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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/34842-0.txt b/34842-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..82302c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2846 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Greek Sculpture + A collection of sixteen pictures of Greek marbles with + introduction and interpretation + +Author: Estelle M. Hurll + +Release Date: January 3, 2011 [EBook #34842] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK SCULPTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +[**Transcriber's notes: + italics represented by underscores e.g. _italics_ + bold represented by $ e.g. $bold$ + The city of Terracina was mispelled Terracino in paragraph 9, + section 3 of the Introduction + end of transcriber's note**] + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +PERICLES + +_British Museum, London_] + + + + + + The Riverside Art Series + + + GREEK SCULPTURE + + A COLLECTION OF SIXTEEN PICTURES + OF GREEK MARBLES + WITH INTRODUCTION AND + INTERPRETATION + + BY + + ESTELLE M. HURLL + + [Illustration] + + BOSTON AND NEW YORK + HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + The Riverside Press Cambridge + + +COPYRIGHT 1901, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + + + +PREFACE + + +Within the limits of this small collection of pictures an attempt is +made to bring together as great a variety of subjects as possible. +Portraiture is illustrated in the statue of Sophocles and the bust of +Pericles, _genre_ studies in the Apoxyomenos and Discobolus, bas-relief +work in the panel from the Parthenon frieze and the Orpheus and +Eurydice, and ideal heads and statues in the representations of the +divinities. Both the Greek treatment of the nude and the Greek +management of drapery have due attention. + +As classic literature is the best interpreter of Greek sculpture, the +text draws freely from such original sources as the Iliad and the +Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and Ovid's Metamorphoses. + + ESTELLE M. HURLL. + + NEW BEDFORD, MASS. + January, 1901. + + + + + +CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES + + + PERICLES (_Frontispiece_) + From original in British Museum + + INTRODUCTION + I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE vii + II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE x + III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED + IN THIS COLLECTION xi + + I. BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI 1 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + II. ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) 7 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + III. HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE 13 + Picture from Photograph by the London Stereoscopic + Co. + + IV. BUST OF HERA (JUNO) 19 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + V. THE APOXYOMENOS 25 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VI. HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE 31 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VII. DEMETER (CERES) 37 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VIII. THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES 43 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + IX. SOPHOCLES 49 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + X. ARES SEATED 55 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XI. HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES 61 + Picture from Photograph by the English Photographic + Co., Athens + + XII. THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) 67 + Picture from Photograph loaned by Edward Robinson, + from the only negative known to exist + + XIII. THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) 73 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frères + + XIV. ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE 79 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XV. NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) 85 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frères + + XVI. PERICLES (See Frontispiece) 91 + + PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND + FOREIGN WORDS 95 + +_Nine of the above illustrations are from photographs in the collection +of the William Hayes Fogg Art Museum of Harvard University_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE. + +The history of Greek sculpture covers a period of some eight or nine +hundred years, and falls into five divisions.[1] The first is the period +of development, extending from 600 to 480 B. C. The second is the period +of greatest achievement, under Phidias and his followers, in the Age of +Pericles, 480-430 B. C. The third is the period of Praxiteles and +Scopas, in the fourth century. The fourth is the period of decline, +characterized as the Hellenistic Age, and included between the years 320 +and 100 B. C. The fifth is the Græco-Roman period, which includes the +work produced to meet the demand of the Roman market for Greek +sculpture, and which extends to 300 A. D. + +[1] See Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, page 42. + +Modern criticism differentiates sharply the characteristics of the +several periods and even of the individual artists, but such subtleties +are beyond the grasp of the unlearned. The majority of people continue +to regard Greek sculpture in its entirety, as if it were the homogeneous +product of a single age. To the popular imagination it is as if some +gigantic machine turned out the Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, the +Elgin Marbles, and all the rest, in a single day. Nor is it long ago +since even eminent writers had but vague ideas as to the distinctive +periods of these very works. Certain it is that all works of Greek +sculpture have a particular character which marks them as such. +Authorities have taught us to distinguish some few of their leading +characteristics. + +The most striking characteristic of Greek art is perhaps its closeness +to nature. The sculptor showed an intimate knowledge of the human form, +acquired by constant observation of the splendid specimens of manhood +produced in the palæstra. It is because the artist "clung to nature as a +kind mother," says Waldstein, that the influence of his work persists +through the ages. + +Again, Greek art is distinctly an art of generalization, dealing with +types rather than with individuals. This characteristic is of varying +degrees in different periods and with different sculptors. It is seen in +its perfection in the Elgin Marbles, in exaggeration in the Apollo +Belvedere, and at the minimum in the work of Praxiteles. Yet it is +everywhere sufficiently marked to be indissolubly connected with Greek +sculpture. + +The quality of repose, so constantly associated with Greek sculpture, is +another characteristic which varies with the period and the individual +sculptor. Between the calm dignity of the portrait statue of Sophocles +and the intense muscular concentration of Myron's Discobolus, a long +range of degrees may be included. Yet on the whole, repose is an +essential characteristic of the best Greek sculpture, provided we do not +let our notion of repose exclude the spirited element. Fine as is the +effect of repose in the Parthenon frieze, the composition is likewise +full of spirit and life. + +A distinguishing characteristic of the best Greek sculpture is its +simplicity. Compared with the Gothic sculptors, the Greeks appear to us, +in Ruskin's phrase, as the "masters of all that was grand, simple, wise +and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys of the rest of +mankind." Their work is free from that "vain and mean decoration"--the +"weak and monstrous error"--which disfigures the art of other peoples. + +As we turn from one Greek marble to another in the great sculpture +galleries of the world, the best features of the art impress themselves +deeply even upon the untutored eye. The Greek instinct for pose is +unfailing and unsurpassable. Standing or seated, the attitude is always +graceful, the lines are always fine. The best statues are equally well +composed, viewed from any standpoint. The camera may describe a +circumference about a marble as a centre, and a photograph made at any +point in the circle will show lines of rhythm and beauty. + +The faultless regularity of the Greek profile has passed into history as +the accepted standard of human beauty. The straight continuous line of +brow and nose, the well moulded chin, the full lip, the small ear, +satisfy perfectly our æsthetic ideals. + +The art of sculpture was an essential outgrowth of the Greek spirit, and +perfectly suited the requirements of Greek thought. In the words of a +recent writer, "it was the consummate expression in art of the genius of +a nation which worshiped physical perfection as the gift of the +immortals, which honored the gods by athletic games and choral dances, +and whose deities wore the flesh and shared the nature of men."[2] It +was moreover a national art, entering into every phase of public life, +and embodying the Greek sense of national greatness. + +[2] From _Italian Cities_, by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield. + +Greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only by catching +something of the spirit which produced it. One must shake off the +centuries and regard life with the childlike simplicity of the young +world: one must give imagination free rein. The same attitude of mind +which can enjoy Greek mythology and Greek literature is the proper +attitude for the enjoyment of Greek sculpture. The best interpreter of a +nation's art is the nation's poetry. + + +II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE. + +Many learned works on the subject of Greek Sculpture have been written +in various languages. Three standard authorities are the English work by +A. S. Murray, "History of Greek Sculpture," second edition, London, +1890; the French work by Collignon, "Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque," +Paris, 1892; and the German work by Furtwängler, translated into English +by E. Sellers, "The Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture," London, 1895. +Naturally these three writers are not always of one opinion, and the +student must turn from one to another to learn all the arguments +concerning a disputed point. + +For the practical every-day use of the reader who has no time to sift +the evidences on difficult questions of archæology, Gardner's "Handbook +of Greek Sculpture" is an excellent outline summary of the history of +the subject. + +Charles Waldstein's "Essays on the Art of Pheidias," New York, 1885, is +an exceedingly valuable and suggestive volume. + +Two small books, written in a somewhat popular vein, make very pleasant +reading for those pursuing these studies: "Studies in Greek Art," by J. +E. Harrison, London, 1885, and "Greek Art on Greek Soil," by J. M. +Hoppin, Boston, 1897. + +Besides the works devoted exclusively to the subject of Greek sculpture, +the subject receives due attention in various general histories of art, +of which may be mentioned, Lucy Mitchell's "History of Ancient +Sculpture," Lübke's "History of Sculpture," and Von Reber's "History of +Ancient Art." + +A valuable bibliography is given in Gardner's "Handbook." + + +III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED IN THIS COLLECTION. + +_Frontispiece._ Terminal bust of Pericles, after an original by +Cresilas. Approximate date, 440-430 B. C. In the British Museum, London. + +1. _Bust of Zeus Otricoli._ Considered by Brunn and others a copy from a +head of the statue by Phidias. Later critics do not agree with this +opinion, and Furtwängler calls the head a Praxitelean development of the +type of Zeus created in the time of Myron. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +2. _Athena Giustiniana_ (_Minerva Medica_). Considered by Furtwängler a +copy, after Euphranor, of a statue dedicated below the Capitol, called +Minerva Catuliana, set up by A. Lutatius Catulus. The ægis and sphinx +are copyist's additions. Found in the gardens of the convent of S. Maria +sopra Minerva, Rome. Both arms are restored. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +3. _Horsemen from the Parthenon Frieze._ The frieze of the Parthenon is +part of the decorative scheme of the marble temple of Athena, built +during the age of Pericles (480-430 B. C.) on the Acropolis, Athens, and +decorated under the direction of Phidias. The frieze consisted of a +series of panels or slabs, about 3 ft. 4 in. in height, and was set on +the outer wall of the cella. Being lighted from below, the lower portion +is cut in low relief (1¼ in.) and the upper parts in high relief +(2¼ in.). The panel of the Horsemen is one of the Elgin Marbles, +removed by Lord Elgin from the Parthenon in 1801-1802, and now in the +British Museum, London. + +4. _Bust of Hera._ Considered by Murray a copy after Polyclitus. +Regarded by Furtwängler as a "Roman creation based on a Praxitelean +model." Catalogued in Hare's "Walks in Rome" as a probable copy after +Alcamenes. In the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +5. _The Apoxyomenos._. A marble copy of the original bronze statue by +Lysippus, who flourished in the 4th century B. C. According to Pliny the +original was brought from Greece to Rome by Agrippa to adorn the public +baths. This copy was found in 1849 in the Trastevere, Rome, and is now +in the Vatican Gallery. + +6. _Head of the Apollo Belvedere._ According to Gardner, a marble copy +(Roman) of a bronze original of the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). +Some (Winter and Furtwängler) have assigned the original to Leochares, a +sculptor of the 4th century, and others to Calamis, in the 5th century. +This copy was found in the 16th century at Antium, and was purchased by +Pope Julius II. for the Belvedere Palace. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +7. _Demeter_ (_Ceres_) Considered by Furtwängler a copy from an original +by Agoracritus, who was a pupil of Phidias, and whose works are closely +allied to those of Alcamenes. By the same authority the statue is called +the Nemesis. In the Vatican Gallery, Rome. + +8. _The Faun of Praxiteles._ A copy of the original statue by +Praxiteles, which was in the street of the Tripods, Athens. In the +Capitol Museum, Rome. + +9. _Sophocles._ Referred to by Collignon as a faithful copy of the +bronze statue raised by Lycurgus. Found at Terracina in 1838, and now in +the Lateran Museum, Rome. + +10. _Ares Seated._ Considered by Furtwängler and others a copy on a +reduced scale of a colossal statue by Scopas. The little god Eros is the +copyist's addition. Found in the portico of Octavia, and restored by +Bernini. Now in the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +11. _Head of the Olympian Hermes._ An undisputed original work of +Praxiteles, dating from the middle of the 4th century B. C. It was in +the Heræum (or Temple of Hera) at Olympia, and was discovered by German +excavators, May 8, 1877. Now in the museum at Olympia, Greece. + +12. _The Discobolus_, a copy from an original by Myron, one of the last +masters of the "severe style," whose career culminated 465-450 B. C. In +the Lancelotti Palace, Rome. + +13. _The Aphrodite of Melos (The Venus of Milo)._ Formerly attributed to +the period of transition between Phidias and Praxiteles, but assigned by +late critics to the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). Believed by +Furtwängler to be based on a work by Scopas, with considerable +modification of the original. Found in 1820 on the island of Melos at +the entrance of the Greek Archipelago. Purchased by the French +government for 6000 francs, and now in the Louvre, Paris. + +14. _Orpheus and Eurydice._ One of several copies of an original +bas-relief referred by Collignon to the second half of 5th century B. C. +In the Albani Villa, Rome. + +15. _Nike (The Winged Victory)._ A marble statue believed to have been +set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes to celebrate a naval victory in 306 B. +C. Found in 1863 by the French consul on the island of Samothrace. Now +in the Louvre, Paris. + + + + +I + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + + +From the earliest times men have sought to explain in one way and +another the common facts of daily life. Sunrise and sunset, seedtime and +harvest, life, death, and the hereafter are some of the mysteries which +have always puzzled the human mind. The primitive races, knowing nothing +of science, looked upon the forces of nature as gigantic personalities, +or gods, who controlled human destiny. + +The most refined and imaginative of the ancient nations were the Greeks. +They invented innumerable tales or myths, in which all the changes of +nature and all the affairs of life were attributed to the workings of +the gods. When the sun rose, they said that Apollo had begun to drive +his chariot across the sky. When the wind blew, Zeus was sending his +messenger from the sky to the earth. When a man did a courageous deed, +it was because Athena had whispered to him what to do. + +In this way the beliefs gradually took form which made the Greek +religion. Great temples were built for the worship of the gods, and +statues were set up in their honor. The finest works of Greek art were +connected with religious worship. + +The gods were conceived as having the same form as human beings, but of +colossal size. They lived in an ideal country called Olympus, + + "Olympus, where the gods have made, + So saith tradition, their eternal seat. + The tempest shakes it not, nor is it drenched + By showers, and there the snow doth never fall. + The calm, clear ether is without a cloud, + And in the golden light that lies on all, + Day after day the blessed gods rejoice."[3] + +[3] Odyssey, Book vi., lines 54-60 in Bryant's translation. + +Here each god had a separate dwelling, and in the midst was the palace +of their supreme ruler, Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter or Jove. + +Zeus was the sky god, "the father of gods and men," and the ruler of +heaven and earth. He was the "cloud compeller" at whose will the clouds +gathered or scattered across the sky, the "ruler of the storms," the +"thunderer," by whom were hurled the ruddy lightnings. How far he +surpassed all other gods in power is explained in the Iliad in an +address made by Zeus himself to the gods:-- + + "Suspend from heaven + A golden chain; let all the immortal host + Cling to it from below: ye could not draw, + Strive as ye might, the all-disposing Jove + From heaven to earth. And yet if I should choose + To draw it upward to me, I should lift, + With it and you, the earth itself and sea + Together, and I then would bind the chain + Around the summit of the Olympian mount, + And they should hang aloft."[4] + +[4] Iliad, Book viii., lines 21-30 in Bryant's translation. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the imagination of the Greeks Zeus was endowed with all the noblest +elements in human character. He ruled the affairs of men with fatherly +benevolence. He rewarded goodness, punished the wicked, and was withal +the fountain-head of justice. By a nod of his head he made known his +will, and there was no appeal from his decrees. + +Naturally, the Greeks pictured this god as a being of majestic stature +and grand, benignant countenance, and sculptors did their best to make +statues worthy of this conception. By common consent a certain type of +countenance was accepted as the most fitting expression of this ideal. +At last a great artist named Phidias produced a statue which perfectly +carried out all the ideas at which other sculptors had aimed. It was of +colossal size, made of gold and ivory, and was set up in a temple of +Olympia. From this time forth every sculptor who had to represent Zeus +had only to repeat the design of Phidias. + +Now we know that the farther an imitator gets from the original +standard, the weaker is his copy. The first successors of Phidias made +direct studies from his statue, but those coming after worked from +copies. Still later artists took for their models copies of these +copies, until at last much of the original grandeur of Phidias's +conception was lost. + +The bust of Zeus reproduced in our illustration is thought to be a +far-away copy of the head of Phidias's statue. From the marble of which +it is made we know that it was executed in Italy, probably by some Greek +sculptor who had come thither after his own nation had been conquered by +Rome. The marvel is that he preserved so well the noble dignity of the +ideal Zeus. This is the father of gods and men in his most benign +aspect. The massive head is crowned like that of a lion with long, +overhanging locks with which the flowing beard is mingled. These are the + + "Ambrosial curls + Upon the Sovereign One's immortal head," + +of which Homer writes in the Iliad. The symmetrical arrangement of hair +and beard carry out the character of perfect evenness belonging to the +supreme ruler. + +The forehead has the full bar of flesh which denotes virility. The brows +are straight, the nose finely modeled, the lips rather full, the +expression benignant. Altogether the impression is of a being of mental +and moral equipoise, full of energy and noble dignity. + + + + +II + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + + +Athena was the air goddess of the Greeks, or, in Ruskin's phrase, "the +queen of the air." She was known also by the name Pallas, and among the +Romans as Minerva. As the air comes to us from out the great dome of the +sky, so Athena was said to have sprung fully armed from the head of her +father Zeus. The old Homeric hymn tells how + + "Wonder strange possessed + The everlasting gods that shape to see, + Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously + Rush from the crest of ægis-bearing Jove."[5] + +[5] In Shelley's translation. + +Her eyes were blue, the color of the sky; her hair hung in ringlets over +her shoulders. Her dress was + + "A gorgeous robe + Of many hues, which her own hands had wrought."[6] + +[6] Iliad, Book viii., lines 483, 484. + +When arrayed for war she wore a golden helmet and carried a shield, or +_ægis_. In the centre of this shield was fastened the gorgon's head +which Perseus had cut off with her aid. In her hand she wielded a mighty +spear. + +The owl was her symbolic bird, and she was called _glaukopis_, or +owl-eyed, because her wisdom gave her sight in darkness. The serpent was +the emblem of her command over the beneficent and healing influences in +the earth. Her favorite plant was the fruitful olive, valued by the +Greeks both for the beauty of its foliage and for the usefulness of its +oil. + +In the fortunes of war, when it was for defensive aims, Athena took an +intense interest and an active part. In the war between the Greeks and +the Trojans, she was on the side of the Greeks, who sought to recover +from their enemies their queen Helen, whom the Trojan prince had +captured. When the Greek army assembled before the walls of Troy-- + + "Among them walked + The blue-eyed Pallas, bearing on her arm + The priceless ægis, ever fair and new, + And undecaying; from its edge there hung + A hundred golden fringes, fairly wrought, + And every fringe might buy a hecatomb. + With this and fierce, defiant looks she passed + Through all the Achaian host, and made their hearts + Impatient for the march and strong to endure + The combat without pause,--for now the war + Seemed to them dearer than the wished return + In their good galleys to the land they loved."[7] + +[7] Iliad, Book ii., lines 549-560 in Bryant's translation. + +As the air gives us the breath of life, so Athena gave inspiration to +the heart of man. It was her friendly mission to fill with "strength and +courage" the hearts of those who were beset by difficulties of many +kinds.[8] To Achilles, lamenting the death of Patroclus, she came with +nectar and ambrosia, that his limbs might not grow faint with hunger.[9] +It was because of her aid that Diomed could proudly declare, "Minerva +will not let my spirit falter;" and when he cast his spear, "Minerva +kept the weapon faithful to its aim."[10] + +[8] See the Iliad, Book v., line 2, and the Odyssey, Book i., line 396. + +[9] Iliad, Book xix., lines 427-429. + +[10] Iliad, Book v., lines 309 and 352. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +To Athena Ulysses owed his safe return to Ithaca after the adventures +related in the Odyssey. It was her adroit planning which brought +together the long lost father and his son Telemachus, with the faithful +wife Penelope. She also found ways to help Jason when he went in search +of the golden fleece; she aided Hercules in his labors and guided the +hand of Perseus when he cut off the Gorgon's head. + +Athena was also the patroness of the industrial arts. She was skilful in +weaving and needlework, making both her own and others' beautiful robes +and teaching the craft to some favored mortals. She was, in short, the +personification of "inspired and impulsive wisdom in human conduct and +human art, giving the instinct of infallible decision, and of faultless +invention."[11] Finally, and not least important, Athena was one of the +agencies in the productiveness of the earth, and hence the patron +goddess of farmers. + +[11] From Ruskin's _Queen of the Air_. + +Our statue shows as many as possible of the attributes of the goddess. +The figure is tall and stately and magnificently developed. The Greek +ideal of beauty was to let nature have its way in the human body, +unhindered by any such restraints of clothing as our modern fashions +have invented. The broad shoulders and ample waist bespeak the splendid +strength of the goddess. + +The neck rises from the shoulders like a column to support the well-set +head. A tunic falls in straight folds to the feet, and over this is worn +a long mantle gathered over the left shoulder. Upon her breast hangs the +shield, here made very small, and the helmet and spear complete her +equipment as a goddess of war. At her side coils the emblematic serpent. + +Her aspect is far from warlike. The face is intellectual and the +expression thoughtful. This is the goddess of wisdom reflecting upon +grave concerns. The mouth is set somewhat proudly, and the countenance +is full of a dignified reserve. The masterful element, so strong in her +character, is admirably expressed. There is something almost austere in +the beauty of this virgin goddess. A majestic being like this is not one +to be familiarly approached. + + + + +III + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + + +To understand the history and meaning of the bas-relief reproduced in +our illustration, we must first learn something of the worship of Athena +in her chosen city of Athens. An annual festival was held here in her +honor, and every four years occurred a very elaborate celebration called +the Panathenæa. The Panathenæa lasted several days, and attracted +throngs of people from all parts of Greece. There were contests in +gymnastics and music, torch-races, horse-races, feasts and dances. +Sacrifices of oxen were offered on the altar of the goddess, every state +having to furnish an ox for the purpose. The climax was reached on the +last day, when a great procession started at sunrise and traversed the +streets of the city to the temple of Athena. It is with this procession +that the bas-relief of our picture is connected, as we shall presently +see. + +Some time before the festival a group of Athenian maidens of the noblest +families had made and embroidered for Athena a beautiful robe called the +_peplos_. This was carried above the procession, stretched like a sail +on the mast of a ship which was rolled through the street on wheels. The +pageant was made up of many different companies. There were the +Athenian magistrates, grave and dignified, maidens carrying sacrificial +vessels, men bearing trays of cakes, citharists (harpists) and +flute-players, old men with olive branches, four-horse chariots with +armed warriors, rows of young men mounted on prancing steeds, and +attendants with the cattle for the sacrifice. + +During the invasion of Greece by the Persians, the temple of Athena in +Athens was destroyed by fire. Later, on its site, was erected another to +replace it, called the Parthenon. The city was now at the height of its +prosperity under the statesman Pericles. At this time also lived the +great sculptor Phidias, and to him Pericles intrusted the decoration of +the new temple. + +The Parthenon was built of Pentelic marble, and the temple proper was +surrounded by a portico supported on rows of columns. The outside of the +building was richly adorned with bas-reliefs. There were designs in the +triangular spaces under the roof called _pediments_. Above the columns +ran a series of panels called _metopes_. Finally, there was a _frieze_ +extending around the temple wall, to be seen from within the portico. It +is a bit of this frieze which is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: London Stereoscopic Co., Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + +_British Museum, London_] + +The Panathenaic procession is the subject carried the entire length of +this bas-relief decoration. On the portion running across one end were +depicted the scenes of preparation. Men are in the act of mounting their +horses, some having spirited animals to deal with, and all making ready +for the start. At the opposite end is the scene of the arrival at the +temple. Here sit the gods to receive the sacrifice, while the +magistrates stand ready to perform the rites, and maidens approach with +the vessels. On the two long sides the procession is seen actually in +motion. Here are represented all the figures which took part in such +occasions; old men and maidens, musicians, horsemen, charioteers, and +sacrificial animals, all moving forward on their way. Group follows +group, with that contrast and variety which give interest to a pageant, +and with the proper orderliness to give it unity. + +Our panel shows us a line of horsemen riding four abreast. Though it is +broken and defaced, we catch at once the spirit of the work. The horses +are splendid animals; with dilated nostrils, and necks proudly arched, +they seem to prance to the music of the flutes. Though they are well +matched in size and type, no two are really alike. Every one has as +distinct a character as a human being, and lovers of horses might choose +each his own favorite from the four. + +Only two of the riders fall within our range of vision. They are +handsome youths, with the perfectly formed head and finely cut profile +which we learn to recognize as the Greek ideal of beauty. The line +across forehead and nose is perfectly straight, and the line connecting +nose and chin forms a corresponding angle. Both faces bear the stamp of +refinement and high breeding which mark them as belonging to the class +of Athenian nobles. + +Though the two youths have so similar a cast of countenance, they are +quite unlike in temperament. The farther one is of a somewhat dreamy, +poetic nature. He rides with bent head as if in a reverie. His companion +is of a sterner, more virile type. He looks straight before him, and +carries his head with a sense of the dignity of the occasion. + +Both youths sit their horses as if born in the saddle. Horse and rider +are one, animated by a single dominant will. The Athenian youth were +trained from childhood in all sorts of manly exercise. The normal +development of the body was of first importance in the Greek educational +system. These young men are typical examples of the fine specimens of +manhood which that training produced. + + + + +IV + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + + + "The white armed queen, + Juno, the mistress of the golden throne." + +It is thus that the Iliad describes Hera, the wife of Zeus, now more +often called by her Roman name Juno. The marriage union between the +ruler of the gods and his queen represented the Greek ideal of perfect +conjugal happiness. Hera was therefore the goddess who presided over +human marriages, and was the type of matronly virtue and dignity. As the +queen of heaven, she had it in her power to bestow great riches, honor, +and influence upon her favorites. + +In the Trojan war she was, like Athena, a partisan of the Greeks, and +once or twice even accompanied the war goddess to the battlefield. +Usually, however, her pursuits were of a more peaceful and domestic +order. She was a very beautiful goddess, "ox-eyed" in the quaint Greek +phrase, that is, with large expressive eyes. She had the august and +majestic bearing befitting a queen, and is usually described in classic +literature as wearing a veil. A long passage in the Iliad gives an +account of her toilet when arraying herself for a special occasion. +After bathing in ambrosia, and anointing with oil, + + "When thus her shapely form + Had been anointed, and her hands had combed + Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls, + Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung + Round her immortal brow. And next she threw + Around her an ambrosial robe, the work + Of Pallas, all its web embroidered o'er + With forms of rare device. She fastened it + Over the breast with clasps of gold, and then + She passed about her waist a zone which bore + Fringes a hundred-fold, and in her ears + She hung her three-gemmed ear-rings, from whose gleam + She won an added grace. Around her head + The glorious goddess drew a flowing veil, + Just from the loom, and shining like the sun; + And, last, beneath her bright white feet she bound + The shapely sandals."[12] + +[12] Iliad, Book xiv., lines 210-226 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the prettiest stories about Hera is that in which she acted as +the friend of Jason. Jason was the son of a dethroned king and was +brought up by the centaur Chiron. When he came of age he set forth, with +much good advice from Chiron, to reclaim his father's kingdom. On his +journey he came to a swollen stream which seemed well-nigh impassable. +As he was considering the danger of crossing it, an old woman on the +bank begged him to carry her over. This was a hazardous undertaking, and +the young man was sorely tempted to refuse her. At last his kindness +triumphed and he consented. Taking her on his back, he struggled across +the river at the peril of his life. When he set her safely on the +opposite bank, a wonderful thing happened. "She grew fairer than all +women, and taller than all men on earth; and her garments shone like the +summer sea, and her jewels like the stars of heaven; and over her +forehead was a veil, woven of the golden clouds of sunset, and through +the veil she looked down on him with great soft heifer's eyes; with +great eyes, mild and awful, which filled all the glen with light."[13] +Then he knew that this was Hera, and from thenceforth she was his guide +in every time of need. + +[13] From Kingsley's _Greek Heroes_: the Argonauts. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The bust of Hera, reproduced in our illustration, shows how the Greeks +liked to think of their queen goddess. We at once recognize the features +assigned to her by tradition; the large eyes set somewhat far apart, the +low, broad forehead, the mild expression. The waving hair is parted, and +gathered at the back in a matronly coiffure, and over it is worn the +crown of a queen. + +We have seen that in Greek sculpture the artist was not always left to +represent the divinities according to his own imagination. For each one +a certain fixed type had been gradually thought out in very early times, +and this type was handed down from generation to generation. A statue or +bust could always be recognized without any title. No one, for instance, +could ever mistake Zeus for Apollo, or confuse Hera and Athena. + +By comparing this head of Hera with that of Athena in our previous +illustration, we can see how perfectly sculpture carried out the +distinctions in the two characters. Hera was less intellectual than +Athena, and had perhaps more distinctly feminine charms. The mouth has +less strength and firmness, the expression more mildness. Her beauty is +naturally of a more matronly type than that of the virgin goddess. The +crown which she wears belongs as distinctly to her as does the helmet to +Athena. + +A careful examination of the face suggests that it may have been studied +from actual life. If, as some critics believe, the bust was made in Rome +by some Greek sojourning there after the conquest of his own nation, a +noble Roman matron may have been the model. Be that as it may, this is +Hera as the Greeks worshipped her, and perhaps the best existing +representation of the great goddess. + + + + +V + +THE APOXYOMENOS + + +An important part of the Greek system of education was the training of +the body in physical exercise. For this purpose there were gymnasia in +every city, where the youth were trained in running, leaping, wrestling, +throwing the javelin, and casting the discus. Great spaces were occupied +by these gymnasia, which included buildings for dressing-rooms and +baths, porticoes and halls used as assembly-rooms, walks, gardens, and +the palæstra, or wrestling-field. + +Every four years a great national festival was held at Olympia, +consisting of games or contests in the various athletic sports. Every +freeman of Hellenic blood had a birthright to take part in them. The +contestants were required to undergo a preparatory training, often +lasting months, in the gymnasium of Elis, the province in which Olympia +was situated. + +During the progress of the games a universal truce was proclaimed +throughout Greece. All hostilities ceased for the time, and the Greeks +as a united people assembled at Olympia for the joyous celebration in +honor of Zeus. So important were these Olympic games that they were used +as a standard for reckoning time. In assigning a date to an event, the +Greeks used to say that it took place in this or that Olympiad, an +Olympiad being the period of four years between two successive +festivals. + +We may well believe that the Olympic festivals, as well as the ordinary +daily exercise in the city gymnasia, had great attractions for +sculptors. The palæstra must have been a favorite resort of artists. +What a sight it was when the young men came out of the dressing-rooms +stripped for running, their bodies shining with oil,--what a play of +muscles in the lithe young limbs as the runners "pressed toward the mark +for the prize of the high calling!" The course was usually of deep sand, +and was about three miles in length. The runners trained for special +emergencies attained extraordinary speed and endurance. The race over, +each youth returned to the dressing-rooms of the gymnasium and, taking a +small instrument called the _strigil_, made of metal, ivory, or horn, +scraped the oil from his body. + +It is in this cleansing process that the young man of our illustration +is engaged. The statue on this account is called the Apoxyomenos, which +is a Greek word meaning "scraping himself." It represents a typical +incident of the life of the gymnasium, such as might be seen any day of +the year. + +Tall and graceful, with slender flexible limbs, the youth stands in an +attitude of rest, scraping his right arm. In his fingers is the die +which marks his number in the race. His body rests upon one leg, but so +light is his poise that he is ready to change his position momentarily. +Neither attitude nor countenance shows any sense of exhaustion, only +that delicious fatigue which makes rest so enjoyable. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APOXYOMENOS + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +There is a passage in the Greek poet Aristophanes' comedy of the +Clouds, in which a speaker urges upon a young man the life of the +gymnasium. "Fresh and fair in beauty-bloom," he says, "you shall pass +your days in the wrestling-ground, or run races beneath the sacred olive +trees, crowned with white reed, in company with a pure-hearted friend, +smelling of bindweed, and leisure hours, and the white poplar that sheds +her leaves, rejoicing in the prime of spring when the plane tree +whispers to the lime." This is the kind of life typified in the figure +of our statue,[14] a side of Greek life which no one can overlook if he +would understand the genius of the Greek nation. + +[14] The application of this passage to the Apoxyomenos is made by J. A. +Symonds in his _Greek Poets_. + +It must not be supposed that our statue represents an actual individual. +It is not a portrait, but an imaginary typical figure. It is true that +portrait statues of athletes were made in great numbers, as we shall +note again in another chapter. It was indeed this practical experience +among athletes that led sculptors to see what a perfect human figure +ought to be. In the study of many different forms they developed an idea +of a type common to all and uniting all the perfections. Certain +sculptors figured out what they regarded as the true proportions of the +ideal human form. One of these was Lysippus, who is believed to have +executed this statue as an illustration of his theories. We note as the +special characteristics of his ideal figure that it is tall, with slim +light limbs, and a rather small head, about one eighth the total height. + +We may now see how such a statue as the Apoxyomenos was a preparatory +study for statues of the gods. The gods were to be represented in the +most perfect human forms which it was possible to conceive, and by +working out typical figures like this, forms were found worthy of the +noblest subjects. Thus the proportions discovered by Lysippus were +peculiarly appropriate for the lighter, fleeter gods, as Apollo and +Hermes. + +Lysippus executed his works entirely in bronze, and the statue +reproduced in our illustration is a marble copy of the original, which +was long since lost. + + + + +VI + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + + +Phœbus Apollo was the Greek god of day, who drove the great chariot +of the sun across the sky from dawn to sunset. As the sun's rays pierce +the air with darts of fire, so Apollo is an archer god carrying a quiver +full of arrows. The old Homeric hymn calls him-- + + "Heaven's far darter, the fair king of days + Whom even the gods themselves fear when he goes + Through Jove's high house; and when his goodly bows + He goes to bend, all from their thrones arise + And cluster near t' admire his faculties."[15] + +[15] In Chapman's translation. + +If we count up all the gifts which the sunlight brings us, we shall have +a list of the offices of Apollo. He brought the spring and the summer, +and ripened the grain for harvest. He warded off disease and healed the +sick. One of his earliest adventures was to slay the serpent Python +lurking in the caves of Mt. Parnassus. Like the legend of St. George and +the Dragon, the story is an allegory of the triumph of light over +darkness, health over disease, the power of good over the power of evil. + +Apollo was also the patron of music, having received from Hermes the +gift of the lyre. He was wont to play at the banquets of the gods, and +the poet Shelley describes his music in these words:-- + + "And then Apollo with the plectrum strook + The chords, and from beneath his hands a crash + Of mighty sounds rushed up, whose music shook + The soul with sweetness, and like an adept + His sweeter voice a just accordance kept."