet and carried a shield, or
+_ægis_. In the centre of this shield was fastened the gorgon's head
+which Perseus had cut off with her aid. In her hand she wielded a mighty
+spear.
+
+The owl was her symbolic bird, and she was called _glaukopis_, or
+owl-eyed, because her wisdom gave her sight in darkness. The serpent was
+the emblem of her command over the beneficent and healing influences in
+the earth. Her favorite plant was the fruitful olive, valued by the
+Greeks both for the beauty of its foliage and for the usefulness of its
+oil.
+
+In the fortunes of war, when it was for defensive aims, Athena took an
+intense interest and an active part. In the war between the Greeks and
+the Trojans, she was on the side of the Greeks, who sought to recover
+from their enemies their queen Helen, whom the Trojan prince had
+captured. When the Greek army assembled before the walls of Troy--
+
+                          "Among them walked
+    The blue-eyed Pallas, bearing on her arm
+    The priceless ægis, ever fair and new,
+    And undecaying; from its edge there hung
+    A hundred golden fringes, fairly wrought,
+    And every fringe might buy a hecatomb.
+    With this and fierce, defiant looks she passed
+    Through all the Achaian host, and made their hearts
+    Impatient for the march and strong to endure
+    The combat without pause,--for now the war
+    Seemed to them dearer than the wished return
+    In their good galleys to the land they loved."[7]
+
+[7] Iliad, Book ii., lines 549-560 in Bryant's translation.
+
+As the air gives us the breath of life, so Athena gave inspiration to
+the heart of man. It was her friendly mission to fill with "strength and
+courage" the hearts of those who were beset by difficulties of many
+kinds.[8] To Achilles, lamenting the death of Patroclus, she came with
+nectar and ambrosia, that his limbs might not grow faint with hunger.[9]
+It was because of her aid that Diomed could proudly declare, "Minerva
+will not let my spirit falter;" and when he cast his spear, "Minerva
+kept the weapon faithful to its aim."[10]
+
+[8] See the Iliad, Book v., line 2, and the Odyssey, Book i., line 396.
+
+[9] Iliad, Book xix., lines 427-429.
+
+[10] Iliad, Book v., lines 309 and 352.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA)
+
+_Vatican Gallery, Rome_]
+
+To Athena Ulysses owed his safe return to Ithaca after the adventures
+related in the Odyssey. It was her adroit planning which brought
+together the long lost father and his son Telemachus, with the faithful
+wife Penelope. She also found ways to help Jason when he went in search
+of the golden fleece; she aided Hercules in his labors and guided the
+hand of Perseus when he cut off the Gorgon's head.
+
+Athena was also the patroness of the industrial arts. She was skilful in
+weaving and needlework, making both her own and others' beautiful robes
+and teaching the craft to some favored mortals. She was, in short, the
+personification of "inspired and impulsive wisdom in human conduct and
+human art, giving the instinct of infallible decision, and of faultless
+invention."[11] Finally, and not least important, Athena was one of the
+agencies in the productiveness of the earth, and hence the patron
+goddess of farmers.
+
+[11] From Ruskin's _Queen of the Air_.
+
+Our statue shows as many as possible of the attributes of the goddess.
+The figure is tall and stately and magnificently developed. The Greek
+ideal of beauty was to let nature have its way in the human body,
+unhindered by any such restraints of clothing as our modern fashions
+have invented. The broad shoulders and ample waist bespeak the splendid
+strength of the goddess.
+
+The neck rises from the shoulders like a column to support the well-set
+head. A tunic falls in straight folds to the feet, and over this is worn
+a long mantle gathered over the left shoulder. Upon her breast hangs the
+shield, here made very small, and the helmet and spear complete her
+equipment as a goddess of war. At her side coils the emblematic serpent.
+
+Her aspect is far from warlike. The face is intellectual and the
+expression thoughtful. This is the goddess of wisdom reflecting upon
+grave concerns. The mouth is set somewhat proudly, and the countenance
+is full of a dignified reserve. The masterful element, so strong in her
+character, is admirably expressed. There is something almost austere in
+the beauty of this virgin goddess. A majestic being like this is not one
+to be familiarly approached.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE
+
+
+To understand the history and meaning of the bas-relief reproduced in
+our illustration, we must first learn something of the worship of Athena
+in her chosen city of Athens. An annual festival was held here in her
+honor, and every four years occurred a very elaborate celebration called
+the Panathenæa. The Panathenæa lasted several days, and attracted
+throngs of people from all parts of Greece. There were contests in
+gymnastics and music, torch-races, horse-races, feasts and dances.
+Sacrifices of oxen were offered on the altar of the goddess, every state
+having to furnish an ox for the purpose. The climax was reached on the
+last day, when a great procession started at sunrise and traversed the
+streets of the city to the temple of Athena. It is with this procession
+that the bas-relief of our picture is connected, as we shall presently
+see.
+
+Some time before the festival a group of Athenian maidens of the noblest
+families had made and embroidered for Athena a beautiful robe called the
+_peplos_. This was carried above the procession, stretched like a sail
+on the mast of a ship which was rolled through the street on wheels. The
+pageant was made up of many different companies. There were the
+Athenian magistrates, grave and dignified, maidens carrying sacrificial
+vessels, men bearing trays of cakes, citharists (harpists) and
+flute-players, old men with olive branches, four-horse chariots with
+armed warriors, rows of young men mounted on prancing steeds, and
+attendants with the cattle for the sacrifice.
+
+During the invasion of Greece by the Persians, the temple of Athena in
+Athens was destroyed by fire. Later, on its site, was erected another to
+replace it, called the Parthenon. The city was now at the height of its
+prosperity under the statesman Pericles. At this time also lived the
+great sculptor Phidias, and to him Pericles intrusted the decoration of
+the new temple.
+
+The Parthenon was built of Pentelic marble, and the temple proper was
+surrounded by a portico supported on rows of columns. The outside of the
+building was richly adorned with bas-reliefs. There were designs in the
+triangular spaces under the roof called _pediments_. Above the columns
+ran a series of panels called _metopes_. Finally, there was a _frieze_
+extending around the temple wall, to be seen from within the portico. It
+is a bit of this frieze which is reproduced in our illustration.
+
+[Illustration: London Stereoscopic Co., Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE
+
+_British Museum, London_]
+
+The Panathenaic procession is the subject carried the entire length of
+this bas-relief decoration. On the portion running across one end were
+depicted the scenes of preparation. Men are in the act of mounting their
+horses, some having spirited animals to deal with, and all making ready
+for the start. At the opposite end is the scene of the arrival at the
+temple. Here sit the gods to receive the sacrifice, while the
+magistrates stand ready to perform the rites, and maidens approach with
+the vessels. On the two long sides the procession is seen actually in
+motion. Here are represented all the figures which took part in such
+occasions; old men and maidens, musicians, horsemen, charioteers, and
+sacrificial animals, all moving forward on their way. Group follows
+group, with that contrast and variety which give interest to a pageant,
+and with the proper orderliness to give it unity.
+
+Our panel shows us a line of horsemen riding four abreast. Though it is
+broken and defaced, we catch at once the spirit of the work. The horses
+are splendid animals; with dilated nostrils, and necks proudly arched,
+they seem to prance to the music of the flutes. Though they are well
+matched in size and type, no two are really alike. Every one has as
+distinct a character as a human being, and lovers of horses might choose
+each his own favorite from the four.
+
+Only two of the riders fall within our range of vision. They are
+handsome youths, with the perfectly formed head and finely cut profile
+which we learn to recognize as the Greek ideal of beauty. The line
+across forehead and nose is perfectly straight, and the line connecting
+nose and chin forms a corresponding angle. Both faces bear the stamp of
+refinement and high breeding which mark them as belonging to the class
+of Athenian nobles.
+
+Though the two youths have so similar a cast of countenance, they are
+quite unlike in temperament. The farther one is of a somewhat dreamy,
+poetic nature. He rides with bent head as if in a reverie. His companion
+is of a sterner, more virile type. He looks straight before him, and
+carries his head with a sense of the dignity of the occasion.
+
+Both youths sit their horses as if born in the saddle. Horse and rider
+are one, animated by a single dominant will. The Athenian youth were
+trained from childhood in all sorts of manly exercise. The normal
+development of the body was of first importance in the Greek educational
+system. These young men are typical examples of the fine specimens of
+manhood which that training produced.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+BUST OF HERA (JUNO)
+
+
+               "The white armed queen,
+    Juno, the mistress of the golden throne."
+
+It is thus that the Iliad describes Hera, the wife of Zeus, now more
+often called by her Roman name Juno. The marriage union between the
+ruler of the gods and his queen represented the Greek ideal of perfect
+conjugal happiness. Hera was therefore the goddess who presided over
+human marriages, and was the type of matronly virtue and dignity. As the
+queen of heaven, she had it in her power to bestow great riches, honor,
+and influence upon her favorites.
+
+In the Trojan war she was, like Athena, a partisan of the Greeks, and
+once or twice even accompanied the war goddess to the battlefield.