[16] + +[16] From Shelley's translation of the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_. + +Poetry and the dance were also under Apollo's protection, and he was the +leader of the nine muses. + +His highest office was prophecy, and in all his temples the priestesses +gave mystic revelations of the future. The most famous of these was at +Delphi, built over an opening in the ground, whence a strange vapor +rose. The priestess, a young woman called a _pythia_, from the python +slain by Apollo, sat over this opening on a three-legged seat, or +tripod, and answered the questions brought to her. Her sayings were in +verses called _oracles_, supposed to be communicated to her by the god. + +Now, as might be expected, the character of Apollo was as pure and +transparent as the sunlight itself. He required clean hands and pure +hearts of those who worshiped him. As the sunlight shines into the dark +places of the earth, driving the shadows away, so Apollo hated all that +was dark and evil in human life. He was not only the rewarder of good +but the punisher of evil. In Shelley's "Hymn of Apollo" these words are +put in the god's mouth:-- + + "The sunbeams are my shafts, with which I kill + Deceit, that loves the night and fears the day; + + All men who do or even imagine ill + Fly me, and from the glory of my ray + Good minds and open actions take new might, + Until diminished by the reign of night." + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +The head of Apollo in our illustration is from a famous full-length +statue of the god known as the Apollo Belvedere. The name Belvedere, +which is useful only to distinguish the statue from others of the same +subject, comes from the fact that the marble once adorned a pavilion of +the Vatican called the Belvedere. + +The god stands with left arm extended holding, it is supposed, either a +bow or a shield. A quiver of arrows is slung across his back, and a +chlamys, or cloak, hangs over his left shoulder. His is the proud +attitude of one who is defending some sacred trust. So he holds his head +high and gazes steadily before him as if watching an arrow speed to its +mark, or perhaps scanning the vanguard of an approaching army. The +expression is not a little haughty, and one detects an almost disdainful +curve of the lips as if the god regarded the enemy with scorn. The face +is cut in an aristocratic mould, with fine sensitive lines which mark +the lover of music and poetry. In fact, the refinement of his beauty has +something of a feminine quality. + +The carefully curled hair is gathered in a bow knot on the top of his +head. It may indeed be supposed that the handsome young god was by no +means unconscious of his charms, and took no little pains to display +them to good advantage. + +The Apollo, however, is a god worthy of our admiration for the noble +purity of his countenance. Surely, all base thoughts and mean motives +would be put to shame by this pure presence. + +The poet Byron, whose "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" describes many +interesting sights in Greece and Italy, has written these lines about +the Apollo Belvedere:-- + + "The Lord of the unerring bow, + The god of life, and poesy, and light-- + The sun, in human limbs array'd, and brow + All radiant from his triumph in the fight; + The shaft hath just been shot--the arrow bright + With an immortal's vengeance; in his eye + And nostril beautiful disdain, and might, + And majesty flash their full lightnings by, + Developing in that one glance the deity." + + + + +VII + +DEMETER (CERES) + + +The Greeks worshipped among their deities a goddess called Demeter, +which means "mother earth." It was her office to attend to the sowing +and reaping and all kinds of farm work. She first taught mankind the use +of the plough; she helped the men in their threshing and the women in +their baking. All country folk sought her blessing in their labors. She +was, in fact, a personification of nature, and perhaps it is a remnant +of the old Greek belief in our speech that we still refer to "mother +earth" and "mother nature." + +Demeter's only child was a daughter, Persephone, and upon her she +lavished all a mother's fond devotion. The story runs that one day +Persephone was gathering posies in the meadow when a strange accident +overtook her. A beautiful flower suddenly attracted her attention, the +like of which she had never before seen. When she put forth her hand to +pluck it, the entire plant came up by the roots, leaving a hole in the +ground. The hole widened into a great crack, the earth shook with a +mighty thundering, and out dashed a chariot drawn by coal-black steeds, +bearing Pluto, the king of the lower regions. He caught up the +astonished Persephone, and away they sped again into the gloomy kingdom +beyond the Styx, where Persephone was installed as queen. + +Demeter, missing her daughter, inquired everywhere what had become of +the maiden, but none could tell her. Then she lighted a torch and began +a weary search for the lost child. Nine days she wandered without +finding any clew. But on the tenth day she met the old witch Hecate, who +had heard Persephone scream when she was carried away. Together the two +sought Apollo, who sees all the doings of gods and men, and he told them +the whole story. "Then a more terrible grief took possession of Demeter, +and ... she forsook the assembly of the gods and abode among men for a +long time, veiling her beauty under a worn countenance so that none who +looked upon her knew her." She declared that the earth should not again +bring forth fruit till she had seen her daughter. + +It comforted her not a little in this time of mourning to take a +mother's care of a certain sickly little child she chanced upon. +Disguised as a nurse, she fed the child upon ambrosia, held him in her +bosom, and at night covered him in a bed of coals. Under this treatment +he thrived amazingly; but the parents discovered the nurse's strange +ways and became alarmed. Their anxiety was turned to dismay when they +learned that this was a goddess, who would have made their son immortal +but for their interference. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +DEMETER (CERES) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the mean time the crops fell into a bad state, and it was a year of +grievous famine. Demeter still kept her vow to let no green thing appear +upon the earth. Then Zeus came to the rescue of perishing humanity. He +sent a messenger to Pluto begging him to let Persephone return to her +mother. The request was granted, the chariot was made ready, but the +wily king first pressed his bride to eat with him some pomegranate +seeds, designing that she should return to him again. Mother and +daughter were now joyfully reunited, but not without further separation; +for a portion of each year Persephone returned to her kingdom below the +earth, reappearing in the spring to visit her mother. And this is why to +this day the harvest is followed by winter until the spring revisits the +earth.[17] + +[17] The story of Demeter and Persephone is related in the Homeric _Hymn +to Demeter_, of which an abridged English version is given in the +chapter on the Myth of Demeter and Persephone in Pater's _Greek +Studies_. The same chapter refers to various other ancient forms of the +story, one of the most important being that of Ovid's Metamorphoses, +translated into English blank verse by Edward King. + +In all this story we see that the most striking characteristic of +Demeter is her motherliness. In some respects she is like Hera, because +both are matrons and are patterns of the domestic virtues. But while +Hera is the model wife, Demeter is the model mother. + +It is the motherliness of our statue which makes us feel sure that it +must be intended to represent Demeter.[18] The goddess stands holding in +her outstretched right hand a sheaf of wheat, and lifting high in the +left hand the torch with which she journeyed round the world. It is as +if she stood on the threshold of the opening season awaiting her +daughter's return. She gazes straight before her with a look of +expectancy as if she already saw her child from afar. Her face is +lighted by a smile of welcome. One can fancy how tenderly those motherly +arms will fold the child to her heart, and how gladly the daughter will +pillow her head on that broad bosom. + +[18] See in the _Historical Directory_ another subject assigned to the +statue. + +The figure is in striking contrast to the statue of Athena which we have +studied. The virgin goddess is stately and unapproachable in her panoply +of wisdom, but the great mother seems to invite our confidence. She is +one to whom a frightened child might run, sure of being soothed. To her +the sorrowing would turn, fearing no repulse. She would welcome, she +would understand, she would comfort. There is strength and repose in +every line of her majestic figure. + +The statue illustrates admirably the grandeur and simplicity of the best +Greek art. The long straight lines of the drapery, unbroken by any +unnecessary folds, are the secret of the impression of tranquil dignity +in the work. + + + + +VIII + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + + +The imagination of the Greeks peopled the woods and waters with all +sorts of mythical beings, among which one of the most delightful was the +faun. This was a creature half human, half animal, which frolicked in +the woods in spring time. In outward appearance it looked much like a +human being, except that it had pointed furry ears. In nature, however, +it was closely akin to the animals, and lived a free happy life, with +none of the thoughts and cares which beset the soul of man. + +Our statue represents a sculptor's conception of this sportive being. It +is famous not only because it is a celebrated work of art, but because +it takes an important place in a celebrated novel. This is the "marble +faun" which gives the title to Hawthorne's book. It will be remembered +that in the beginning of the story, a party of friends are visiting the +museum of the Capitol in Rome, where the statue stands. Suddenly they +notice the resemblance which one of their number, a young Italian named +Donatello, bears to the statue. They bid him take the same attitude, and +the likeness is complete. The writer describes the statue in these +words: "The Faun is the marble image of a young man leaning his right +arm on the trunk or stump of a tree; one hand hangs carelessly by his +side; in the other he holds the fragment of a pipe, or some such sylvan +instrument of music. His only garment--a lion's skin,[19] with the claws +upon his shoulder--falls halfway down his back, leaving the limbs and +entire front of the figure nude. The form, thus displayed, is +marvellously graceful, but has a fuller and more rounded outline, more +flesh, and less of heroic muscle, than the old sculptors were wont to +assign to their types of masculine beauty.[20] The character of the face +corresponds with the figure; it is most agreeable in outline and +feature, but rounded and somewhat voluptuously developed, especially +about the throat and chin; the nose is almost straight, but very +slightly curves inward, thereby acquiring an indescribable charm of +geniality and humor. The mouth, with its full yet delicate lips, seems +so nearly to smile outright that it calls forth a responsive smile. The +whole statue--unlike anything else that ever was wrought in that severe +material of marble--conveys the idea of an amiable and sensual creature, +easy, mirthful, apt for jollity, yet not incapable of being touched by +pathos. It is impossible to gaze long at this stone image without +conceiving a kindly sentiment towards it, as if its substance were warm +to the touch, and imbued with actual life. It comes very close to some +of our pleasantest sympathies." + +[19] More likely a leopard's skin. + +[20] Compare, for instance, the slender figure of the Apoxyomenos. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + +_Capitol Museum, Rome_] + +After this description the writer goes on to analyze the nature of the +Faun. "The being here represented," he says, "is endowed with no +principle of virtue, and would be incapable of comprehending such; but +he would be true and honest by dint of his simplicity. We should expect +from him no sacrifice or effort for an abstract cause; there is not an +atom of martyr's stuff in all that softened marble; but he has a +capacity for strong and warm attachment, and might act devotedly through +its impulse, and even die for it at need. It is possible, too, that the +Faun might be educated through the medium of his emotions, so that the +coarser animal portion of his nature might eventually be thrown into the +background, though never utterly expelled." + +The original statue, of which the marble of the Capitol is a copy, was +the work of the sculptor Praxiteles. As Hawthorne says: "Only a sculptor +of the finest imagination, the most delicate taste, the sweetest +feeling, and the rarest artistic skill--in a word, a sculptor and a poet +too--could have ... succeeded in imprisoning the sportive and frisky +thing in marble." We are presently to see again in the head of Hermes +that Praxiteles was indeed a remarkable sculptor. The Faun, however, is +the more difficult subject of the two, for it was puzzling to think what +expression would be proper to a being partly human, but without a soul. + +It is said that Praxiteles himself considered the Faun one of his two +best works. It had been impossible for his friends to get an expression +of opinion from him in regard to his statues, until one day a trick was +devised to betray him. He was told that his studio was on fire, when he +exclaimed that his labor was all lost if the Faun and the Eros were +destroyed. + +The Faun originally stood in the street of the Tripods at Athens, but +what has now become of it we do not know. The statue in our illustration +is one of the most celebrated copies. Many travellers make a special +pilgrimage to see it, and seeing it recall the words of Hawthorne, +describing the spell it casts upon the spectator. "All the pleasantness +of sylvan life, all the genial and happy characteristics of creatures +that dwell in woods and fields, will seem to be mingled and kneaded into +one substance, along with the kindred qualities in the human soul. +Trees, grass, flowers, woodland streamlets, cattle, deer, and +unsophisticated man--the essence of all these was compressed long ago, +and still exists, within that discolored marble surface of the Faun of +Praxiteles." + + + + +IX + +SOPHOCLES + + +One of the greatest of Greek writers was the tragic poet Sophocles. He +was born near Athens in the year 495 B. C., and was educated after the +manner of the Greek youth of his time. Every advantage was given him for +the study of music and poetry, and also for that gymnastic training +which, as we have seen, was so important in Greek education. + +Sophocles was a handsome youth, and acquitted himself well in the +palæstra. When he was sixteen years of age the great battle of Salamis +was fought and won by the Greeks. In the celebration of this victory at +Athens, Sophocles led with dance and lyre the chorus of young men who +sang the pæan or hymn of victory. That such an honor should be given him +shows how graceful and gifted he must have been. + +The beginning of his literary career came when he was in his +twenty-fifth year. At that time a solemn festival was held in Athens in +memory of the ancient King Theseus, whose bones had been brought thither +from the island of Scyros. Now all religious festivals in Greece were +celebrated with contests, some athletic, others artistic and literary. +On this occasion there was a contest of dramatic poets. Æschylus was at +that time the greatest of living tragedians, and as he was among the +contestants, it might have been supposed that no other candidate could +have succeeded. Sophocles now came forward with his first tragedy, and +so remarkable was it found to be that the judges pronounced him victor. + +From this time forth Sophocles continually grew in dramatic and literary +power. Twenty times he obtained the first prize in other contests, and +many times also the second prize. The amount of his work was prodigious. +Most of his dramas are lost, but we still have a half dozen or more to +show us the noble quality of his work. The finest are perhaps those +called Œdipus Tyrannus, Œdipus Coloneus, and Antigone, all dealing +with the tragic fate of an ancient royal family. + +Athens was justly proud of her great poet and bestowed various honors +upon him. He was even made a general, and served in the war against +Samos; but nature had made him a poet, and it is as a poet that we must +always think of him. Full of years and honors, he died in Athens at the +age of ninety. Of him the Greek poet Phrynicus wrote,-- + + "Thrice happy Sophocles! in good old age + Blessed as a man, and as a craftsman blessed, + He died: his many tragedies were fair, + And fair his end, nor knew he any sorrow." + +Our portrait shows admirably what manner of man he was, handsome and +dignified, in the prime of life. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +SOPHOCLES + +_Lateran Museum, Rome_] + +The scanty folds of his toga reveal the fine lines of his graceful +figure. The pose shows the bodily vigor which his early athletic +training gave him. He holds his head erect in a manner suggestive of his +military life. The face is that of an idealist and a poet, a man who +sees splendid visions. Yet it is not altogether dreamy in the ordinary +sense; it has the alert, energetic aspect of one who would turn from +vision to action. It is not hard to believe the tale of his one hundred +and twenty-three dramas: such a man would fill his life with activity. +The face has, too, the expression of genial kindliness which made the +great poet so beloved of his fellow men. His must have been that calm, +equable temperament not easily ruffled, which goes with the +self-respecting nature. A receptacle at his side is filled with the +scrolls of his tragedies. He stands in the attitude of a poet reciting +his lines to an assembled audience. + +The statue shows how sane was the Greek ideal of intellectual greatness. +In those days genius did not mean eccentricity, but the rule of life was +a sound mind in a sound body. It is a mistaken notion of our own times +that bodily health must be sacrificed to the training of the brain. It +is even supposed by some that oddities of dress and manner are signs of +greatness. + +The Greeks had no such delusions. Here is Sophocles, the greatest +dramatic poet of antiquity, a magnificent specimen of symmetrically +developed manhood. He is a man who has made the most of life's +opportunities as he understood them. He enjoys perfect bodily vigor; he +is as well a man of the world, at ease among men. There is evidently +nothing of the recluse in his character. He wears his beard carefully +trimmed as one who looks well to his personal appearance. Yet +intellectual greatness is stamped on face and bearing: the noble +countenance marks him as a poet. + +There was a period in Greek history when it was a custom to adorn public +buildings with statues of famous men, living or dead. Libraries were +appropriately decorated with statues of poets, and we fancy that our +statue of Sophocles was made for such a purpose. The original is +supposed to have been set up by a certain Athenian statesman named +Lycurgus in the fourth century B. C. + + + + +X + +ARES SEATED + + +Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of a battle men fight +as though possessed by a spirit of fury. The excitement of the conflict +seems to arouse an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the +moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the ancient methods of +warfare, when a battle was literally a hand-to-hand conflict, this +spirit of brutality was of course even more marked. In the wars among +the early Greeks men fell upon one another with the violence of wild +animals. + +The Greeks with their ready gift for personification conceived of this +spirit of warfare as a supernatural being acting on human lives. He was +called Ares, the god whose special delight was to incite the fierce +passions of men. + +It was natural that the Greeks should refer his influence chiefly to +their enemies. On their own part they preferred to think that their +armies were inspired by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied in +Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was on the side of the +Trojans, while Athena aided the Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were +brought into direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit +of strategy. + +An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal to her enemy, the +translation running in these words, the Roman name Mars being used for +Ares. + + "Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood, + Destroyer of walled cities! should we not + Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend, + And Jove to crown with glory whom he will, + While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"[21] + +[21] Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37. + +As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued to aid their +favorites. Mars was forced to yield before the skill and prudence of +Athena. Guided by the goddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and drives +him from the battle.[22] + +[22] Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075. + +In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome god, "stately, swift, +unwearied, puissant." Though war was his chief delight he was quite +susceptible to the tender passion. Venus was the object of his devotion, +and the goddess of love returned the war god's admiration. It was she +who soothed his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in the presence of +the gods and struck him to earth with a stone.[23] + +[23] Iliad, Book xxi., lines 500 _et seq._ + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ARES SEATED + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The statue reproduced in our illustration shows the god in his mildest +aspect. He is seated in a meditative attitude, clasping his hands over +his upraised knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in a posture +of repose, the shield is laid aside for a moment, and he rests from his +labors. In the best period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary +to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike action. The gods +must always be portrayed in a dignified repose befitting their +superiority to mankind. Not then in his attitude or expression do we +find any sign of the character of the god. There is no suggestion of +unrest in his quiet posture. + +The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint of his combative nature. +The cast of countenance, too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in +intellectual qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably +attractive, with his well-chiseled features and clustering curls. The +small ear is as delicately cut as a woman's. The fine athletic figure is +such as any warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full of +power even in repose. The attitude of easy grace displays its best +points to advantage. + +Sitting on the ground in front of the god is the figure of a mischievous +baby boy. This is the little god Eros, who in Greek mythology was +supposed to be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest that +the subject of Ares' meditations might be some affair of the heart. +Certainly his mild smile would carry out that interpretation. Some +critics have thought, however, that the statue did not originally +include the child. + +As we study the modelling of the figure, the free sweep of the long +lines delights the eye. We shall come to understand from repeated +examples that the best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret of +fine lines. Our illustration is somewhat unusual because the figure is +seated. Even in this position, however, the sculptor gives us a sense +of the perfect grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing heavy +or immovable in the attitude. We can easily imagine how the god, rising +lightly to his feet, would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action. + + + + +XI + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + + +To do his errands and carry his messages through the universe the +supreme god Zeus had a herald, Hermes, the god of the wind. As the wind +blows out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from Olympus to earth to +do the sky god's bidding. Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and +winged sandals, which carried him about with great speed. He had also a +short sword bent like a scythe, given him by Zeus with the cap and +sandals. He possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, and +of assuming different forms. As he had besides a ready wit and an +eloquent tongue, he could make himself very useful. It was one of his +common tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most solemn office was +to conduct the souls of the dying to the other world. + +This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting forth on one of the +errands of Zeus:-- + + "The herald Argicide obeyed, + And hastily beneath his feet he bound + The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn + To bear him over ocean like the wind, + And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took, + Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men, + And opens them at will from sleep."[24] + +[24] Book v., lines 55-61 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the most famous adventures of Hermes was the slaying of the +many-eyed monster Argus, from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is +why the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the god the Argicide. +Another of his well known missions was the care of the motherless infant +Bacchus, whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. An +adventurer himself, Hermes was ever ready to aid heroes in their +exploits. It was with his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head: +we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" and Kingsley's "Greek +Heroes." + +Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and then. An old Homeric hymn +tells of a sly prank he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby, +stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was keeping. He was an +ingenious fellow too, and this is how he invented the lyre. Taking from +the beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the shell, pierced it with holes, +and stretched from hole to hole, at regular intervals, cords of sheep +gut. + + "When he had wrought the lovely instrument + He tried the chords, and made division meet, + Preluding with the plectrum, and there went + Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet + Of mighty sounds."[25] + +[25] From the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_ in Shelley's translation, Stanza +ix. + +[Illustration: English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + +_Museum, Olympia_] + +With this instrument Apollo was so delighted that Hermes straightway +presented it to him, to make some amends, as it were, for the injury +done him. In return Apollo bestowed the _caduceus_, or wand, upon +Hermes, and the two gods vowed eternal friendship. + +The Greeks were very fond of their god Hermes. He was not too grand to +be companionable, like the awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo. +They thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted ways +and easy good nature made him a general favorite. It was an early custom +to set up in his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes they +were topped by the heads of other gods, but these were called for him, +_hermæ_. In the course of time better statues were made in full length +figure. The head reproduced in our illustration is from such an one +which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, from the ruins of which it +was unearthed a few years ago. + +The entire right arm and parts of both legs are missing, but the other +portions of the statue show the god's position. He is leaning against a +tree trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, who was, as we +have seen, consigned to his care by Zeus. Hermes is not, however, +looking at the child, but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in +the pensive pose which we see. The features are cut with typical Greek +regularity, but the countenance has besides its own individual charm. +The droop of the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in the curve +of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. The lower forehead is +full, showing over the eyes the bar of flesh which marks the strongly +masculine nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect +contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear is as daintily modeled as +the ringlets of hair. + +The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. It is tender and +playful, and withal exquisitely refined and courteous. What a +deferential listener is suggested in that pose of the head! The pure +outline of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry who gathered +about King Arthur's Round Table, and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself +might not have looked like this. + +This statue is the work of the great sculptor Praxiteles, and is the +only original marble in existence direct from his hands. All the rest of +his work is known from descriptions and copies. We can understand, then, +how sculptors and critics the world over have examined it to study the +sculptor's methods. It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron rust +from its long entombment under the soil. + + + + +XII + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + + +We have seen how important a part in the Greek national life was +occupied by the Olympic Games. They were regarded as a sacred +institution of the gods, and to contend in them was a religious +consecration. None could enter them who had been guilty of dishonorable +conduct or sacrilege, and young men from the noblest families were not +above taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, olive, and +pine, having no intrinsic worth, but of priceless value to the +recipients. To win them was the highest ambition of many a Greek youth. + +The victor was led forth before the people, crowned with the wreath and +bearing a palm branch in his hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that +of his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and songs were +composed in his praise.[26] From thenceforth he was a person of +distinction. Finally his statue was set up in the _altis_ or sacred +grove of Olympia. There were at one time as many as three thousand such +statues in the place. + +[26] See, for instance, Pindar's _Olympic Odes_. + +It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the sculptor had +greater freedom than in statues of the gods. The latter must be +represented in dignified attitudes of repose, but the former would +naturally be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. It is +so with the statue in our illustration called the Discobolus or +Disk-thrower. + +The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old that there were Greek +legends of famous games played by the gods and heroes. Apollo sometimes +tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, or disk, was a heavy +round plate of metal, bronze or iron, about eight inches in diameter, +grasped in one hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and then +sent flying through the air. A modern authority explains that it was +thrown not as the quoit is to-day, with arm and shoulder only, but by +bringing into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the body. +"Immediately preceding the actual hurling of the discus, therefore, +there had to be a general storing up and compression of energy which, +when suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. The +principle is simply that of the spring which, when compressed, shoots +out from the centre. The greater the contortion of the body, the more +each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, the greater will be +the impetus when this compression is suddenly set free."[27] + +[27] Waldstein, in _Essays on the Art of Pheidias_, page 49. + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + +_Lancelotti Palace, Rome_] + +Our statue shows the disk-thrower at the moment immediately preceding +the throw. As described by the ancient writer Lucian, "he is bent down +into the position for the throw, turning towards the hand that holds the +disk, and all but bending on one knee, he seems as if he would +straighten himself up at the throw." + +The modern critic whom we have already quoted shows that when we view +the statue from the front, "all the lines of the modelling indicate the +tension of the sinews towards the contracted centre of the body, and the +legs, neck, and shoulders tend towards the same point." When we walk +around the statue, all the lines in the back and sides "seem to lead +towards that central point like the spiral contraction of a spring." It +is by thus suggesting the concentration of energy on the part of the +Discobolus that the figure appears so full of life and action. + +By the choice of this posture the artist was enabled to model his figure +on magnificent sculpturesque lines. One long fine curve sweeps along the +right arm, is continued down the left arm, and is carried to completion +in the left leg and foot. The counter curve starts under the right +shoulder, and sweeps down the right side and leg. + +The original statue of the Discobolus was executed in bronze, and our +reproduction is from one of several ancient copies in marble. In some of +these the original head of the statue has been replaced by another, but +the copy we see here has a fine, vigorous head. The English critic, +Walter Pater,[28] describes the face "as smooth but spare, and tightly +drawn over muscle and bone." He shows too how sympathetic the face is +with the whole intention of the statue, "as the source of will."[29] + +[28] In the chapter on Athletic Prizemen, in _Greek Studies_. + +[29] This opinion is the more interesting because the face of the +Discobolus is commonly criticised for "absence of emotional expression." +See Furtwängler's _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, p. 173. + +The sculptor of the Discobolus was Myron, who lived in the period +between the Persian War and the middle of the fifth century. His work +shows his fondness for movement, though many of his subjects did not +permit him to indulge his taste. He made a specialty of figures of +athletes, both commemorative portrait statues and typical figures. We do +not know whether this statue represents an actual Olympic victor, or is +a typical figure, like the Apoxyomenos. In any case it gives an +excellent idea of the great influence exercised upon Greek life by the +athletic games. + + + + +XIII + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) + + +By Greek tradition the fairest of the goddesses was Aphrodite, the +goddess of love and beauty. To her every lover paid his vows and every +maiden prayed for charms. An old legend relates that she was born from +the foam of the sea, hence the name Aphrodite, which means "foam-born." +Among the Romans she was called Venus. At her birth the island of Cyprus +received her. + + "Where the force + Of gentle-breathing Zephyr steer'd her course + Along the waves of the resounding sea, + While yet unborn in that soft foam she lay + That brought her forth." + +Here she emerged "a goddess in the charms of awful beauty." The Hours +welcomed her eagerly, taking her in their arms and putting a crown of +gold upon her head. As she went on her way, flowers grew in her path,-- + + "Where her delicate feet + Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering sprang."[30] + +[30] An account of the birth of Aphrodite is given in Hesiod's +_Theogony_ and in the Homeric _Hymn to Venus_, and the quotations here +are drawn from both sources. + +As we have already seen, there were among the Greek divinities two other +goddesses besides Aphrodite specially famed for their beauty,--Athena +and Hera. Tradition tells how the beauty of the three was tested. An +apple was thrown into their midst inscribed "For the fairest," and a +contention at once arose as to the rightful owner. Paris, the prince of +Troy, being chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Aphrodite, who promised +him for a wife the fairest woman in Greece, that is, Helen.[31] This was +the real cause of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks sought to recover +their stolen princess. Aphrodite being at the bottom of the trouble +remained through the war on the Trojan side. + +[31] See Tennyson's poem, _Oenone_. + +Oddly enough the beautiful goddess was mated to the ugliest of the gods, +the lame blacksmith Hephæstus (or Vulcan). At his forge were made those +fateful arrows of the little god Eros (or Cupid), the mother standing by +to tip their points with honey. + +The power of love in human life made the ideal of Aphrodite very dear to +the hearts of the Greeks. All that is most tender and sacred in this +human relation was personified in her. As love ennobles the life and +makes it unselfish, so, they reasoned, must Aphrodite be a grand and +noble being. Again, as love glorifies the life, and brings joy into its +commonest details, she must also be beautiful and laughter-loving. In +short, one cannot think of any quality of love which was not reflected +in the person of the glorious goddess. Temples were built in her honor, +and she was worshiped in festivals and sacrificial rites. Statues of her +were set up in many places, and one of the most famous which has come +down to us is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Frères, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +We have now learned by repeated instances that the Greeks had such +definite ideas of their deities that their statues were as readily +recognized as if they represented actual persons. The sculptors followed +types accepted by tradition as the best embodiment of the characters +they stood for. So especially with Zeus, Athena, and Hera, and so again +with Aphrodite. She must be supremely fair, with a beauty less austere +than that of the maiden Athena, less regal than that of Hera, and more +fascinating than either. + +We see then at once that the beautiful figure of our illustration must +be Aphrodite, or Venus. In looking at her we think, not of wisdom, or +force, or power, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of +her body on one foot, and advancing the other with knee bent. The +posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, describing a +fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper part of the +body is uncovered, and in some mysterious way the sculptor has imparted +to the marble a seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as +exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted hair is drawn back +in rippling waves over the low forehead. + +The eyes are not very wide open, having something of a dreamy languor. +"Melting eyes" are indeed characteristic of Venus, and an analytical +critic has explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by a +"slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower eyelid." The nose is +perfectly cut, the mouth and chin are moulded in adorable curves. Yet to +say that every feature is of faultless perfection is but cold praise. No +analysis can convey the sense of her peerless beauty. + +The statue originally stood on the Greek island of Melos, where it was +discovered in 1820 in this broken state. Many wise heads have been +puzzled to know the position of the missing arms. Some have thought that +the goddess carried a shield, and others have fancied her holding the +traditional apple. There have also been many discussions as to the date +of the work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth century B. C., +the goddess would have been fully draped; if in the fourth century, +entirely without drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of these +periods, and combined the characteristics of both. It is a fault on his +part to have placed the drapery in an impossible position, whence in +actual life it would immediately fall of its own weight. Yet we do not +think of such criticisms when we see it. The beautiful body rising above +the drapery reminds us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from the sea +foam. Her beauty is a union of strength and sweetness, a perfect +embodiment of a nature at harmony with itself and its surroundings. + + + + +XIV + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + + +There was once a man named Orpheus, who lived in the land of Thrace. It +was said that his father was Apollo, and his mother the muse Calliope; +so it is not strange that he was both poet and musician. So enchanting +was the music of his lyre that wild animals came forth from their haunts +to hear him. Even trees and rocks seemed to feel the magic influence of +the strain. + +He had a beautiful wife named Eurydice, whom he loved dearly, and they +were happy together till a sad accident separated them. She was bitten +one day by a poisonous serpent, and died from the effects of the wound. +There was no more happiness on earth for Orpheus, and he determined to +seek Eurydice in the underworld of the dead. + +Now the gates of the lower regions were guarded by a three-headed dog +named Cerberus, but even this fierce beast was subdued by the entrancing +music of Orpheus, who + + "Through the unsubstantial realm + Populous with phantom ghosts of buried men, + Undaunted passed to where Persephone + Sits by the monarch of that cheerless folk + Of shadows throned--and struck his lyre, and sang." + +Pouring forth the mournful tale of his lost love, he appealed to the +gods to give him back Eurydice. So eloquent was his plea that all who +listened were "moved to weeping." Then for the first time the iron +cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, and + + "Of the nether realm + Nor King nor Queen had heart to say him nay." + +Eurydice was brought forth and restored to her husband, but a single +condition was laid upon Orpheus in leading her out. Until they had +regained the earth he was not to look backward, or the boon would be +forfeited. The Latin poet Ovid tells how the two fared forth together +from the underworld, and how Orpheus failed in the conditions of the +agreement. + + "Through the silent realm + Upward against the steep and fronting hill + Dark with obscurest gloom, the way he led: + And now the upper air was all but won, + When fearful lest the toil o'ertask her strength + And yearning to behold the form he loved, + An instant back he looked,--and back the shade + That instant fled.... + ...One last + And sad 'Farewell,' scarce audible, she sighed, + And vanished to the ghosts that late she left."[32] + +[32] From the Metamorphoses, Book x, in Henry King's translation, from +which also the other quotations are drawn. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + +_Albani Villa, Rome_] + +Our bas-relief represents a scene of parting between Orpheus and +Eurydice, and we may take it, as we please, to refer to their first or +to their last farewell. It seems, however, to apply more appropriately +to the first departure of Eurydice to the unknown land. She lays her +hand fondly upon her husband's shoulder, and he touches it gently as if +to detain her. + +The figure on the other side is the messenger god Hermes, whose mission +is to conduct departing spirits to the other world.[33] He has come for +Eurydice, and he takes her by the hand to draw her away. For a moment +husband and wife gaze into each other's eyes with love and sorrow, while +the messenger waits with exquisite courtesy. + +[33] See page 61. + +Though the Greeks had many tales of sorrow in their poetry and +mythology, they did not often illustrate them in their art. The subjects +of their sculpture are nearly always happy ones. Even here, you see, +grief is made so beautiful and dignified that we forget to feel sad +about the parting. We think most of the love and devotion between +Orpheus and Eurydice. + +The simple story of the bas-relief touches us more readily perhaps than +the grand statues of the gods. People like in art something which +corresponds to the common human lives of all. + +The garment worn by Eurydice seems quite like that of the goddess +Demeter. The drapery is very full in front, falling in long straight +folds. At the side it is scantier and shows the motion of the figure in +walking. The short tunic worn by the other figures is a picturesque +costume, and the mantle swinging over one shoulder is very graceful. +When one contrasts with these classical draperies the stiff dress of +modern times, one wonders that the sculptor of to-day does not throw +down his chisel in despair. + +The style of the draperies often enables a critic to decide in what +period a work of art was produced. In the best art the folds are always +simple: it is a sure sign of declining art when the folds are +complicated and broken. Here we see the few simple, severe lines which +mark the purest classical taste. + + + + +XV + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + + +Upon the death of Alexander the Great there was much disputing among his +generals as to what should become of the various provinces of his +empire, including Greece. It was finally decided that the Greek cities +should be left free. A general named Ptolemy soon broke this agreement +and entered Greece, whereupon another named Antigonus promptly proceeded +to punish him. Antigonus had a son Demetrius, who was a skilful +engineer, and was called Poliorcetes, "besieger of cities," for his +success in raising sieges. He was sent to Athens with a fleet of two +hundred and fifty ships, and won the gratitude of the city for +delivering it from the hands of Ptolemy. Demetrius next turned his +attention to the island of Cyprus, of which Ptolemy was in possession. +The rival forces met off Salamis, 306 B. C., in a fierce sea fight, and +Demetrius was victorious. + +Now the Greeks were fond of commemorating notable events by the erection +of statues, and it was an old custom among them to set up a statue of +victory in honor of any success of arms on land or sea. We have seen how +natural it was for them to attribute the affairs of life to the agency +of the deities. So in war, greatly as they praised their armies and +their generals, it was to Nike, the goddess of victory, that they gave +the chief credit of success. This goddess was conceived as a winged +being attendant upon both Zeus and Athena, who, as we have seen, +controlled the destinies of war. + +To Nike then, this winged goddess of victory, was due the wonderful +success of Demetrius over Ptolemy's fleet before Salamis, and it was +fitting that her statue should commemorate the event. The spot chosen +for it was the island of Samothrace, which stands so high above water +level that it is very conspicuous in the northern Greek archipelago. + +The goddess was represented standing on the prow of a vessel as if +leading the fleet to success. It may be that the old Greek idea of a +goddess at the prow was the origin of the "figure head" for so many +years carried by every ship that sailed the seas. The vessels in those +old days were called _triremes_, being propelled by rowers who sat at +their oars in three _tiers_, or banks, which gave the name to the craft. +The goddess stood in the middle of what was called the _ikrion proras_, +which would correspond to the forecastle deck. In her right hand she +held a trumpet to her lips, and in her left she carried a crosstree, the +framework of a trophy. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Frères, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +The figure is in an erect poise with the chest held high. You will +notice that a walker making his way against the wind bends the body +forward to resist its force, while one who is borne along on some +vehicle in the face of the wind steadies himself upright. So with Nike; +the attitude expresses the sense of exhilaration from the rush of wind +in the face of one borne along on a moving vessel. The breeze beats the +thin drapery back upon her, outlining the beautiful curves of bust and +limb, and fluttering behind her in the air. The broad pinions which +would retard the ship's motion if spread open are folded to cut the air +like the prow. + +When the statue was set up and the colossal figure in white marble was +seen against the blue sky of a southern land, what an inspiration it +must have been as a symbol of success! What discouraged heart could look +at such a figure and not be thrilled with new ambition! The statue of +Nike was not the only tribute to the victory of Demetrius. Some special +coins were struck in honor of the event, including gold staters and +silver tetradrachms, specimens of which still exist. The design on the +obverse of these coins represented the statue of Nike. + +Years passed, and at length the independence of the Greeks was crushed +under the heel of the Roman conqueror. Many places were laid waste +throughout the peninsula and the Greek islands. Temples were destroyed +and pillaged, and statues were thrown from their pedestals and buried +beneath the soil and débris. Our statue of Nike shared the sad fate +which befell so many other great works of art. For centuries it lay in +fragments in the ruins surrounding a temple in Samothrace. Then came the +explorer with pickaxe and shovel, some of the precious bits were +recovered, and learned men set to work to put them together again. The +coins of Demetrius were their guide, and the tiny figure of Nike +engraved thereon was the model after which the great statue was +reconstructed. + +The head and arms are still missing, and a fanciful conceit might +suggest that these losses were the marks of a hard-fought battle. +Success has been dearly bought, but the goddess emerges, erect and +undaunted, her tattered wings beating the air victoriously. As we look +at the statue we think less of what it lacks than of what it is. Perhaps +if head and arms were there we should not have eyes for the glorious +lines in the figure itself. One particularly fine line is the continuous +curve running across the bust and the arched top of the wings. + +The figure gives us a sense of motion which fairly quickens the blood in +our veins. We, too, seem to feel the strong salt breeze in our faces, +speeding through the air with courage high, and hope steadily set toward +victory. + + + + +XVI + +PERICLES + + +In the history of ancient Greece the half century included between the +years 480 and 430 B. C. is called the Age of Pericles. During forty +years of this period Pericles was the political leader of Athens. Under +his guidance the city reached the height of her power as the capital of +an empire composed of tributary states. Nor was political power the +chief glory of Athens at this time. She was the centre of arts and +science for the whole world. This was the age of great Greek literature, +when Æschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their immortal dramas. It +was also the age of great oratory, when the Athenians constantly heard +"the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of +eloquence." Finally, it was the age of great art, when architecture and +sculpture attained perfection and when Phidias, the foremost Greek +sculptor, produced his masterpieces. + +Pericles was the dominating spirit in all this brilliant company. It was +his able statesmanship which made and executed the ambitious plans for +the aggrandizement of the city. It was, moreover, his generalship which +carried out successfully so many military expeditions. His eloquence +gave him great influence over the people. He had the art of controlling +men and moving their passions as a musician plays on the strings of his +instrument. Upon his return from the Samian war he delivered a +remarkable funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. Still +again, his oration in honor of the heroes of the Peloponnesian war was a +noble eulogy of Athens and the Athenians. + +The part of Pericles' career which interests us most in our study of +Greek art is his zeal in beautifying Athens with works of architecture +and sculpture. He covered the Acropolis, as the great hill in Athens was +called, with beautiful buildings richly adorned with sculpture. He +appointed Phidias superintendent of all the public edifices, and +employed the most skilled workmen. Besides many temples, a theatre for +music, called an _odeum_, was built, and Pericles introduced into the +Panathenaic festival a contest in music held in this place. In addition +to the public buildings erected, Pericles caused a long wall to be built +to surround the city with fortifications. + +It may be supposed that all these improvements cost a great deal of +money, and there were not lacking men who criticised Pericles for +extravagance in the use of public funds. In an assembly of the people, +the great statesman called upon them to say if they thought he had spent +too much. "Yes," came the answer. "Then," said he, "be it charged to my +account, not yours, only let the edifices be inscribed with my name, not +that of the people of Athens." At this they cried out that he might +spend all he pleased of the public funds, and the criticism was +silenced. The story shows the quick wit of the orator, as well as his +knowledge of human nature. He knew he was safe in appealing to the pride +of the people in their city. + +At the close of his long career Pericles was seized with the plague, and +lay sick unto death. As his friends gathered about his death-bed they +recounted his great deeds and many victories. Suddenly he interrupted +them by exclaiming that they were praising only those qualities in which +he was no greater than other men. In his own estimate, the most +honorable trait of his character was that "no Athenian through his means +had ever put on mourning." + +Pericles was in fact a true patriot and a benefactor of his people. In +the administration of public affairs he showed an upright and honorable +character. Though all his life handling the public funds and increasing +the wealth of the state, it is said that he added not one drachma to his +own estate. He managed his private fortune with great prudence and +dispensed many charities to the needy. His manners were calm and +moderate, and he never gave way to envy or anger. His biographer, +Plutarch, has written of him that "where severity was required, no man +was ever more moderate, or if mildness was necessary, no man better kept +up his dignity than Pericles." + +Pericles was a man of fine and striking presence, with a countenance +cast in the mould we have come to know as the typical Greek. His head +was somewhat abnormally long, and the nickname "onion head" was given +him on this account. Plutarch says that this peculiarity accounts for +the fact that he was always represented in portraits as wearing a +helmet. + +We have reason to believe that the bust reproduced in our frontispiece +was made soon after his successful war against Samos. It represents him +then in the fullness of his manhood and at the height of his success and +popularity. The handsome face is full of refinement and shows the calm, +equable temperament which made him a leader. His qualities of +statesmanship strike us most forcibly in the portrait. We should hardly +suspect that this was a great military commander. Yet that here is a +master of men, we can easily believe. One can imagine him standing +before a great multitude, moving them with the power of his eloquence. + + + + +PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS + + +The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of +Webster's International Dictionary. + + +EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS. + + A Dash (¯) above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in fāte, + ēve, tīme, nōte, ūse. + + A Dash and a Dot (ǡ) above the vowel denote the same sound, less + prolonged. + + A Curve (˘) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in ădd, + ĕnd, ĭll, ŏdd, ŭp. + + A Dot (·) above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in + pȧst, ȧbāte, Amĕricȧ. + + A Double Dot (¨) above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a + in fäther, älms. + + A Double Dot (¨) below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in + ba̤ll. + + A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in hẽr. + + A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o + in bôrn. + + A dot (.) below the vowel u denotes the sound of u in the French + language. + + N indicates that the preceding vowel has the French nasal tone. + + ç sounds like $s$. + + c̵ sounds like $k$. + + s̱ sounds like $z$. + + g̅ is hard as in g̅et. + + ġ is soft as in ġem. + + + Achaian (ȧ-kā´yȧn). + + Achilles (ȧ-kĭl´lēz). + + Acropolis (ȧ-krŏp´ō̇-lĭs). + + Admetus (ăd-mē´tŭs). + + Ægis (ē´jĭs). + + Æschylus (ĕs´kĭ-lŭs). + + Agoracritus (ăg-ō̇-răk´rĭ-tŭs). + + Agrippa (ȧ-grĭp´ȧ). + + Albani (äl-bä´nē). + + Alcamenes (ăl-kăm´ĕ-nēz). + + äl´tĭs. + + Antigone (ăn-tĭg̅´ō-nē). + + Antigonus (ăn-tĭg̅´ō-nŭs). + + Antium (ăn´shĭ-ŭm). + + Aphrodite (ăf-rō̇-dī´tē). + + Apollo (ȧ-pŏl´ō). + + Apoxyomenos (ă-pŏx-ĭ-ŏm´ē̇-nŏs). + + Ares (ā´rēz). + + Argicide (är´jĭ-sīd). + + Argonauts (är´g̅ō-na̤tz). + + är´g̅ŭs. + + Aristophanes (ăr-ĭs-tŏf´ȧ-nēz). + + Athena (ă-thē´nȧ). + + Athens (ăth´ĕnz). + + + Bacchus (băk´ŭs). + + Belvedere (bĕl-vē̇-dēr´). + + Bernini (bĕr-nē´nē). + + Brunn (brŏŏn). + + + caduceus (kȧ-dū´sē̇-ŭs). + + Căl´ȧmĭs. + + Căllī´ōpē. + + Centaur (sĕn´ta̤r). + + Cerberus (sẽr´bē̇-rŭs). + + Ceres (sē´rēz). + + Chiron (kī´rŏn). + + Collignon (kŏl-lē̇n-yôN´). + + Crĕs´ĭlȧs. + + Cyprus (sī´prŭs). + + + Delphi (dĕl´fī). + + Dĕmē´tẽr. + + Dĕmē´trĭŭs. + + Dī´ō̇mĕd. + + Dĭscŏb´ō̇lŭs. + + dĭs´kŏs. + + Dŏnätĕl´lō. + + + Elgin (ĕl´g̅ĭn). + + Eros (ē´rŏs). + + Euphranor (ū-frā´nôr). + + Euripides (ū-rĭp´ĭ-dēz). + + Eurydice (ū-rĭd´ī-sē̇). + + + Furtwängler (fōōrt´vǡng-lẽr). + + + Găl´ȧhăd. + + Giustiniana (jŏŏs-tē-nē-ä´nä). + + glaukopis (gla̤-kō´pĭs). + + Gorgon (g̅ôr´g̅ŏn). + + + Hĕc´ǡtē. + + Hĕllĕnĭs´tĭc. + + Hephæstus (hē̇-fĕs´tŭs). + + Hē´rä. + + Heræum (hē̇-rē´ŭm). + + Hĕr´cūlēs̱. + + hermæ (hẽr´mē). + + Hẽr´mēs̱. + + Hē´sĭŏd. + + + ĭk´rĭŏn prō´räs. + + Iliad (ĭl´ĭ-ȧd). + + Io (ī´ō). + + Ithaca (ĭth´ȧ-kȧ). + + + Jā´sŏn. + + Jū´nō. + + Jū´pĭtẽr. + + + Lancelotti (län-chǡ-lŏt´ē). + + Lăt´ẽrȧn. + + Leochares (lē̇-ŏk´ȧ-rēz). + + Louvre (lōō´vr). + + Lucian (lū´shĭ-ȧn). + + Ludovisi (lōō-dō-vē´zē). + + Lutatius Catulus (lū-tā´shĭ-ŭs kăt´ū-lŭs). + + Lȳcûr´gŭs. + + Lȳsĭp´pŭs. + + + Märs. + + Mĕd´ĭcä. + + Mē´lŏs. + + Mẽr´cūry̆. + + Mĕtȧmŏr´phōsēs̱. + + Mĕt´ōpēs̱. + + Mī´lō. + + Mĭnẽr´vȧ. + + Mȳ´rŏn. + + + Nĕm´ĕsĭs. + + Nī´kē. + + Nȳ´sȧ. + + + ōdē´ŭm. + + Odyssey (ŏd´ĭ-sĭ). + + Œdipus Coloneus (ĕd´ĭ-pŭs kō-lō-nē´-ŭs). + + Œdipus Tyrannus (ĕd´ĭ-pŭs tĭ-răn´-ŭs). + + Œnone (ē-nō´nē̇). + + Olympia (ō-lĭm´pĭ-ȧ). + + Olympiad (ō-lĭm´pĭ-ăd). + + Olympic (ō-lĭm´pĭk). + + Olympus (ō-lĭm´pŭs). + + Orpheus (ôr´fūs). + + Otricoli (ō-trē´kō-lē). + + Ovid (ŏv´ĭd). + + + palæstra (pȧ-lĕs´trȧ). + + Păl´lȧs. + + Panathenæa (păn-ăth-ē̇-nē´ȧ). + + Pănăthē̇nā´ĭc. + + Pärnăs´sŭs. + + Pär´thē̇nŏn. + + Pā´tẽr. + + Pǡtrō´clŭs. + + Peloponnesian (pĕl-ō̇-pŏn-nē´shȧn). + + Pē̇nĕl´ōpē̇. + + Pĕntĕl´ĭc. + + pĕp´lŏs. + + Pĕr´ĭclēs. + + Persephone (pẽr-sĕf´ō-nē). + + Perseus (pẽr´sūs). + + Phidias (fĭd´ĭ-ȧs). + + Phœbus (fē´bŭs). + + Phrynicus (frĭn´ĭ-kŭs). + + Pĭn´dȧr. + + plĕc´trŭm. + + Plĭn´y̆. + + Plutarch (plū´tärk). + + Plū´tō. + + Pŏlĭclȳ´tŭs. + + Pŏlĭôrçē´tēs̱. + + Prăxĭt´ĕlēs̱. + + Ptolemy (tŏl´ĕ-mĭ). + + Py̆th´ĭȧ. + + Pȳ´thŏn. + + + Reber, von (fŏn rā´bẽr). + + + Săl´ȧmĭs. + + Sā´mĭȧn. + + Sā´mŏs. + + Samothrace (săm´ō̇-thrās). + + Scō´pȧs. + + Scyros (sī´rŏs). + + Sŏph´ōclēs̱. + + strigil (strĭ´jĭl). + + Sty̆x. + + Symonds (sĭm´ŭndz). + + + Telemachus (tē̇-lĕm´ȧ-kŭs). + + Terracina (tĕr-rä-chē´nä). + + Thēŏg̅´ōny̆. + + Theseus (thē´sūs). + + Thrace (thrās). + + Trastevere (träs-tā-vā´rā). + + trireme (trī´rēm). + + Trō´jȧn. + + + Ulysses (ū-ly̆s´sēz). + + + Vatican (văt´ĭ-kȧn). + + Vē´nŭs. + + Vŭl´cȧn. + + + Waldstein (wa̤ld´stīn). + + + Zeus (zūs). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/34842-0.zip b/34842-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ef0c0c --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-0.zip diff --git a/34842-8.txt b/34842-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b7545b --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2864 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Greek Sculpture + A collection of sixteen pictures of Greek marbles with + introduction and interpretation + +Author: Estelle M. Hurll + +Release Date: January 3, 2011 [EBook #34842] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK SCULPTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +[**Transcriber's notes: + italics represented by underscores e.g. _italics_ + bold represented by $ e.g. $bold$ + ligatures by [OE] e.g. [OE]dipus + + Letters with Diacritical Marks are rendered according to + the following table: + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + diacritical mark | sample | above | below + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + macron (straight line) | | [=x] | [x=] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + 2 dots (dieresis, umlaut) | | [:x] | [x:] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + 1 dot | | [.x] | [x.] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + breve (u-shaped symbol) | U | [)x] | [x)] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + tilde | ~ | [~x] | [x~] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + The city of Terracina was mispelled Terracino in paragraph 9, + section 3 of the Introduction + + end of transcriber's notes**] + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +PERICLES + +_British Museum, London_] + + + + + + The Riverside Art Series + + + GREEK SCULPTURE + + A COLLECTION OF SIXTEEN PICTURES + OF GREEK MARBLES + WITH INTRODUCTION AND + INTERPRETATION + + BY + + ESTELLE M. HURLL + + [Illustration] + + BOSTON AND NEW YORK + HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + The Riverside Press Cambridge + + +COPYRIGHT 1901, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + + + +PREFACE + + +Within the limits of this small collection of pictures an attempt is +made to bring together as great a variety of subjects as possible. +Portraiture is illustrated in the statue of Sophocles and the bust of +Pericles, _genre_ studies in the Apoxyomenos and Discobolus, bas-relief +work in the panel from the Parthenon frieze and the Orpheus and +Eurydice, and ideal heads and statues in the representations of the +divinities. Both the Greek treatment of the nude and the Greek +management of drapery have due attention. + +As classic literature is the best interpreter of Greek sculpture, the +text draws freely from such original sources as the Iliad and the +Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and Ovid's Metamorphoses. + + ESTELLE M. HURLL. + + NEW BEDFORD, MASS. + January, 1901. + + + + + +CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES + + + PERICLES (_Frontispiece_) + From original in British Museum + + INTRODUCTION + I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE vii + II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE x + III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED + IN THIS COLLECTION xi + + I. BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI 1 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + II. ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) 7 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + III. HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE 13 + Picture from Photograph by the London Stereoscopic + Co. + + IV. BUST OF HERA (JUNO) 19 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + V. THE APOXYOMENOS 25 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VI. HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE 31 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VII. DEMETER (CERES) 37 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VIII. THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES 43 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + IX. SOPHOCLES 49 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + X. ARES SEATED 55 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XI. HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES 61 + Picture from Photograph by the English Photographic + Co., Athens + + XII. THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) 67 + Picture from Photograph loaned by Edward Robinson, + from the only negative known to exist + + XIII. THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) 73 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frres + + XIV. ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE 79 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XV. NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) 85 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Frres + + XVI. PERICLES (See Frontispiece) 91 + + PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND + FOREIGN WORDS 95 + +_Nine of the above illustrations are from photographs in the collection +of the William Hayes Fogg Art Museum of Harvard University_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE. + +The history of Greek sculpture covers a period of some eight or nine +hundred years, and falls into five divisions.[1] The first is the period +of development, extending from 600 to 480 B. C. The second is the period +of greatest achievement, under Phidias and his followers, in the Age of +Pericles, 480-430 B. C. The third is the period of Praxiteles and +Scopas, in the fourth century. The fourth is the period of decline, +characterized as the Hellenistic Age, and included between the years 320 +and 100 B. C. The fifth is the Grco-Roman period, which includes the +work produced to meet the demand of the Roman market for Greek +sculpture, and which extends to 300 A. D. + +[1] See Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, page 42. + +Modern criticism differentiates sharply the characteristics of the +several periods and even of the individual artists, but such subtleties +are beyond the grasp of the unlearned. The majority of people continue +to regard Greek sculpture in its entirety, as if it were the homogeneous +product of a single age. To the popular imagination it is as if some +gigantic machine turned out the Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, the +Elgin Marbles, and all the rest, in a single day. Nor is it long ago +since even eminent writers had but vague ideas as to the distinctive +periods of these very works. Certain it is that all works of Greek +sculpture have a particular character which marks them as such. +Authorities have taught us to distinguish some few of their leading +characteristics. + +The most striking characteristic of Greek art is perhaps its closeness +to nature. The sculptor showed an intimate knowledge of the human form, +acquired by constant observation of the splendid specimens of manhood +produced in the palstra. It is because the artist "clung to nature as a +kind mother," says Waldstein, that the influence of his work persists +through the ages. + +Again, Greek art is distinctly an art of generalization, dealing with +types rather than with individuals. This characteristic is of varying +degrees in different periods and with different sculptors. It is seen in +its perfection in the Elgin Marbles, in exaggeration in the Apollo +Belvedere, and at the minimum in the work of Praxiteles. Yet it is +everywhere sufficiently marked to be indissolubly connected with Greek +sculpture. + +The quality of repose, so constantly associated with Greek sculpture, is +another characteristic which varies with the period and the individual +sculptor. Between the calm dignity of the portrait statue of Sophocles +and the intense muscular concentration of Myron's Discobolus, a long +range of degrees may be included. Yet on the whole, repose is an +essential characteristic of the best Greek sculpture, provided we do not +let our notion of repose exclude the spirited element. Fine as is the +effect of repose in the Parthenon frieze, the composition is likewise +full of spirit and life. + +A distinguishing characteristic of the best Greek sculpture is its +simplicity. Compared with the Gothic sculptors, the Greeks appear to us, +in Ruskin's phrase, as the "masters of all that was grand, simple, wise +and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys of the rest of +mankind." Their work is free from that "vain and mean decoration"--the +"weak and monstrous error"--which disfigures the art of other peoples. + +As we turn from one Greek marble to another in the great sculpture +galleries of the world, the best features of the art impress themselves +deeply even upon the untutored eye. The Greek instinct for pose is +unfailing and unsurpassable. Standing or seated, the attitude is always +graceful, the lines are always fine. The best statues are equally well +composed, viewed from any standpoint. The camera may describe a +circumference about a marble as a centre, and a photograph made at any +point in the circle will show lines of rhythm and beauty. + +The faultless regularity of the Greek profile has passed into history as +the accepted standard of human beauty. The straight continuous line of +brow and nose, the well moulded chin, the full lip, the small ear, +satisfy perfectly our sthetic ideals. + +The art of sculpture was an essential outgrowth of the Greek spirit, and +perfectly suited the requirements of Greek thought. In the words of a +recent writer, "it was the consummate expression in art of the genius of +a nation which worshiped physical perfection as the gift of the +immortals, which honored the gods by athletic games and choral dances, +and whose deities wore the flesh and shared the nature of men."[2] It +was moreover a national art, entering into every phase of public life, +and embodying the Greek sense of national greatness. + +[2] From _Italian Cities_, by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield. + +Greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only by catching +something of the spirit which produced it. One must shake off the +centuries and regard life with the childlike simplicity of the young +world: one must give imagination free rein. The same attitude of mind +which can enjoy Greek mythology and Greek literature is the proper +attitude for the enjoyment of Greek sculpture. The best interpreter of a +nation's art is the nation's poetry. + + +II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE. + +Many learned works on the subject of Greek Sculpture have been written +in various languages. Three standard authorities are the English work by +A. S. Murray, "History of Greek Sculpture," second edition, London, +1890; the French work by Collignon, "Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque," +Paris, 1892; and the German work by Furtwngler, translated into English +by E. Sellers, "The Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture," London, 1895. +Naturally these three writers are not always of one opinion, and the +student must turn from one to another to learn all the arguments +concerning a disputed point. + +For the practical every-day use of the reader who has no time to sift +the evidences on difficult questions of archology, Gardner's "Handbook +of Greek Sculpture" is an excellent outline summary of the history of +the subject. + +Charles Waldstein's "Essays on the Art of Pheidias," New York, 1885, is +an exceedingly valuable and suggestive volume. + +Two small books, written in a somewhat popular vein, make very pleasant +reading for those pursuing these studies: "Studies in Greek Art," by J. +E. Harrison, London, 1885, and "Greek Art on Greek Soil," by J. M. +Hoppin, Boston, 1897. + +Besides the works devoted exclusively to the subject of Greek sculpture, +the subject receives due attention in various general histories of art, +of which may be mentioned, Lucy Mitchell's "History of Ancient +Sculpture," Lbke's "History of Sculpture," and Von Reber's "History of +Ancient Art." + +A valuable bibliography is given in Gardner's "Handbook." + + +III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED IN THIS COLLECTION. + +_Frontispiece._ Terminal bust of Pericles, after an original by +Cresilas. Approximate date, 440-430 B. C. In the British Museum, London. + +1. _Bust of Zeus Otricoli._ Considered by Brunn and others a copy from a +head of the statue by Phidias. Later critics do not agree with this +opinion, and Furtwngler calls the head a Praxitelean development of the +type of Zeus created in the time of Myron. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +2. _Athena Giustiniana_ (_Minerva Medica_). Considered by Furtwngler a +copy, after Euphranor, of a statue dedicated below the Capitol, called +Minerva Catuliana, set up by A. Lutatius Catulus. The gis and sphinx +are copyist's additions. Found in the gardens of the convent of S. Maria +sopra Minerva, Rome. Both arms are restored. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +3. _Horsemen from the Parthenon Frieze._ The frieze of the Parthenon is +part of the decorative scheme of the marble temple of Athena, built +during the age of Pericles (480-430 B. C.) on the Acropolis, Athens, and +decorated under the direction of Phidias. The frieze consisted of a +series of panels or slabs, about 3 ft. 4 in. in height, and was set on +the outer wall of the cella. Being lighted from below, the lower portion +is cut in low relief (1 in.) and the upper parts in high relief +(2 in.). The panel of the Horsemen is one of the Elgin Marbles, +removed by Lord Elgin from the Parthenon in 1801-1802, and now in the +British Museum, London. + +4. _Bust of Hera._ Considered by Murray a copy after Polyclitus. +Regarded by Furtwngler as a "Roman creation based on a Praxitelean +model." Catalogued in Hare's "Walks in Rome" as a probable copy after +Alcamenes. In the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +5. _The Apoxyomenos._. A marble copy of the original bronze statue by +Lysippus, who flourished in the 4th century B. C. According to Pliny the +original was brought from Greece to Rome by Agrippa to adorn the public +baths. This copy was found in 1849 in the Trastevere, Rome, and is now +in the Vatican Gallery. + +6. _Head of the Apollo Belvedere._ According to Gardner, a marble copy +(Roman) of a bronze original of the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). +Some (Winter and Furtwngler) have assigned the original to Leochares, a +sculptor of the 4th century, and others to Calamis, in the 5th century. +This copy was found in the 16th century at Antium, and was purchased by +Pope Julius II. for the Belvedere Palace. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +7. _Demeter_ (_Ceres_) Considered by Furtwngler a copy from an original +by Agoracritus, who was a pupil of Phidias, and whose works are closely +allied to those of Alcamenes. By the same authority the statue is called +the Nemesis. In the Vatican Gallery, Rome. + +8. _The Faun of Praxiteles._ A copy of the original statue by +Praxiteles, which was in the street of the Tripods, Athens. In the +Capitol Museum, Rome. + +9. _Sophocles._ Referred to by Collignon as a faithful copy of the +bronze statue raised by Lycurgus. Found at Terracino in 1838, and now in +the Lateran Museum, Rome. + +10. _Ares Seated._ Considered by Furtwngler and others a copy on a +reduced scale of a colossal statue by Scopas. The little god Eros is the +copyist's addition. Found in the portico of Octavia, and restored by +Bernini. Now in the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +11. _Head of the Olympian Hermes._ An undisputed original work of +Praxiteles, dating from the middle of the 4th century B. C. It was in +the Herum (or Temple of Hera) at Olympia, and was discovered by German +excavators, May 8, 1877. Now in the museum at Olympia, Greece. + +12. _The Discobolus_, a copy from an original by Myron, one of the last +masters of the "severe style," whose career culminated 465-450 B. C. In +the Lancelotti Palace, Rome. + +13. _The Aphrodite of Melos (The Venus of Milo)._ Formerly attributed to +the period of transition between Phidias and Praxiteles, but assigned by +late critics to the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). Believed by +Furtwngler to be based on a work by Scopas, with considerable +modification of the original. Found in 1820 on the island of Melos at +the entrance of the Greek Archipelago. Purchased by the French +government for 6000 francs, and now in the Louvre, Paris. + +14. _Orpheus and Eurydice._ One of several copies of an original +bas-relief referred by Collignon to the second half of 5th century B. C. +In the Albani Villa, Rome. + +15. _Nike (The Winged Victory)._ A marble statue believed to have been +set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes to celebrate a naval victory in 306 B. +C. Found in 1863 by the French consul on the island of Samothrace. Now +in the Louvre, Paris. + + + + +I + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + + +From the earliest times men have sought to explain in one way and +another the common facts of daily life. Sunrise and sunset, seedtime and +harvest, life, death, and the hereafter are some of the mysteries which +have always puzzled the human mind. The primitive races, knowing nothing +of science, looked upon the forces of nature as gigantic personalities, +or gods, who controlled human destiny. + +The most refined and imaginative of the ancient nations were the Greeks. +They invented innumerable tales or myths, in which all the changes of +nature and all the affairs of life were attributed to the workings of +the gods. When the sun rose, they said that Apollo had begun to drive +his chariot across the sky. When the wind blew, Zeus was sending his +messenger from the sky to the earth. When a man did a courageous deed, +it was because Athena had whispered to him what to do. + +In this way the beliefs gradually took form which made the Greek +religion. Great temples were built for the worship of the gods, and +statues were set up in their honor. The finest works of Greek art were +connected with religious worship. + +The gods were conceived as having the same form as human beings, but of +colossal size. They lived in an ideal country called Olympus, + + "Olympus, where the gods have made, + So saith tradition, their eternal seat. + The tempest shakes it not, nor is it drenched + By showers, and there the snow doth never fall. + The calm, clear ether is without a cloud, + And in the golden light that lies on all, + Day after day the blessed gods rejoice."[3] + +[3] Odyssey, Book vi., lines 54-60 in Bryant's translation. + +Here each god had a separate dwelling, and in the midst was the palace +of their supreme ruler, Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter or Jove. + +Zeus was the sky god, "the father of gods and men," and the ruler of +heaven and earth. He was the "cloud compeller" at whose will the clouds +gathered or scattered across the sky, the "ruler of the storms," the +"thunderer," by whom were hurled the ruddy lightnings. How far he +surpassed all other gods in power is explained in the Iliad in an +address made by Zeus himself to the gods:-- + + "Suspend from heaven + A golden chain; let all the immortal host + Cling to it from below: ye could not draw, + Strive as ye might, the all-disposing Jove + From heaven to earth. And yet if I should choose + To draw it upward to me, I should lift, + With it and you, the earth itself and sea + Together, and I then would bind the chain + Around the summit of the Olympian mount, + And they should hang aloft."[4] + +[4] Iliad, Book viii., lines 21-30 in Bryant's translation. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the imagination of the Greeks Zeus was endowed with all the noblest +elements in human character. He ruled the affairs of men with fatherly +benevolence. He rewarded goodness, punished the wicked, and was withal +the fountain-head of justice. By a nod of his head he made known his +will, and there was no appeal from his decrees. + +Naturally, the Greeks pictured this god as a being of majestic stature +and grand, benignant countenance, and sculptors did their best to make +statues worthy of this conception. By common consent a certain type of +countenance was accepted as the most fitting expression of this ideal. +At last a great artist named Phidias produced a statue which perfectly +carried out all the ideas at which other sculptors had aimed. It was of +colossal size, made of gold and ivory, and was set up in a temple of +Olympia. From this time forth every sculptor who had to represent Zeus +had only to repeat the design of Phidias. + +Now we know that the farther an imitator gets from the original +standard, the weaker is his copy. The first successors of Phidias made +direct studies from his statue, but those coming after worked from +copies. Still later artists took for their models copies of these +copies, until at last much of the original grandeur of Phidias's +conception was lost. + +The bust of Zeus reproduced in our illustration is thought to be a +far-away copy of the head of Phidias's statue. From the marble of which +it is made we know that it was executed in Italy, probably by some Greek +sculptor who had come thither after his own nation had been conquered by +Rome. The marvel is that he preserved so well the noble dignity of the +ideal Zeus. This is the father of gods and men in his most benign +aspect. The massive head is crowned like that of a lion with long, +overhanging locks with which the flowing beard is mingled. These are the + + "Ambrosial curls + Upon the Sovereign One's immortal head," + +of which Homer writes in the Iliad. The symmetrical arrangement of hair +and beard carry out the character of perfect evenness belonging to the +supreme ruler. + +The forehead has the full bar of flesh which denotes virility. The brows +are straight, the nose finely modeled, the lips rather full, the +expression benignant. Altogether the impression is of a being of mental +and moral equipoise, full of energy and noble dignity. + + + + +II + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + + +Athena was the air goddess of the Greeks, or, in Ruskin's phrase, "the +queen of the air." She was known also by the name Pallas, and among the +Romans as Minerva. As the air comes to us from out the great dome of the +sky, so Athena was said to have sprung fully armed from the head of her +father Zeus. The old Homeric hymn tells how + + "Wonder strange possessed + The everlasting gods that shape to see, + Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously + Rush from the crest of gis-bearing Jove."[5] + +[5] In Shelley's translation. + +Her eyes were blue, the color of the sky; her hair hung in ringlets over +her shoulders. Her dress was + + "A gorgeous robe + Of many hues, which her own hands had wrought."[6] + +[6] Iliad, Book viii., lines 483, 484. + +When arrayed for war she wore a golden helmet and carried a shield, or +_gis_. In the centre of this shield was fastened the gorgon's head +which Perseus had cut off with her aid. In her hand she wielded a mighty +spear. + +The owl was her symbolic bird, and she was called _glaukopis_, or +owl-eyed, because her wisdom gave her sight in darkness. The serpent was +the emblem of her command over the beneficent and healing influences in +the earth. Her favorite plant was the fruitful olive, valued by the +Greeks both for the beauty of its foliage and for the usefulness of its +oil. + +In the fortunes of war, when it was for defensive aims, Athena took an +intense interest and an active part. In the war between the Greeks and +the Trojans, she was on the side of the Greeks, who sought to recover +from their enemies their queen Helen, whom the Trojan prince had +captured. When the Greek army assembled before the walls of Troy-- + + "Among them walked + The blue-eyed Pallas, bearing on her arm + The priceless gis, ever fair and new, + And undecaying; from its edge there hung + A hundred golden fringes, fairly wrought, + And every fringe might buy a hecatomb. + With this and fierce, defiant looks she passed + Through all the Achaian host, and made their hearts + Impatient for the march and strong to endure + The combat without pause,--for now the war + Seemed to them dearer than the wished return + In their good galleys to the land they loved."[7] + +[7] Iliad, Book ii., lines 549-560 in Bryant's translation. + +As the air gives us the breath of life, so Athena gave inspiration to +the heart of man. It was her friendly mission to fill with "strength and +courage" the hearts of those who were beset by difficulties of many +kinds.[8] To Achilles, lamenting the death of Patroclus, she came with +nectar and ambrosia, that his limbs might not grow faint with hunger.[9] +It was because of her aid that Diomed could proudly declare, "Minerva +will not let my spirit falter;" and when he cast his spear, "Minerva +kept the weapon faithful to its aim."[10] + +[8] See the Iliad, Book v., line 2, and the Odyssey, Book i., line 396. + +[9] Iliad, Book xix., lines 427-429. + +[10] Iliad, Book v., lines 309 and 352. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +To Athena Ulysses owed his safe return to Ithaca after the adventures +related in the Odyssey. It was her adroit planning which brought +together the long lost father and his son Telemachus, with the faithful +wife Penelope. She also found ways to help Jason when he went in search +of the golden fleece; she aided Hercules in his labors and guided the +hand of Perseus when he cut off the Gorgon's head. + +Athena was also the patroness of the industrial arts. She was skilful in +weaving and needlework, making both her own and others' beautiful robes +and teaching the craft to some favored mortals. She was, in short, the +personification of "inspired and impulsive wisdom in human conduct and +human art, giving the instinct of infallible decision, and of faultless +invention."[11] Finally, and not least important, Athena was one of the +agencies in the productiveness of the earth, and hence the patron +goddess of farmers. + +[11] From Ruskin's _Queen of the Air_. + +Our statue shows as many as possible of the attributes of the goddess. +The figure is tall and stately and magnificently developed. The Greek +ideal of beauty was to let nature have its way in the human body, +unhindered by any such restraints of clothing as our modern fashions +have invented. The broad shoulders and ample waist bespeak the splendid +strength of the goddess. + +The neck rises from the shoulders like a column to support the well-set +head. A tunic falls in straight folds to the feet, and over this is worn +a long mantle gathered over the left shoulder. Upon her breast hangs the +shield, here made very small, and the helmet and spear complete her +equipment as a goddess of war. At her side coils the emblematic serpent. + +Her aspect is far from warlike. The face is intellectual and the +expression thoughtful. This is the goddess of wisdom reflecting upon +grave concerns. The mouth is set somewhat proudly, and the countenance +is full of a dignified reserve. The masterful element, so strong in her +character, is admirably expressed. There is something almost austere in +the beauty of this virgin goddess. A majestic being like this is not one +to be familiarly approached. + + + + +III + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + + +To understand the history and meaning of the bas-relief reproduced in +our illustration, we must first learn something of the worship of Athena +in her chosen city of Athens. An annual festival was held here in her +honor, and every four years occurred a very elaborate celebration called +the Panathena. The Panathena lasted several days, and attracted +throngs of people from all parts of Greece. There were contests in +gymnastics and music, torch-races, horse-races, feasts and dances. +Sacrifices of oxen were offered on the altar of the goddess, every state +having to furnish an ox for the purpose. The climax was reached on the +last day, when a great procession started at sunrise and traversed the +streets of the city to the temple of Athena. It is with this procession +that the bas-relief of our picture is connected, as we shall presently +see. + +Some time before the festival a group of Athenian maidens of the noblest +families had made and embroidered for Athena a beautiful robe called the +_peplos_. This was carried above the procession, stretched like a sail +on the mast of a ship which was rolled through the street on wheels. The +pageant was made up of many different companies. There were the +Athenian magistrates, grave and dignified, maidens carrying sacrificial +vessels, men bearing trays of cakes, citharists (harpists) and +flute-players, old men with olive branches, four-horse chariots with +armed warriors, rows of young men mounted on prancing steeds, and +attendants with the cattle for the sacrifice. + +During the invasion of Greece by the Persians, the temple of Athena in +Athens was destroyed by fire. Later, on its site, was erected another to +replace it, called the Parthenon. The city was now at the height of its +prosperity under the statesman Pericles. At this time also lived the +great sculptor Phidias, and to him Pericles intrusted the decoration of +the new temple. + +The Parthenon was built of Pentelic marble, and the temple proper was +surrounded by a portico supported on rows of columns. The outside of the +building was richly adorned with bas-reliefs. There were designs in the +triangular spaces under the roof called _pediments_. Above the columns +ran a series of panels called _metopes_. Finally, there was a _frieze_ +extending around the temple wall, to be seen from within the portico. It +is a bit of this frieze which is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: London Stereoscopic Co., Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + +_British Museum, London_] + +The Panathenaic procession is the subject carried the entire length of +this bas-relief decoration. On the portion running across one end were +depicted the scenes of preparation. Men are in the act of mounting their +horses, some having spirited animals to deal with, and all making ready +for the start. At the opposite end is the scene of the arrival at the +temple. Here sit the gods to receive the sacrifice, while the +magistrates stand ready to perform the rites, and maidens approach with +the vessels. On the two long sides the procession is seen actually in +motion. Here are represented all the figures which took part in such +occasions; old men and maidens, musicians, horsemen, charioteers, and +sacrificial animals, all moving forward on their way. Group follows +group, with that contrast and variety which give interest to a pageant, +and with the proper orderliness to give it unity. + +Our panel shows us a line of horsemen riding four abreast. Though it is +broken and defaced, we catch at once the spirit of the work. The horses +are splendid animals; with dilated nostrils, and necks proudly arched, +they seem to prance to the music of the flutes. Though they are well +matched in size and type, no two are really alike. Every one has as +distinct a character as a human being, and lovers of horses might choose +each his own favorite from the four. + +Only two of the riders fall within our range of vision. They are +handsome youths, with the perfectly formed head and finely cut profile +which we learn to recognize as the Greek ideal of beauty. The line +across forehead and nose is perfectly straight, and the line connecting +nose and chin forms a corresponding angle. Both faces bear the stamp of +refinement and high breeding which mark them as belonging to the class +of Athenian nobles. + +Though the two youths have so similar a cast of countenance, they are +quite unlike in temperament. The farther one is of a somewhat dreamy, +poetic nature. He rides with bent head as if in a reverie. His companion +is of a sterner, more virile type. He looks straight before him, and +carries his head with a sense of the dignity of the occasion. + +Both youths sit their horses as if born in the saddle. Horse and rider +are one, animated by a single dominant will. The Athenian youth were +trained from childhood in all sorts of manly exercise. The normal +development of the body was of first importance in the Greek educational +system. These young men are typical examples of the fine specimens of +manhood which that training produced. + + + + +IV + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + + + "The white armed queen, + Juno, the mistress of the golden throne." + +It is thus that the Iliad describes Hera, the wife of Zeus, now more +often called by her Roman name Juno. The marriage union between the +ruler of the gods and his queen represented the Greek ideal of perfect +conjugal happiness. Hera was therefore the goddess who presided over +human marriages, and was the type of matronly virtue and dignity. As the +queen of heaven, she had it in her power to bestow great riches, honor, +and influence upon her favorites. + +In the Trojan war she was, like Athena, a partisan of the Greeks, and +once or twice even accompanied the war goddess to the battlefield. +Usually, however, her pursuits were of a more peaceful and domestic +order. She was a very beautiful goddess, "ox-eyed" in the quaint Greek +phrase, that is, with large expressive eyes. She had the august and +majestic bearing befitting a queen, and is usually described in classic +literature as wearing a veil. A long passage in the Iliad gives an +account of her toilet when arraying herself for a special occasion. +After bathing in ambrosia, and anointing with oil, + + "When thus her shapely form + Had been anointed, and her hands had combed + Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls, + Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung + Round her immortal brow. And next she threw + Around her an ambrosial robe, the work + Of Pallas, all its web embroidered o'er + With forms of rare device. She fastened it + Over the breast with clasps of gold, and then + She passed about her waist a zone which bore + Fringes a hundred-fold, and in her ears + She hung her three-gemmed ear-rings, from whose gleam + She won an added grace. Around her head + The glorious goddess drew a flowing veil, + Just from the loom, and shining like the sun; + And, last, beneath her bright white feet she bound + The shapely sandals."