+Usually, however, her pursuits were of a more peaceful and domestic
+order. She was a very beautiful goddess, "ox-eyed" in the quaint Greek
+phrase, that is, with large expressive eyes. She had the august and
+majestic bearing befitting a queen, and is usually described in classic
+literature as wearing a veil. A long passage in the Iliad gives an
+account of her toilet when arraying herself for a special occasion.
+After bathing in ambrosia, and anointing with oil,
+
+                        "When thus her shapely form
+    Had been anointed, and her hands had combed
+    Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls,
+    Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung
+    Round her immortal brow. And next she threw
+    Around her an ambrosial robe, the work
+    Of Pallas, all its web embroidered o'er
+    With forms of rare device. She fastened it
+    Over the breast with clasps of gold, and then
+    She passed about her waist a zone which bore
+    Fringes a hundred-fold, and in her ears
+    She hung her three-gemmed ear-rings, from whose gleam
+    She won an added grace. Around her head
+    The glorious goddess drew a flowing veil,
+    Just from the loom, and shining like the sun;
+    And, last, beneath her bright white feet she bound
+    The shapely sandals."[12]
+
+[12] Iliad, Book xiv., lines 210-226 in Bryant's translation.
+
+One of the prettiest stories about Hera is that in which she acted as
+the friend of Jason. Jason was the son of a dethroned king and was
+brought up by the centaur Chiron. When he came of age he set forth, with
+much good advice from Chiron, to reclaim his father's kingdom. On his
+journey he came to a swollen stream which seemed well-nigh impassable.
+As he was considering the danger of crossing it, an old woman on the
+bank begged him to carry her over. This was a hazardous undertaking, and
+the young man was sorely tempted to refuse her. At last his kindness
+triumphed and he consented. Taking her on his back, he struggled across
+the river at the peril of his life. When he set her safely on the
+opposite bank, a wonderful thing happened. "She grew fairer than all
+women, and taller than all men on earth; and her garments shone like the
+summer sea, and her jewels like the stars of heaven; and over her
+forehead was a veil, woven of the golden clouds of sunset, and through
+the veil she looked down on him with great soft heifer's eyes; with
+great eyes, mild and awful, which filled all the glen with light."[13]
+Then he knew that this was Hera, and from thenceforth she was his guide
+in every time of need.
+
+[13] From Kingsley's _Greek Heroes_: the Argonauts.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+BUST OF HERA (JUNO)
+
+_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_]
+
+The bust of Hera, reproduced in our illustration, shows how the Greeks
+liked to think of their queen goddess. We at once recognize the features
+assigned to her by tradition; the large eyes set somewhat far apart, the
+low, broad forehead, the mild expression. The waving hair is parted, and
+gathered at the back in a matronly coiffure, and over it is worn the
+crown of a queen.
+
+We have seen that in Greek sculpture the artist was not always left to
+represent the divinities according to his own imagination. For each one
+a certain fixed type had been gradually thought out in very early times,
+and this type was handed down from generation to generation. A statue or
+bust could always be recognized without any title. No one, for instance,
+could ever mistake Zeus for Apollo, or confuse Hera and Athena.
+
+By comparing this head of Hera with that of Athena in our previous
+illustration, we can see how perfectly sculpture carried out the
+distinctions in the two characters. Hera was less intellectual than
+Athena, and had perhaps more distinctly feminine charms. The mouth has
+less strength and firmness, the expression more mildness. Her beauty is
+naturally of a more matronly type than that of the virgin goddess. The
+crown which she wears belongs as distinctly to her as does the helmet to
+Athena.
+
+A careful examination of the face suggests that it may have been studied
+from actual life. If, as some critics believe, the bust was made in Rome
+by some Greek sojourning there after the conquest of his own nation, a
+noble Roman matron may have been the model. Be that as it may, this is
+Hera as the Greeks worshipped her, and perhaps the best existing
+representation of the great goddess.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE APOXYOMENOS
+
+
+An important part of the Greek system of education was the training of
+the body in physical exercise. For this purpose there were gymnasia in
+every city, where the youth were trained in running, leaping, wrestling,
+throwing the javelin, and casting the discus. Great spaces were occupied
+by these gymnasia, which included buildings for dressing-rooms and
+baths, porticoes and halls used as assembly-rooms, walks, gardens, and
+the palæstra, or wrestling-field.
+
+Every four years a great national festival was held at Olympia,
+consisting of games or contests in the various athletic sports. Every
+freeman of Hellenic blood had a birthright to take part in them. The
+contestants were required to undergo a preparatory training, often
+lasting months, in the gymnasium of Elis, the province in which Olympia
+was situated.
+
+During the progress of the games a universal truce was proclaimed
+throughout Greece. All hostilities ceased for the time, and the Greeks
+as a united people assembled at Olympia for the joyous celebration in
+honor of Zeus. So important were these Olympic games that they were used
+as a standard for reckoning time. In assigning a date to an event, the
+Greeks used to say that it took place in this or that Olympiad, an
+Olympiad being the period of four years between two successive
+festivals.
+
+We may well believe that the Olympic festivals, as well as the ordinary
+daily exercise in the city gymnasia, had great attractions for
+sculptors. The palæstra must have been a favorite resort of artists.
+What a sight it was when the young men came out of the dressing-rooms
+stripped for running, their bodies shining with oil,--what a play of
+muscles in the lithe young limbs as the runners "pressed toward the mark
+for the prize of the high calling!" The course was usually of deep sand,
+and was about three miles in length. The runners trained for special
+emergencies attained extraordinary speed and endurance. The race over,
+each youth returned to the dressing-rooms of the gymnasium and, taking a
+small instrument called the _strigil_, made of metal, ivory, or horn,
+scraped the oil from his body.
+
+It is in this cleansing process that the young man of our illustration
+is engaged. The statue on this account is called the Apoxyomenos, which
+is a Greek word meaning "scraping himself." It represents a typical
+incident of the life of the gymnasium, such as might be seen any day of
+the year.
+
+Tall and graceful, with slender flexible limbs, the youth stands in an
+attitude of rest, scraping his right arm. In his fingers is the die
+which marks his number in the race. His body rests upon one leg, but so
+light is his poise that he is ready to change his position momentarily.
+Neither attitude nor countenance shows any sense of exhaustion, only
+that delicious fatigue which makes rest so enjoyable.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+THE APOXYOMENOS
+
+_Vatican Gallery, Rome_]
+
+There is a passage in the Greek poet Aristophanes' comedy of the
+Clouds, in which a speaker urges upon a young man the life of the
+gymnasium. "Fresh and fair in beauty-bloom," he says, "you shall pass
+your days in the wrestling-ground, or run races beneath the sacred olive
+trees, crowned with white reed, in company with a pure-hearted friend,
+smelling of bindweed, and leisure hours, and the white poplar that sheds
+her leaves, rejoicing in the prime of spring when the plane tree
+whispers to the lime." This is the kind of life typified in the figure
+of our statue,[14] a side of Greek life which no one can overlook if he
+would understand the genius of the Greek nation.
+
+[14] The application of this passage to the Apoxyomenos is made by J. A.
+Symonds in his _Greek Poets_.
+
+It must not be supposed that our statue represents an actual individual.
+It is not a portrait, but an imaginary typical figure. It is true that
+portrait statues of athletes were made in great numbers, as we shall
+note again in another chapter. It was indeed this practical experience
+among athletes that led sculptors to see what a perfect human figure
+ought to be. In the study of many different forms they developed an idea
+of a type common to all and uniting all the perfections. Certain
+sculptors figured out what they regarded as the true proportions of the
+ideal human form. One of these was Lysippus, who is believed to have
+executed this statue as an illustration of his theories. We note as the
+special characteristics of his ideal figure that it is tall, with slim
+light limbs, and a rather small head, about one eighth the total height.
+
+We may now see how such a statue as the Apoxyomenos was a preparatory
+study for statues of the gods. The gods were to be represented in the
+most perfect human forms which it was possible to conceive, and by
+working out typical figures like this, forms were found worthy of the
+noblest subjects. Thus the proportions discovered by Lysippus were
+peculiarly appropriate for the lighter, fleeter gods, as Apollo and
+Hermes.
+
+Lysippus executed his works entirely in bronze, and the statue
+reproduced in our illustration is a marble copy of the original, which
+was long since lost.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+
+
+Phœbus Apollo was the Greek god of day, who drove the great chariot
+of the sun across the sky from dawn to sunset. As the sun's rays pierce
+the air with darts of fire, so Apollo is an archer god carrying a quiver
+full of arrows. The old Homeric hymn calls him--
+
+        "Heaven's far darter, the fair king of days
+    Whom even the gods themselves fear when he goes
+    Through Jove's high house; and when his goodly bows
+    He goes to bend, all from their thrones arise
+    And cluster near t' admire his faculties."[15]
+
+[15] In Chapman's translation.
+
+If we count up all the gifts which the sunlight brings us, we shall have
+a list of the offices of Apollo. He brought the spring and the summer,
+and ripened the grain for harvest. He warded off disease and healed the
+sick. One of his earliest adventures was to slay the serpent Python
+lurking in the caves of Mt. Parnassus. Like the legend of St. George and
+the Dragon, the story is an allegory of the triumph of light over
+darkness, health over disease, the power of good over the power of evil.