[12] + +[12] Iliad, Book xiv., lines 210-226 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the prettiest stories about Hera is that in which she acted as +the friend of Jason. Jason was the son of a dethroned king and was +brought up by the centaur Chiron. When he came of age he set forth, with +much good advice from Chiron, to reclaim his father's kingdom. On his +journey he came to a swollen stream which seemed well-nigh impassable. +As he was considering the danger of crossing it, an old woman on the +bank begged him to carry her over. This was a hazardous undertaking, and +the young man was sorely tempted to refuse her. At last his kindness +triumphed and he consented. Taking her on his back, he struggled across +the river at the peril of his life. When he set her safely on the +opposite bank, a wonderful thing happened. "She grew fairer than all +women, and taller than all men on earth; and her garments shone like the +summer sea, and her jewels like the stars of heaven; and over her +forehead was a veil, woven of the golden clouds of sunset, and through +the veil she looked down on him with great soft heifer's eyes; with +great eyes, mild and awful, which filled all the glen with light."[13] +Then he knew that this was Hera, and from thenceforth she was his guide +in every time of need. + +[13] From Kingsley's _Greek Heroes_: the Argonauts. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The bust of Hera, reproduced in our illustration, shows how the Greeks +liked to think of their queen goddess. We at once recognize the features +assigned to her by tradition; the large eyes set somewhat far apart, the +low, broad forehead, the mild expression. The waving hair is parted, and +gathered at the back in a matronly coiffure, and over it is worn the +crown of a queen. + +We have seen that in Greek sculpture the artist was not always left to +represent the divinities according to his own imagination. For each one +a certain fixed type had been gradually thought out in very early times, +and this type was handed down from generation to generation. A statue or +bust could always be recognized without any title. No one, for instance, +could ever mistake Zeus for Apollo, or confuse Hera and Athena. + +By comparing this head of Hera with that of Athena in our previous +illustration, we can see how perfectly sculpture carried out the +distinctions in the two characters. Hera was less intellectual than +Athena, and had perhaps more distinctly feminine charms. The mouth has +less strength and firmness, the expression more mildness. Her beauty is +naturally of a more matronly type than that of the virgin goddess. The +crown which she wears belongs as distinctly to her as does the helmet to +Athena. + +A careful examination of the face suggests that it may have been studied +from actual life. If, as some critics believe, the bust was made in Rome +by some Greek sojourning there after the conquest of his own nation, a +noble Roman matron may have been the model. Be that as it may, this is +Hera as the Greeks worshipped her, and perhaps the best existing +representation of the great goddess. + + + + +V + +THE APOXYOMENOS + + +An important part of the Greek system of education was the training of +the body in physical exercise. For this purpose there were gymnasia in +every city, where the youth were trained in running, leaping, wrestling, +throwing the javelin, and casting the discus. Great spaces were occupied +by these gymnasia, which included buildings for dressing-rooms and +baths, porticoes and halls used as assembly-rooms, walks, gardens, and +the palstra, or wrestling-field. + +Every four years a great national festival was held at Olympia, +consisting of games or contests in the various athletic sports. Every +freeman of Hellenic blood had a birthright to take part in them. The +contestants were required to undergo a preparatory training, often +lasting months, in the gymnasium of Elis, the province in which Olympia +was situated. + +During the progress of the games a universal truce was proclaimed +throughout Greece. All hostilities ceased for the time, and the Greeks +as a united people assembled at Olympia for the joyous celebration in +honor of Zeus. So important were these Olympic games that they were used +as a standard for reckoning time. In assigning a date to an event, the +Greeks used to say that it took place in this or that Olympiad, an +Olympiad being the period of four years between two successive +festivals. + +We may well believe that the Olympic festivals, as well as the ordinary +daily exercise in the city gymnasia, had great attractions for +sculptors. The palstra must have been a favorite resort of artists. +What a sight it was when the young men came out of the dressing-rooms +stripped for running, their bodies shining with oil,--what a play of +muscles in the lithe young limbs as the runners "pressed toward the mark +for the prize of the high calling!" The course was usually of deep sand, +and was about three miles in length. The runners trained for special +emergencies attained extraordinary speed and endurance. The race over, +each youth returned to the dressing-rooms of the gymnasium and, taking a +small instrument called the _strigil_, made of metal, ivory, or horn, +scraped the oil from his body. + +It is in this cleansing process that the young man of our illustration +is engaged. The statue on this account is called the Apoxyomenos, which +is a Greek word meaning "scraping himself." It represents a typical +incident of the life of the gymnasium, such as might be seen any day of +the year. + +Tall and graceful, with slender flexible limbs, the youth stands in an +attitude of rest, scraping his right arm. In his fingers is the die +which marks his number in the race. His body rests upon one leg, but so +light is his poise that he is ready to change his position momentarily. +Neither attitude nor countenance shows any sense of exhaustion, only +that delicious fatigue which makes rest so enjoyable. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APOXYOMENOS + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +There is a passage in the Greek poet Aristophanes' comedy of the +Clouds, in which a speaker urges upon a young man the life of the +gymnasium. "Fresh and fair in beauty-bloom," he says, "you shall pass +your days in the wrestling-ground, or run races beneath the sacred olive +trees, crowned with white reed, in company with a pure-hearted friend, +smelling of bindweed, and leisure hours, and the white poplar that sheds +her leaves, rejoicing in the prime of spring when the plane tree +whispers to the lime." This is the kind of life typified in the figure +of our statue,[14] a side of Greek life which no one can overlook if he +would understand the genius of the Greek nation. + +[14] The application of this passage to the Apoxyomenos is made by J. A. +Symonds in his _Greek Poets_. + +It must not be supposed that our statue represents an actual individual. +It is not a portrait, but an imaginary typical figure. It is true that +portrait statues of athletes were made in great numbers, as we shall +note again in another chapter. It was indeed this practical experience +among athletes that led sculptors to see what a perfect human figure +ought to be. In the study of many different forms they developed an idea +of a type common to all and uniting all the perfections. Certain +sculptors figured out what they regarded as the true proportions of the +ideal human form. One of these was Lysippus, who is believed to have +executed this statue as an illustration of his theories. We note as the +special characteristics of his ideal figure that it is tall, with slim +light limbs, and a rather small head, about one eighth the total height. + +We may now see how such a statue as the Apoxyomenos was a preparatory +study for statues of the gods. The gods were to be represented in the +most perfect human forms which it was possible to conceive, and by +working out typical figures like this, forms were found worthy of the +noblest subjects. Thus the proportions discovered by Lysippus were +peculiarly appropriate for the lighter, fleeter gods, as Apollo and +Hermes. + +Lysippus executed his works entirely in bronze, and the statue +reproduced in our illustration is a marble copy of the original, which +was long since lost. + + + + +VI + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + + +Ph[oe]bus Apollo was the Greek god of day, who drove the great chariot +of the sun across the sky from dawn to sunset. As the sun's rays pierce +the air with darts of fire, so Apollo is an archer god carrying a quiver +full of arrows. The old Homeric hymn calls him-- + + "Heaven's far darter, the fair king of days + Whom even the gods themselves fear when he goes + Through Jove's high house; and when his goodly bows + He goes to bend, all from their thrones arise + And cluster near t' admire his faculties."[15] + +[15] In Chapman's translation. + +If we count up all the gifts which the sunlight brings us, we shall have +a list of the offices of Apollo. He brought the spring and the summer, +and ripened the grain for harvest. He warded off disease and healed the +sick. One of his earliest adventures was to slay the serpent Python +lurking in the caves of Mt. Parnassus. Like the legend of St. George and +the Dragon, the story is an allegory of the triumph of light over +darkness, health over disease, the power of good over the power of evil. + +Apollo was also the patron of music, having received from Hermes the +gift of the lyre. He was wont to play at the banquets of the gods, and +the poet Shelley describes his music in these words:-- + + "And then Apollo with the plectrum strook + The chords, and from beneath his hands a crash + Of mighty sounds rushed up, whose music shook + The soul with sweetness, and like an adept + His sweeter voice a just accordance kept."[16] + +[16] From Shelley's translation of the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_. + +Poetry and the dance were also under Apollo's protection, and he was the +leader of the nine muses. + +His highest office was prophecy, and in all his temples the priestesses +gave mystic revelations of the future. The most famous of these was at +Delphi, built over an opening in the ground, whence a strange vapor +rose. The priestess, a young woman called a _pythia_, from the python +slain by Apollo, sat over this opening on a three-legged seat, or +tripod, and answered the questions brought to her. Her sayings were in +verses called _oracles_, supposed to be communicated to her by the god. + +Now, as might be expected, the character of Apollo was as pure and +transparent as the sunlight itself. He required clean hands and pure +hearts of those who worshiped him. As the sunlight shines into the dark +places of the earth, driving the shadows away, so Apollo hated all that +was dark and evil in human life. He was not only the rewarder of good +but the punisher of evil. In Shelley's "Hymn of Apollo" these words are +put in the god's mouth:-- + + "The sunbeams are my shafts, with which I kill + Deceit, that loves the night and fears the day; + + All men who do or even imagine ill + Fly me, and from the glory of my ray + Good minds and open actions take new might, + Until diminished by the reign of night." + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +The head of Apollo in our illustration is from a famous full-length +statue of the god known as the Apollo Belvedere. The name Belvedere, +which is useful only to distinguish the statue from others of the same +subject, comes from the fact that the marble once adorned a pavilion of +the Vatican called the Belvedere. + +The god stands with left arm extended holding, it is supposed, either a +bow or a shield. A quiver of arrows is slung across his back, and a +chlamys, or cloak, hangs over his left shoulder. His is the proud +attitude of one who is defending some sacred trust. So he holds his head +high and gazes steadily before him as if watching an arrow speed to its +mark, or perhaps scanning the vanguard of an approaching army. The +expression is not a little haughty, and one detects an almost disdainful +curve of the lips as if the god regarded the enemy with scorn. The face +is cut in an aristocratic mould, with fine sensitive lines which mark +the lover of music and poetry. In fact, the refinement of his beauty has +something of a feminine quality. + +The carefully curled hair is gathered in a bow knot on the top of his +head. It may indeed be supposed that the handsome young god was by no +means unconscious of his charms, and took no little pains to display +them to good advantage. + +The Apollo, however, is a god worthy of our admiration for the noble +purity of his countenance. Surely, all base thoughts and mean motives +would be put to shame by this pure presence. + +The poet Byron, whose "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" describes many +interesting sights in Greece and Italy, has written these lines about +the Apollo Belvedere:-- + + "The Lord of the unerring bow, + The god of life, and poesy, and light-- + The sun, in human limbs array'd, and brow + All radiant from his triumph in the fight; + The shaft hath just been shot--the arrow bright + With an immortal's vengeance; in his eye + And nostril beautiful disdain, and might, + And majesty flash their full lightnings by, + Developing in that one glance the deity." + + + + +VII + +DEMETER (CERES) + + +The Greeks worshipped among their deities a goddess called Demeter, +which means "mother earth." It was her office to attend to the sowing +and reaping and all kinds of farm work. She first taught mankind the use +of the plough; she helped the men in their threshing and the women in +their baking. All country folk sought her blessing in their labors. She +was, in fact, a personification of nature, and perhaps it is a remnant +of the old Greek belief in our speech that we still refer to "mother +earth" and "mother nature." + +Demeter's only child was a daughter, Persephone, and upon her she +lavished all a mother's fond devotion. The story runs that one day +Persephone was gathering posies in the meadow when a strange accident +overtook her. A beautiful flower suddenly attracted her attention, the +like of which she had never before seen. When she put forth her hand to +pluck it, the entire plant came up by the roots, leaving a hole in the +ground. The hole widened into a great crack, the earth shook with a +mighty thundering, and out dashed a chariot drawn by coal-black steeds, +bearing Pluto, the king of the lower regions. He caught up the +astonished Persephone, and away they sped again into the gloomy kingdom +beyond the Styx, where Persephone was installed as queen. + +Demeter, missing her daughter, inquired everywhere what had become of +the maiden, but none could tell her. Then she lighted a torch and began +a weary search for the lost child. Nine days she wandered without +finding any clew. But on the tenth day she met the old witch Hecate, who +had heard Persephone scream when she was carried away. Together the two +sought Apollo, who sees all the doings of gods and men, and he told them +the whole story. "Then a more terrible grief took possession of Demeter, +and ... she forsook the assembly of the gods and abode among men for a +long time, veiling her beauty under a worn countenance so that none who +looked upon her knew her." She declared that the earth should not again +bring forth fruit till she had seen her daughter. + +It comforted her not a little in this time of mourning to take a +mother's care of a certain sickly little child she chanced upon. +Disguised as a nurse, she fed the child upon ambrosia, held him in her +bosom, and at night covered him in a bed of coals. Under this treatment +he thrived amazingly; but the parents discovered the nurse's strange +ways and became alarmed. Their anxiety was turned to dismay when they +learned that this was a goddess, who would have made their son immortal +but for their interference. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +DEMETER (CERES) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the mean time the crops fell into a bad state, and it was a year of +grievous famine. Demeter still kept her vow to let no green thing appear +upon the earth. Then Zeus came to the rescue of perishing humanity. He +sent a messenger to Pluto begging him to let Persephone return to her +mother. The request was granted, the chariot was made ready, but the +wily king first pressed his bride to eat with him some pomegranate +seeds, designing that she should return to him again. Mother and +daughter were now joyfully reunited, but not without further separation; +for a portion of each year Persephone returned to her kingdom below the +earth, reappearing in the spring to visit her mother. And this is why to +this day the harvest is followed by winter until the spring revisits the +earth.[17] + +[17] The story of Demeter and Persephone is related in the Homeric _Hymn +to Demeter_, of which an abridged English version is given in the +chapter on the Myth of Demeter and Persephone in Pater's _Greek +Studies_. The same chapter refers to various other ancient forms of the +story, one of the most important being that of Ovid's Metamorphoses, +translated into English blank verse by Edward King. + +In all this story we see that the most striking characteristic of +Demeter is her motherliness. In some respects she is like Hera, because +both are matrons and are patterns of the domestic virtues. But while +Hera is the model wife, Demeter is the model mother. + +It is the motherliness of our statue which makes us feel sure that it +must be intended to represent Demeter.[18] The goddess stands holding in +her outstretched right hand a sheaf of wheat, and lifting high in the +left hand the torch with which she journeyed round the world. It is as +if she stood on the threshold of the opening season awaiting her +daughter's return. She gazes straight before her with a look of +expectancy as if she already saw her child from afar. Her face is +lighted by a smile of welcome. One can fancy how tenderly those motherly +arms will fold the child to her heart, and how gladly the daughter will +pillow her head on that broad bosom. + +[18] See in the _Historical Directory_ another subject assigned to the +statue. + +The figure is in striking contrast to the statue of Athena which we have +studied. The virgin goddess is stately and unapproachable in her panoply +of wisdom, but the great mother seems to invite our confidence. She is +one to whom a frightened child might run, sure of being soothed. To her +the sorrowing would turn, fearing no repulse. She would welcome, she +would understand, she would comfort. There is strength and repose in +every line of her majestic figure. + +The statue illustrates admirably the grandeur and simplicity of the best +Greek art. The long straight lines of the drapery, unbroken by any +unnecessary folds, are the secret of the impression of tranquil dignity +in the work. + + + + +VIII + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + + +The imagination of the Greeks peopled the woods and waters with all +sorts of mythical beings, among which one of the most delightful was the +faun. This was a creature half human, half animal, which frolicked in +the woods in spring time. In outward appearance it looked much like a +human being, except that it had pointed furry ears. In nature, however, +it was closely akin to the animals, and lived a free happy life, with +none of the thoughts and cares which beset the soul of man. + +Our statue represents a sculptor's conception of this sportive being. It +is famous not only because it is a celebrated work of art, but because +it takes an important place in a celebrated novel. This is the "marble +faun" which gives the title to Hawthorne's book. It will be remembered +that in the beginning of the story, a party of friends are visiting the +museum of the Capitol in Rome, where the statue stands. Suddenly they +notice the resemblance which one of their number, a young Italian named +Donatello, bears to the statue. They bid him take the same attitude, and +the likeness is complete. The writer describes the statue in these +words: "The Faun is the marble image of a young man leaning his right +arm on the trunk or stump of a tree; one hand hangs carelessly by his +side; in the other he holds the fragment of a pipe, or some such sylvan +instrument of music. His only garment--a lion's skin,[19] with the claws +upon his shoulder--falls halfway down his back, leaving the limbs and +entire front of the figure nude. The form, thus displayed, is +marvellously graceful, but has a fuller and more rounded outline, more +flesh, and less of heroic muscle, than the old sculptors were wont to +assign to their types of masculine beauty.[20] The character of the face +corresponds with the figure; it is most agreeable in outline and +feature, but rounded and somewhat voluptuously developed, especially +about the throat and chin; the nose is almost straight, but very +slightly curves inward, thereby acquiring an indescribable charm of +geniality and humor. The mouth, with its full yet delicate lips, seems +so nearly to smile outright that it calls forth a responsive smile. The +whole statue--unlike anything else that ever was wrought in that severe +material of marble--conveys the idea of an amiable and sensual creature, +easy, mirthful, apt for jollity, yet not incapable of being touched by +pathos. It is impossible to gaze long at this stone image without +conceiving a kindly sentiment towards it, as if its substance were warm +to the touch, and imbued with actual life. It comes very close to some +of our pleasantest sympathies." + +[19] More likely a leopard's skin. + +[20] Compare, for instance, the slender figure of the Apoxyomenos. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + +_Capitol Museum, Rome_] + +After this description the writer goes on to analyze the nature of the +Faun. "The being here represented," he says, "is endowed with no +principle of virtue, and would be incapable of comprehending such; but +he would be true and honest by dint of his simplicity. We should expect +from him no sacrifice or effort for an abstract cause; there is not an +atom of martyr's stuff in all that softened marble; but he has a +capacity for strong and warm attachment, and might act devotedly through +its impulse, and even die for it at need. It is possible, too, that the +Faun might be educated through the medium of his emotions, so that the +coarser animal portion of his nature might eventually be thrown into the +background, though never utterly expelled." + +The original statue, of which the marble of the Capitol is a copy, was +the work of the sculptor Praxiteles. As Hawthorne says: "Only a sculptor +of the finest imagination, the most delicate taste, the sweetest +feeling, and the rarest artistic skill--in a word, a sculptor and a poet +too--could have ... succeeded in imprisoning the sportive and frisky +thing in marble." We are presently to see again in the head of Hermes +that Praxiteles was indeed a remarkable sculptor. The Faun, however, is +the more difficult subject of the two, for it was puzzling to think what +expression would be proper to a being partly human, but without a soul. + +It is said that Praxiteles himself considered the Faun one of his two +best works. It had been impossible for his friends to get an expression +of opinion from him in regard to his statues, until one day a trick was +devised to betray him. He was told that his studio was on fire, when he +exclaimed that his labor was all lost if the Faun and the Eros were +destroyed. + +The Faun originally stood in the street of the Tripods at Athens, but +what has now become of it we do not know. The statue in our illustration +is one of the most celebrated copies. Many travellers make a special +pilgrimage to see it, and seeing it recall the words of Hawthorne, +describing the spell it casts upon the spectator. "All the pleasantness +of sylvan life, all the genial and happy characteristics of creatures +that dwell in woods and fields, will seem to be mingled and kneaded into +one substance, along with the kindred qualities in the human soul. +Trees, grass, flowers, woodland streamlets, cattle, deer, and +unsophisticated man--the essence of all these was compressed long ago, +and still exists, within that discolored marble surface of the Faun of +Praxiteles." + + + + +IX + +SOPHOCLES + + +One of the greatest of Greek writers was the tragic poet Sophocles. He +was born near Athens in the year 495 B. C., and was educated after the +manner of the Greek youth of his time. Every advantage was given him for +the study of music and poetry, and also for that gymnastic training +which, as we have seen, was so important in Greek education. + +Sophocles was a handsome youth, and acquitted himself well in the +palstra. When he was sixteen years of age the great battle of Salamis +was fought and won by the Greeks. In the celebration of this victory at +Athens, Sophocles led with dance and lyre the chorus of young men who +sang the pan or hymn of victory. That such an honor should be given him +shows how graceful and gifted he must have been. + +The beginning of his literary career came when he was in his +twenty-fifth year. At that time a solemn festival was held in Athens in +memory of the ancient King Theseus, whose bones had been brought thither +from the island of Scyros. Now all religious festivals in Greece were +celebrated with contests, some athletic, others artistic and literary. +On this occasion there was a contest of dramatic poets. schylus was at +that time the greatest of living tragedians, and as he was among the +contestants, it might have been supposed that no other candidate could +have succeeded. Sophocles now came forward with his first tragedy, and +so remarkable was it found to be that the judges pronounced him victor. + +From this time forth Sophocles continually grew in dramatic and literary +power. Twenty times he obtained the first prize in other contests, and +many times also the second prize. The amount of his work was prodigious. +Most of his dramas are lost, but we still have a half dozen or more to +show us the noble quality of his work. The finest are perhaps those +called [OE]dipus Tyrannus, [OE]dipus Coloneus, and Antigone, all dealing +with the tragic fate of an ancient royal family. + +Athens was justly proud of her great poet and bestowed various honors +upon him. He was even made a general, and served in the war against +Samos; but nature had made him a poet, and it is as a poet that we must +always think of him. Full of years and honors, he died in Athens at the +age of ninety. Of him the Greek poet Phrynicus wrote,-- + + "Thrice happy Sophocles! in good old age + Blessed as a man, and as a craftsman blessed, + He died: his many tragedies were fair, + And fair his end, nor knew he any sorrow." + +Our portrait shows admirably what manner of man he was, handsome and +dignified, in the prime of life. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +SOPHOCLES + +_Lateran Museum, Rome_] + +The scanty folds of his toga reveal the fine lines of his graceful +figure. The pose shows the bodily vigor which his early athletic +training gave him. He holds his head erect in a manner suggestive of his +military life. The face is that of an idealist and a poet, a man who +sees splendid visions. Yet it is not altogether dreamy in the ordinary +sense; it has the alert, energetic aspect of one who would turn from +vision to action. It is not hard to believe the tale of his one hundred +and twenty-three dramas: such a man would fill his life with activity. +The face has, too, the expression of genial kindliness which made the +great poet so beloved of his fellow men. His must have been that calm, +equable temperament not easily ruffled, which goes with the +self-respecting nature. A receptacle at his side is filled with the +scrolls of his tragedies. He stands in the attitude of a poet reciting +his lines to an assembled audience. + +The statue shows how sane was the Greek ideal of intellectual greatness. +In those days genius did not mean eccentricity, but the rule of life was +a sound mind in a sound body. It is a mistaken notion of our own times +that bodily health must be sacrificed to the training of the brain. It +is even supposed by some that oddities of dress and manner are signs of +greatness. + +The Greeks had no such delusions. Here is Sophocles, the greatest +dramatic poet of antiquity, a magnificent specimen of symmetrically +developed manhood. He is a man who has made the most of life's +opportunities as he understood them. He enjoys perfect bodily vigor; he +is as well a man of the world, at ease among men. There is evidently +nothing of the recluse in his character. He wears his beard carefully +trimmed as one who looks well to his personal appearance. Yet +intellectual greatness is stamped on face and bearing: the noble +countenance marks him as a poet. + +There was a period in Greek history when it was a custom to adorn public +buildings with statues of famous men, living or dead. Libraries were +appropriately decorated with statues of poets, and we fancy that our +statue of Sophocles was made for such a purpose. The original is +supposed to have been set up by a certain Athenian statesman named +Lycurgus in the fourth century B. C. + + + + +X + +ARES SEATED + + +Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of a battle men fight +as though possessed by a spirit of fury. The excitement of the conflict +seems to arouse an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the +moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the ancient methods of +warfare, when a battle was literally a hand-to-hand conflict, this +spirit of brutality was of course even more marked. In the wars among +the early Greeks men fell upon one another with the violence of wild +animals. + +The Greeks with their ready gift for personification conceived of this +spirit of warfare as a supernatural being acting on human lives. He was +called Ares, the god whose special delight was to incite the fierce +passions of men. + +It was natural that the Greeks should refer his influence chiefly to +their enemies. On their own part they preferred to think that their +armies were inspired by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied in +Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was on the side of the +Trojans, while Athena aided the Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were +brought into direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit +of strategy. + +An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal to her enemy, the +translation running in these words, the Roman name Mars being used for +Ares. + + "Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood, + Destroyer of walled cities! should we not + Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend, + And Jove to crown with glory whom he will, + While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"[21] + +[21] Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37. + +As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued to aid their +favorites. Mars was forced to yield before the skill and prudence of +Athena. Guided by the goddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and drives +him from the battle.[22] + +[22] Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075. + +In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome god, "stately, swift, +unwearied, puissant." Though war was his chief delight he was quite +susceptible to the tender passion. Venus was the object of his devotion, +and the goddess of love returned the war god's admiration. It was she +who soothed his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in the presence of +the gods and struck him to earth with a stone.[23] + +[23] Iliad, Book xxi., lines 500 _et seq._ + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ARES SEATED + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The statue reproduced in our illustration shows the god in his mildest +aspect. He is seated in a meditative attitude, clasping his hands over +his upraised knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in a posture +of repose, the shield is laid aside for a moment, and he rests from his +labors. In the best period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary +to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike action. The gods +must always be portrayed in a dignified repose befitting their +superiority to mankind. Not then in his attitude or expression do we +find any sign of the character of the god. There is no suggestion of +unrest in his quiet posture. + +The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint of his combative nature. +The cast of countenance, too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in +intellectual qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably +attractive, with his well-chiseled features and clustering curls. The +small ear is as delicately cut as a woman's. The fine athletic figure is +such as any warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full of +power even in repose. The attitude of easy grace displays its best +points to advantage. + +Sitting on the ground in front of the god is the figure of a mischievous +baby boy. This is the little god Eros, who in Greek mythology was +supposed to be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest that +the subject of Ares' meditations might be some affair of the heart. +Certainly his mild smile would carry out that interpretation. Some +critics have thought, however, that the statue did not originally +include the child. + +As we study the modelling of the figure, the free sweep of the long +lines delights the eye. We shall come to understand from repeated +examples that the best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret of +fine lines. Our illustration is somewhat unusual because the figure is +seated. Even in this position, however, the sculptor gives us a sense +of the perfect grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing heavy +or immovable in the attitude. We can easily imagine how the god, rising +lightly to his feet, would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action. + + + + +XI + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + + +To do his errands and carry his messages through the universe the +supreme god Zeus had a herald, Hermes, the god of the wind. As the wind +blows out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from Olympus to earth to +do the sky god's bidding. Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and +winged sandals, which carried him about with great speed. He had also a +short sword bent like a scythe, given him by Zeus with the cap and +sandals. He possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, and +of assuming different forms. As he had besides a ready wit and an +eloquent tongue, he could make himself very useful. It was one of his +common tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most solemn office was +to conduct the souls of the dying to the other world. + +This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting forth on one of the +errands of Zeus:-- + + "The herald Argicide obeyed, + And hastily beneath his feet he bound + The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn + To bear him over ocean like the wind, + And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took, + Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men, + And opens them at will from sleep."[24] + +[24] Book v., lines 55-61 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the most famous adventures of Hermes was the slaying of the +many-eyed monster Argus, from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is +why the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the god the Argicide. +Another of his well known missions was the care of the motherless infant +Bacchus, whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. An +adventurer himself, Hermes was ever ready to aid heroes in their +exploits. It was with his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head: +we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" and Kingsley's "Greek +Heroes." + +Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and then. An old Homeric hymn +tells of a sly prank he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby, +stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was keeping. He was an +ingenious fellow too, and this is how he invented the lyre. Taking from +the beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the shell, pierced it with holes, +and stretched from hole to hole, at regular intervals, cords of sheep +gut. + + "When he had wrought the lovely instrument + He tried the chords, and made division meet, + Preluding with the plectrum, and there went + Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet + Of mighty sounds."[25] + +[25] From the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_ in Shelley's translation, Stanza +ix. + +[Illustration: English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + +_Museum, Olympia_] + +With this instrument Apollo was so delighted that Hermes straightway +presented it to him, to make some amends, as it were, for the injury +done him. In return Apollo bestowed the _caduceus_, or wand, upon +Hermes, and the two gods vowed eternal friendship. + +The Greeks were very fond of their god Hermes. He was not too grand to +be companionable, like the awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo. +They thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted ways +and easy good nature made him a general favorite. It was an early custom +to set up in his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes they +were topped by the heads of other gods, but these were called for him, +_herm_. In the course of time better statues were made in full length +figure. The head reproduced in our illustration is from such an one +which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, from the ruins of which it +was unearthed a few years ago. + +The entire right arm and parts of both legs are missing, but the other +portions of the statue show the god's position. He is leaning against a +tree trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, who was, as we +have seen, consigned to his care by Zeus. Hermes is not, however, +looking at the child, but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in +the pensive pose which we see. The features are cut with typical Greek +regularity, but the countenance has besides its own individual charm. +The droop of the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in the curve +of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. The lower forehead is +full, showing over the eyes the bar of flesh which marks the strongly +masculine nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect +contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear is as daintily modeled as +the ringlets of hair. + +The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. It is tender and +playful, and withal exquisitely refined and courteous. What a +deferential listener is suggested in that pose of the head! The pure +outline of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry who gathered +about King Arthur's Round Table, and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself +might not have looked like this. + +This statue is the work of the great sculptor Praxiteles, and is the +only original marble in existence direct from his hands. All the rest of +his work is known from descriptions and copies. We can understand, then, +how sculptors and critics the world over have examined it to study the +sculptor's methods. It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron rust +from its long entombment under the soil. + + + + +XII + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + + +We have seen how important a part in the Greek national life was +occupied by the Olympic Games. They were regarded as a sacred +institution of the gods, and to contend in them was a religious +consecration. None could enter them who had been guilty of dishonorable +conduct or sacrilege, and young men from the noblest families were not +above taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, olive, and +pine, having no intrinsic worth, but of priceless value to the +recipients. To win them was the highest ambition of many a Greek youth. + +The victor was led forth before the people, crowned with the wreath and +bearing a palm branch in his hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that +of his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and songs were +composed in his praise.[26] From thenceforth he was a person of +distinction. Finally his statue was set up in the _altis_ or sacred +grove of Olympia. There were at one time as many as three thousand such +statues in the place. + +[26] See, for instance, Pindar's _Olympic Odes_. + +It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the sculptor had +greater freedom than in statues of the gods. The latter must be +represented in dignified attitudes of repose, but the former would +naturally be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. It is +so with the statue in our illustration called the Discobolus or +Disk-thrower. + +The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old that there were Greek +legends of famous games played by the gods and heroes. Apollo sometimes +tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, or disk, was a heavy +round plate of metal, bronze or iron, about eight inches in diameter, +grasped in one hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and then +sent flying through the air. A modern authority explains that it was +thrown not as the quoit is to-day, with arm and shoulder only, but by +bringing into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the body. +"Immediately preceding the actual hurling of the discus, therefore, +there had to be a general storing up and compression of energy which, +when suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. The +principle is simply that of the spring which, when compressed, shoots +out from the centre. The greater the contortion of the body, the more +each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, the greater will be +the impetus when this compression is suddenly set free."[27] + +[27] Waldstein, in _Essays on the Art of Pheidias_, page 49. + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + +_Lancelotti Palace, Rome_] + +Our statue shows the disk-thrower at the moment immediately preceding +the throw. As described by the ancient writer Lucian, "he is bent down +into the position for the throw, turning towards the hand that holds the +disk, and all but bending on one knee, he seems as if he would +straighten himself up at the throw." + +The modern critic whom we have already quoted shows that when we view +the statue from the front, "all the lines of the modelling indicate the +tension of the sinews towards the contracted centre of the body, and the +legs, neck, and shoulders tend towards the same point." When we walk +around the statue, all the lines in the back and sides "seem to lead +towards that central point like the spiral contraction of a spring." It +is by thus suggesting the concentration of energy on the part of the +Discobolus that the figure appears so full of life and action. + +By the choice of this posture the artist was enabled to model his figure +on magnificent sculpturesque lines. One long fine curve sweeps along the +right arm, is continued down the left arm, and is carried to completion +in the left leg and foot. The counter curve starts under the right +shoulder, and sweeps down the right side and leg. + +The original statue of the Discobolus was executed in bronze, and our +reproduction is from one of several ancient copies in marble. In some of +these the original head of the statue has been replaced by another, but +the copy we see here has a fine, vigorous head. The English critic, +Walter Pater,[28] describes the face "as smooth but spare, and tightly +drawn over muscle and bone." He shows too how sympathetic the face is +with the whole intention of the statue, "as the source of will."