+
+Apollo was also the patron of music, having received from Hermes the
+gift of the lyre. He was wont to play at the banquets of the gods, and
+the poet Shelley describes his music in these words:--
+
+    "And then Apollo with the plectrum strook
+    The chords, and from beneath his hands a crash
+    Of mighty sounds rushed up, whose music shook
+    The soul with sweetness, and like an adept
+    His sweeter voice a just accordance kept."[16]
+
+[16] From Shelley's translation of the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_.
+
+Poetry and the dance were also under Apollo's protection, and he was the
+leader of the nine muses.
+
+His highest office was prophecy, and in all his temples the priestesses
+gave mystic revelations of the future. The most famous of these was at
+Delphi, built over an opening in the ground, whence a strange vapor
+rose. The priestess, a young woman called a _pythia_, from the python
+slain by Apollo, sat over this opening on a three-legged seat, or
+tripod, and answered the questions brought to her. Her sayings were in
+verses called _oracles_, supposed to be communicated to her by the god.
+
+Now, as might be expected, the character of Apollo was as pure and
+transparent as the sunlight itself. He required clean hands and pure
+hearts of those who worshiped him. As the sunlight shines into the dark
+places of the earth, driving the shadows away, so Apollo hated all that
+was dark and evil in human life. He was not only the rewarder of good
+but the punisher of evil. In Shelley's "Hymn of Apollo" these words are
+put in the god's mouth:--
+
+    "The sunbeams are my shafts, with which I kill
+    Deceit, that loves the night and fears the day;
+
+    All men who do or even imagine ill
+    Fly me, and from the glory of my ray
+    Good minds and open actions take new might,
+    Until diminished by the reign of night."
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE
+
+_Vatican Gallery, Rome_]
+
+The head of Apollo in our illustration is from a famous full-length
+statue of the god known as the Apollo Belvedere. The name Belvedere,
+which is useful only to distinguish the statue from others of the same
+subject, comes from the fact that the marble once adorned a pavilion of
+the Vatican called the Belvedere.
+
+The god stands with left arm extended holding, it is supposed, either a
+bow or a shield. A quiver of arrows is slung across his back, and a
+chlamys, or cloak, hangs over his left shoulder. His is the proud
+attitude of one who is defending some sacred trust. So he holds his head
+high and gazes steadily before him as if watching an arrow speed to its
+mark, or perhaps scanning the vanguard of an approaching army. The
+expression is not a little haughty, and one detects an almost disdainful
+curve of the lips as if the god regarded the enemy with scorn. The face
+is cut in an aristocratic mould, with fine sensitive lines which mark
+the lover of music and poetry. In fact, the refinement of his beauty has
+something of a feminine quality.
+
+The carefully curled hair is gathered in a bow knot on the top of his
+head. It may indeed be supposed that the handsome young god was by no
+means unconscious of his charms, and took no little pains to display
+them to good advantage.
+
+The Apollo, however, is a god worthy of our admiration for the noble
+purity of his countenance. Surely, all base thoughts and mean motives
+would be put to shame by this pure presence.
+
+The poet Byron, whose "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" describes many
+interesting sights in Greece and Italy, has written these lines about
+the Apollo Belvedere:--
+
+      "The Lord of the unerring bow,
+    The god of life, and poesy, and light--
+    The sun, in human limbs array'd, and brow
+    All radiant from his triumph in the fight;
+    The shaft hath just been shot--the arrow bright
+    With an immortal's vengeance; in his eye
+    And nostril beautiful disdain, and might,
+    And majesty flash their full lightnings by,
+    Developing in that one glance the deity."
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+DEMETER (CERES)
+
+
+The Greeks worshipped among their deities a goddess called Demeter,
+which means "mother earth." It was her office to attend to the sowing
+and reaping and all kinds of farm work. She first taught mankind the use
+of the plough; she helped the men in their threshing and the women in
+their baking. All country folk sought her blessing in their labors. She
+was, in fact, a personification of nature, and perhaps it is a remnant
+of the old Greek belief in our speech that we still refer to "mother
+earth" and "mother nature."
+
+Demeter's only child was a daughter, Persephone, and upon her she
+lavished all a mother's fond devotion. The story runs that one day
+Persephone was gathering posies in the meadow when a strange accident
+overtook her. A beautiful flower suddenly attracted her attention, the
+like of which she had never before seen. When she put forth her hand to
+pluck it, the entire plant came up by the roots, leaving a hole in the
+ground. The hole widened into a great crack, the earth shook with a
+mighty thundering, and out dashed a chariot drawn by coal-black steeds,
+bearing Pluto, the king of the lower regions. He caught up the
+astonished Persephone, and away they sped again into the gloomy kingdom
+beyond the Styx, where Persephone was installed as queen.
+
+Demeter, missing her daughter, inquired everywhere what had become of
+the maiden, but none could tell her. Then she lighted a torch and began
+a weary search for the lost child. Nine days she wandered without
+finding any clew. But on the tenth day she met the old witch Hecate, who
+had heard Persephone scream when she was carried away. Together the two
+sought Apollo, who sees all the doings of gods and men, and he told them
+the whole story. "Then a more terrible grief took possession of Demeter,
+and ... she forsook the assembly of the gods and abode among men for a
+long time, veiling her beauty under a worn countenance so that none who
+looked upon her knew her." She declared that the earth should not again
+bring forth fruit till she had seen her daughter.
+
+It comforted her not a little in this time of mourning to take a
+mother's care of a certain sickly little child she chanced upon.
+Disguised as a nurse, she fed the child upon ambrosia, held him in her
+bosom, and at night covered him in a bed of coals. Under this treatment
+he thrived amazingly; but the parents discovered the nurse's strange
+ways and became alarmed. Their anxiety was turned to dismay when they
+learned that this was a goddess, who would have made their son immortal
+but for their interference.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+DEMETER (CERES)
+
+_Vatican Gallery, Rome_]
+
+In the mean time the crops fell into a bad state, and it was a year of
+grievous famine. Demeter still kept her vow to let no green thing appear
+upon the earth. Then Zeus came to the rescue of perishing humanity. He
+sent a messenger to Pluto begging him to let Persephone return to her
+mother. The request was granted, the chariot was made ready, but the
+wily king first pressed his bride to eat with him some pomegranate
+seeds, designing that she should return to him again. Mother and
+daughter were now joyfully reunited, but not without further separation;
+for a portion of each year Persephone returned to her kingdom below the
+earth, reappearing in the spring to visit her mother. And this is why to
+this day the harvest is followed by winter until the spring revisits the
+earth.[17]
+
+[17] The story of Demeter and Persephone is related in the Homeric _Hymn
+to Demeter_, of which an abridged English version is given in the
+chapter on the Myth of Demeter and Persephone in Pater's _Greek
+Studies_. The same chapter refers to various other ancient forms of the
+story, one of the most important being that of Ovid's Metamorphoses,
+translated into English blank verse by Edward King.
+
+In all this story we see that the most striking characteristic of
+Demeter is her motherliness. In some respects she is like Hera, because
+both are matrons and are patterns of the domestic virtues. But while
+Hera is the model wife, Demeter is the model mother.
+
+It is the motherliness of our statue which makes us feel sure that it
+must be intended to represent Demeter.[18] The goddess stands holding in
+her outstretched right hand a sheaf of wheat, and lifting high in the
+left hand the torch with which she journeyed round the world. It is as
+if she stood on the threshold of the opening season awaiting her
+daughter's return. She gazes straight before her with a look of
+expectancy as if she already saw her child from afar. Her face is
+lighted by a smile of welcome. One can fancy how tenderly those motherly
+arms will fold the child to her heart, and how gladly the daughter will
+pillow her head on that broad bosom.
+
+[18] See in the _Historical Directory_ another subject assigned to the
+statue.
+
+The figure is in striking contrast to the statue of Athena which we have
+studied. The virgin goddess is stately and unapproachable in her panoply
+of wisdom, but the great mother seems to invite our confidence. She is
+one to whom a frightened child might run, sure of being soothed. To her
+the sorrowing would turn, fearing no repulse. She would welcome, she
+would understand, she would comfort. There is strength and repose in
+every line of her majestic figure.
+
+The statue illustrates admirably the grandeur and simplicity of the best
+Greek art. The long straight lines of the drapery, unbroken by any
+unnecessary folds, are the secret of the impression of tranquil dignity
+in the work.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES
+
+
+The imagination of the Greeks peopled the woods and waters with all
+sorts of mythical beings, among which one of the most delightful was the
+faun. This was a creature half human, half animal, which frolicked in
+the woods in spring time. In outward appearance it looked much like a
+human being, except that it had pointed furry ears. In nature, however,
+it was closely akin to the animals, and lived a free happy life, with
+none of the thoughts and cares which beset the soul of man.
+
+Our statue represents a sculptor's conception of this sportive being. It
+is famous not only because it is a celebrated work of art, but because
+it takes an important place in a celebrated novel. This is the "marble
+faun" which gives the title to Hawthorne's book. It will be remembered
+that in the beginning of the story, a party of friends are visiting the
+museum of the Capitol in Rome, where the statue stands. Suddenly they
+notice the resemblance which one of their number, a young Italian named
+Donatello, bears to the statue. They bid him take the same attitude, and
+the likeness is complete. The writer describes the statue in these
+words: "The Faun is the marble image of a young man leaning his right
+arm on the trunk or stump of a tree; one hand hangs carelessly by his
+side; in the other he holds the fragment of a pipe, or some such sylvan
+instrument of music. His only garment--a lion's skin,[19] with the claws
+upon his shoulder--falls halfway down his back, leaving the limbs and
+entire front of the figure nude. The form, thus displayed, is
+marvellously graceful, but has a fuller and more rounded outline, more
+flesh, and less of heroic muscle, than the old sculptors were wont to
+assign to their types of masculine beauty.[20] The character of the face
+corresponds with the figure; it is most agreeable in outline and
+feature, but rounded and somewhat voluptuously developed, especially
+about the throat and chin; the nose is almost straight, but very
+slightly curves inward, thereby acquiring an indescribable charm of
+geniality and humor. The mouth, with its full yet delicate lips, seems
+so nearly to smile outright that it calls forth a responsive smile. The
+whole statue--unlike anything else that ever was wrought in that severe
+material of marble--conveys the idea of an amiable and sensual creature,
+easy, mirthful, apt for jollity, yet not incapable of being touched by
+pathos. It is impossible to gaze long at this stone image without
+conceiving a kindly sentiment towards it, as if its substance were warm
+to the touch, and imbued with actual life. It comes very close to some
+of our pleasantest sympathies."
+
+[19] More likely a leopard's skin.
+
+[20] Compare, for instance, the slender figure of the Apoxyomenos.
+
+[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES
+
+_Capitol Museum, Rome_]
+
+After this description the writer goes on to analyze the nature of the
+Faun. "The being here represented," he says, "is endowed with no
+principle of virtue, and would be incapable of comprehending such; but
+he would be true and honest by dint of his simplicity. We should expect
+from him no sacrifice or effort for an abstract cause; there is not an
+atom of martyr's stuff in all that softened marble; but he has a
+capacity for strong and warm attachment, and might act devotedly through
+its impulse, and even die for it at need. It is possible, too, that the
+Faun might be educated through the medium of his emotions, so that the
+coarser animal portion of his nature might eventually be thrown into the
+background, though never utterly expelled."
+
+The original statue, of which the marble of the Capitol is a copy, was
+the work of the sculptor Praxiteles. As Hawthorne says: "Only a sculptor
+of the finest imagination, the most delicate taste, the sweetest
+feeling, and the rarest artistic skill--in a word, a sculptor and a poet
+too--could have ... succeeded in imprisoning the sportive and frisky
+thing in marble." We are presently to see again in the head of Hermes
+that Praxiteles was indeed a remarkable sculptor. The Faun, however, is
+the more difficult subject of the two, for it was puzzling to think what
+expression would be proper to a being partly human, but without a soul.
+
+It is said that Praxiteles himself considered the Faun one of his two
+best works. It had been impossible for his friends to get an expression
+of opinion from him in regard to his statues, until one day a trick was
+devised to betray him. He was told that his studio was on fire, when he
+exclaimed that his labor was all lost if the Faun and the Eros were
+destroyed.
+
+The Faun originally stood in the street of the Tripods at Athens, but
+what has now become of it we do not know. The statue in our illustration
+is one of the most celebrated copies. Many travellers make a special
+pilgrimage to see it, and seeing it recall the words of Hawthorne,
+describing the spell it casts upon the spectator. "All the pleasantness
+of sylvan life, all the genial and happy characteristics of creatures
+that dwell in woods and fields, will seem to be mingled and kneaded into
+one substance, along with the kindred qualities in the human soul.
+Trees, grass, flowers, woodland streamlets, cattle, deer, and
+unsophisticated man--the essence of all these was compressed long ago,
+and still exists, within that discolored marble surface of the Faun of
+Praxiteles."
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+SOPHOCLES
+
+
+One of the greatest of Greek writers was the tragic poet Sophocles. He
+was born near Athens in the year 495 B. C., and was educated after the
+manner of the Greek youth of his time. Every advantage was given him for
+the study of music and poetry, and also for that gymnastic training
+which, as we have seen, was so important in Greek education.
+
+Sophocles was a handsome youth, and acquitted himself well in the
+palæstra. When he was sixteen years of age the great battle of Salamis
+was fought and won by the Greeks. In the celebration of this victory at
+Athens, Sophocles led with dance and lyre the chorus of young men who
+sang the pæan or hymn of victory. That such an honor should be given him
+shows how graceful and gifted he must have been.
+
+The beginning of his literary career came when he was in his
+twenty-fifth year. At that time a solemn festival was held in Athens in
+memory of the ancient King Theseus, whose bones had been brought thither
+from the island of Scyros. Now all religious festivals in Greece were
+celebrated with contests, some athletic, others artistic and literary.
+On this occasion there was a contest of dramatic poets. Æschylus was at
+that time the greatest of living tragedians, and as he was among the
+contestants, it might have been supposed that no other candidate could
+have succeeded. Sophocles now came forward with his first tragedy, and
+so remarkable was it found to be that the judges pronounced him victor.
+
+From this time forth Sophocles continually grew in dramatic and literary
+power. Twenty times he obtained the first prize in other contests, and
+many times also the second prize. The amount of his work was prodigious.
+Most of his dramas are lost, but we still have a half dozen or more to
+show us the noble quality of his work. The finest are perhaps those
+called Œdipus Tyrannus, Œdipus Coloneus, and Antigone, all dealing
+with the tragic fate of an ancient royal family.
+
+Athens was justly proud of her great poet and bestowed various honors
+upon him. He was even made a general, and served in the war against
+Samos; but nature had made him a poet, and it is as a poet that we must
+always think of him. Full of years and honors, he died in Athens at the
+age of ninety. Of him the Greek poet Phrynicus wrote,--
+
+    "Thrice happy Sophocles! in good old age
+    Blessed as a man, and as a craftsman blessed,
+    He died: his many tragedies were fair,
+    And fair his end, nor knew he any sorrow."
+
+Our portrait shows admirably what manner of man he was, handsome and
+dignified, in the prime of life.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+SOPHOCLES
+
+_Lateran Museum, Rome_]
+
+The scanty folds of his toga reveal the fine lines of his graceful
+figure. The pose shows the bodily vigor which his early athletic
+training gave him. He holds his head erect in a manner suggestive of his
+military life. The face is that of an idealist and a poet, a man who
+sees splendid visions. Yet it is not altogether dreamy in the ordinary
+sense; it has the alert, energetic aspect of one who would turn from
+vision to action. It is not hard to believe the tale of his one hundred
+and twenty-three dramas: such a man would fill his life with activity.
+The face has, too, the expression of genial kindliness which made the
+great poet so beloved of his fellow men. His must have been that calm,
+equable temperament not easily ruffled, which goes with the
+self-respecting nature. A receptacle at his side is filled with the
+scrolls of his tragedies. He stands in the attitude of a poet reciting
+his lines to an assembled audience.
+
+The statue shows how sane was the Greek ideal of intellectual greatness.
+In those days genius did not mean eccentricity, but the rule of life was
+a sound mind in a sound body. It is a mistaken notion of our own times
+that bodily health must be sacrificed to the training of the brain. It
+is even supposed by some that oddities of dress and manner are signs of
+greatness.
+
+The Greeks had no such delusions. Here is Sophocles, the greatest
+dramatic poet of antiquity, a magnificent specimen of symmetrically
+developed manhood. He is a man who has made the most of life's
+opportunities as he understood them. He enjoys perfect bodily vigor; he
+is as well a man of the world, at ease among men. There is evidently
+nothing of the recluse in his character. He wears his beard carefully
+trimmed as one who looks well to his personal appearance. Yet
+intellectual greatness is stamped on face and bearing: the noble
+countenance marks him as a poet.
+
+There was a period in Greek history when it was a custom to adorn public
+buildings with statues of famous men, living or dead. Libraries were
+appropriately decorated with statues of poets, and we fancy that our
+statue of Sophocles was made for such a purpose. The original is
+supposed to have been set up by a certain Athenian statesman named
+Lycurgus in the fourth century B. C.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+ARES SEATED
+
+
+Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of a battle men fight
+as though possessed by a spirit of fury. The excitement of the conflict
+seems to arouse an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the
+moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the ancient methods of
+warfare, when a battle was literally a hand-to-hand conflict, this
+spirit of brutality was of course even more marked. In the wars among
+the early Greeks men fell upon one another with the violence of wild
+animals.
+
+The Greeks with their ready gift for personification conceived of this
+spirit of warfare as a supernatural being acting on human lives. He was
+called Ares, the god whose special delight was to incite the fierce
+passions of men.
+
+It was natural that the Greeks should refer his influence chiefly to
+their enemies. On their own part they preferred to think that their
+armies were inspired by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied in
+Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was on the side of the
+Trojans, while Athena aided the Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were
+brought into direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit
+of strategy.
+
+An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal to her enemy, the
+translation running in these words, the Roman name Mars being used for
+Ares.
+
+    "Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood,
+    Destroyer of walled cities! should we not
+    Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend,
+    And Jove to crown with glory whom he will,
+    While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"[21]
+
+[21] Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37.