[29] + +[28] In the chapter on Athletic Prizemen, in _Greek Studies_. + +[29] This opinion is the more interesting because the face of the +Discobolus is commonly criticised for "absence of emotional expression." +See Furtwngler's _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, p. 173. + +The sculptor of the Discobolus was Myron, who lived in the period +between the Persian War and the middle of the fifth century. His work +shows his fondness for movement, though many of his subjects did not +permit him to indulge his taste. He made a specialty of figures of +athletes, both commemorative portrait statues and typical figures. We do +not know whether this statue represents an actual Olympic victor, or is +a typical figure, like the Apoxyomenos. In any case it gives an +excellent idea of the great influence exercised upon Greek life by the +athletic games. + + + + +XIII + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) + + +By Greek tradition the fairest of the goddesses was Aphrodite, the +goddess of love and beauty. To her every lover paid his vows and every +maiden prayed for charms. An old legend relates that she was born from +the foam of the sea, hence the name Aphrodite, which means "foam-born." +Among the Romans she was called Venus. At her birth the island of Cyprus +received her. + + "Where the force + Of gentle-breathing Zephyr steer'd her course + Along the waves of the resounding sea, + While yet unborn in that soft foam she lay + That brought her forth." + +Here she emerged "a goddess in the charms of awful beauty." The Hours +welcomed her eagerly, taking her in their arms and putting a crown of +gold upon her head. As she went on her way, flowers grew in her path,-- + + "Where her delicate feet + Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering sprang."[30] + +[30] An account of the birth of Aphrodite is given in Hesiod's +_Theogony_ and in the Homeric _Hymn to Venus_, and the quotations here +are drawn from both sources. + +As we have already seen, there were among the Greek divinities two other +goddesses besides Aphrodite specially famed for their beauty,--Athena +and Hera. Tradition tells how the beauty of the three was tested. An +apple was thrown into their midst inscribed "For the fairest," and a +contention at once arose as to the rightful owner. Paris, the prince of +Troy, being chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Aphrodite, who promised +him for a wife the fairest woman in Greece, that is, Helen.[31] This was +the real cause of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks sought to recover +their stolen princess. Aphrodite being at the bottom of the trouble +remained through the war on the Trojan side. + +[31] See Tennyson's poem, _Oenone_. + +Oddly enough the beautiful goddess was mated to the ugliest of the gods, +the lame blacksmith Hephstus (or Vulcan). At his forge were made those +fateful arrows of the little god Eros (or Cupid), the mother standing by +to tip their points with honey. + +The power of love in human life made the ideal of Aphrodite very dear to +the hearts of the Greeks. All that is most tender and sacred in this +human relation was personified in her. As love ennobles the life and +makes it unselfish, so, they reasoned, must Aphrodite be a grand and +noble being. Again, as love glorifies the life, and brings joy into its +commonest details, she must also be beautiful and laughter-loving. In +short, one cannot think of any quality of love which was not reflected +in the person of the glorious goddess. Temples were built in her honor, +and she was worshiped in festivals and sacrificial rites. Statues of her +were set up in many places, and one of the most famous which has come +down to us is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Frres, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +We have now learned by repeated instances that the Greeks had such +definite ideas of their deities that their statues were as readily +recognized as if they represented actual persons. The sculptors followed +types accepted by tradition as the best embodiment of the characters +they stood for. So especially with Zeus, Athena, and Hera, and so again +with Aphrodite. She must be supremely fair, with a beauty less austere +than that of the maiden Athena, less regal than that of Hera, and more +fascinating than either. + +We see then at once that the beautiful figure of our illustration must +be Aphrodite, or Venus. In looking at her we think, not of wisdom, or +force, or power, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of +her body on one foot, and advancing the other with knee bent. The +posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, describing a +fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper part of the +body is uncovered, and in some mysterious way the sculptor has imparted +to the marble a seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as +exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted hair is drawn back +in rippling waves over the low forehead. + +The eyes are not very wide open, having something of a dreamy languor. +"Melting eyes" are indeed characteristic of Venus, and an analytical +critic has explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by a +"slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower eyelid." The nose is +perfectly cut, the mouth and chin are moulded in adorable curves. Yet to +say that every feature is of faultless perfection is but cold praise. No +analysis can convey the sense of her peerless beauty. + +The statue originally stood on the Greek island of Melos, where it was +discovered in 1820 in this broken state. Many wise heads have been +puzzled to know the position of the missing arms. Some have thought that +the goddess carried a shield, and others have fancied her holding the +traditional apple. There have also been many discussions as to the date +of the work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth century B. C., +the goddess would have been fully draped; if in the fourth century, +entirely without drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of these +periods, and combined the characteristics of both. It is a fault on his +part to have placed the drapery in an impossible position, whence in +actual life it would immediately fall of its own weight. Yet we do not +think of such criticisms when we see it. The beautiful body rising above +the drapery reminds us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from the sea +foam. Her beauty is a union of strength and sweetness, a perfect +embodiment of a nature at harmony with itself and its surroundings. + + + + +XIV + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + + +There was once a man named Orpheus, who lived in the land of Thrace. It +was said that his father was Apollo, and his mother the muse Calliope; +so it is not strange that he was both poet and musician. So enchanting +was the music of his lyre that wild animals came forth from their haunts +to hear him. Even trees and rocks seemed to feel the magic influence of +the strain. + +He had a beautiful wife named Eurydice, whom he loved dearly, and they +were happy together till a sad accident separated them. She was bitten +one day by a poisonous serpent, and died from the effects of the wound. +There was no more happiness on earth for Orpheus, and he determined to +seek Eurydice in the underworld of the dead. + +Now the gates of the lower regions were guarded by a three-headed dog +named Cerberus, but even this fierce beast was subdued by the entrancing +music of Orpheus, who + + "Through the unsubstantial realm + Populous with phantom ghosts of buried men, + Undaunted passed to where Persephone + Sits by the monarch of that cheerless folk + Of shadows throned--and struck his lyre, and sang." + +Pouring forth the mournful tale of his lost love, he appealed to the +gods to give him back Eurydice. So eloquent was his plea that all who +listened were "moved to weeping." Then for the first time the iron +cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, and + + "Of the nether realm + Nor King nor Queen had heart to say him nay." + +Eurydice was brought forth and restored to her husband, but a single +condition was laid upon Orpheus in leading her out. Until they had +regained the earth he was not to look backward, or the boon would be +forfeited. The Latin poet Ovid tells how the two fared forth together +from the underworld, and how Orpheus failed in the conditions of the +agreement. + + "Through the silent realm + Upward against the steep and fronting hill + Dark with obscurest gloom, the way he led: + And now the upper air was all but won, + When fearful lest the toil o'ertask her strength + And yearning to behold the form he loved, + An instant back he looked,--and back the shade + That instant fled.... + ...One last + And sad 'Farewell,' scarce audible, she sighed, + And vanished to the ghosts that late she left."[32] + +[32] From the Metamorphoses, Book x, in Henry King's translation, from +which also the other quotations are drawn. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + +_Albani Villa, Rome_] + +Our bas-relief represents a scene of parting between Orpheus and +Eurydice, and we may take it, as we please, to refer to their first or +to their last farewell. It seems, however, to apply more appropriately +to the first departure of Eurydice to the unknown land. She lays her +hand fondly upon her husband's shoulder, and he touches it gently as if +to detain her. + +The figure on the other side is the messenger god Hermes, whose mission +is to conduct departing spirits to the other world.[33] He has come for +Eurydice, and he takes her by the hand to draw her away. For a moment +husband and wife gaze into each other's eyes with love and sorrow, while +the messenger waits with exquisite courtesy. + +[33] See page 61. + +Though the Greeks had many tales of sorrow in their poetry and +mythology, they did not often illustrate them in their art. The subjects +of their sculpture are nearly always happy ones. Even here, you see, +grief is made so beautiful and dignified that we forget to feel sad +about the parting. We think most of the love and devotion between +Orpheus and Eurydice. + +The simple story of the bas-relief touches us more readily perhaps than +the grand statues of the gods. People like in art something which +corresponds to the common human lives of all. + +The garment worn by Eurydice seems quite like that of the goddess +Demeter. The drapery is very full in front, falling in long straight +folds. At the side it is scantier and shows the motion of the figure in +walking. The short tunic worn by the other figures is a picturesque +costume, and the mantle swinging over one shoulder is very graceful. +When one contrasts with these classical draperies the stiff dress of +modern times, one wonders that the sculptor of to-day does not throw +down his chisel in despair. + +The style of the draperies often enables a critic to decide in what +period a work of art was produced. In the best art the folds are always +simple: it is a sure sign of declining art when the folds are +complicated and broken. Here we see the few simple, severe lines which +mark the purest classical taste. + + + + +XV + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + + +Upon the death of Alexander the Great there was much disputing among his +generals as to what should become of the various provinces of his +empire, including Greece. It was finally decided that the Greek cities +should be left free. A general named Ptolemy soon broke this agreement +and entered Greece, whereupon another named Antigonus promptly proceeded +to punish him. Antigonus had a son Demetrius, who was a skilful +engineer, and was called Poliorcetes, "besieger of cities," for his +success in raising sieges. He was sent to Athens with a fleet of two +hundred and fifty ships, and won the gratitude of the city for +delivering it from the hands of Ptolemy. Demetrius next turned his +attention to the island of Cyprus, of which Ptolemy was in possession. +The rival forces met off Salamis, 306 B. C., in a fierce sea fight, and +Demetrius was victorious. + +Now the Greeks were fond of commemorating notable events by the erection +of statues, and it was an old custom among them to set up a statue of +victory in honor of any success of arms on land or sea. We have seen how +natural it was for them to attribute the affairs of life to the agency +of the deities. So in war, greatly as they praised their armies and +their generals, it was to Nike, the goddess of victory, that they gave +the chief credit of success. This goddess was conceived as a winged +being attendant upon both Zeus and Athena, who, as we have seen, +controlled the destinies of war. + +To Nike then, this winged goddess of victory, was due the wonderful +success of Demetrius over Ptolemy's fleet before Salamis, and it was +fitting that her statue should commemorate the event. The spot chosen +for it was the island of Samothrace, which stands so high above water +level that it is very conspicuous in the northern Greek archipelago. + +The goddess was represented standing on the prow of a vessel as if +leading the fleet to success. It may be that the old Greek idea of a +goddess at the prow was the origin of the "figure head" for so many +years carried by every ship that sailed the seas. The vessels in those +old days were called _triremes_, being propelled by rowers who sat at +their oars in three _tiers_, or banks, which gave the name to the craft. +The goddess stood in the middle of what was called the _ikrion proras_, +which would correspond to the forecastle deck. In her right hand she +held a trumpet to her lips, and in her left she carried a crosstree, the +framework of a trophy. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Frres, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +The figure is in an erect poise with the chest held high. You will +notice that a walker making his way against the wind bends the body +forward to resist its force, while one who is borne along on some +vehicle in the face of the wind steadies himself upright. So with Nike; +the attitude expresses the sense of exhilaration from the rush of wind +in the face of one borne along on a moving vessel. The breeze beats the +thin drapery back upon her, outlining the beautiful curves of bust and +limb, and fluttering behind her in the air. The broad pinions which +would retard the ship's motion if spread open are folded to cut the air +like the prow. + +When the statue was set up and the colossal figure in white marble was +seen against the blue sky of a southern land, what an inspiration it +must have been as a symbol of success! What discouraged heart could look +at such a figure and not be thrilled with new ambition! The statue of +Nike was not the only tribute to the victory of Demetrius. Some special +coins were struck in honor of the event, including gold staters and +silver tetradrachms, specimens of which still exist. The design on the +obverse of these coins represented the statue of Nike. + +Years passed, and at length the independence of the Greeks was crushed +under the heel of the Roman conqueror. Many places were laid waste +throughout the peninsula and the Greek islands. Temples were destroyed +and pillaged, and statues were thrown from their pedestals and buried +beneath the soil and dbris. Our statue of Nike shared the sad fate +which befell so many other great works of art. For centuries it lay in +fragments in the ruins surrounding a temple in Samothrace. Then came the +explorer with pickaxe and shovel, some of the precious bits were +recovered, and learned men set to work to put them together again. The +coins of Demetrius were their guide, and the tiny figure of Nike +engraved thereon was the model after which the great statue was +reconstructed. + +The head and arms are still missing, and a fanciful conceit might +suggest that these losses were the marks of a hard-fought battle. +Success has been dearly bought, but the goddess emerges, erect and +undaunted, her tattered wings beating the air victoriously. As we look +at the statue we think less of what it lacks than of what it is. Perhaps +if head and arms were there we should not have eyes for the glorious +lines in the figure itself. One particularly fine line is the continuous +curve running across the bust and the arched top of the wings. + +The figure gives us a sense of motion which fairly quickens the blood in +our veins. We, too, seem to feel the strong salt breeze in our faces, +speeding through the air with courage high, and hope steadily set toward +victory. + + + + +XVI + +PERICLES + + +In the history of ancient Greece the half century included between the +years 480 and 430 B. C. is called the Age of Pericles. During forty +years of this period Pericles was the political leader of Athens. Under +his guidance the city reached the height of her power as the capital of +an empire composed of tributary states. Nor was political power the +chief glory of Athens at this time. She was the centre of arts and +science for the whole world. This was the age of great Greek literature, +when schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their immortal dramas. It +was also the age of great oratory, when the Athenians constantly heard +"the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of +eloquence." Finally, it was the age of great art, when architecture and +sculpture attained perfection and when Phidias, the foremost Greek +sculptor, produced his masterpieces. + +Pericles was the dominating spirit in all this brilliant company. It was +his able statesmanship which made and executed the ambitious plans for +the aggrandizement of the city. It was, moreover, his generalship which +carried out successfully so many military expeditions. His eloquence +gave him great influence over the people. He had the art of controlling +men and moving their passions as a musician plays on the strings of his +instrument. Upon his return from the Samian war he delivered a +remarkable funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. Still +again, his oration in honor of the heroes of the Peloponnesian war was a +noble eulogy of Athens and the Athenians. + +The part of Pericles' career which interests us most in our study of +Greek art is his zeal in beautifying Athens with works of architecture +and sculpture. He covered the Acropolis, as the great hill in Athens was +called, with beautiful buildings richly adorned with sculpture. He +appointed Phidias superintendent of all the public edifices, and +employed the most skilled workmen. Besides many temples, a theatre for +music, called an _odeum_, was built, and Pericles introduced into the +Panathenaic festival a contest in music held in this place. In addition +to the public buildings erected, Pericles caused a long wall to be built +to surround the city with fortifications. + +It may be supposed that all these improvements cost a great deal of +money, and there were not lacking men who criticised Pericles for +extravagance in the use of public funds. In an assembly of the people, +the great statesman called upon them to say if they thought he had spent +too much. "Yes," came the answer. "Then," said he, "be it charged to my +account, not yours, only let the edifices be inscribed with my name, not +that of the people of Athens." At this they cried out that he might +spend all he pleased of the public funds, and the criticism was +silenced. The story shows the quick wit of the orator, as well as his +knowledge of human nature. He knew he was safe in appealing to the pride +of the people in their city. + +At the close of his long career Pericles was seized with the plague, and +lay sick unto death. As his friends gathered about his death-bed they +recounted his great deeds and many victories. Suddenly he interrupted +them by exclaiming that they were praising only those qualities in which +he was no greater than other men. In his own estimate, the most +honorable trait of his character was that "no Athenian through his means +had ever put on mourning." + +Pericles was in fact a true patriot and a benefactor of his people. In +the administration of public affairs he showed an upright and honorable +character. Though all his life handling the public funds and increasing +the wealth of the state, it is said that he added not one drachma to his +own estate. He managed his private fortune with great prudence and +dispensed many charities to the needy. His manners were calm and +moderate, and he never gave way to envy or anger. His biographer, +Plutarch, has written of him that "where severity was required, no man +was ever more moderate, or if mildness was necessary, no man better kept +up his dignity than Pericles." + +Pericles was a man of fine and striking presence, with a countenance +cast in the mould we have come to know as the typical Greek. His head +was somewhat abnormally long, and the nickname "onion head" was given +him on this account. Plutarch says that this peculiarity accounts for +the fact that he was always represented in portraits as wearing a +helmet. + +We have reason to believe that the bust reproduced in our frontispiece +was made soon after his successful war against Samos. It represents him +then in the fullness of his manhood and at the height of his success and +popularity. The handsome face is full of refinement and shows the calm, +equable temperament which made him a leader. His qualities of +statesmanship strike us most forcibly in the portrait. We should hardly +suspect that this was a great military commander. Yet that here is a +master of men, we can easily believe. One can imagine him standing +before a great multitude, moving them with the power of his eloquence. + + + + +PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS + + +The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of +Webster's International Dictionary. + + +EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS. + + A Dash () above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in + f[=a]te, [=e]ve, t[=i]me, n[=o]te, [=u]se. + + A Dash and a Dot ([.=x]) above the vowel denote the same sound, + less prolonged. + + A Curve ([)x]) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in + [)a]dd, [)e]nd, [)i]ll, [)o]dd, [)u]p. + + A Dot () above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in + p[.a]st, [.a]b[=a]te, Am[)e]ric[.a]. + + A Double Dot () above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a + in fther, lms. + + A Double Dot () below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in + b[a:]ll. + + A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in h[~e]r. + + A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o + in brn. + + A dot (.) below the vowel u denotes the sound of u in the French + language. + + N indicates that the preceding vowel has the French nasal tone. + + sounds like $s$. + + [-c] sounds like $k$. + + [s=] sounds like $z$. + + [=g] is hard as in [=g]et. + + [.g] is soft as in [.g]em. + + + Achaian ([.a]-k[=a]y[.a]n). + + Achilles ([.a]-k[)i]ll[=e]z). + + Acropolis ([.a]-kr[)o]p[.=o]-l[)i]s). + + Admetus ([)a]d-m[=e]t[)u]s). + + gis ([=e]j[)i]s). + + schylus ([)e]sk[)i]-l[)u]s). + + Agoracritus ([)a]g-[.=o]-r[)a]kr[)i]-t[)u]s). + + Agrippa ([.a]-gr[)i]p[.a]). + + Albani (l-bn[=e]). + + Alcamenes ([)a]l-k[)a]m[)e]-n[=e]z). + + lt[)i]s. + + Antigone ([)a]n-t[)i][=g][=o]-n[=e]). + + Antigonus ([)a]n-t[)i][=g][=o]-n[)u]s). + + Antium ([)a]nsh[)i]-[)u]m). + + Aphrodite ([)a]f-r[.=o]-d[=i]t[=e]). + + Apollo ([.a]-p[)o]l[=o]). + + Apoxyomenos ([)a]-p[)o]x-[)i]-[)o]m[.=e]-n[)o]s). + + Ares ([=a]r[=e]z). + + Argicide (rj[)i]-s[=i]d). + + Argonauts (r[=g][=o]-n[a:]tz). + + r[=g][)u]s. + + Aristophanes ([)a]r-[)i]s-t[)o]f[.a]-n[=e]z). + + Athena ([)a]-th[=e]n[.a]). + + Athens ([)a]th[)e]nz). + + + Bacchus (b[)a]k[)u]s). + + Belvedere (b[)e]l-v[.=e]-d[=e]r). + + Bernini (b[)e]r-n[=e]n[=e]). + + Brunn (br[)oo]n). + + + caduceus (k[.a]-d[=u]s[.=e]-[)u]s). + + C[)a]l[.a]m[)i]s. + + C[)a]ll[=i][=o]p[=e]. + + Centaur (s[)e]nt[a:]r). + + Cerberus (s[~e]rb[.=e]-r[)u]s). + + Ceres (s[=e]r[=e]z). + + Chiron (k[=i]r[)o]n). + + Collignon (k[)o]l-l[.=e]n-yN). + + Cr[)e]s[)i]l[.a]s. + + Cyprus (s[=i]pr[)u]s). + + + Delphi (d[)e]lf[=i]). + + D[)e]m[=e]t[~e]r. + + D[)e]m[=e]tr[)i][)u]s. + + D[=i][.=o]m[)e]d. + + D[)i]sc[)o]b[.=o]l[)u]s. + + d[)i]sk[)o]s. + + D[)o]nt[)e]ll[=o]. + + + Elgin ([)e]l[=g][)i]n). + + Eros ([=e]r[)o]s). + + Euphranor ([=u]-fr[=a]nr). + + Euripides ([=u]-r[)i]p[)i]-d[=e]z). + + Eurydice ([=u]-r[)i]d[=i]-s[.=e]). + + + Furtwngler (f[=oo]rtv[.=a]ng-l[~e]r). + + + G[)a]l[.a]h[)a]d. + + Giustiniana (j[)oo]s-t[=e]-n[=e]-n). + + glaukopis (gl[a:]-k[=o]p[)i]s). + + Gorgon ([=g]r[=g][)o]n). + + + H[)e]c[.=a]t[=e]. + + H[)e]ll[)e]n[)i]st[)i]c. + + Hephstus (h[.=e]-f[)e]st[)u]s). + + H[=e]r. + + Herum (h[.=e]-r[=e][)u]m). + + H[)e]rc[=u]l[=e][s=]. + + herm (h[~e]rm[=e]). + + H[~e]rm[=e][s=]. + + H[=e]s[)i][)o]d. + + + [)i]kr[)i][)o]n pr[=o]rs. + + Iliad ([)i]l[)i]-[.a]d). + + Io ([=i][=o]). + + Ithaca ([)i]th[.a]-k[.a]). + + + J[=a]s[)o]n. + + J[=u]n[=o]. + + J[=u]p[)i]t[~e]r. + + + Lancelotti (ln-ch[.=a]-l[)o]t[=e]). + + L[)a]t[~e]r[.a]n. + + Leochares (l[.=e]-[)o]k[.a]-r[=e]z). + + Louvre (l[=oo]vr). + + Lucian (l[=u]sh[)i]-[.a]n). + + Ludovisi (l[=o=o]-d[=o]-v[=e]z[=e]). + + Lutatius Catulus (l[=u]-t[=a]sh[)i]-[)u]s k[)a]t[=u]-l[)u]s). + + L[=y]crg[)u]s. + + L[=y]s[)i]pp[)u]s. + + + Mrs. + + M[)e]d[)i]c. + + M[=e]l[)o]s. + + M[~e]rc[=u]r[)y]. + + M[)e]t[.a]m[)o]rph[=o]s[=e][s=]. + + M[)e]t[=o]p[=e][s=]. + + M[=i]l[=o]. + + M[)i]n[~e]rv[.a]. + + M[=y]r[)o]n. + + + N[)e]m[)e]s[)i]s. + + N[=i]k[=e]. + + N[=y]s[.a]. + + + [=o]d[=e][)u]m. + + Odyssey ([)o]d[)i]-s[)i]). + + [OE]dipus Coloneus ([)e]d[)i]-p[)u]s k[=o]-l[=o]-n[=e]-[)u]s). + + [OE]dipus Tyrannus ([)e]d[)i]-p[)u]s t[)i]-r[)a]n-[)u]s). + + [OE]none ([=e]-n[=o]n[.=e]). + + Olympia ([=o]-l[)i]mp[)i]-[.a]). + + Olympiad ([=o]-l[)i]mp[)i]-[)a]d). + + Olympic ([=o]-l[)i]mp[)i]k). + + Olympus ([=o]-l[)i]mp[)u]s). + + Orpheus (rf[=u]s). + + Otricoli ([=o]-tr[=e]k[=o]-l[=e]). + + Ovid ([)o]v[)i]d). + + + palstra (p[.a]-l[)e]str[.a]). + + P[)a]ll[.a]s. + + Panathena (p[)a]n-[)a]th-[.=e]-n[=e][.a]). + + P[)a]n[)a]th[.=e]n[=a][)i]c. + + Prn[)a]ss[)u]s. + + Prth[.=e]n[)o]n. + + P[=a]t[~e]r. + + P[.=a]tr[=o]cl[)u]s. + + Peloponnesian (p[)e]l-[.=o]-p[)o]n-n[=e]sh[.a]n). + + P[.=e]n[)e]l[=o]p[.=e]. + + P[)e]nt[)e]l[)i]c. + + p[)e]pl[)o]s. + + P[)e]r[)i]cl[=e]s. + + Persephone (p[~e]r-s[)e]f[=o]-n[=e]). + + Perseus (p[~e]rs[=u]s). + + Phidias (f[)i]d[)i]-[.a]s). + + Ph[oe]bus (f[=e]b[)u]s). + + Phrynicus (fr[)i]n[)i]-k[)u]s). + + P[)i]nd[.a]r. + + pl[)e]ctr[)u]m. + + Pl[)i]n[)y]. + + Plutarch (pl[=u]trk). + + Pl[=u]t[=o]. + + P[)o]l[)i]cl[=y]t[)u]s. + + P[)o]l[)i]r[=e]t[=e][s=]. + + Pr[)a]x[)i]t[)e]l[=e][s=]. + + Ptolemy (t[)o]l[)e]-m[)i]). + + P[)y]th[)i][.a]. + + P[=y]th[)o]n. + + + Reber, von (f[)o]n r[=a]b[~e]r). + + + S[)a]l[.a]m[)i]s. + + S[=a]m[)i][.a]n. + + S[=a]m[)o]s. + + Samothrace (s[)a]m[.=o]-thr[=a]s). + + Sc[=o]p[.a]s. + + Scyros (s[=i]r[)o]s). + + S[)o]ph[=o]cl[=e][s=]. + + strigil (str[)i]j[)i]l). + + St[)y]x. + + Symonds (s[)i]m[)u]ndz). + + + Telemachus (t[.=e]-l[)e]m[.a]-k[)u]s). + + Terracina (t[)e]r-r-ch[=e]n). + + Th[=e][)o][=g][=o]n[)y]. + + Theseus (th[=e]s[=u]s). + + Thrace (thr[=a]s). + + Trastevere (trs-t[=a]-v[=a]r[=a]). + + trireme (tr[=i]r[=e]m). + + Tr[=o]j[.a]n. + + + Ulysses ([=u]-l[)y]ss[=e]z). + + + Vatican (v[)a]t[)i]-k[.a]n). + + V[=e]n[)u]s. + + V[)u]lc[.a]n. + + + Waldstein (w[a:]ldst[=i]n). + + + Zeus (z[=u]s). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. 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Hurll. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i2 { + display: block; + margin-left: 2em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i4 { + display: block; + margin-left: 4em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} +.poem span.i6 { + display: block; + margin-left: 6em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} +/*Table of contents */ + +.comment { + background-color:#ddddff; + text-align: center; +} + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Greek Sculpture + A collection of sixteen pictures of Greek marbles with + introduction and interpretation + +Author: Estelle M. Hurll + +Release Date: January 3, 2011 [EBook #34842] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK SCULPTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="comment">Click any photo to view an enlarged version.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 134px;"> +<a href="images/illus01.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb01.jpg" width="134" height="200" +alt="PERICLES -- British Museum, London -- John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">PERICLES -- British Museum, London -- John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p> + +<h3><i><b> The Riverside Art Series</b></i></h3> + +<h1> GREEK SCULPTURE</h1> + +<h1> A COLLECTION OF SIXTEEN PICTURES + OF GREEK MARBLES + WITH INTRODUCTION AND + INTERPRETATION</h1> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h2>ESTELLE M. HURLL</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 117px;"> +<img src="images/riversidepress.png" width="117" height="150" alt="Riverside Press" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Riverside Press</span> +</div> + +<h4>BOSTON AND NEW YORK</h4> +<h4> HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</h4> +<h4><i> <b>The Riverside Press Cambridge</b></i></h4> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> + +<h3>COPYRIGHT 1901, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.<br /> +ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</h3> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>Within the limits of this small collection of pictures +an attempt is made to bring together as great a variety +of subjects as possible. Portraiture is illustrated in the +statue of Sophocles and the bust of Pericles, <i>genre</i> studies +in the Apoxyomenos and Discobolus, bas-relief work +in the panel from the Parthenon frieze and the Orpheus +and Eurydice, and ideal heads and statues in the representations +of the divinities. Both the Greek treatment +of the nude and the Greek management of drapery have +due attention.</p> + +<p>As classic literature is the best interpreter of Greek +sculpture, the text draws freely from such original sources +as the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and +Ovid's Metamorphoses.</p> + +<p> +ESTELLE M. HURLL.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">New Bedford, Mass.</span><br /> +January, 1901.<br /></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th></th><th class="smcap">page</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus01.jpg"> +<span class="smcap">Pericles</span>From original in British +Museum</a></td><td><a href="#Page_i">(frontispiece)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#PREFACE"><b><span class="smcap">Preface</span></b></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_iv">iv</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><b><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></b></a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="#CHARACTERISTICS"> +<span class="smcap">I. On Some Characteristics of Greek Sculpture</span></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="#BOOKS"> +<span class="smcap">II. On Books of Reference</span></a></td><td><a href="#Page_x">x</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="#HISTORICAL_DIRECTORY"> +<span class="smcap">III. Historical Directory of the Marbles reproduced in this Collection</span></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#I"><b><span class="smcap">I. Bust of Zeus +Otricoli</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus02.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#II"><b><span class="smcap">II. Athena Giustiniana +(MInerva Medica</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus03.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#III"><b><span class="smcap">III. Horsemen +from the Parthenon Frieze</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus04.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by the London Stereoscopic Co.</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#IV"><b><span class="smcap">IV. Bust of Hera +(Juno</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus05.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#V"><b> <span class="smcap">V. The Apoxyomenos</span></b></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus06.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VI"><b><span class="smcap"> VI. Head of +the Apollo Belvedere</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus07.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VII"><b><span class="smcap"> VII. Demeter +(Ceres</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus08.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VIII"><b> <span class="smcap">VIII. The +Faun of Praxiteles</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus09.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#IX"><b><span class="smcap">IX. Sophocles</span></b></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus10.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#X"><b><span class="smcap">X. Ares Seated</span></b></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus11.jpg"> +Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XI"><b><span class="smcap">XI. Head of +the Olympian Hermes</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus12.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by the English Photographic Co., Athens</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XII"><b><span class="smcap">XII. The Discobolus +(The Disk-thrower</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus13.jpg">Picture +from Photograph loaned by Edward Robinson, from the only negative known +to exist</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XIII"><b><span class="smcap">XIII. The Aphrodite +of Melos (Venus of Milo</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus14.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by Neurdein Frres</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XIV"><b><span class="smcap">XIV. Orpheus +and Eurydice</span></b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus15.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by D. Anderson</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XV"><b><span class="smcap">XV. Nike (The +Winged Victory</span>)</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus16.jpg">Picture +from Photograph by Neurdein Frres</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XVI"><b><span class="smcap">XVI. Pericles</span> +</b></a></td><td><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> <a href="images/illus01.jpg"> +(See Frontispiece)</a></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><a href="#PRONOUNCING_VOCABULARY"> +<b><span class="smcap">Pronouncing Vocabulary of Proper Names</span></b></a></td> +<td><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Nine of the above illustrations are from<br /> +photographs in the collection of the William Hayes Fogg<br /> +Art Museum of Harvard University</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<h2><a name="CHARACTERISTICS" id="CHARACTERISTICS"></a>I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE.</h2> + +<p>The history of Greek sculpture covers a period of some +eight or nine hundred years, and falls into five divisions.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +The first is the period of development, extending from +600 to 480 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The second is the period of greatest +achievement, under Phidias and his followers, in the Age +of Pericles, 480-430 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> The third is the period of +Praxiteles and Scopas, in the fourth century. The fourth +is the period of decline, characterized as the Hellenistic +Age, and included between the years 320 and 100 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> +The fifth is the Grco-Roman period, which includes the +work produced to meet the demand of the Roman market +for Greek sculpture, and which extends to 300 <span class="smcap">A. D.</span></p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See Gardner's <i>Handbook of Greek Sculpture</i>, page 42. +</div> + +<p>Modern criticism differentiates sharply the characteristics +of the several periods and even of the individual artists, +but such subtleties are beyond the grasp of the unlearned. +The majority of people continue to regard Greek sculpture +in its entirety, as if it were the homogeneous product of a +single age. To the popular imagination it is as if some +gigantic machine turned out the Apollo Belvedere, the +Venus of Milo, the Elgin Marbles, and all the rest, in a +single day. Nor is it long ago since even eminent writers +had but vague ideas as to the distinctive periods of these +very works. Certain it is that all works of Greek sculpture +have a particular character which marks them as +such. Authorities have taught us to distinguish some few +of their leading characteristics.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> + +<p>The most striking characteristic of Greek art is perhaps +its closeness to nature. The sculptor showed an +intimate knowledge of the human form, acquired by constant +observation of the splendid specimens of manhood +produced in the palstra. It is because the artist "clung +to nature as a kind mother," says Waldstein, that the +influence of his work persists through the ages.</p> + +<p>Again, Greek art is distinctly an art of generalization, +dealing with types rather than with individuals. This +characteristic is of varying degrees in different periods and +with different sculptors. It is seen in its perfection in the +Elgin Marbles, in exaggeration in the Apollo Belvedere, +and at the minimum in the work of Praxiteles. Yet it is +everywhere sufficiently marked to be indissolubly connected +with Greek sculpture.</p> + +<p>The quality of repose, so constantly associated with +Greek sculpture, is another characteristic which varies +with the period and the individual sculptor. Between the +calm dignity of the portrait statue of Sophocles and the +intense muscular concentration of Myron's Discobolus, a +long range of degrees may be included. Yet on the whole, +repose is an essential characteristic of the best Greek +sculpture, provided we do not let our notion of repose exclude +the spirited element. Fine as is the effect of repose +in the Parthenon frieze, the composition is likewise full of +spirit and life.</p> + +<p>A distinguishing characteristic of the best Greek sculpture +is its simplicity. Compared with the Gothic sculptors, +the Greeks appear to us, in Ruskin's phrase, as the +"masters of all that was grand, simple, wise and tenderly +human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys of the rest of +mankind." Their work is free from that "vain and mean +decoration"—the "weak and monstrous error"—which +disfigures the art of other peoples.</p> + +<p>As we turn from one Greek marble to another in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> +great sculpture galleries of the world, the best features of +the art impress themselves deeply even upon the untutored +eye. The Greek instinct for pose is unfailing and unsurpassable. +Standing or seated, the attitude is always graceful, +the lines are always fine. The best statues are equally +well composed, viewed from any standpoint. The camera +may describe a circumference about a marble as a centre, +and a photograph made at any point in the circle will show +lines of rhythm and beauty.</p> + +<p>The faultless regularity of the Greek profile has passed +into history as the accepted standard of human beauty. +The straight continuous line of brow and nose, the well +moulded chin, the full lip, the small ear, satisfy perfectly +our sthetic ideals.</p> + +<p>The art of sculpture was an essential outgrowth of the +Greek spirit, and perfectly suited the requirements of +Greek thought. In the words of a recent writer, "it was +the consummate expression in art of the genius of a nation +which worshiped physical perfection as the gift of the +immortals, which honored the gods by athletic games and +choral dances, and whose deities wore the flesh and shared +the nature of men."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> It was moreover a national art, +entering into every phase of public life, and embodying +the Greek sense of national greatness.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> From <i>Italian Cities</i>, by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield.</p></div> + +<p>Greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only +by catching something of the spirit which produced it. +One must shake off the centuries and regard life with the +childlike simplicity of the young world: one must give +imagination free rein. The same attitude of mind which +can enjoy Greek mythology and Greek literature is the +proper attitude for the enjoyment of Greek sculpture. +The best interpreter of a nation's art is the nation's +poetry.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BOOKS" id="BOOKS"></a>II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE.</h2> + +<p>Many learned works on the subject of Greek Sculpture +have been written in various languages. Three standard +authorities are the English work by A. S. Murray, "History +of Greek Sculpture," second edition, London, 1890; +the French work by Collignon, "Histoire de la Sculpture +Grecque," Paris, 1892; and the German work by Furtwngler, +translated into English by E. Sellers, "The Masterpieces +of Greek Sculpture," London, 1895. Naturally +these three writers are not always of one opinion, and the +student must turn from one to another to learn all the +arguments concerning a disputed point.</p> + +<p>For the practical every-day use of the reader who has +no time to sift the evidences on difficult questions of +archology, Gardner's "Handbook of Greek Sculpture" +is an excellent outline summary of the history of the subject.</p> + +<p>Charles Waldstein's "Essays on the Art of Pheidias," +New York, 1885, is an exceedingly valuable and suggestive +volume.</p> + +<p>Two small books, written in a somewhat popular vein, +make very pleasant reading for those pursuing these +studies: "Studies in Greek Art," by J. E. Harrison, +London, 1885, and "Greek Art on Greek Soil," by J. +M. Hoppin, Boston, 1897.</p> + +<p>Besides the works devoted exclusively to the subject of +Greek sculpture, the subject receives due attention in +various general histories of art, of which may be mentioned, +Lucy Mitchell's "History of Ancient Sculpture," +Lbke's "History of Sculpture," and Von Reber's "History +of Ancient Art."</p> + +<p>A valuable bibliography is given in Gardner's "Handbook." + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="HISTORICAL_DIRECTORY" id="HISTORICAL_DIRECTORY"></a>III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED +IN THIS COLLECTION.</h2> + +<p><i><a href="images/illus01.jpg">Frontispiece.</a></i> Terminal bust of Pericles, after an original +by Cresilas. Approximate date, 440-430 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> In +the British Museum, London.</p> + +<p>1. <i><a href="images/illus02.jpg">Bust of Zeus Otricoli</a>.</i> Considered by Brunn and +others a copy from a head of the statue by Phidias. +Later critics do not agree with this opinion, and Furtwngler +calls the head a Praxitelean development of the +type of Zeus created in the time of Myron. Now in the +Vatican Gallery, Rome.</p> + +<p>2. <a href="images/illus03.jpg"><i>Athena Giustiniana</i> (<i>Minerva Medica</i>)</a>. Considered +by Furtwngler a copy, after Euphranor, of a statue +dedicated below the Capitol, called Minerva Catuliana, set +up by A. Lutatius Catulus. The gis and sphinx are +copyist's additions. Found in the gardens of the convent +of S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome. Both arms are restored. +Now in the Vatican Gallery, Rome.</p> + +<p>3. <i><a href="images/illus04.jpg">Horsemen from the Parthenon Frieze.</a></i> The frieze +of the Parthenon is part of the decorative scheme of the +marble temple of Athena, built during the age of Pericles +(480-430 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>) on the Acropolis, Athens, and decorated +under the direction of Phidias. The frieze consisted of a +series of panels or slabs, about 3 ft. 4 in. in height, and +was set on the outer wall of the cella. Being lighted from +below, the lower portion is cut in low relief (1¼ in.) and +the upper parts in high relief (2¼ in.). The panel of +the Horsemen is one of the Elgin Marbles, removed by +Lord Elgin from the Parthenon in 1801-1802, and now +in the British Museum, London.</p> + +<p>4. <i><a href="images/illus05.jpg">Bust of Hera.</a></i> Considered by Murray a copy after +Polyclitus. Regarded by Furtwngler as a "Roman creation +based on a Praxitelean model." Catalogued in Hare's +"Walks in Rome" as a probable copy after Alcamenes. +In the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. <i><a href="images/illus06.jpg">The Apoxyomenos.</a></i>. A marble copy of the original +bronze statue by Lysippus, who flourished in the 4th century +B. C. According to Pliny the original was brought +from Greece to Rome by Agrippa to adorn the public +baths. This copy was found in 1849 in the Trastevere, +Rome, and is now in the Vatican Gallery.</p> + +<p>6. <i><a href="images/illus07.jpg">Head of the Apollo Belvedere.</a></i> According to Gardner, +a marble copy (Roman) of a bronze original of the +Hellenistic Age (320-100 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>). Some (Winter and +Furtwngler) have assigned the original to Leochares, a +sculptor of the 4th century, and others to Calamis, in the +5th century. This copy was found in the 16th century at +Antium, and was purchased by Pope Julius II. for the +Belvedere Palace. Now in the Vatican Gallery, Rome.