+
+As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued to aid their
+favorites. Mars was forced to yield before the skill and prudence of
+Athena. Guided by the goddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and drives
+him from the battle.[22]
+
+[22] Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075.
+
+In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome god, "stately, swift,
+unwearied, puissant." Though war was his chief delight he was quite
+susceptible to the tender passion. Venus was the object of his devotion,
+and the goddess of love returned the war god's admiration. It was she
+who soothed his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in the presence of
+the gods and struck him to earth with a stone.[23]
+
+[23] Iliad, Book xxi., lines 500 _et seq._
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+ARES SEATED
+
+_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_]
+
+The statue reproduced in our illustration shows the god in his mildest
+aspect. He is seated in a meditative attitude, clasping his hands over
+his upraised knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in a posture
+of repose, the shield is laid aside for a moment, and he rests from his
+labors. In the best period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary
+to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike action. The gods
+must always be portrayed in a dignified repose befitting their
+superiority to mankind. Not then in his attitude or expression do we
+find any sign of the character of the god. There is no suggestion of
+unrest in his quiet posture.
+
+The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint of his combative nature.
+The cast of countenance, too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in
+intellectual qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably
+attractive, with his well-chiseled features and clustering curls. The
+small ear is as delicately cut as a woman's. The fine athletic figure is
+such as any warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full of
+power even in repose. The attitude of easy grace displays its best
+points to advantage.
+
+Sitting on the ground in front of the god is the figure of a mischievous
+baby boy. This is the little god Eros, who in Greek mythology was
+supposed to be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest that
+the subject of Ares' meditations might be some affair of the heart.
+Certainly his mild smile would carry out that interpretation. Some
+critics have thought, however, that the statue did not originally
+include the child.
+
+As we study the modelling of the figure, the free sweep of the long
+lines delights the eye. We shall come to understand from repeated
+examples that the best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret of
+fine lines. Our illustration is somewhat unusual because the figure is
+seated. Even in this position, however, the sculptor gives us a sense
+of the perfect grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing heavy
+or immovable in the attitude. We can easily imagine how the god, rising
+lightly to his feet, would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES
+
+
+To do his errands and carry his messages through the universe the
+supreme god Zeus had a herald, Hermes, the god of the wind. As the wind
+blows out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from Olympus to earth to
+do the sky god's bidding. Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and
+winged sandals, which carried him about with great speed. He had also a
+short sword bent like a scythe, given him by Zeus with the cap and
+sandals. He possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, and
+of assuming different forms. As he had besides a ready wit and an
+eloquent tongue, he could make himself very useful. It was one of his
+common tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most solemn office was
+to conduct the souls of the dying to the other world.
+
+This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting forth on one of the
+errands of Zeus:--
+
+              "The herald Argicide obeyed,
+    And hastily beneath his feet he bound
+    The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn
+    To bear him over ocean like the wind,
+    And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took,
+    Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men,
+    And opens them at will from sleep."[24]
+
+[24] Book v., lines 55-61 in Bryant's translation.
+
+One of the most famous adventures of Hermes was the slaying of the
+many-eyed monster Argus, from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is
+why the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the god the Argicide.
+Another of his well known missions was the care of the motherless infant
+Bacchus, whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. An
+adventurer himself, Hermes was ever ready to aid heroes in their
+exploits. It was with his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head:
+we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" and Kingsley's "Greek
+Heroes."
+
+Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and then. An old Homeric hymn
+tells of a sly prank he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby,
+stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was keeping. He was an
+ingenious fellow too, and this is how he invented the lyre. Taking from
+the beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the shell, pierced it with holes,
+and stretched from hole to hole, at regular intervals, cords of sheep
+gut.
+
+    "When he had wrought the lovely instrument
+    He tried the chords, and made division meet,
+    Preluding with the plectrum, and there went
+    Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet
+      Of mighty sounds."[25]
+
+[25] From the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_ in Shelley's translation, Stanza
+ix.
+
+[Illustration: English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew &
+Son, Sc.
+
+HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES
+
+_Museum, Olympia_]
+
+With this instrument Apollo was so delighted that Hermes straightway
+presented it to him, to make some amends, as it were, for the injury
+done him. In return Apollo bestowed the _caduceus_, or wand, upon
+Hermes, and the two gods vowed eternal friendship.
+
+The Greeks were very fond of their god Hermes. He was not too grand to
+be companionable, like the awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo.
+They thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted ways
+and easy good nature made him a general favorite. It was an early custom
+to set up in his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes they
+were topped by the heads of other gods, but these were called for him,
+_hermæ_. In the course of time better statues were made in full length
+figure. The head reproduced in our illustration is from such an one
+which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, from the ruins of which it
+was unearthed a few years ago.
+
+The entire right arm and parts of both legs are missing, but the other
+portions of the statue show the god's position. He is leaning against a
+tree trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, who was, as we
+have seen, consigned to his care by Zeus. Hermes is not, however,
+looking at the child, but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in
+the pensive pose which we see. The features are cut with typical Greek
+regularity, but the countenance has besides its own individual charm.
+The droop of the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in the curve
+of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. The lower forehead is
+full, showing over the eyes the bar of flesh which marks the strongly
+masculine nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect
+contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear is as daintily modeled as
+the ringlets of hair.
+
+The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. It is tender and
+playful, and withal exquisitely refined and courteous. What a
+deferential listener is suggested in that pose of the head! The pure
+outline of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry who gathered
+about King Arthur's Round Table, and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself
+might not have looked like this.
+
+This statue is the work of the great sculptor Praxiteles, and is the
+only original marble in existence direct from his hands. All the rest of
+his work is known from descriptions and copies. We can understand, then,
+how sculptors and critics the world over have examined it to study the
+sculptor's methods. It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron rust
+from its long entombment under the soil.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER)
+
+
+We have seen how important a part in the Greek national life was
+occupied by the Olympic Games. They were regarded as a sacred
+institution of the gods, and to contend in them was a religious
+consecration. None could enter them who had been guilty of dishonorable
+conduct or sacrilege, and young men from the noblest families were not
+above taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, olive, and
+pine, having no intrinsic worth, but of priceless value to the
+recipients. To win them was the highest ambition of many a Greek youth.
+
+The victor was led forth before the people, crowned with the wreath and
+bearing a palm branch in his hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that
+of his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and songs were
+composed in his praise.[26] From thenceforth he was a person of
+distinction. Finally his statue was set up in the _altis_ or sacred
+grove of Olympia. There were at one time as many as three thousand such
+statues in the place.
+
+[26] See, for instance, Pindar's _Olympic Odes_.
+
+It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the sculptor had
+greater freedom than in statues of the gods. The latter must be
+represented in dignified attitudes of repose, but the former would
+naturally be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. It is
+so with the statue in our illustration called the Discobolus or
+Disk-thrower.
+
+The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old that there were Greek
+legends of famous games played by the gods and heroes. Apollo sometimes
+tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, or disk, was a heavy
+round plate of metal, bronze or iron, about eight inches in diameter,
+grasped in one hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and then
+sent flying through the air. A modern authority explains that it was
+thrown not as the quoit is to-day, with arm and shoulder only, but by
+bringing into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the body.
+"Immediately preceding the actual hurling of the discus, therefore,
+there had to be a general storing up and compression of energy which,
+when suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. The
+principle is simply that of the spring which, when compressed, shoots
+out from the centre. The greater the contortion of the body, the more
+each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, the greater will be
+the impetus when this compression is suddenly set free."[27]
+
+[27] Waldstein, in _Essays on the Art of Pheidias_, page 49.
+
+[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER)
+
+_Lancelotti Palace, Rome_]
+
+Our statue shows the disk-thrower at the moment immediately preceding
+the throw. As described by the ancient writer Lucian, "he is bent down
+into the position for the throw, turning towards the hand that holds the
+disk, and all but bending on one knee, he seems as if he would
+straighten himself up at the throw."
+
+The modern critic whom we have already quoted shows that when we view
+the statue from the front, "all the lines of the modelling indicate the
+tension of the sinews towards the contracted centre of the body, and the
+legs, neck, and shoulders tend towards the same point." When we walk
+around the statue, all the lines in the back and sides "seem to lead
+towards that central point like the spiral contraction of a spring." It
+is by thus suggesting the concentration of energy on the part of the
+Discobolus that the figure appears so full of life and action.
+
+By the choice of this posture the artist was enabled to model his figure
+on magnificent sculpturesque lines. One long fine curve sweeps along the
+right arm, is continued down the left arm, and is carried to completion
+in the left leg and foot. The counter curve starts under the right
+shoulder, and sweeps down the right side and leg.
+
+The original statue of the Discobolus was executed in bronze, and our
+reproduction is from one of several ancient copies in marble. In some of
+these the original head of the statue has been replaced by another, but
+the copy we see here has a fine, vigorous head. The English critic,
+Walter Pater,[28] describes the face "as smooth but spare, and tightly
+drawn over muscle and bone." He shows too how sympathetic the face is
+with the whole intention of the statue, "as the source of will."[29]
+
+[28] In the chapter on Athletic Prizemen, in _Greek Studies_.
+
+[29] This opinion is the more interesting because the face of the
+Discobolus is commonly criticised for "absence of emotional expression."
+See Furtwängler's _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, p. 173.
+
+The sculptor of the Discobolus was Myron, who lived in the period
+between the Persian War and the middle of the fifth century. His work
+shows his fondness for movement, though many of his subjects did not
+permit him to indulge his taste. He made a specialty of figures of
+athletes, both commemorative portrait statues and typical figures. We do
+not know whether this statue represents an actual Olympic victor, or is
+a typical figure, like the Apoxyomenos. In any case it gives an
+excellent idea of the great influence exercised upon Greek life by the
+athletic games.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO)
+
+
+By Greek tradition the fairest of the goddesses was Aphrodite, the
+goddess of love and beauty. To her every lover paid his vows and every
+maiden prayed for charms. An old legend relates that she was born from
+the foam of the sea, hence the name Aphrodite, which means "foam-born."
+Among the Romans she was called Venus. At her birth the island of Cyprus
+received her.
+
+                        "Where the force
+    Of gentle-breathing Zephyr steer'd her course
+    Along the waves of the resounding sea,
+    While yet unborn in that soft foam she lay
+    That brought her forth."
+
+Here she emerged "a goddess in the charms of awful beauty." The Hours
+welcomed her eagerly, taking her in their arms and putting a crown of
+gold upon her head. As she went on her way, flowers grew in her path,--
+
+                                   "Where her delicate feet
+    Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering sprang."[30]
+
+[30] An account of the birth of Aphrodite is given in Hesiod's
+_Theogony_ and in the Homeric _Hymn to Venus_, and the quotations here
+are drawn from both sources.
+
+As we have already seen, there were among the Greek divinities two other
+goddesses besides Aphrodite specially famed for their beauty,--Athena
+and Hera. Tradition tells how the beauty of the three was tested. An
+apple was thrown into their midst inscribed "For the fairest," and a
+contention at once arose as to the rightful owner. Paris, the prince of
+Troy, being chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Aphrodite, who promised
+him for a wife the fairest woman in Greece, that is, Helen.[31] This was
+the real cause of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks sought to recover
+their stolen princess. Aphrodite being at the bottom of the trouble
+remained through the war on the Trojan side.
+
+[31] See Tennyson's poem, _Oenone_.
+
+Oddly enough the beautiful goddess was mated to the ugliest of the gods,
+the lame blacksmith Hephæstus (or Vulcan). At his forge were made those
+fateful arrows of the little god Eros (or Cupid), the mother standing by
+to tip their points with honey.
+
+The power of love in human life made the ideal of Aphrodite very dear to
+the hearts of the Greeks. All that is most tender and sacred in this
+human relation was personified in her. As love ennobles the life and
+makes it unselfish, so, they reasoned, must Aphrodite be a grand and
+noble being. Again, as love glorifies the life, and brings joy into its
+commonest details, she must also be beautiful and laughter-loving. In
+short, one cannot think of any quality of love which was not reflected
+in the person of the glorious goddess. Temples were built in her honor,
+and she was worshiped in festivals and sacrificial rites. Statues of her
+were set up in many places, and one of the most famous which has come
+down to us is reproduced in our illustration.
+
+[Illustration: Neurdein Frères, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO)
+
+_The Louvre, Paris_]
+
+We have now learned by repeated instances that the Greeks had such
+definite ideas of their deities that their statues were as readily
+recognized as if they represented actual persons. The sculptors followed
+types accepted by tradition as the best embodiment of the characters
+they stood for. So especially with Zeus, Athena, and Hera, and so again
+with Aphrodite. She must be supremely fair, with a beauty less austere
+than that of the maiden Athena, less regal than that of Hera, and more
+fascinating than either.
+
+We see then at once that the beautiful figure of our illustration must
+be Aphrodite, or Venus. In looking at her we think, not of wisdom, or
+force, or power, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of
+her body on one foot, and advancing the other with knee bent. The
+posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, describing a
+fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper part of the
+body is uncovered, and in some mysterious way the sculptor has imparted
+to the marble a seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as
+exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted hair is drawn back
+in rippling waves over the low forehead.
+
+The eyes are not very wide open, having something of a dreamy languor.
+"Melting eyes" are indeed characteristic of Venus, and an analytical
+critic has explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by a
+"slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower eyelid." The nose is
+perfectly cut, the mouth and chin are moulded in adorable curves. Yet to
+say that every feature is of faultless perfection is but cold praise. No
+analysis can convey the sense of her peerless beauty.
+
+The statue originally stood on the Greek island of Melos, where it was
+discovered in 1820 in this broken state. Many wise heads have been
+puzzled to know the position of the missing arms. Some have thought that
+the goddess carried a shield, and others have fancied her holding the
+traditional apple. There have also been many discussions as to the date
+of the work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth century B. C.,
+the goddess would have been fully draped; if in the fourth century,
+entirely without drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of these
+periods, and combined the characteristics of both. It is a fault on his
+part to have placed the drapery in an impossible position, whence in
+actual life it would immediately fall of its own weight. Yet we do not
+think of such criticisms when we see it. The beautiful body rising above
+the drapery reminds us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from the sea
+foam. Her beauty is a union of strength and sweetness, a perfect
+embodiment of a nature at harmony with itself and its surroundings.
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE
+
+
+There was once a man named Orpheus, who lived in the land of Thrace. It
+was said that his father was Apollo, and his mother the muse Calliope;
+so it is not strange that he was both poet and musician. So enchanting
+was the music of his lyre that wild animals came forth from their haunts
+to hear him. Even trees and rocks seemed to feel the magic influence of
+the strain.
+
+He had a beautiful wife named Eurydice, whom he loved dearly, and they
+were happy together till a sad accident separated them. She was bitten
+one day by a poisonous serpent, and died from the effects of the wound.
+There was no more happiness on earth for Orpheus, and he determined to
+seek Eurydice in the underworld of the dead.
+
+Now the gates of the lower regions were guarded by a three-headed dog
+named Cerberus, but even this fierce beast was subdued by the entrancing
+music of Orpheus, who
+
+                     "Through the unsubstantial realm
+    Populous with phantom ghosts of buried men,
+    Undaunted passed to where Persephone
+    Sits by the monarch of that cheerless folk
+    Of shadows throned--and struck his lyre, and sang."
+
+Pouring forth the mournful tale of his lost love, he appealed to the
+gods to give him back Eurydice. So eloquent was his plea that all who
+listened were "moved to weeping." Then for the first time the iron
+cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, and
+
+                          "Of the nether realm
+    Nor King nor Queen had heart to say him nay."
+
+Eurydice was brought forth and restored to her husband, but a single
+condition was laid upon Orpheus in leading her out. Until they had
+regained the earth he was not to look backward, or the boon would be
+forfeited. The Latin poet Ovid tells how the two fared forth together
+from the underworld, and how Orpheus failed in the conditions of the
+agreement.
+
+                    "Through the silent realm
+    Upward against the steep and fronting hill
+    Dark with obscurest gloom, the way he led:
+    And now the upper air was all but won,
+    When fearful lest the toil o'ertask her strength
+    And yearning to behold the form he loved,
+    An instant back he looked,--and back the shade
+    That instant fled....
+    ...One last
+    And sad 'Farewell,' scarce audible, she sighed,
+    And vanished to the ghosts that late she left."[32]
+
+[32] From the Metamorphoses, Book x, in Henry King's translation, from
+which also the other quotations are drawn.
+
+[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE
+
+_Albani Villa, Rome_]
+
+Our bas-relief represents a scene of parting between Orpheus and
+Eurydice, and we may take it, as we please, to refer to their first or
+to their last farewell. It seems, however, to apply more appropriately
+to the first departure of Eurydice to the unknown land. She lays her
+hand fondly upon her husband's shoulder, and he touches it gently as if
+to detain her.
+
+The figure on the other side is the messenger god Hermes, whose mission
+is to conduct departing spirits to the other world.[33] He has come for
+Eurydice, and he takes her by the hand to draw her away. For a moment
+husband and wife gaze into each other's eyes with love and sorrow, while
+the messenger waits with exquisite courtesy.
+
+[33] See page 61.
+
+Though the Greeks had many tales of sorrow in their poetry and
+mythology, they did not often illustrate them in their art. The subjects
+of their sculpture are nearly always happy ones. Even here, you see,
+grief is made so beautiful and dignified that we forget to feel sad
+about the parting. We think most of the love and devotion between
+Orpheus and Eurydice.
+
+The simple story of the bas-relief touches us more readily perhaps than
+the grand statues of the gods. People like in art something which
+corresponds to the common human lives of all.
+
+The garment worn by Eurydice seems quite like that of the goddess
+Demeter. The drapery is very full in front, falling in long straight
+folds. At the side it is scantier and shows the motion of the figure in
+walking. The short tunic worn by the other figures is a picturesque
+costume, and the mantle swinging over one shoulder is very graceful.
+When one contrasts with these classical draperies the stiff dress of
+modern times, one wonders that the sculptor of to-day does not throw
+down his chisel in despair.