</p> + +<p>7. <a href="images/illus08.jpg"><i>Demeter</i> (<i>Ceres</i>)</a> Considered by Furtwngler a +copy from an original by Agoracritus, who was a pupil +of Phidias, and whose works are closely allied to those of +Alcamenes. By the same authority the statue is called +the Nemesis. In the Vatican Gallery, Rome.</p> + +<p>8. <a href="images/illus09.jpg"><i>The Faun of Praxiteles.</i></a> A copy of the original +statue by Praxiteles, which was in the street of the Tripods, +Athens. In the Capitol Museum, Rome.</p> + +<p>9. <a href="images/illus10.jpg"><i>Sophocles.</i></a> Referred to by Collignon as a faithful +copy of the bronze statue raised by Lycurgus. Found at +Terracina in 1838, and now in the Lateran Museum, +Rome.</p> + +<p>10. <a href="images/illus11.jpg"><i>Ares Seated.</i></a> Considered by Furtwngler and +others a copy on a reduced scale of a colossal statue by +Scopas. The little god Eros is the copyist's addition. +Found in the portico of Octavia, and restored by Bernini. +Now in the Ludovisi Villa, Rome.</p> + +<p>11. <a href="images/illus12.jpg"><i>Head of the Olympian Hermes.</i></a> An undisputed +original work of Praxiteles, dating from the middle of the +4th century <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> It was in the Herum (or Temple of +Hera) at Olympia, and was discovered by German excavators, +May 8, 1877. Now in the museum at Olympia, +Greece. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></p> + +<p>12. <a href="images/illus13.jpg"><i>The Discobolus</i></a>, a copy from an original by Myron, +one of the last masters of the "severe style," whose career +culminated 465-450 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> In the Lancelotti Palace, +Rome.</p> + +<p>13. <a href="images/illus14.jpg"><i>The Aphrodite of Melos</i> (<i>The Venus of Milo</i>).</a> +Formerly attributed to the period of transition between +Phidias and Praxiteles, but assigned by late critics to the +Hellenistic Age (320-100 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>). Believed by Furtwngler +to be based on a work by Scopas, with considerable +modification of the original. Found in 1820 on the island +of Melos at the entrance of the Greek Archipelago. +Purchased by the French government for 6000 francs, +and now in the Louvre, Paris.</p> + +<p>14. <a href="images/illus15.jpg"><i>Orpheus and Eurydice.</i></a> One of several copies of +an original bas-relief referred by Collignon to the second +half of 5th century <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> In the Albani Villa, Rome.</p> + +<p>15. <a href="images/illus16.jpg"><i>Nike</i>(<i>The Winged Victory</i>).</a> A marble statue +believed to have been set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes to +celebrate a naval victory in 306 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> Found in 1863 by +the French consul on the island of Samothrace. Now in +the Louvre, Paris.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2> + +<h2>BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI</h2> + +<p>From the earliest times men have sought to explain +in one way and another the common facts of daily +life. Sunrise and sunset, seedtime and harvest, life, +death, and the hereafter are some of the mysteries +which have always puzzled the human mind. The +primitive races, knowing nothing of science, looked +upon the forces of nature as gigantic personalities, +or gods, who controlled human destiny.</p> + +<p>The most refined and imaginative of the ancient +nations were the Greeks. They invented innumerable +tales or myths, in which all the changes of nature +and all the affairs of life were attributed to the workings +of the gods. When the sun rose, they said +that Apollo had begun to drive his chariot across +the sky. When the wind blew, Zeus was sending +his messenger from the sky to the earth. When a +man did a courageous deed, it was because Athena +had whispered to him what to do.</p> + +<p>In this way the beliefs gradually took form which +made the Greek religion. Great temples were built +for the worship of the gods, and statues were set up +in their honor. The finest works of Greek art were +connected with religious worship.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> + +<p>The gods were conceived as having the same form +as human beings, but of colossal size. They lived +in an ideal country called Olympus,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Olympus, where the gods have made,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">So saith tradition, their eternal seat.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The tempest shakes it not, nor is it drenched<br /></span> +<span class="i0">By showers, and there the snow doth never fall.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The calm, clear ether is without a cloud,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And in the golden light that lies on all,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Day after day the blessed gods rejoice."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Odyssey, Book vi., lines 54-60 in Bryant's translation.</p></div> + +<p>Here each god had a separate dwelling, and in +the midst was the palace of their supreme ruler, +Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter or Jove.</p> + +<p>Zeus was the sky god, "the father of gods and +men," and the ruler of heaven and earth. He was +the "cloud compeller" at whose will the clouds gathered +or scattered across the sky, the "ruler of the +storms," the "thunderer," by whom were hurled the +ruddy lightnings. How far he surpassed all other +gods in power is explained in the Iliad in an address +made by Zeus himself to the gods:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Suspend from heaven<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A golden chain; let all the immortal host<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Cling to it from below: ye could not draw,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Strive as ye might, the all-disposing Jove<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From heaven to earth. And yet if I should choose<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To draw it upward to me, I should lift,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">With it and you, the earth itself and sea<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Together, and I then would bind the chain<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Around the summit of the Olympian mount,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And they should hang aloft."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Iliad, Book viii., lines 21-30 in Bryant's translation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 132px;"> +<a href="images/illus02.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb02.jpg" width="132" height="200" alt="BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the imagination of the Greeks Zeus was +endowed with all the noblest elements in human +character. He ruled the affairs of men with fatherly +benevolence. He rewarded goodness, punished the +wicked, and was withal the fountain-head of justice. +By a nod of his head he made known his will, and +there was no appeal from his decrees.</p> + +<p>Naturally, the Greeks pictured this god as a being +of majestic stature and grand, benignant countenance, +and sculptors did their best to make statues +worthy of this conception. By common consent a +certain type of countenance was accepted as the +most fitting expression of this ideal. At last a +great artist named Phidias produced a statue which +perfectly carried out all the ideas at which other +sculptors had aimed. It was of colossal size, made +of gold and ivory, and was set up in a temple of +Olympia. From this time forth every sculptor who +had to represent Zeus had only to repeat the design +of Phidias.</p> + +<p>Now we know that the farther an imitator gets +from the original standard, the weaker is his copy. +The first successors of Phidias made direct studies +from his statue, but those coming after worked from +copies. Still later artists took for their models copies +of these copies, until at last much of the original +grandeur of Phidias's conception was lost.</p> + +<p>The bust of Zeus reproduced in our illustration is +thought to be a far-away copy of the head of Phidias's +statue. From the marble of which it is made +we know that it was executed in Italy, probably by +some Greek sculptor who had come thither after his +own nation had been conquered by Rome. The + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> + +marvel is that he preserved so well the noble dignity +of the ideal Zeus. This is the father of gods and +men in his most benign aspect. The massive head +is crowned like that of a lion with long, overhanging +locks with which the flowing beard is mingled. +These are the</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Ambrosial curls<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Upon the Sovereign One's immortal head,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>of which Homer writes in the Iliad. The symmetrical +arrangement of hair and beard carry out the character +of perfect evenness belonging to the supreme +ruler.</p> + +<p>The forehead has the full bar of flesh which denotes +virility. The brows are straight, the nose +finely modeled, the lips rather full, the expression +benignant. Altogether the impression is of a being +of mental and moral equipoise, full of energy and +noble dignity.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2> + +<h2>ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA)</h2> + +<p>Athena was the air goddess of the Greeks, or, in +Ruskin's phrase, "the queen of the air." She was +known also by the name Pallas, and among the +Romans as Minerva. As the air comes to us from +out the great dome of the sky, so Athena was said +to have sprung fully armed from the head of her +father Zeus. The old Homeric hymn tells how</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Wonder strange possessed<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The everlasting gods that shape to see,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Rush from the crest of gis-bearing Jove."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> In Shelley's translation.</p></div> + +<p>Her eyes were blue, the color of the sky; her hair +hung in ringlets over her shoulders. Her dress was</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"A gorgeous robe<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of many hues, which her own hands had wrought."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Iliad, Book viii., lines 483, 484.</p></div> + +<p>When arrayed for war she wore a golden helmet +and carried a shield, or <i>gis</i>. In the centre of this +shield was fastened the gorgon's head which Perseus +had cut off with her aid. In her hand she wielded +a mighty spear.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + +<p>The owl was her symbolic bird, and she was called +<i>glaukopis</i>, or owl-eyed, because her wisdom gave her +sight in darkness. The serpent was the emblem of +her command over the beneficent and healing influences +in the earth. Her favorite plant was the fruitful +olive, valued by the Greeks both for the beauty +of its foliage and for the usefulness of its oil.</p> + +<p>In the fortunes of war, when it was for defensive +aims, Athena took an intense interest and an active +part. In the war between the Greeks and the Trojans, +she was on the side of the Greeks, who sought +to recover from their enemies their queen Helen, +whom the Trojan prince had captured. When the +Greek army assembled before the walls of Troy—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Among them walked<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The blue-eyed Pallas, bearing on her arm<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The priceless gis, ever fair and new,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And undecaying; from its edge there hung<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A hundred golden fringes, fairly wrought,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And every fringe might buy a hecatomb.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">With this and fierce, defiant looks she passed<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Through all the Achaian host, and made their hearts<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Impatient for the march and strong to endure<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The combat without pause,—for now the war<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Seemed to them dearer than the wished return<br /></span> +<span class="i0">In their good galleys to the land they loved."<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Iliad, Book ii., lines 549-560 in Bryant's translation.</p></div> + +<p>As the air gives us the breath of life, so Athena +gave inspiration to the heart of man. It was her +friendly mission to fill with "strength and courage" +the hearts of those who were beset by difficulties of +many kinds.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> To Achilles, lamenting the death of +Patroclus, she came with nectar and ambrosia, that +his limbs might not grow faint with hunger.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> It +was because of her aid that Diomed could proudly +declare, "Minerva will not let my spirit falter;" and +when he cast his spear, "Minerva kept the weapon +faithful to its aim."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See the Iliad, Book v., line 2, +and the Odyssey, Book i., line 396.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Iliad, Book xix., lines 427-429.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Iliad, Book v., lines 309 and 352.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 128px;"> +<a href="images/illus03.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb03.jpg" width="128" height="200" alt="ATHENA GIUSTINIANA +(MINERVA MEDICA -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew +& Son, Sc. )" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA -- Vatican Gallery, +Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. )</span></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<p>To Athena Ulysses owed his safe return to Ithaca +after the adventures related in the Odyssey. It was +her adroit planning which brought together the long +lost father and his son Telemachus, with the faithful +wife Penelope. She also found ways to help Jason +when he went in search of the golden fleece; she +aided Hercules in his labors and guided the hand of +Perseus when he cut off the Gorgon's head.</p> + +<p>Athena was also the patroness of the industrial +arts. She was skilful in weaving and needlework, +making both her own and others' beautiful robes and +teaching the craft to some favored mortals. She was, +in short, the personification of "inspired and impulsive +wisdom in human conduct and human art, giving +the instinct of infallible decision, and of faultless invention."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +Finally, and not least important, Athena +was one of the agencies in the productiveness of the +earth, and hence the patron goddess of farmers.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> From Ruskin's <i>Queen of the Air</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Our statue shows as many as possible of the attributes +of the goddess. The figure is tall and stately +and magnificently developed. The Greek ideal of +beauty was to let nature have its way in the human +body, unhindered by any such restraints of clothing +as our modern fashions have invented. The broad +shoulders and ample waist bespeak the splendid +strength of the goddess.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p><p> + +The neck rises from the shoulders like a column +to support the well-set head. A tunic falls in straight +folds to the feet, and over this is worn a long mantle +gathered over the left shoulder. Upon her breast +hangs the shield, here made very small, and the helmet +and spear complete her equipment as a goddess +of war. At her side coils the emblematic serpent.</p> + +<p>Her aspect is far from warlike. The face is intellectual +and the expression thoughtful. This is the +goddess of wisdom reflecting upon grave concerns. +The mouth is set somewhat proudly, and the countenance +is full of a dignified reserve. The masterful +element, so strong in her character, is admirably expressed. +There is something almost austere in the +beauty of this virgin goddess. A majestic being like +this is not one to be familiarly approached.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2> + +<h2>HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE</h2> + +<p>To understand the history and meaning of the bas-relief +reproduced in our illustration, we must first +learn something of the worship of Athena in her +chosen city of Athens. An annual festival was held +here in her honor, and every four years occurred a +very elaborate celebration called the Panathena. +The Panathena lasted several days, and attracted +throngs of people from all parts of Greece. There +were contests in gymnastics and music, torch-races, +horse-races, feasts and dances. Sacrifices of oxen +were offered on the altar of the goddess, every state +having to furnish an ox for the purpose. The +climax was reached on the last day, when a great +procession started at sunrise and traversed the streets +of the city to the temple of Athena. It is with this +procession that the bas-relief of our picture is connected, +as we shall presently see.</p> + +<p>Some time before the festival a group of Athenian +maidens of the noblest families had made and embroidered +for Athena a beautiful robe called the +<i>peplos</i>. This was carried above the procession, +stretched like a sail on the mast of a ship which was +rolled through the street on wheels. The pageant +was made up of many different companies. There + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> + +were the Athenian magistrates, grave and dignified, +maidens carrying sacrificial vessels, men bearing trays +of cakes, citharists (harpists) and flute-players, old +men with olive branches, four-horse chariots with +armed warriors, rows of young men mounted on +prancing steeds, and attendants with the cattle for +the sacrifice.</p> + +<p>During the invasion of Greece by the Persians, +the temple of Athena in Athens was destroyed by +fire. Later, on its site, was erected another to replace +it, called the Parthenon. The city was now +at the height of its prosperity under the statesman +Pericles. At this time also lived the great +sculptor Phidias, and to him Pericles intrusted the +decoration of the new temple.</p> + +<p>The Parthenon was built of Pentelic marble, and +the temple proper was surrounded by a portico supported +on rows of columns. The outside of the +building was richly adorned with bas-reliefs. There +were designs in the triangular spaces under the roof +called <i>pediments</i>. Above the columns ran a series +of panels called <i>metopes</i>. Finally, there was a <i>frieze</i> +extending around the temple wall, to be seen from +within the portico. It is a bit of this frieze which +is reproduced in our illustration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<a href="images/illus04.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb04.jpg" width="200" height="119" alt="HORSEMEN FROM +THE PARTHENON FRIEZE -- British Museum, London -- London Stereoscopic Co., +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE -- British Museum, +London -- London Stereoscopic Co., Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p><p> + +The Panathenaic procession is the subject carried +the entire length of this bas-relief decoration. On +the portion running across one end were depicted the +scenes of preparation. Men are in the act of mounting +their horses, some having spirited animals to deal +with, and all making ready for the start. At the +opposite end is the scene of the arrival at the temple. +Here sit the gods to receive the sacrifice, while the +magistrates stand ready to perform the rites, and +maidens approach with the vessels. On the two long +sides the procession is seen actually in motion. +Here are represented all the figures which took +part in such occasions; old men and maidens, musicians, +horsemen, charioteers, and sacrificial animals, +all moving forward on their way. Group follows +group, with that contrast and variety which give interest +to a pageant, and with the proper orderliness +to give it unity.</p> + +<p>Our panel shows us a line of horsemen riding four +abreast. Though it is broken and defaced, we catch +at once the spirit of the work. The horses are splendid +animals; with dilated nostrils, and necks proudly +arched, they seem to prance to the music of the +flutes. Though they are well matched in size and +type, no two are really alike. Every one has as distinct +a character as a human being, and lovers of +horses might choose each his own favorite from the +four.</p> + +<p>Only two of the riders fall within our range of +vision. They are handsome youths, with the perfectly +formed head and finely cut profile which we +learn to recognize as the Greek ideal of beauty. The +line across forehead and nose is perfectly straight, +and the line connecting nose and chin forms a +corresponding angle. Both faces bear the stamp of +refinement and high breeding which mark them +as belonging to the class of Athenian nobles. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> + +<p>Though the two youths have so similar a cast of +countenance, they are quite unlike in temperament. +The farther one is of a somewhat dreamy, poetic +nature. He rides with bent head as if in a reverie. +His companion is of a sterner, more virile type. He +looks straight before him, and carries his head with +a sense of the dignity of the occasion.</p> + +<p>Both youths sit their horses as if born in the saddle. +Horse and rider are one, animated by a single +dominant will. The Athenian youth were trained +from childhood in all sorts of manly exercise. The +normal development of the body was of first importance +in the Greek educational system. These young +men are typical examples of the fine specimens of +manhood which that training produced.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2> + +<h2>BUST OF HERA (JUNO)</h2> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"The white armed queen,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Juno, the mistress of the golden throne."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>It is thus that the Iliad describes Hera, the wife +of Zeus, now more often called by her Roman name +Juno. The marriage union between the ruler of the +gods and his queen represented the Greek ideal of +perfect conjugal happiness. Hera was therefore the +goddess who presided over human marriages, and +was the type of matronly virtue and dignity. As +the queen of heaven, she had it in her power to +bestow great riches, honor, and influence upon her +favorites.</p> + +<p>In the Trojan war she was, like Athena, a partisan +of the Greeks, and once or twice even accompanied +the war goddess to the battlefield. Usually, +however, her pursuits were of a more peaceful and +domestic order. She was a very beautiful goddess, +"ox-eyed" in the quaint Greek phrase, that is, +with large expressive eyes. She had the august and +majestic bearing befitting a queen, and is usually +described in classic literature as wearing a veil. A +long passage in the Iliad gives an account of her +toilet when arraying herself for a special occasion. +After bathing in ambrosia, and anointing with oil, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"When thus her shapely form<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Had been anointed, and her hands had combed<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Round her immortal brow. And next she threw<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Around her an ambrosial robe, the work<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of Pallas, all its web embroidered o'er<br /></span> +<span class="i0">With forms of rare device. She fastened it<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Over the breast with clasps of gold, and then<br /></span> +<span class="i0">She passed about her waist a zone which bore<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Fringes a hundred-fold, and in her ears<br /></span> +<span class="i0">She hung her three-gemmed ear-rings, from whose gleam<br /></span> +<span class="i0">She won an added grace. Around her head<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The glorious goddess drew a flowing veil,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Just from the loom, and shining like the sun;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And, last, beneath her bright white feet she bound<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The shapely sandals."<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Iliad, Book xiv., +lines 210-226 in Bryant's translation.</p> +</div> + +<p>One of the prettiest stories about Hera is that in +which she acted as the friend of Jason. Jason was +the son of a dethroned king and was brought up by +the centaur Chiron. When he came of age he set +forth, with much good advice from Chiron, to reclaim +his father's kingdom. On his journey he came +to a swollen stream which seemed well-nigh impassable. +As he was considering the danger of crossing +it, an old woman on the bank begged him to carry +her over. This was a hazardous undertaking, and +the young man was sorely tempted to refuse her. +At last his kindness triumphed and he consented. +Taking her on his back, he struggled across the river +at the peril of his life. When he set her safely on +the opposite bank, a wonderful thing happened. +"She grew fairer than all women, and taller than all +men on earth; and her garments shone like the +summer sea, and her jewels like the stars of heaven; and +over her forehead was a veil, woven of the golden +clouds of sunset, and through the veil she looked +down on him with great soft heifer's eyes; with +great eyes, mild and awful, which filled all the glen +with light."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Then he knew that this was Hera, and +from thenceforth she was his guide in every time of +need.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> From Kingsley's +<i>Greek Heroes</i>: the Argonauts.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illus05.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb05.jpg" width="131" height="200" alt="BUST OF HERA +(JUNO) -- Ludovisi Villa, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">BUST OF HERA (JUNO) -- Ludovisi Villa, Rome -- D. +Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> + +<p>The bust of Hera, reproduced in our illustration, +shows how the Greeks liked to think of their queen +goddess. We at once recognize the features assigned +to her by tradition; the large eyes set somewhat far +apart, the low, broad forehead, the mild expression. +The waving hair is parted, and gathered at the back +in a matronly coiffure, and over it is worn the crown +of a queen.</p> + +<p>We have seen that in Greek sculpture the artist +was not always left to represent the divinities according +to his own imagination. For each one a certain +fixed type had been gradually thought out in very +early times, and this type was handed down from +generation to generation. A statue or bust could +always be recognized without any title. No one, for +instance, could ever mistake Zeus for Apollo, or +confuse Hera and Athena.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<p>By comparing this head of Hera with that of +Athena in our previous illustration, we can see how +perfectly sculpture carried out the distinctions in the +two characters. Hera was less intellectual than +Athena, and had perhaps more distinctly feminine +charms. The mouth has less strength and firmness, +the expression more mildness. Her beauty is naturally +of a more matronly type than that of the virgin +goddess. The crown which she wears belongs as +distinctly to her as does the helmet to Athena.</p> + +<p>A careful examination of the face suggests that it +may have been studied from actual life. If, as some +critics believe, the bust was made in Rome by some +Greek sojourning there after the conquest of his own +nation, a noble Roman matron may have been the +model. Be that as it may, this is Hera as the Greeks +worshipped her, and perhaps the best existing representation +of the great goddess.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2> + +<h2>THE APOXYOMENOS</h2> + +<p>An important part of the Greek system of education +was the training of the body in physical exercise. +For this purpose there were gymnasia in every +city, where the youth were trained in running, leaping, +wrestling, throwing the javelin, and casting the +discus. Great spaces were occupied by these gymnasia, +which included buildings for dressing-rooms +and baths, porticoes and halls used as assembly-rooms, +walks, gardens, and the palstra, or wrestling-field.</p> + +<p>Every four years a great national festival was held +at Olympia, consisting of games or contests in the +various athletic sports. Every freeman of Hellenic +blood had a birthright to take part in them. The +contestants were required to undergo a preparatory +training, often lasting months, in the gymnasium of +Elis, the province in which Olympia was situated.</p> + +<p>During the progress of the games a universal +truce was proclaimed throughout Greece. All hostilities +ceased for the time, and the Greeks as a +united people assembled at Olympia for the joyous +celebration in honor of Zeus. So important were +these Olympic games that they were used as a standard +for reckoning time. In assigning a date to an +event, the Greeks used to say that it took place in + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> + +this or that Olympiad, an Olympiad being the period +of four years between two successive festivals.</p> + +<p>We may well believe that the Olympic festivals, +as well as the ordinary daily exercise in the city +gymnasia, had great attractions for sculptors. The +palstra must have been a favorite resort of artists. +What a sight it was when the young men came out +of the dressing-rooms stripped for running, their +bodies shining with oil,—what a play of muscles +in the lithe young limbs as the runners "pressed +toward the mark for the prize of the high calling!" +The course was usually of deep sand, and was about +three miles in length. The runners trained for +special emergencies attained extraordinary speed and +endurance. The race over, each youth returned to +the dressing-rooms of the gymnasium and, taking a +small instrument called the <i>strigil</i>, made of metal, +ivory, or horn, scraped the oil from his body.</p> + +<p>It is in this cleansing process that the young man +of our illustration is engaged. The statue on this +account is called the Apoxyomenos, which is a Greek +word meaning "scraping himself." It represents a +typical incident of the life of the gymnasium, such +as might be seen any day of the year.</p> + +<p>Tall and graceful, with slender flexible limbs, the +youth stands in an attitude of rest, scraping his +right arm. In his fingers is the die which marks +his number in the race. His body rests upon one +leg, but so light is his poise that he is ready to +change his position momentarily. Neither attitude +nor countenance shows any sense of exhaustion, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> + +only that delicious fatigue which makes rest so enjoyable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 129px;"> +<a href="images/illus06.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb06.jpg" width="129" height="200" alt="THE APOXYOMENOS +-- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, +Sc. -- Vatican Gallery, Rome" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE APOXYOMENOS -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. </span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> + +<p>There is a passage in the Greek poet Aristophanes' +comedy of the Clouds, in which a speaker urges +upon a young man the life of the gymnasium. +"Fresh and fair in beauty-bloom," he says, "you +shall pass your days in the wrestling-ground, or run +races beneath the sacred olive trees, crowned with +white reed, in company with a pure-hearted friend, +smelling of bindweed, and leisure hours, and the +white poplar that sheds her leaves, rejoicing in the +prime of spring when the plane tree whispers to +the lime." This is the kind of life typified in the +figure of our statue,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> a side of Greek life which no +one can overlook if he would understand the genius +of the Greek nation.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The application +of this passage to the Apoxyomenos is made by J. A. Symonds in his <i>Greek Poets</i>.</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that our statue represents +an actual individual. It is not a portrait, but an +imaginary typical figure. It is true that portrait +statues of athletes were made in great numbers, as +we shall note again in another chapter. It was indeed +this practical experience among athletes that +led sculptors to see what a perfect human figure +ought to be. In the study of many different forms +they developed an idea of a type common to all and +uniting all the perfections. Certain sculptors figured +out what they regarded as the true proportions +of the ideal human form. One of these was Lysippus, +who is believed to have executed this statue as +an illustration of his theories. We note as the +special characteristics of his ideal figure that it is +tall, with slim light limbs, and a rather small head, +about one eighth the total height.</p> + +<p>We may now see how such a statue as the Apoxyomenos +was a preparatory study for statues of the +gods. The gods were to be represented in the most +perfect human forms which it was possible to conceive, +and by working out typical figures like this, +forms were found worthy of the noblest subjects. +Thus the proportions discovered by Lysippus were +peculiarly appropriate for the lighter, fleeter gods, +as Apollo and Hermes.</p> + +<p>Lysippus executed his works entirely in bronze, +and the statue reproduced in our illustration is a +marble copy of the original, which was long since +lost.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2> + +<h2>HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE</h2> + +<p>Phœbus Apollo was the Greek god of day, who +drove the great chariot of the sun across the sky +from dawn to sunset. As the sun's rays pierce the +air with darts of fire, so Apollo is an archer god +carrying a quiver full of arrows. The old Homeric +hymn calls him—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"Heaven's far darter, the fair king of days<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Whom even the gods themselves fear when he goes<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Through Jove's high house; and when his goodly bows<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He goes to bend, all from their thrones arise<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And cluster near t' admire his faculties."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In Chapman's translation.</p></div> + +<p>If we count up all the gifts which the sunlight +brings us, we shall have a list of the offices of +Apollo. He brought the spring and the summer, +and ripened the grain for harvest. He warded off +disease and healed the sick. One of his earliest adventures +was to slay the serpent Python lurking in +the caves of Mt. Parnassus. Like the legend of St. +George and the Dragon, the story is an allegory of +the triumph of light over darkness, health over disease, +the power of good over the power of evil.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + +<p>Apollo was also the patron of music, having received +from Hermes the gift of the lyre. He was +wont to play at the banquets of the gods, and the +poet Shelley describes his music in these words:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"And then Apollo with the plectrum strook<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The chords, and from beneath his hands a crash<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of mighty sounds rushed up, whose music shook<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The soul with sweetness, and like an adept<br /></span> +<span class="i0">His sweeter voice a just accordance kept."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> From Shelley's +translation of the Homeric <i>Hymn to Mercury</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Poetry and the dance were also under Apollo's +protection, and he was the leader of the nine +muses.</p> + +<p>His highest office was prophecy, and in all his +temples the priestesses gave mystic revelations of the +future. The most famous of these was at Delphi, +built over an opening in the ground, whence a strange +vapor rose. The priestess, a young woman called a +<i>pythia</i>, from the python slain by Apollo, sat over this +opening on a three-legged seat, or tripod, and answered +the questions brought to her. Her sayings +were in verses called <i>oracles</i>, supposed to be communicated +to her by the god.</p> + +<p>Now, as might be expected, the character of +Apollo was as pure and transparent as the sunlight +itself. He required clean hands and pure hearts of +those who worshiped him. As the sunlight shines +into the dark places of the earth, driving the shadows +away, so Apollo hated all that was dark and evil in +human life. He was not only the rewarder of good +but the punisher of evil. In Shelley's "Hymn of +Apollo" these words are put in the god's mouth:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The sunbeams are my shafts, with which I kill<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Deceit, that loves the night and fears the day;<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">All men who do or even imagine ill<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Fly me, and from the glory of my ray<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Good minds and open actions take new might,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Until diminished by the reign of night."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 155px;"> +<a href="images/illus07.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb07.jpg" width="155" height="200" alt="HEAD OF THE +APOLLO BELVEDERE -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John +Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE -- Vatican Gallery, +Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> + +<p>The head of Apollo in our illustration is from a +famous full-length statue of the god known as the +Apollo Belvedere. The name Belvedere, which is +useful only to distinguish the statue from others of +the same subject, comes from the fact that the marble +once adorned a pavilion of the Vatican called the +Belvedere.</p> + +<p>The god stands with left arm extended holding, it +is supposed, either a bow or a shield. A quiver of +arrows is slung across his back, and a chlamys, or +cloak, hangs over his left shoulder. His is the proud +attitude of one who is defending some sacred trust. +So he holds his head high and gazes steadily before +him as if watching an arrow speed to its mark, or +perhaps scanning the vanguard of an approaching +army. The expression is not a little haughty, and +one detects an almost disdainful curve of the lips as +if the god regarded the enemy with scorn. The face +is cut in an aristocratic mould, with fine sensitive +lines which mark the lover of music and poetry. In +fact, the refinement of his beauty has something of a +feminine quality.</p> + +<p>The carefully curled hair is gathered in a bow +knot on the top of his head. It may indeed be +supposed that the handsome young god was by no +means unconscious of his charms, and took no little +pains to display them to good advantage. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Apollo, however, is a god worthy of our admiration +for the noble purity of his countenance. +Surely, all base thoughts and mean motives would +be put to shame by this pure presence.</p> + +<p>The poet Byron, whose "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" +describes many interesting sights in Greece +and Italy, has written these lines about the Apollo +Belvedere:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i2">"The Lord of the unerring bow,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The god of life, and poesy, and light—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The sun, in human limbs array'd, and brow<br /></span> +<span class="i0">All radiant from his triumph in the fight;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The shaft hath just been shot—the arrow bright<br /></span> +<span class="i0">With an immortal's vengeance; in his eye<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And nostril beautiful disdain, and might,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And majesty flash their full lightnings by,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Developing in that one glance the deity."<br /></span></div></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2> + +<h2>DEMETER (CERES)</h2> + +<p>The Greeks worshipped among their deities a goddess +called Demeter, which means "mother earth." +It was her office to attend to the sowing and reaping +and all kinds of farm work. She first taught mankind +the use of the plough; she helped the men in +their threshing and the women in their baking. All +country folk sought her blessing in their labors. She +was, in fact, a personification of nature, and perhaps +it is a remnant of the old Greek belief in our speech +that we still refer to "mother earth" and "mother +nature."</p> + +<p>Demeter's only child was a daughter, Persephone, +and upon her she lavished all a mother's fond devotion. +The story runs that one day Persephone was +gathering posies in the meadow when a strange accident +overtook her. A beautiful flower suddenly attracted +her attention, the like of which she had never +before seen. When she put forth her hand to pluck +it, the entire plant came up by the roots, leaving a +hole in the ground. The hole widened into a great +crack, the earth shook with a mighty thundering, +and out dashed a chariot drawn by coal-black steeds, +bearing Pluto, the king of the lower regions. He +caught up the astonished Persephone, and away they + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> + +sped again into the gloomy kingdom beyond the Styx, +where Persephone was installed as queen.</p> + +<p>Demeter, missing her daughter, inquired everywhere +what had become of the maiden, but none +could tell her. Then she lighted a torch and began +a weary search for the lost child. Nine days she +wandered without finding any clew. But on the +tenth day she met the old witch Hecate, who had +heard Persephone scream when she was carried away. +Together the two sought Apollo, who sees all the +doings of gods and men, and he told them the whole +story. "Then a more terrible grief took possession +of Demeter, and ... she forsook the assembly of +the gods and abode among men for a long time, veiling +her beauty under a worn countenance so that +none who looked upon her knew her." She declared +that the earth should not again bring forth fruit till +she had seen her daughter.</p> + +<p>It comforted her not a little in this time of mourning +to take a mother's care of a certain sickly little +child she chanced upon. Disguised as a nurse, she +fed the child upon ambrosia, held him in her bosom, +and at night covered him in a bed of coals. Under +this treatment he thrived amazingly; but the parents +discovered the nurse's strange ways and became +alarmed. Their anxiety was turned to dismay when +they learned that this was a goddess, who would +have made their son immortal but for their interference.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illus08.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb08.jpg" width="131" height="200" alt="DEMETER (CERES) +-- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, +Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">DEMETER (CERES) -- Vatican Gallery, Rome -- D. Anderson, +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the mean time the crops fell into a bad state, +and it was a year of grievous famine. Demeter still +kept her vow to let no green thing appear upon the +earth. Then Zeus came to the rescue of perishing +humanity. He sent a messenger to Pluto begging +him to let Persephone return to her mother. The +request was granted, the chariot was made ready, +but the wily king first pressed his bride to eat with +him some pomegranate seeds, designing that she +should return to him again. Mother and daughter +were now joyfully reunited, but not without further +separation; for a portion of each year Persephone +returned to her kingdom below the earth, reappearing +in the spring to visit her mother. And this is +why to this day the harvest is followed by winter +until the spring revisits the earth.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> +The story of Demeter and Persephone is related in the Homeric +<i>Hymn to Demeter</i>, of which an abridged English version is given in the +chapter on the Myth of Demeter and Persephone in Pater's <i>Greek +Studies</i>. The same chapter refers to various other ancient forms of +the story, one of the most important being that of Ovid's Metamorphoses, +translated into English blank verse by Edward King.