+
+The style of the draperies often enables a critic to decide in what
+period a work of art was produced. In the best art the folds are always
+simple: it is a sure sign of declining art when the folds are
+complicated and broken. Here we see the few simple, severe lines which
+mark the purest classical taste.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY)
+
+
+Upon the death of Alexander the Great there was much disputing among his
+generals as to what should become of the various provinces of his
+empire, including Greece. It was finally decided that the Greek cities
+should be left free. A general named Ptolemy soon broke this agreement
+and entered Greece, whereupon another named Antigonus promptly proceeded
+to punish him. Antigonus had a son Demetrius, who was a skilful
+engineer, and was called Poliorcetes, "besieger of cities," for his
+success in raising sieges. He was sent to Athens with a fleet of two
+hundred and fifty ships, and won the gratitude of the city for
+delivering it from the hands of Ptolemy. Demetrius next turned his
+attention to the island of Cyprus, of which Ptolemy was in possession.
+The rival forces met off Salamis, 306 B. C., in a fierce sea fight, and
+Demetrius was victorious.
+
+Now the Greeks were fond of commemorating notable events by the erection
+of statues, and it was an old custom among them to set up a statue of
+victory in honor of any success of arms on land or sea. We have seen how
+natural it was for them to attribute the affairs of life to the agency
+of the deities. So in war, greatly as they praised their armies and
+their generals, it was to Nike, the goddess of victory, that they gave
+the chief credit of success. This goddess was conceived as a winged
+being attendant upon both Zeus and Athena, who, as we have seen,
+controlled the destinies of war.
+
+To Nike then, this winged goddess of victory, was due the wonderful
+success of Demetrius over Ptolemy's fleet before Salamis, and it was
+fitting that her statue should commemorate the event. The spot chosen
+for it was the island of Samothrace, which stands so high above water
+level that it is very conspicuous in the northern Greek archipelago.
+
+The goddess was represented standing on the prow of a vessel as if
+leading the fleet to success. It may be that the old Greek idea of a
+goddess at the prow was the origin of the "figure head" for so many
+years carried by every ship that sailed the seas. The vessels in those
+old days were called _triremes_, being propelled by rowers who sat at
+their oars in three _tiers_, or banks, which gave the name to the craft.
+The goddess stood in the middle of what was called the _ikrion proras_,
+which would correspond to the forecastle deck. In her right hand she
+held a trumpet to her lips, and in her left she carried a crosstree, the
+framework of a trophy.
+
+[Illustration: Neurdein Frères, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.
+
+NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY)
+
+_The Louvre, Paris_]
+
+The figure is in an erect poise with the chest held high. You will
+notice that a walker making his way against the wind bends the body
+forward to resist its force, while one who is borne along on some
+vehicle in the face of the wind steadies himself upright. So with Nike;
+the attitude expresses the sense of exhilaration from the rush of wind
+in the face of one borne along on a moving vessel. The breeze beats the
+thin drapery back upon her, outlining the beautiful curves of bust and
+limb, and fluttering behind her in the air. The broad pinions which
+would retard the ship's motion if spread open are folded to cut the air
+like the prow.
+
+When the statue was set up and the colossal figure in white marble was
+seen against the blue sky of a southern land, what an inspiration it
+must have been as a symbol of success! What discouraged heart could look
+at such a figure and not be thrilled with new ambition! The statue of
+Nike was not the only tribute to the victory of Demetrius. Some special
+coins were struck in honor of the event, including gold staters and
+silver tetradrachms, specimens of which still exist. The design on the
+obverse of these coins represented the statue of Nike.
+
+Years passed, and at length the independence of the Greeks was crushed
+under the heel of the Roman conqueror. Many places were laid waste
+throughout the peninsula and the Greek islands. Temples were destroyed
+and pillaged, and statues were thrown from their pedestals and buried
+beneath the soil and débris. Our statue of Nike shared the sad fate
+which befell so many other great works of art. For centuries it lay in
+fragments in the ruins surrounding a temple in Samothrace. Then came the
+explorer with pickaxe and shovel, some of the precious bits were
+recovered, and learned men set to work to put them together again. The
+coins of Demetrius were their guide, and the tiny figure of Nike
+engraved thereon was the model after which the great statue was
+reconstructed.
+
+The head and arms are still missing, and a fanciful conceit might
+suggest that these losses were the marks of a hard-fought battle.
+Success has been dearly bought, but the goddess emerges, erect and
+undaunted, her tattered wings beating the air victoriously. As we look
+at the statue we think less of what it lacks than of what it is. Perhaps
+if head and arms were there we should not have eyes for the glorious
+lines in the figure itself. One particularly fine line is the continuous
+curve running across the bust and the arched top of the wings.
+
+The figure gives us a sense of motion which fairly quickens the blood in
+our veins. We, too, seem to feel the strong salt breeze in our faces,
+speeding through the air with courage high, and hope steadily set toward
+victory.
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+PERICLES
+
+
+In the history of ancient Greece the half century included between the
+years 480 and 430 B. C. is called the Age of Pericles. During forty
+years of this period Pericles was the political leader of Athens. Under
+his guidance the city reached the height of her power as the capital of
+an empire composed of tributary states. Nor was political power the
+chief glory of Athens at this time. She was the centre of arts and
+science for the whole world. This was the age of great Greek literature,
+when Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their immortal dramas. It
+was also the age of great oratory, when the Athenians constantly heard
+"the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of
+eloquence." Finally, it was the age of great art, when architecture and
+sculpture attained perfection and when Phidias, the foremost Greek
+sculptor, produced his masterpieces.
+
+Pericles was the dominating spirit in all this brilliant company. It was
+his able statesmanship which made and executed the ambitious plans for
+the aggrandizement of the city. It was, moreover, his generalship which
+carried out successfully so many military expeditions. His eloquence
+gave him great influence over the people. He had the art of controlling
+men and moving their passions as a musician plays on the strings of his
+instrument. Upon his return from the Samian war he delivered a
+remarkable funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. Still
+again, his oration in honor of the heroes of the Peloponnesian war was a
+noble eulogy of Athens and the Athenians.
+
+The part of Pericles' career which interests us most in our study of
+Greek art is his zeal in beautifying Athens with works of architecture
+and sculpture. He covered the Acropolis, as the great hill in Athens was
+called, with beautiful buildings richly adorned with sculpture. He
+appointed Phidias superintendent of all the public edifices, and
+employed the most skilled workmen. Besides many temples, a theatre for
+music, called an _odeum_, was built, and Pericles introduced into the
+Panathenaic festival a contest in music held in this place. In addition
+to the public buildings erected, Pericles caused a long wall to be built
+to surround the city with fortifications.
+
+It may be supposed that all these improvements cost a great deal of
+money, and there were not lacking men who criticised Pericles for
+extravagance in the use of public funds. In an assembly of the people,
+the great statesman called upon them to say if they thought he had spent
+too much. "Yes," came the answer. "Then," said he, "be it charged to my
+account, not yours, only let the edifices be inscribed with my name, not
+that of the people of Athens." At this they cried out that he might
+spend all he pleased of the public funds, and the criticism was
+silenced. The story shows the quick wit of the orator, as well as his
+knowledge of human nature. He knew he was safe in appealing to the pride
+of the people in their city.
+
+At the close of his long career Pericles was seized with the plague, and
+lay sick unto death. As his friends gathered about his death-bed they
+recounted his great deeds and many victories. Suddenly he interrupted
+them by exclaiming that they were praising only those qualities in which
+he was no greater than other men. In his own estimate, the most
+honorable trait of his character was that "no Athenian through his means
+had ever put on mourning."
+
+Pericles was in fact a true patriot and a benefactor of his people. In
+the administration of public affairs he showed an upright and honorable
+character. Though all his life handling the public funds and increasing
+the wealth of the state, it is said that he added not one drachma to his
+own estate. He managed his private fortune with great prudence and
+dispensed many charities to the needy. His manners were calm and
+moderate, and he never gave way to envy or anger. His biographer,
+Plutarch, has written of him that "where severity was required, no man
+was ever more moderate, or if mildness was necessary, no man better kept
+up his dignity than Pericles."
+
+Pericles was a man of fine and striking presence, with a countenance
+cast in the mould we have come to know as the typical Greek. His head
+was somewhat abnormally long, and the nickname "onion head" was given
+him on this account. Plutarch says that this peculiarity accounts for
+the fact that he was always represented in portraits as wearing a
+helmet.
+
+We have reason to believe that the bust reproduced in our frontispiece
+was made soon after his successful war against Samos. It represents him
+then in the fullness of his manhood and at the height of his success and
+popularity. The handsome face is full of refinement and shows the calm,
+equable temperament which made him a leader. His qualities of
+statesmanship strike us most forcibly in the portrait. We should hardly
+suspect that this was a great military commander. Yet that here is a
+master of men, we can easily believe. One can imagine him standing
+before a great multitude, moving them with the power of his eloquence.
+
+
+
+
+PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS
+
+
+The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of
+Webster's International Dictionary.
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS.
+
+    A Dash (¯) above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in fāte,
+    ēve, tīme, nōte, ūse.
+
+    A Dash and a Dot (ǡ) above the vowel denote the same sound, less
+    prolonged.
+
+    A Curve (˘) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in ădd,
+    ĕnd, ĭll, ŏdd, ŭp.
+
+    A Dot (·) above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in
+    pȧst, ȧbāte, Amĕricȧ.
+
+    A Double Dot (¨) above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a
+    in fäther, älms.
+
+    A Double Dot (¨) below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in
+    ba̤ll.
+
+    A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in hẽr.
+
+    A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o
+    in bôrn.
+
+    A dot (.) below the vowel u denotes the sound of u in the French
+    language.
+
+    N indicates that the preceding vowel has the French nasal tone.
+
+    ç sounds like $s$.
+
+    c̵ sounds like $k$.
+
+    s̱ sounds like $z$.
+
+    g̅ is hard as in g̅et.
+
+    ġ is soft as in ġem.
+
+
+    Achaian (ȧ-kā´yȧn).
+
+    Achilles (ȧ-kĭl´lēz).
+
+    Acropolis (ȧ-krŏp´ō̇-lĭs).
+
+    Admetus (ăd-mē´tŭs).
+
+    Ægis (ē´jĭs).
+
+    Æschylus (ĕs´kĭ-lŭs).
+
+    Agoracritus (ăg-ō̇-răk´rĭ-tŭs).
+
+    Agrippa (ȧ-grĭp´ȧ).
+
+    Albani (äl-bä´nē).
+
+    Alcamenes (ăl-kăm´ĕ-nēz).
+
+    äl´tĭs.
+
+    Antigone (ăn-tĭg̅´ō-nē).
+
+    Antigonus (ăn-tĭg̅´ō-nŭs).
+
+    Antium (ăn´shĭ-ŭm).
+
+    Aphrodite (ăf-rō̇-dī´tē).
+
+    Apollo (ȧ-pŏl´ō).
+
+    Apoxyomenos (ă-pŏx-ĭ-ŏm´ē̇-nŏs).
+
+    Ares (ā´rēz).
+
+    Argicide (är´jĭ-sīd).
+
+    Argonauts (är´g̅ō-na̤tz).
+
+    är´g̅ŭs.
+
+    Aristophanes (ăr-ĭs-tŏf´ȧ-nēz).
+
+    Athena (ă-thē´nȧ).
+
+    Athens (ăth´ĕnz).
+
+
+    Bacchus (băk´ŭs).
+
+    Belvedere (bĕl-vē̇-dēr´).
+
+    Bernini (bĕr-nē´nē).
+
+    Brunn (brŏŏn).
+
+
+    caduceus (kȧ-dū´sē̇-ŭs).
+
+    Căl´ȧmĭs.
+
+    Căllī´ōpē.
+
+    Centaur (sĕn´ta̤r).
+
+    Cerberus (sẽr´bē̇-rŭs).
+
+    Ceres (sē´rēz).
+
+    Chiron (kī´rŏn).
+
+    Collignon (kŏl-lē̇n-yôN´).
+
+    Crĕs´ĭlȧs.
+
+    Cyprus (sī´prŭs).
+
+
+    Delphi (dĕl´fī).
+
+    Dĕmē´tẽr.
+
+    Dĕmē´trĭŭs.
+
+    Dī´ō̇mĕd.
+
+    Dĭscŏb´ō̇lŭs.
+
+    dĭs´kŏs.
+
+    Dŏnätĕl´lō.
+
+
+    Elgin (ĕl´g̅ĭn).
+
+    Eros (ē´rŏs).
+
+    Euphranor (ū-frā´nôr).
+
+    Euripides (ū-rĭp´ĭ-dēz).
+
+    Eurydice (ū-rĭd´ī-sē̇).
+
+
+    Furtwängler (fōōrt´vǡng-lẽr).
+
+
+    Găl´ȧhăd.
+
+    Giustiniana (jŏŏs-tē-nē-ä´nä).
+
+    glaukopis (gla̤-kō´pĭs).
+
+    Gorgon (g̅ôr´g̅ŏn).
+
+
+    Hĕc´ǡtē.
+
+    Hĕllĕnĭs´tĭc.
+
+    Hephæstus (hē̇-fĕs´tŭs).
+
+    Hē´rä.
+
+    Heræum (hē̇-rē´ŭm).
+
+    Hĕr´cūlēs̱.
+
+    hermæ (hẽr´mē).
+
+    Hẽr´mēs̱.
+
+    Hē´sĭŏd.
+
+
+    ĭk´rĭŏn prō´räs.
+
+    Iliad (ĭl´ĭ-ȧd).
+
+    Io (ī´ō).
+
+    Ithaca (ĭth´ȧ-kȧ).
+
+
+    Jā´sŏn.
+
+    Jū´nō.
+
+    Jū´pĭtẽr.
+
+
+    Lancelotti (län-chǡ-lŏt´ē).
+
+    Lăt´ẽrȧn.
+
+    Leochares (lē̇-ŏk´ȧ-rēz).
+
+    Louvre (lōō´vr).
+
+    Lucian (lū´shĭ-ȧn).
+
+    Ludovisi (lōō-dō-vē´zē).
+
+    Lutatius Catulus (lū-tā´shĭ-ŭs kăt´ū-lŭs).
+
+    Lȳcûr´gŭs.
+
+    Lȳsĭp´pŭs.
+
+
+    Märs.
+
+    Mĕd´ĭcä.
+
+    Mē´lŏs.
+
+    Mẽr´cūry̆.
+
+    Mĕtȧmŏr´phōsēs̱.
+
+    Mĕt´ōpēs̱.
+
+    Mī´lō.
+
+    Mĭnẽr´vȧ.
+
+    Mȳ´rŏn.
+
+
+    Nĕm´ĕsĭs.
+
+    Nī´kē.
+
+    Nȳ´sȧ.
+
+
+    ōdē´ŭm.
+
+    Odyssey (ŏd´ĭ-sĭ).
+
+    Œdipus Coloneus (ĕd´ĭ-pŭs kō-lō-nē´-ŭs).
+
+    Œdipus Tyrannus (ĕd´ĭ-pŭs tĭ-răn´-ŭs).
+
+    Œnone (ē-nō´nē̇).
+
+    Olympia (ō-lĭm´pĭ-ȧ).
+
+    Olympiad (ō-lĭm´pĭ-ăd).
+
+    Olympic (ō-lĭm´pĭk).
+
+    Olympus (ō-lĭm´pŭs).
+
+    Orpheus (ôr´fūs).
+
+    Otricoli (ō-trē´kō-lē).
+
+    Ovid (ŏv´ĭd).
+
+
+    palæstra (pȧ-lĕs´trȧ).
+
+    Păl´lȧs.
+
+    Panathenæa (păn-ăth-ē̇-nē´ȧ).
+
+    Pănăthē̇nā´ĭc.
+
+    Pärnăs´sŭs.
+
+    Pär´thē̇nŏn.
+
+    Pā´tẽr.
+
+    Pǡtrō´clŭs.
+
+    Peloponnesian (pĕl-ō̇-pŏn-nē´shȧn).
+
+    Pē̇nĕl´ōpē̇.
+
+    Pĕntĕl´ĭc.
+
+    pĕp´lŏs.
+
+    Pĕr´ĭclēs.
+
+    Persephone (pẽr-sĕf´ō-nē).
+
+    Perseus (pẽr´sūs).
+
+    Phidias (fĭd´ĭ-ȧs).
+
+    Phœbus (fē´bŭs).
+
+    Phrynicus (frĭn´ĭ-kŭs).
+
+    Pĭn´dȧr.
+
+    plĕc´trŭm.
+
+    Plĭn´y̆.
+
+    Plutarch (plū´tärk).
+
+    Plū´tō.
+
+    Pŏlĭclȳ´tŭs.
+
+    Pŏlĭôrçē´tēs̱.
+
+    Prăxĭt´ĕlēs̱.
+
+    Ptolemy (tŏl´ĕ-mĭ).
+
+    Py̆th´ĭȧ.
+
+    Pȳ´thŏn.
+
+
+    Reber, von (fŏn rā´bẽr).
+
+
+    Săl´ȧmĭs.
+
+    Sā´mĭȧn.
+
+    Sā´mŏs.
+
+    Samothrace (săm´ō̇-thrās).
+
+    Scō´pȧs.
+
+    Scyros (sī´rŏs).
+
+    Sŏph´ōclēs̱.
+
+    strigil (strĭ´jĭl).
+
+    Sty̆x.
+
+    Symonds (sĭm´ŭndz).
+
+
+    Telemachus (tē̇-lĕm´ȧ-kŭs).
+
+    Terracina (tĕr-rä-chē´nä).
+
+    Thēŏg̅´ōny̆.
+
+    Theseus (thē´sūs).
+
+    Thrace (thrās).
+
+    Trastevere (träs-tā-vā´rā).
+
+    trireme (trī´rēm).
+
+    Trō´jȧn.
+
+
+    Ulysses (ū-ly̆s´sēz).
+
+
+    Vatican (văt´ĭ-kȧn).
+
+    Vē´nŭs.
+
+    Vŭl´cȧn.
+
+
+    Waldstein (wa̤ld´stīn).
+
+
+    Zeus (zūs).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll
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