</p></div> + +<p>In all this story we see that the most striking characteristic +of Demeter is her motherliness. In some +respects she is like Hera, because both are matrons +and are patterns of the domestic virtues. But while +Hera is the model wife, Demeter is the model mother.</p> + +<p>It is the motherliness of our statue which makes us feel sure that it +must be intended to represent Demeter.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>The goddess stands holding +in her outstretched right hand a sheaf of wheat, and lifting high in the +left hand the torch with which she journeyed round the world. It is as +if she stood on the threshold of the opening season awaiting her +daughter's return. She gazes straight before her with a look of +expectancy as if she already saw her child from afar. Her face is +lighted by a smile of welcome. One can fancy how tenderly those motherly +arms will fold the child to her heart, and how gladly the daughter will +pillow her head on that broad bosom.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +See in the <i><a href="#HISTORICAL_DIRECTORY">Historical Directory</a></i> another subject assigned to the +statue. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>The figure is in striking contrast to the statue of +Athena which we have studied. The virgin goddess +is stately and unapproachable in her panoply of wisdom, +but the great mother seems to invite our confidence. +She is one to whom a frightened child +might run, sure of being soothed. To her the sorrowing +would turn, fearing no repulse. She would +welcome, she would understand, she would comfort. +There is strength and repose in every line of her +majestic figure.</p> + +<p>The statue illustrates admirably the grandeur and +simplicity of the best Greek art. The long straight +lines of the drapery, unbroken by any unnecessary +folds, are the secret of the impression of tranquil +dignity in the work.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h2>THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES</h2> + +<p>The imagination of the Greeks peopled the woods +and waters with all sorts of mythical beings, among +which one of the most delightful was the faun. +This was a creature half human, half animal, which +frolicked in the woods in spring time. In outward +appearance it looked much like a human being, except +that it had pointed furry ears. In nature, however, +it was closely akin to the animals, and lived a free +happy life, with none of the thoughts and cares +which beset the soul of man.</p> + +<p>Our statue represents a sculptor's conception of +this sportive being. It is famous not only because it +is a celebrated work of art, but because it takes an +important place in a celebrated novel. This is the +"marble faun" which gives the title to Hawthorne's +book. It will be remembered that in the beginning +of the story, a party of friends are visiting the museum +of the Capitol in Rome, where the statue stands. +Suddenly they notice the resemblance which one of +their number, a young Italian named Donatello, +bears to the statue. They bid him take the same +attitude, and the likeness is complete. The writer +describes the statue in these words: "The Faun is +the marble image of a young man leaning his right + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> + +arm on the trunk or stump of a tree; one hand +hangs carelessly by his side; in the other he holds +the fragment of a pipe, or some such sylvan instrument +of music. His only garment—a lion's skin,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +with the claws upon his shoulder—falls halfway +down his back, leaving the limbs and entire front +of the figure nude. The form, thus displayed, is +marvellously graceful, but has a fuller and more +rounded outline, more flesh, and less of heroic muscle, +than the old sculptors were wont to assign to their +types of masculine beauty.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The character of the +face corresponds with the figure; it is most agreeable +in outline and feature, but rounded and somewhat +voluptuously developed, especially about the +throat and chin; the nose is almost straight, but very +slightly curves inward, thereby acquiring an indescribable +charm of geniality and humor. The mouth, +with its full yet delicate lips, seems so nearly to +smile outright that it calls forth a responsive smile. +The whole statue—unlike anything else that ever +was wrought in that severe material of marble—conveys +the idea of an amiable and sensual creature, +easy, mirthful, apt for jollity, yet not incapable +of being touched by pathos. It is impossible to gaze +long at this stone image without conceiving a kindly +sentiment towards it, as if its substance were warm +to the touch, and imbued with actual life. It comes +very close to some of our pleasantest sympathies."</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> More likely a leopard's skin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Compare, +for instance, the slender figure of the <a href="images/illus06.jpg">Apoxyomenos</a>. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 124px;"> +<a href="images/illus09.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb09.jpg" width="124" height="200" alt="THE FAUN OF +PRAXITELES -- Capitol Museum, Rome -- Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES -- Capitol Museum, Rome -- +Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + +<p>After this description the writer goes on to analyze the nature of the Faun. +"The being here represented," +he says, "is endowed with no principle +of virtue, and would be incapable of comprehending +such; but he would be true and honest by dint of +his simplicity. We should expect from him no sacrifice +or effort for an abstract cause; there is not an +atom of martyr's stuff in all that softened marble; +but he has a capacity for strong and warm attachment, +and might act devotedly through its impulse, +and even die for it at need. It is possible, too, that +the Faun might be educated through the medium +of his emotions, so that the coarser animal portion of +his nature might eventually be thrown into the background, +though never utterly expelled."</p> + +<p>The original statue, of which the marble of the +Capitol is a copy, was the work of the sculptor +Praxiteles. As Hawthorne says: "Only a sculptor +of the finest imagination, the most delicate taste, +the sweetest feeling, and the rarest artistic skill—in +a word, a sculptor and a poet too—could have ... succeeded +in imprisoning the sportive and frisky +thing in marble." We are presently to see again in +the head of Hermes that Praxiteles was indeed a remarkable +sculptor. The Faun, however, is the more +difficult subject of the two, for it was puzzling to +think what expression would be proper to a being +partly human, but without a soul.</p> + +<p>It is said that Praxiteles himself considered the +Faun one of his two best works. It had been impossible +for his friends to get an expression of opinion +from him in regard to his statues, until one day + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> + +a trick was devised to betray him. He was told that +his studio was on fire, when he exclaimed that his +labor was all lost if the Faun and the Eros were destroyed.</p> + +<p>The Faun originally stood in the street of the +Tripods at Athens, but what has now become of it we +do not know. The statue in our illustration is one +of the most celebrated copies. Many travellers make +a special pilgrimage to see it, and seeing it recall the +words of Hawthorne, describing the spell it casts +upon the spectator. "All the pleasantness of sylvan +life, all the genial and happy characteristics of creatures +that dwell in woods and fields, will seem to be +mingled and kneaded into one substance, along with +the kindred qualities in the human soul. Trees, +grass, flowers, woodland streamlets, cattle, deer, and +unsophisticated man—the essence of all these was +compressed long ago, and still exists, within that discolored +marble surface of the Faun of Praxiteles."</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2> + +<h2>SOPHOCLES</h2> + +<p>One of the greatest of Greek writers was the +tragic poet Sophocles. He was born near Athens +in the year 495 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, and was educated after the +manner of the Greek youth of his time. Every advantage +was given him for the study of music and +poetry, and also for that gymnastic training which, +as we have seen, was so important in Greek education.</p> + +<p>Sophocles was a handsome youth, and acquitted +himself well in the palstra. When he was sixteen +years of age the great battle of Salamis was fought +and won by the Greeks. In the celebration of this +victory at Athens, Sophocles led with dance and lyre +the chorus of young men who sang the pan or +hymn of victory. That such an honor should be +given him shows how graceful and gifted he must +have been.</p> + +<p>The beginning of his literary career came when he +was in his twenty-fifth year. At that time a solemn +festival was held in Athens in memory of the ancient +King Theseus, whose bones had been brought +thither from the island of Scyros. Now all religious +festivals in Greece were celebrated with contests, +some athletic, others artistic and literary. On this +occasion there was a contest of dramatic poets. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> + +schylus was at that time the greatest of living +tragedians, and as he was among the contestants, it +might have been supposed that no other candidate +could have succeeded. Sophocles now came forward +with his first tragedy, and so remarkable was it +found to be that the judges pronounced him victor.</p> + +<p>From this time forth Sophocles continually grew +in dramatic and literary power. Twenty times he +obtained the first prize in other contests, and many +times also the second prize. The amount of his work +was prodigious. Most of his dramas are lost, but we +still have a half dozen or more to show us the noble +quality of his work. The finest are perhaps those +called Œdipus Tyrannus, Œdipus Coloneus, and +Antigone, all dealing with the tragic fate of an +ancient royal family.</p> + +<p>Athens was justly proud of her great poet and +bestowed various honors upon him. He was even +made a general, and served in the war against Samos; +but nature had made him a poet, and it is as a poet +that we must always think of him. Full of years +and honors, he died in Athens at the age of ninety. +Of him the Greek poet Phrynicus wrote,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Thrice happy Sophocles! in good old age<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Blessed as a man, and as a craftsman blessed,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He died: his many tragedies were fair,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And fair his end, nor knew he any sorrow."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Our portrait shows admirably what manner of +man he was, handsome and dignified, in the prime +of life.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 130px;"> +<a href="images/illus10.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb10.jpg" width="130" height="200" alt="SOPHOCLES -- +Lateran Museum, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">SOPHOCLES -- Lateran Museum, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<p>The scanty folds of his toga reveal the fine lines of +his graceful figure. The pose shows the bodily vigor +which his early athletic training gave him. He holds +his head erect in a manner suggestive of his military +life. The face is that of an idealist and a poet, a +man who sees splendid visions. Yet it is not altogether +dreamy in the ordinary sense; it has the alert, +energetic aspect of one who would turn from vision +to action. It is not hard to believe the tale of his +one hundred and twenty-three dramas: such a man +would fill his life with activity. The face has, too, +the expression of genial kindliness which made the +great poet so beloved of his fellow men. His must +have been that calm, equable temperament not easily +ruffled, which goes with the self-respecting nature. +A receptacle at his side is filled with the scrolls of +his tragedies. He stands in the attitude of a poet +reciting his lines to an assembled audience.</p> + +<p>The statue shows how sane was the Greek ideal of +intellectual greatness. In those days genius did not +mean eccentricity, but the rule of life was a sound +mind in a sound body. It is a mistaken notion of +our own times that bodily health must be sacrificed +to the training of the brain. It is even supposed +by some that oddities of dress and manner are signs +of greatness.</p> + +<p>The Greeks had no such delusions. Here is +Sophocles, the greatest dramatic poet of antiquity, +a magnificent specimen of symmetrically developed +manhood. He is a man who has made the most of +life's opportunities as he understood them. He enjoys +perfect bodily vigor; he is as well a man of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> + +world, at ease among men. There is evidently nothing +of the recluse in his character. He wears his +beard carefully trimmed as one who looks well to his +personal appearance. Yet intellectual greatness is +stamped on face and bearing: the noble countenance +marks him as a poet.</p> + +<p>There was a period in Greek history when it was +a custom to adorn public buildings with statues of +famous men, living or dead. Libraries were appropriately +decorated with statues of poets, and we +fancy that our statue of Sophocles was made for +such a purpose. The original is supposed to have +been set up by a certain Athenian statesman named +Lycurgus in the fourth century <span class="smcap">B. C.</span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2> + +<h2>ARES SEATED</h2> + +<p>Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of +a battle men fight as though possessed by a spirit of +fury. The excitement of the conflict seems to arouse +an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the +moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the +ancient methods of warfare, when a battle was literally +a hand-to-hand conflict, this spirit of brutality +was of course even more marked. In the wars +among the early Greeks men fell upon one another +with the violence of wild animals.</p> + +<p>The Greeks with their ready gift for personification +conceived of this spirit of warfare as a supernatural +being acting on human lives. He was called +Ares, the god whose special delight was to incite the +fierce passions of men.</p> + +<p>It was natural that the Greeks should refer his +influence chiefly to their enemies. On their own part +they preferred to think that their armies were inspired +by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied +in Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was +on the side of the Trojans, while Athena aided the +Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were brought into +direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit +of strategy. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> + +<p>An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal +to her enemy, the translation running in these +words, the Roman name Mars being used for Ares.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Destroyer of walled cities! should we not<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And Jove to crown with glory whom he will,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37.</p></div> + +<p>As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued +to aid their favorites. Mars was forced to yield +before the skill and prudence of Athena. Guided +by the goddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and +drives him from the battle.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075.</p></div> + +<p>In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome +god, "stately, swift, unwearied, puissant." +Though war was his chief delight he was quite susceptible +to the tender passion. Venus was the object +of his devotion, and the goddess of love returned +the war god's admiration. It was she who soothed +his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in +the presence of the gods and struck him to earth +with a stone.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Iliad, Book +xxi., lines 500 <i>et seq.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illus11.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb11.jpg" width="131" height="200" alt="ARES SEATED +-- Ludovisi Villa, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">ARES SEATED -- Ludovisi Villa, Rome -- D. Anderson, +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> + +<p>The statue reproduced in our illustration shows +the god in his mildest aspect. He is seated in a meditative +attitude, clasping his hands over his upraised +knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in +a posture of repose, the shield is laid aside for a +moment, and he rests from his labors. In the best +period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary +to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike +action. The gods must always be portrayed +in a dignified repose befitting their superiority to +mankind. Not then in his attitude or expression do +we find any sign of the character of the god. There +is no suggestion of unrest in his quiet posture.</p> + +<p>The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint +of his combative nature. The cast of countenance, +too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in intellectual +qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably +attractive, with his well-chiseled features and clustering +curls. The small ear is as delicately cut as a +woman's. The fine athletic figure is such as any +warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full +of power even in repose. The attitude of easy grace +displays its best points to advantage.</p> + +<p>Sitting on the ground in front of the god is the +figure of a mischievous baby boy. This is the little +god Eros, who in Greek mythology was supposed to +be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest +that the subject of Ares' meditations might be +some affair of the heart. Certainly his mild smile +would carry out that interpretation. Some critics +have thought, however, that the statue did not originally +include the child.</p> + +<p>As we study the modelling of the figure, the free +sweep of the long lines delights the eye. We shall +come to understand from repeated examples that the +best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret +of fine lines. Our illustration is somewhat unusual +because the figure is seated. Even in this position, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> + +however, the sculptor gives us a sense of the perfect +grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing +heavy or immovable in the attitude. We can easily +imagine how the god, rising lightly to his feet, +would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2> + +<h2>HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES</h2> + +<p>To do his errands and carry his messages through +the universe the supreme god Zeus had a herald, +Hermes, the god of the wind. As the wind blows +out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from +Olympus to earth to do the sky god's bidding. +Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and +winged sandals, which carried him about with great +speed. He had also a short sword bent like a scythe, +given him by Zeus with the cap and sandals. He +possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, +and of assuming different forms. As he had +besides a ready wit and an eloquent tongue, he could +make himself very useful. It was one of his common +tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most +solemn office was to conduct the souls of the dying +to the other world.</p> + +<p>This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting +forth on one of the errands of Zeus:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"The herald Argicide obeyed,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And hastily beneath his feet he bound<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn<br /></span> +<span class="i0">To bear him over ocean like the wind,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And opens them at will from sleep."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Book v., lines +55-61 in Bryant's translation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>One of the most famous adventures of Hermes +was the slaying of the many-eyed monster Argus, +from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is why +the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the +god the Argicide. Another of his well known missions +was the care of the motherless infant Bacchus, +whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be +reared. An adventurer himself, Hermes was ever +ready to aid heroes in their exploits. It was with +his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head: +we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" +and Kingsley's "Greek Heroes."</p> + +<p>Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and +then. An old Homeric hymn tells of a sly prank +he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby, +stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was +keeping. He was an ingenious fellow too, and this +is how he invented the lyre. Taking from the +beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the shell, pierced it +with holes, and stretched from hole to hole, at regular +intervals, cords of sheep gut.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"When he had wrought the lovely instrument<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He tried the chords, and made division meet,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Preluding with the plectrum, and there went<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Of mighty sounds."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> From the +Homeric <i>Hymn to Mercury</i> in Shelley's translation, Stanza ix. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 152px;"> +<a href="images/illus12.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb12.jpg" width="152" height="200" alt="HEAD OF THE +OLYMPIAN HERMES -- Museum, Olympia -- English Photographic Co., Athens, +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES -- Museum, Olympia -- +English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> + +<p>With this instrument Apollo was so delighted +that Hermes straightway presented it to him, to +make some amends, as it were, for the injury done +him. In return Apollo bestowed the <i>caduceus</i>, or +wand, upon Hermes, and the two gods vowed eternal +friendship.</p> + +<p>The Greeks were very fond of their god Hermes. +He was not too grand to be companionable, like the +awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo. They +thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted +ways and easy good nature made him a general +favorite. It was an early custom to set up in +his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes +they were topped by the heads of other gods, but +these were called for him, <i>herm</i>. In the course of +time better statues were made in full length figure. +The head reproduced in our illustration is from such +an one which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, +from the ruins of which it was unearthed a few years +ago.</p> + +<p>The entire right arm and parts of both legs are +missing, but the other portions of the statue show +the god's position. He is leaning against a tree +trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, +who was, as we have seen, consigned to his care by +Zeus. Hermes is not, however, looking at the child, +but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in the +pensive pose which we see. The features are cut +with typical Greek regularity, but the countenance +has besides its own individual charm. The droop of +the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in +the curve of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. +The lower forehead is full, showing over the eyes +the bar of flesh which marks the strongly masculine +nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> + +contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear +is as daintily modeled as the ringlets of hair.</p> + +<p>The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. +It is tender and playful, and withal exquisitely refined +and courteous. What a deferential listener is suggested +in that pose of the head! The pure outline +of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry +who gathered about King Arthur's Round Table, +and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself might not +have looked like this.</p> + +<p>This statue is the work of the great sculptor +Praxiteles, and is the only original marble in existence +direct from his hands. All the rest of his work +is known from descriptions and copies. We can +understand, then, how sculptors and critics the world +over have examined it to study the sculptor's methods. +It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron +rust from its long entombment under the soil.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2> + +<h2>THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER)</h2> + + +<p>We have seen how important a part in the Greek +national life was occupied by the Olympic Games. +They were regarded as a sacred institution of the +gods, and to contend in them was a religious consecration. +None could enter them who had been +guilty of dishonorable conduct or sacrilege, and +young men from the noblest families were not above +taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, +olive, and pine, having no intrinsic worth, +but of priceless value to the recipients. To win +them was the highest ambition of many a Greek +youth.</p> + +<p>The victor was led forth before the people, crowned +with the wreath and bearing a palm branch in his +hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that of +his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and +songs were composed in his praise.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> From thenceforth +he was a person of distinction. Finally his +statue was set up in the <i>altis</i> or sacred grove of +Olympia. There were at one time as many as three +thousand such statues in the place.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See, for \ +instance, Pindar's <i>Olympic Odes</i>. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the +sculptor had greater freedom than in statues of the +gods. The latter must be represented in dignified +attitudes of repose, but the former would naturally +be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. +It is so with the statue in our illustration called the +Discobolus or Disk-thrower.</p> + +<p>The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old +that there were Greek legends of famous games +played by the gods and heroes. Apollo sometimes +tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, +or disk, was a heavy round plate of metal, bronze or +iron, about eight inches in diameter, grasped in one +hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and +then sent flying through the air. A modern authority +explains that it was thrown not as the quoit is to-day, +with arm and shoulder only, but by bringing +into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the +body. "Immediately preceding the actual hurling +of the discus, therefore, there had to be a general +storing up and compression of energy which, when +suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. +The principle is simply that of the spring +which, when compressed, shoots out from the centre. +The greater the contortion of the body, the more +each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, +the greater will be the impetus when this compression +is suddenly set free."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>Waldstein, +in <i>Essays on the Art of Pheidias</i>, page 49. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 131px;"> +<a href="images/illus13.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb13.jpg" width="131" height="200" alt="THE DISCOBOLUS +(THE DISK-THROWER) -- Lancelotti Palace, Rome -- John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) -- Lancelotti +Palace, Rome -- John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<p>Our statue shows the disk-thrower at the moment +immediately preceding the throw. As described by +the ancient writer Lucian, "he is bent down into +the position for the throw, turning towards the hand +that holds the disk, and all but bending on one +knee, he seems as if he would straighten himself up +at the throw."</p> + +<p>The modern critic whom we have already quoted +shows that when we view the statue from the front, +"all the lines of the modelling indicate the tension +of the sinews towards the contracted centre of the +body, and the legs, neck, and shoulders tend towards +the same point." When we walk around the +statue, all the lines in the back and sides "seem to +lead towards that central point like the spiral contraction +of a spring." It is by thus suggesting the +concentration of energy on the part of the Discobolus +that the figure appears so full of life and +action.</p> + +<p>By the choice of this posture the artist was enabled +to model his figure on magnificent sculpturesque +lines. One long fine curve sweeps along the right +arm, is continued down the left arm, and is carried +to completion in the left leg and foot. The counter +curve starts under the right shoulder, and sweeps +down the right side and leg.</p> + +<p>The original statue of the Discobolus was executed +in bronze, and our reproduction is from one of several +ancient copies in marble. In some of these the original +head of the statue has been replaced by another, +but the copy we see here has a fine, vigorous head. +The English critic, Walter Pater,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> describes the face +"as smooth but spare, and tightly drawn over muscle +and bone." He shows too how sympathetic the face +is with the whole intention of the statue, "as the +source of will."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> In the chapter +on Athletic Prizemen, in <i>Greek Studies</i>.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This opinion +is the more interesting because the face of the Discobolus is commonly +criticised for "absence of emotional expression." See Furtwngler's <i>Masterpieces +of Greek Sculpture</i>, p. 173.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>The sculptor of the Discobolus was Myron, who +lived in the period between the Persian War and the +middle of the fifth century. His work shows his +fondness for movement, though many of his subjects +did not permit him to indulge his taste. He +made a specialty of figures of athletes, both commemorative +portrait statues and typical figures. We +do not know whether this statue represents an actual +Olympic victor, or is a typical figure, like the Apoxyomenos. +In any case it gives an excellent idea +of the great influence exercised upon Greek life by +the athletic games.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h2> + +<h2>THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO)</h2> + +<p>By Greek tradition the fairest of the goddesses +was Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. To +her every lover paid his vows and every maiden +prayed for charms. An old legend relates that she +was born from the foam of the sea, hence the name +Aphrodite, which means "foam-born." Among the +Romans she was called Venus. At her birth the +island of Cyprus received her.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Where the force<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of gentle-breathing Zephyr steer'd her course<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Along the waves of the resounding sea,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">While yet unborn in that soft foam she lay<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That brought her forth."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Here she emerged "a goddess in the charms of +awful beauty." The Hours welcomed her eagerly, +taking her in their arms and putting a crown of gold +upon her head. As she went on her way, flowers +grew in her path,—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Where her delicate feet<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering +sprang."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> An account +of the birth of Aphrodite is given in Hesiod's <i>Theogony</i> and in +the Homeric <i>Hymn to Venus</i>, and the quotations here are drawn from +both sources.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> + +<p>As we have already seen, there were among the +Greek divinities two other goddesses besides Aphrodite +specially famed for their beauty,—Athena and +Hera. Tradition tells how the beauty of the three +was tested. An apple was thrown into their midst +inscribed "For the fairest," and a contention at once +arose as to the rightful owner. Paris, the prince of +Troy, being chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Aphrodite, +who promised him for a wife the fairest woman +in Greece, that is, Helen.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> This was the real +cause of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks sought +to recover their stolen princess. Aphrodite being at +the bottom of the trouble remained through the war +on the Trojan side.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See Tennyson's +poem, <i>Oenone</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Oddly enough the beautiful goddess was mated +to the ugliest of the gods, the lame blacksmith Hephstus +(or Vulcan). At his forge were made those +fateful arrows of the little god Eros (or Cupid), the +mother standing by to tip their points with honey.</p> + +<p>The power of love in human life made the ideal +of Aphrodite very dear to the hearts of the Greeks. +All that is most tender and sacred in this human relation +was personified in her. As love ennobles the +life and makes it unselfish, so, they reasoned, must +Aphrodite be a grand and noble being. Again, as +love glorifies the life, and brings joy into its commonest +details, she must also be beautiful and laughter-loving. +In short, one cannot think of any quality +of love which was not reflected in the person +of the glorious goddess. Temples were built in her +honor, and she was worshiped in festivals and sacrificial +rites. Statues of her were set up in many +places, and one of the most famous which has come +down to us is reproduced in our illustration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 123px;"> +<a href="images/illus14.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb14.jpg" width="123" height="200" alt="THE APHRODITE +OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO) -- The Louvre, Paris -- Neurdein Frres, +Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO) -- The +Louvre, Paris -- Neurdein Frres, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> + +<p>We have now learned by repeated instances that +the Greeks had such definite ideas of their deities +that their statues were as readily recognized as if +they represented actual persons. The sculptors followed +types accepted by tradition as the best embodiment +of the characters they stood for. So especially +with Zeus, Athena, and Hera, and so again with +Aphrodite. She must be supremely fair, with a +beauty less austere than that of the maiden Athena, +less regal than that of Hera, and more fascinating +than either.</p> + +<p>We see then at once that the beautiful figure of our +illustration must be Aphrodite, or Venus. In looking +at her we think, not of wisdom, or force, or power, +but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight +of her body on one foot, and advancing the other +with knee bent. The posture causes the figure to +sway slightly to one side, describing a fine curved +line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper +part of the body is uncovered, and in some mysterious +way the sculptor has imparted to the marble a +seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as +exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted +hair is drawn back in rippling waves over the low +forehead.</p> + +<p>The eyes are not very wide open, having something +of a dreamy languor. "Melting eyes" are indeed +characteristic of Venus, and an analytical critic has +explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> + +a "slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower +eyelid." The nose is perfectly cut, the mouth and +chin are moulded in adorable curves. Yet to say +that every feature is of faultless perfection is but +cold praise. No analysis can convey the sense of +her peerless beauty.</p> + +<p>The statue originally stood on the Greek island of +Melos, where it was discovered in 1820 in this broken +state. Many wise heads have been puzzled to know +the position of the missing arms. Some have thought +that the goddess carried a shield, and others have +fancied her holding the traditional apple. There +have also been many discussions as to the date of the +work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth +century <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, the goddess would have been fully +draped; if in the fourth century, entirely without +drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of +these periods, and combined the characteristics of +both. It is a fault on his part to have placed the +drapery in an impossible position, whence in actual +life it would immediately fall of its own weight. +Yet we do not think of such criticisms when we see +it. The beautiful body rising above the drapery reminds +us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from +the sea foam. Her beauty is a union of strength +and sweetness, a perfect embodiment of a nature at +harmony with itself and its surroundings.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h2> + +<h2>ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE</h2> + +<p>There was once a man named Orpheus, who lived +in the land of Thrace. It was said that his father +was Apollo, and his mother the muse Calliope; so it +is not strange that he was both poet and musician. +So enchanting was the music of his lyre that wild +animals came forth from their haunts to hear him. +Even trees and rocks seemed to feel the magic influence +of the strain.</p> + +<p>He had a beautiful wife named Eurydice, whom he +loved dearly, and they were happy together till a sad +accident separated them. She was bitten one day +by a poisonous serpent, and died from the effects of +the wound. There was no more happiness on earth +for Orpheus, and he determined to seek Eurydice in +the underworld of the dead.</p> + +<p>Now the gates of the lower regions were guarded +by a three-headed dog named Cerberus, but even this +fierce beast was subdued by the entrancing music of +Orpheus, who</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Through the unsubstantial realm<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Populous with phantom ghosts of buried men,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Undaunted passed to where Persephone<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Sits by the monarch of that cheerless folk<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of shadows throned—and struck his lyre, and sang."<br /></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></div></div> + +<p>Pouring forth the mournful tale of his lost love, +he appealed to the gods to give him back Eurydice. +So eloquent was his plea that all who listened were +"moved to weeping." Then for the first time the +iron cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, and</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Of the nether realm<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nor King nor Queen had heart to say him nay."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Eurydice was brought forth and restored to her +husband, but a single condition was laid upon Orpheus +in leading her out. Until they had regained +the earth he was not to look backward, or the boon +would be forfeited. The Latin poet Ovid tells how +the two fared forth together from the underworld, +and how Orpheus failed in the conditions of the +agreement.</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i6">"Through the silent realm<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Upward against the steep and fronting hill<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Dark with obscurest gloom, the way he led:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And now the upper air was all but won,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When fearful lest the toil o'ertask her strength<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And yearning to behold the form he loved,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">An instant back he looked,—and back the shade<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That instant fled....<br /></span> +<span class="i0">...One last<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And sad 'Farewell,' scarce audible, she sighed,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And vanished to the ghosts that late she left."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> From the +Metamorphoses, Book x, in Henry King's translation, from which also the +other quotations are drawn. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;"> +<a href="images/illus15.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb15.jpg" width="175" height="200" alt="ORPHEUS AND +EURYDICE -- Albani Villa, Rome -- D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE -- Albam Villa, Rome -- D. +Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<p>Our bas-relief represents a scene of parting between +Orpheus and Eurydice, and we may take it, as we +please, to refer to their first or to their last farewell. +It seems, however, to apply more appropriately +to the first departure of Eurydice to the unknown +land. She lays her hand fondly upon her husband's +shoulder, and he touches it gently as if to detain +her.</p> + +<p>The figure on the other side is the messenger god +Hermes, whose mission is to conduct departing spirits +to the other world.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> He has come for Eurydice, +and he takes her by the hand to draw her away. +For a moment husband and wife gaze into each +other's eyes with love and sorrow, while the messenger +waits with exquisite courtesy.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_61">page 61</a>.</p></div> + +<p>Though the Greeks had many tales of sorrow in +their poetry and mythology, they did not often illustrate +them in their art. The subjects of their sculpture +are nearly always happy ones. Even here, you +see, grief is made so beautiful and dignified that we +forget to feel sad about the parting. We think most +of the love and devotion between Orpheus and Eurydice.</p> + +<p>The simple story of the bas-relief touches us more +readily perhaps than the grand statues of the gods. +People like in art something which corresponds to +the common human lives of all.</p> + +<p>The garment worn by Eurydice seems quite like +that of the goddess Demeter. The drapery is very +full in front, falling in long straight folds. At the +side it is scantier and shows the motion of the figure +in walking. The short tunic worn by the other figures +is a picturesque costume, and the mantle swinging +over one shoulder is very graceful. When one +contrasts with these classical draperies the stiff dress +of modern times, one wonders that the sculptor of +to-day does not throw down his chisel in despair.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> + +<p>The style of the draperies often enables a critic to +decide in what period a work of art was produced. +In the best art the folds are always simple: it is a +sure sign of declining art when the folds are complicated +and broken. Here we see the few simple, +severe lines which mark the purest classical taste.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV</h2> + +<h2>NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY)</h2> + +<p>Upon the death of Alexander the Great there was +much disputing among his generals as to what +should become of the various provinces of his empire, +including Greece. It was finally decided that the +Greek cities should be left free. A general named +Ptolemy soon broke this agreement and entered +Greece, whereupon another named Antigonus +promptly proceeded to punish him. Antigonus had +a son Demetrius, who was a skilful engineer, and +was called Poliorcetes, "besieger of cities," for his +success in raising sieges. He was sent to Athens +with a fleet of two hundred and fifty ships, and won +the gratitude of the city for delivering it from the +hands of Ptolemy. Demetrius next turned his +attention to the island of Cyprus, of which Ptolemy +was in possession. The rival forces met off Salamis, +306 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span>, in a fierce sea fight, and Demetrius was +victorious.</p> + +<p>Now the Greeks were fond of commemorating +notable events by the erection of statues, and it was +an old custom among them to set up a statue of +victory in honor of any success of arms on land or +sea. We have seen how natural it was for them +to attribute the affairs of life to the agency of the + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> + +deities. So in war, greatly as they praised their +armies and their generals, it was to Nike, the goddess +of victory, that they gave the chief credit of success. +This goddess was conceived as a winged being attendant +upon both Zeus and Athena, who, as we +have seen, controlled the destinies of war.</p> + +<p>To Nike then, this winged goddess of victory, +was due the wonderful success of Demetrius over +Ptolemy's fleet before Salamis, and it was fitting +that her statue should commemorate the event. +The spot chosen for it was the island of Samothrace, +which stands so high above water level that it is +very conspicuous in the northern Greek archipelago.</p> + +<p>The goddess was represented standing on the +prow of a vessel as if leading the fleet to success. +It may be that the old Greek idea of a goddess at +the prow was the origin of the "figure head" for +so many years carried by every ship that sailed the +seas. The vessels in those old days were called +<i>triremes</i>, being propelled by rowers who sat at their +oars in three <i>tiers</i>, or banks, which gave the name +to the craft. The goddess stood in the middle of +what was called the <i>ikrion proras</i>, which would correspond +to the forecastle deck. In her right hand +she held a trumpet to her lips, and in her left she +carried a crosstree, the framework of a trophy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 125px;"> +<a href="images/illus16.jpg"> +<img src="images/thumb16.jpg" width="125" height="200" alt="NIKE (THE +WINGED VICTORY) -- The Louvre, Paris -- Neurdein Frres, Photo. John +Andrew & Son, Sc." title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) -- The Louvre, Paris -- +Neurdein Frres, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> + +<p>The figure is in an erect poise with the chest held +high. You will notice that a walker making his +way against the wind bends the body forward to +resist its force, while one who is borne along on +some vehicle in the face of the wind steadies himself +upright. So with Nike; the attitude expresses the +sense of exhilaration from the rush of wind in the +face of one borne along on a moving vessel. The +breeze beats the thin drapery back upon her, outlining +the beautiful curves of bust and limb, and +fluttering behind her in the air. The broad pinions +which would retard the ship's motion if spread open +are folded to cut the air like the prow.</p> + +<p>When the statue was set up and the colossal figure +in white marble was seen against the blue sky +of a southern land, what an inspiration it must have +been as a symbol of success! What discouraged +heart could look at such a figure and not be thrilled +with new ambition! The statue of Nike was not +the only tribute to the victory of Demetrius. Some +special coins were struck in honor of the event, including +gold staters and silver tetradrachms, specimens +of which still exist. The design on the obverse +of these coins represented the statue of Nike.</p> + +<p>Years passed, and at length the independence of +the Greeks was crushed under the heel of the Roman +conqueror. Many places were laid waste throughout +the peninsula and the Greek islands. Temples +were destroyed and pillaged, and statues were thrown +from their pedestals and buried beneath the soil and +dbris. Our statue of Nike shared the sad fate +which befell so many other great works of art. For +centuries it lay in fragments in the ruins surrounding +a temple in Samothrace. Then came the explorer +with pickaxe and shovel, some of the precious +bits were recovered, and learned men set to work to + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> + +put them together again. The coins of Demetrius +were their guide, and the tiny figure of Nike engraved +thereon was the model after which the great +statue was reconstructed.</p> + +<p>The head and arms are still missing, and a fanciful +conceit might suggest that these losses were the +marks of a hard-fought battle. Success has been +dearly bought, but the goddess emerges, erect and +undaunted, her tattered wings beating the air victoriously. +As we look at the statue we think less of +what it lacks than of what it is. Perhaps if head +and arms were there we should not have eyes for the +glorious lines in the figure itself. One particularly +fine line is the continuous curve running across the +bust and the arched top of the wings.</p> + +<p>The figure gives us a sense of motion which fairly +quickens the blood in our veins. We, too, seem to +feel the strong salt breeze in our faces, speeding +through the air with courage high, and hope steadily +set toward victory.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI</h2> + +<h2>PERICLES</h2> + +<p>In the history of ancient Greece the half century +included between the years 480 and 430 <span class="smcap">B. C.</span> +is called the Age of Pericles. During forty years +of this period Pericles was the political leader of +Athens. Under his guidance the city reached the +height of her power as the capital of an empire composed +of tributary states. Nor was political power +the chief glory of Athens at this time. She was the +centre of arts and science for the whole world. This +was the age of great Greek literature, when schylus, +Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their immortal +dramas. It was also the age of great oratory, when +the Athenians constantly heard "the purest lessons +of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of eloquence." +Finally, it was the age of great art, when +architecture and sculpture attained perfection and +when Phidias, the foremost Greek sculptor, produced +his masterpieces.</p> + +<p>Pericles was the dominating spirit in all this brilliant +company. It was his able statesmanship which +made and executed the ambitious plans for the +aggrandizement of the city. It was, moreover, his +generalship which carried out successfully so many +military expeditions. His eloquence gave him great + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> + +influence over the people. He had the art of controlling +men and moving their passions as a musician +plays on the strings of his instrument. Upon his +return from the Samian war he delivered a remarkable +funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. +Still again, his oration in honor of the heroes +of the Peloponnesian war was a noble eulogy of +Athens and the Athenians.</p> + +<p>The part of Pericles' career which interests us +most in our study of Greek art is his zeal in beautifying +Athens with works of architecture and sculpture. +He covered the Acropolis, as the great hill in +Athens was called, with beautiful buildings richly +adorned with sculpture. He appointed Phidias superintendent +of all the public edifices, and employed +the most skilled workmen. Besides many temples, +a theatre for music, called an <i>odeum</i>, was built, and +Pericles introduced into the Panathenaic festival a +contest in music held in this place. In addition to +the public buildings erected, Pericles caused a long +wall to be built to surround the city with fortifications.</p> + +<p>It may be supposed that all these improvements +cost a great deal of money, and there were not lacking +men who criticised Pericles for extravagance +in the use of public funds. In an assembly of the +people, the great statesman called upon them to say +if they thought he had spent too much. "Yes," +came the answer. "Then," said he, "be it charged +to my account, not yours, only let the edifices be +inscribed with my name, not that of the people of + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> + +Athens." At this they cried out that he might +spend all he pleased of the public funds, and the +criticism was silenced. The story shows the quick +wit of the orator, as well as his knowledge of human +nature. He knew he was safe in appealing to the +pride of the people in their city.</p> + +<p>At the close of his long career Pericles was seized +with the plague, and lay sick unto death. As his +friends gathered about his death-bed they recounted +his great deeds and many victories. Suddenly he +interrupted them by exclaiming that they were praising +only those qualities in which he was no greater +than other men. In his own estimate, the most +honorable trait of his character was that "no Athenian +through his means had ever put on mourning."</p> + +<p>Pericles was in fact a true patriot and a benefactor +of his people. In the administration of public +affairs he showed an upright and honorable character. +Though all his life handling the public funds +and increasing the wealth of the state, it is said that +he added not one drachma to his own estate. He +managed his private fortune with great prudence +and dispensed many charities to the needy. His +manners were calm and moderate, and he never +gave way to envy or anger. His biographer, Plutarch, +has written of him that "where severity was +required, no man was ever more moderate, or if +mildness was necessary, no man better kept up his +dignity than Pericles."</p> + +<p>Pericles was a man of fine and striking presence, + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> + +with a countenance cast in the mould we have come +to know as the typical Greek. His head was somewhat +abnormally long, and the nickname "onion +head" was given him on this account. Plutarch +says that this peculiarity accounts for the fact that +he was always represented in portraits as wearing a +helmet.</p> + +<p>We have reason to believe that the bust reproduced +in our frontispiece was made soon after his +successful war against Samos. It represents him +then in the fullness of his manhood and at the height +of his success and popularity. The handsome face +is full of refinement and shows the calm, equable +temperament which made him a leader. His qualities +of statesmanship strike us most forcibly in the +portrait. We should hardly suspect that this was a +great military commander. Yet that here is a master +of men, we can easily believe. One can imagine +him standing before a great multitude, moving them +with the power of his eloquence.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PRONOUNCING_VOCABULARY" id="PRONOUNCING_VOCABULARY"></a>PRONOUNCING +VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS</h2> + +<p>The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of +Webster's International Dictionary.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> + +<p>EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS.</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Dash () above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in fāte, ēve, tīme, nōte, ūse.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Dash and a Dot (ǡ) above the vowel denote the same sound, less prolonged.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Curve (˘) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in ădd, ĕnd, ĭll, ŏdd, ŭp.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Dot () above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in pȧst, ȧbāte, Amĕricȧ.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Double Dot () above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a in fther, lms.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Double Dot () below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in ba̤ll.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in hẽr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o in brn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A dot (.) below the vowel u denotes the sound of u in the French language.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">N indicates that the preceding vowel has the French nasal tone.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"> sounds like <b>s</b>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">c̵ sounds like <b>k</b></span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">s̱ sounds like <b>z</b>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">g̅ is hard as in g̅et.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ġ is soft as in ġem.</span><br /><br /> +</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Achaian (ȧ-kāyȧn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Achilles (ȧ-kĭllēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Acropolis (ȧ-krŏpō̇-lĭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Admetus (ăd-mētŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">gis (ējĭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">schylus (ĕskĭ-lŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agoracritus (ăg-ō̇-răkrĭ-tŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Agrippa (ȧ-grĭpȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Albani (l-bnē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alcamenes (ăl-kămĕ-nēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ltĭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Antigone (ăn-tĭg̅ō-nē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Antigonus (ăn-tĭg̅ō-nŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Antium (ănshĭ-ŭm).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aphrodite (ăf-rō̇-dītē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apollo (ȧ-pŏlō).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apoxyomenos (ă-pŏx-ĭ-ŏmē̇-nŏs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ares (ārēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Argicide (rjĭ-sīd).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Argonauts (rg̅ō-na̤tz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">rg̅ŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aristophanes (ăr-ĭs-tŏfȧ-nēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Athena (ă-thēnȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Athens (ăthĕnz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bacchus (băkŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Belvedere (bĕl-vē̇-dēr).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bernini (bĕr-nēnē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brunn (brŏŏn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">caduceus (kȧ-dūsē̇-ŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Călȧmĭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Căllīōpē.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Centaur (sĕnta̤r).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cerberus (sẽrbē̇-rŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ceres (sērēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chiron (kīrŏn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Collignon (kŏl-lē̇n-yN).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crĕsĭlȧs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyprus (sīprŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Delphi (dĕlfī).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dĕmētẽr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dĕmētrĭŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dīō̇mĕd.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dĭscŏbō̇lŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dĭskŏs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dŏntĕllō.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elgin (ĕlg̅ĭn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eros (ērŏs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Euphranor (ū-frānr).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Euripides (ū-rĭpĭ-dēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eurydice (ū-rĭdī-sē̇).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Furtwngler (fōōrtvǡng-lẽr).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gălȧhăd.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giustiniana (jŏŏs-tē-nē-n).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">glaukopis (gla̤-kōpĭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gorgon (g̅rg̅ŏn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hĕcǡtē.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hĕllĕnĭstĭc.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hephstus (hē̇-fĕstŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hēr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Herum (hē̇-rēŭm).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hĕrcūlēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">herm (hẽrmē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hẽrmēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hēsĭŏd.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ĭkrĭŏn prōrs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Iliad (ĭlĭ-ȧd).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Io (īō).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ithaca (ĭthȧ-kȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jāsŏn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jūnō.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jūpĭtẽr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lancelotti (ln-chǡ-lŏtē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lătẽrȧn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leochares (lē̇-ŏkȧ-rēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Louvre (lōōvr).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lucian (lūshĭ-ȧn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ludovisi (lōō-dō-vēzē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lutatius Catulus (lū-tāshĭ-ŭs kătū-lŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lȳcrgŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lȳsĭppŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mrs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mĕdĭc.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mēlŏs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mẽrcūry̆.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mĕtȧmŏrphōsēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mĕtōpēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mīlō.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mĭnẽrvȧ.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mȳrŏn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nĕmĕsĭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nīkē.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nȳsȧ.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ōdēŭm.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Odyssey (ŏdĭ-sĭ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Œdipus Coloneus (ĕdĭ-pŭs kō-lō-nē-ŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Œdipus Tyrannus (ĕdĭ-pŭs tĭ-răn-ŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Œnone (ē-nōnē̇).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Olympia (ō-lĭmpĭ-ȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Olympiad (ō-lĭmpĭ-ăd).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Olympic (ō-lĭmpĭk).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Olympus (ō-lĭmpŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Orpheus (rfūs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Otricoli (ō-trēkō-lē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ovid (ŏvĭd).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">palstra (pȧ-lĕstrȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Păllȧs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Panathena (păn-ăth-ē̇-nēȧ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pănăthē̇nāĭc.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prnăssŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prthē̇nŏn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pātẽr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pǡtrōclŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peloponnesian (pĕl-ō̇-pŏn-nēshȧn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pē̇nĕlōpē̇.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pĕntĕlĭc.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pĕplŏs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pĕrĭclēs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Persephone (pẽr-sĕfō-nē).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perseus (pẽrsūs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Phidias (fĭdĭ-ȧs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Phœbus (fēbŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Phrynicus (frĭnĭ-kŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pĭndȧr.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">plĕctrŭm.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Plĭny̆.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Plutarch (plūtrk).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Plūtō.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pŏlĭclȳtŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pŏlĭrētēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prăxĭtĕlēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ptolemy (tŏlĕ-mĭ).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Py̆thĭȧ.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pȳthŏn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Reber, von (fŏn rābẽr).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sălȧmĭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sāmĭȧn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sāmŏs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Samothrace (sămō̇-thrās).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scōpȧs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scyros (sīrŏs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sŏphōclēs̱.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">strigil (strĭjĭl).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sty̆x.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Symonds (sĭmŭndz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Telemachus (tē̇-lĕmȧ-kŭs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Terracina (tĕr-r-chēn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thēŏg̅ōny̆.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Theseus (thēsūs).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thrace (thrās).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trastevere (trs-tā-vārā).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">trireme (trīrēm).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trōjȧn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ulysses (ū-ly̆ssēz).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vatican (vătĭ-kȧn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vēnŭs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vŭlcȧn.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Waldstein (wa̤ldstīn).</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Zeus (zūs).</span><br /> +</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. 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index 0000000..d43ecd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-h/images/thumb14.jpg diff --git a/34842-h/images/thumb15.jpg b/34842-h/images/thumb15.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc58555 --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-h/images/thumb15.jpg diff --git a/34842-h/images/thumb16.jpg b/34842-h/images/thumb16.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5bc14ce --- /dev/null +++ b/34842-h/images/thumb16.jpg diff --git a/34842.txt b/34842.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e170f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/34842.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2872 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. Hurll + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Greek Sculpture + A collection of sixteen pictures of Greek marbles with + introduction and interpretation + +Author: Estelle M. Hurll + +Release Date: January 3, 2011 [EBook #34842] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREEK SCULPTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Martin Mayer and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + +[**Transcriber's notes: + italics represented by underscores e.g. _italics_ + bold represented by $ e.g. $bold$ + ligatures by [OE] e.g. [OE]dipus + + Letters with Diacritical Marks are rendered according to + the following table: + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + diacritical mark | sample | above | below + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + macron (straight line) | _ | [=x] | [x=] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + 2 dots (dieresis, umlaut) | | [:x] | [x:] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + 1 dot | . | [.x] | [x.] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + grave accent | ` | [`x] | [x`] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + acute accent (aigu) | ' | ['x] | [x'] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + circumflex | ^ | [^x] | [x^] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + caron (v-shaped symbol) | v | [vx] | [xv] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + breve (u-shaped symbol) | u | [)x] | [x)] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + tilde | ~ | [~x] | [x~] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + cedilla | , | [,x] | [x,] + -----------------------------------+-----------+---------+---------- + The city of Terracina was mispelled Terracino in paragraph 9, + section 3 of the Introduction + end of transcriber's notes**] + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +PERICLES + +_British Museum, London_] + + + + + + The Riverside Art Series + + + GREEK SCULPTURE + + A COLLECTION OF SIXTEEN PICTURES + OF GREEK MARBLES + WITH INTRODUCTION AND + INTERPRETATION + + BY + + ESTELLE M. HURLL + + [Illustration] + + BOSTON AND NEW YORK + HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY + The Riverside Press Cambridge + + +COPYRIGHT 1901, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + + + +PREFACE + + +Within the limits of this small collection of pictures an attempt is +made to bring together as great a variety of subjects as possible. +Portraiture is illustrated in the statue of Sophocles and the bust of +Pericles, _genre_ studies in the Apoxyomenos and Discobolus, bas-relief +work in the panel from the Parthenon frieze and the Orpheus and +Eurydice, and ideal heads and statues in the representations of the +divinities. Both the Greek treatment of the nude and the Greek +management of drapery have due attention. + +As classic literature is the best interpreter of Greek sculpture, the +text draws freely from such original sources as the Iliad and the +Odyssey, the Homeric hymns, and Ovid's Metamorphoses. + + ESTELLE M. HURLL. + + NEW BEDFORD, MASS. + January, 1901. + + + + +CONTENTS AND LIST OF PICTURES + + + PERICLES (_Frontispiece_) + From original in British Museum + + INTRODUCTION + I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE vii + II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE x + III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED + IN THIS COLLECTION xi + + I. BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI 1 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + II. ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) 7 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + III. HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE 13 + Picture from Photograph by the London Stereoscopic + Co. + + IV. BUST OF HERA (JUNO) 19 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + V. THE APOXYOMENOS 25 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VI. HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE 31 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VII. DEMETER (CERES) 37 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + VIII. THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES 43 + Picture from Photograph by Fratelli Alinari + + IX. SOPHOCLES 49 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + X. ARES SEATED 55 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XI. HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES 61 + Picture from Photograph by the English Photographic + Co., Athens + + XII. THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) 67 + Picture from Photograph loaned by Edward Robinson, + from the only negative known to exist + + XIII. THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) 73 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Fr[`e]res + + XIV. ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE 79 + Picture from Photograph by D. Anderson + + XV. NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) 85 + Picture from Photograph by Neurdein Fr[`e]res + + XVI. PERICLES (See Frontispiece) 91 + + PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND + FOREIGN WORDS 95 + +_Nine of the above illustrations are from photographs in the collection +of the William Hayes Fogg Art Museum of Harvard University_ + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ON SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK SCULPTURE. + +The history of Greek sculpture covers a period of some eight or nine +hundred years, and falls into five divisions.[1] The first is the period +of development, extending from 600 to 480 B. C. The second is the period +of greatest achievement, under Phidias and his followers, in the Age of +Pericles, 480-430 B. C. The third is the period of Praxiteles and +Scopas, in the fourth century. The fourth is the period of decline, +characterized as the Hellenistic Age, and included between the years 320 +and 100 B. C. The fifth is the Gr[ae]co-Roman period, which includes the +work produced to meet the demand of the Roman market for Greek +sculpture, and which extends to 300 A. D. + +[1] See Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, page 42. + +Modern criticism differentiates sharply the characteristics of the +several periods and even of the individual artists, but such subtleties +are beyond the grasp of the unlearned. The majority of people continue +to regard Greek sculpture in its entirety, as if it were the homogeneous +product of a single age. To the popular imagination it is as if some +gigantic machine turned out the Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, the +Elgin Marbles, and all the rest, in a single day. Nor is it long ago +since even eminent writers had but vague ideas as to the distinctive +periods of these very works. Certain it is that all works of Greek +sculpture have a particular character which marks them as such. +Authorities have taught us to distinguish some few of their leading +characteristics. + +The most striking characteristic of Greek art is perhaps its closeness +to nature. The sculptor showed an intimate knowledge of the human form, +acquired by constant observation of the splendid specimens of manhood +produced in the pal[ae]stra. It is because the artist "clung to nature as a +kind mother," says Waldstein, that the influence of his work persists +through the ages. + +Again, Greek art is distinctly an art of generalization, dealing with +types rather than with individuals. This characteristic is of varying +degrees in different periods and with different sculptors. It is seen in +its perfection in the Elgin Marbles, in exaggeration in the Apollo +Belvedere, and at the minimum in the work of Praxiteles. Yet it is +everywhere sufficiently marked to be indissolubly connected with Greek +sculpture. + +The quality of repose, so constantly associated with Greek sculpture, is +another characteristic which varies with the period and the individual +sculptor. Between the calm dignity of the portrait statue of Sophocles +and the intense muscular concentration of Myron's Discobolus, a long +range of degrees may be included. Yet on the whole, repose is an +essential characteristic of the best Greek sculpture, provided we do not +let our notion of repose exclude the spirited element. Fine as is the +effect of repose in the Parthenon frieze, the composition is likewise +full of spirit and life. + +A distinguishing characteristic of the best Greek sculpture is its +simplicity. Compared with the Gothic sculptors, the Greeks appear to us, +in Ruskin's phrase, as the "masters of all that was grand, simple, wise +and tenderly human, opposed to the pettiness of the toys of the rest of +mankind." Their work is free from that "vain and mean decoration"--the +"weak and monstrous error"--which disfigures the art of other peoples. + +As we turn from one Greek marble to another in the great sculpture +galleries of the world, the best features of the art impress themselves +deeply even upon the untutored eye. The Greek instinct for pose is +unfailing and unsurpassable. Standing or seated, the attitude is always +graceful, the lines are always fine. The best statues are equally well +composed, viewed from any standpoint. The camera may describe a +circumference about a marble as a centre, and a photograph made at any +point in the circle will show lines of rhythm and beauty. + +The faultless regularity of the Greek profile has passed into history as +the accepted standard of human beauty. The straight continuous line of +brow and nose, the well moulded chin, the full lip, the small ear, +satisfy perfectly our [ae]sthetic ideals. + +The art of sculpture was an essential outgrowth of the Greek spirit, and +perfectly suited the requirements of Greek thought. In the words of a +recent writer, "it was the consummate expression in art of the genius of +a nation which worshiped physical perfection as the gift of the +immortals, which honored the gods by athletic games and choral dances, +and whose deities wore the flesh and shared the nature of men."[2] It +was moreover a national art, entering into every phase of public life, +and embodying the Greek sense of national greatness. + +[2] From _Italian Cities_, by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield. + +Greek sculpture can be sympathetically understood only by catching +something of the spirit which produced it. One must shake off the +centuries and regard life with the childlike simplicity of the young +world: one must give imagination free rein. The same attitude of mind +which can enjoy Greek mythology and Greek literature is the proper +attitude for the enjoyment of Greek sculpture. The best interpreter of a +nation's art is the nation's poetry. + + +II. ON BOOKS OF REFERENCE. + +Many learned works on the subject of Greek Sculpture have been written +in various languages. Three standard authorities are the English work by +A. S. Murray, "History of Greek Sculpture," second edition, London, +1890; the French work by Collignon, "Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque," +Paris, 1892; and the German work by Furtw[:a]ngler, translated into English +by E. Sellers, "The Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture," London, 1895. +Naturally these three writers are not always of one opinion, and the +student must turn from one to another to learn all the arguments +concerning a disputed point. + +For the practical every-day use of the reader who has no time to sift +the evidences on difficult questions of arch[ae]ology, Gardner's "Handbook +of Greek Sculpture" is an excellent outline summary of the history of +the subject. + +Charles Waldstein's "Essays on the Art of Pheidias," New York, 1885, is +an exceedingly valuable and suggestive volume. + +Two small books, written in a somewhat popular vein, make very pleasant +reading for those pursuing these studies: "Studies in Greek Art," by J. +E. Harrison, London, 1885, and "Greek Art on Greek Soil," by J. M. +Hoppin, Boston, 1897. + +Besides the works devoted exclusively to the subject of Greek sculpture, +the subject receives due attention in various general histories of art, +of which may be mentioned, Lucy Mitchell's "History of Ancient +Sculpture," L[:u]bke's "History of Sculpture," and Von Reber's "History of +Ancient Art." + +A valuable bibliography is given in Gardner's "Handbook." + + +III. HISTORICAL DIRECTORY OF THE MARBLES REPRODUCED IN THIS COLLECTION. + +_Frontispiece._ Terminal bust of Pericles, after an original by +Cresilas. Approximate date, 440-430 B. C. In the British Museum, London. + +1. _Bust of Zeus Otricoli._ Considered by Brunn and others a copy from a +head of the statue by Phidias. Later critics do not agree with this +opinion, and Furtw[:a]ngler calls the head a Praxitelean development of the +type of Zeus created in the time of Myron. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +2. _Athena Giustiniana_ (_Minerva Medica_). Considered by Furtw[:a]ngler a +copy, after Euphranor, of a statue dedicated below the Capitol, called +Minerva Catuliana, set up by A. Lutatius Catulus. The [ae]gis and sphinx +are copyist's additions. Found in the gardens of the convent of S. Maria +sopra Minerva, Rome. Both arms are restored. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +3. _Horsemen from the Parthenon Frieze._ The frieze of the Parthenon is +part of the decorative scheme of the marble temple of Athena, built +during the age of Pericles (480-430 B. C.) on the Acropolis, Athens, and +decorated under the direction of Phidias. The frieze consisted of a +series of panels or slabs, about 3 ft. 4 in. in height, and was set on +the outer wall of the cella. Being lighted from below, the lower portion +is cut in low relief (1-1/4 in.) and the upper parts in high relief +(2-1/4 in.). The panel of the Horsemen is one of the Elgin Marbles, +removed by Lord Elgin from the Parthenon in 1801-1802, and now in the +British Museum, London. + +4. _Bust of Hera._ Considered by Murray a copy after Polyclitus. +Regarded by Furtw[:a]ngler as a "Roman creation based on a Praxitelean +model." Catalogued in Hare's "Walks in Rome" as a probable copy after +Alcamenes. In the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +5. _The Apoxyomenos._. A marble copy of the original bronze statue by +Lysippus, who flourished in the 4th century B. C. According to Pliny the +original was brought from Greece to Rome by Agrippa to adorn the public +baths. This copy was found in 1849 in the Trastevere, Rome, and is now +in the Vatican Gallery. + +6. _Head of the Apollo Belvedere._ According to Gardner, a marble copy +(Roman) of a bronze original of the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). +Some (Winter and Furtw[:a]ngler) have assigned the original to Leochares, a +sculptor of the 4th century, and others to Calamis, in the 5th century. +This copy was found in the 16th century at Antium, and was purchased by +Pope Julius II. for the Belvedere Palace. Now in the Vatican Gallery, +Rome. + +7. _Demeter_ (_Ceres_) Considered by Furtw[:a]ngler a copy from an original +by Agoracritus, who was a pupil of Phidias, and whose works are closely +allied to those of Alcamenes. By the same authority the statue is called +the Nemesis. In the Vatican Gallery, Rome. + +8. _The Faun of Praxiteles._ A copy of the original statue by +Praxiteles, which was in the street of the Tripods, Athens. In the +Capitol Museum, Rome. + +9. _Sophocles._ Referred to by Collignon as a faithful copy of the +bronze statue raised by Lycurgus. Found at Terracina in 1838, and now in +the Lateran Museum, Rome. + +10. _Ares Seated._ Considered by Furtw[:a]ngler and others a copy on a +reduced scale of a colossal statue by Scopas. The little god Eros is the +copyist's addition. Found in the portico of Octavia, and restored by +Bernini. Now in the Ludovisi Villa, Rome. + +11. _Head of the Olympian Hermes._ An undisputed original work of +Praxiteles, dating from the middle of the 4th century B. C. It was in +the Her[ae]um (or Temple of Hera) at Olympia, and was discovered by German +excavators, May 8, 1877. Now in the museum at Olympia, Greece. + +12. _The Discobolus_, a copy from an original by Myron, one of the last +masters of the "severe style," whose career culminated 465-450 B. C. In +the Lancelotti Palace, Rome. + +13. _The Aphrodite of Melos (The Venus of Milo)._ Formerly attributed to +the period of transition between Phidias and Praxiteles, but assigned by +late critics to the Hellenistic Age (320-100 B. C.). Believed by +Furtw[:a]ngler to be based on a work by Scopas, with considerable +modification of the original. Found in 1820 on the island of Melos at +the entrance of the Greek Archipelago. Purchased by the French +government for 6000 francs, and now in the Louvre, Paris. + +14. _Orpheus and Eurydice._ One of several copies of an original +bas-relief referred by Collignon to the second half of 5th century B. C. +In the Albani Villa, Rome. + +15. _Nike (The Winged Victory)._ A marble statue believed to have been +set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes to celebrate a naval victory in 306 B. +C. Found in 1863 by the French consul on the island of Samothrace. Now +in the Louvre, Paris. + + + + +I + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + + +From the earliest times men have sought to explain in one way and +another the common facts of daily life. Sunrise and sunset, seedtime and +harvest, life, death, and the hereafter are some of the mysteries which +have always puzzled the human mind. The primitive races, knowing nothing +of science, looked upon the forces of nature as gigantic personalities, +or gods, who controlled human destiny. + +The most refined and imaginative of the ancient nations were the Greeks. +They invented innumerable tales or myths, in which all the changes of +nature and all the affairs of life were attributed to the workings of +the gods. When the sun rose, they said that Apollo had begun to drive +his chariot across the sky. When the wind blew, Zeus was sending his +messenger from the sky to the earth. When a man did a courageous deed, +it was because Athena had whispered to him what to do. + +In this way the beliefs gradually took form which made the Greek +religion. Great temples were built for the worship of the gods, and +statues were set up in their honor. The finest works of Greek art were +connected with religious worship. + +The gods were conceived as having the same form as human beings, but of +colossal size. They lived in an ideal country called Olympus, + + "Olympus, where the gods have made, + So saith tradition, their eternal seat. + The tempest shakes it not, nor is it drenched + By showers, and there the snow doth never fall. + The calm, clear ether is without a cloud, + And in the golden light that lies on all, + Day after day the blessed gods rejoice."[3] + +[3] Odyssey, Book vi., lines 54-60 in Bryant's translation. + +Here each god had a separate dwelling, and in the midst was the palace +of their supreme ruler, Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter or Jove. + +Zeus was the sky god, "the father of gods and men," and the ruler of +heaven and earth. He was the "cloud compeller" at whose will the clouds +gathered or scattered across the sky, the "ruler of the storms," the +"thunderer," by whom were hurled the ruddy lightnings. How far he +surpassed all other gods in power is explained in the Iliad in an +address made by Zeus himself to the gods:-- + + "Suspend from heaven + A golden chain; let all the immortal host + Cling to it from below: ye could not draw, + Strive as ye might, the all-disposing Jove + From heaven to earth. And yet if I should choose + To draw it upward to me, I should lift, + With it and you, the earth itself and sea + Together, and I then would bind the chain + Around the summit of the Olympian mount, + And they should hang aloft."[4] + +[4] Iliad, Book viii., lines 21-30 in Bryant's translation. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF ZEUS OTRICOLI + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the imagination of the Greeks Zeus was endowed with all the noblest +elements in human character. He ruled the affairs of men with fatherly +benevolence. He rewarded goodness, punished the wicked, and was withal +the fountain-head of justice. By a nod of his head he made known his +will, and there was no appeal from his decrees. + +Naturally, the Greeks pictured this god as a being of majestic stature +and grand, benignant countenance, and sculptors did their best to make +statues worthy of this conception. By common consent a certain type of +countenance was accepted as the most fitting expression of this ideal. +At last a great artist named Phidias produced a statue which perfectly +carried out all the ideas at which other sculptors had aimed. It was of +colossal size, made of gold and ivory, and was set up in a temple of +Olympia. From this time forth every sculptor who had to represent Zeus +had only to repeat the design of Phidias. + +Now we know that the farther an imitator gets from the original +standard, the weaker is his copy. The first successors of Phidias made +direct studies from his statue, but those coming after worked from +copies. Still later artists took for their models copies of these +copies, until at last much of the original grandeur of Phidias's +conception was lost. + +The bust of Zeus reproduced in our illustration is thought to be a +far-away copy of the head of Phidias's statue. From the marble of which +it is made we know that it was executed in Italy, probably by some Greek +sculptor who had come thither after his own nation had been conquered by +Rome. The marvel is that he preserved so well the noble dignity of the +ideal Zeus. This is the father of gods and men in his most benign +aspect. The massive head is crowned like that of a lion with long, +overhanging locks with which the flowing beard is mingled. These are the + + "Ambrosial curls + Upon the Sovereign One's immortal head," + +of which Homer writes in the Iliad. The symmetrical arrangement of hair +and beard carry out the character of perfect evenness belonging to the +supreme ruler. + +The forehead has the full bar of flesh which denotes virility. The brows +are straight, the nose finely modeled, the lips rather full, the +expression benignant. Altogether the impression is of a being of mental +and moral equipoise, full of energy and noble dignity. + + + + +II + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + + +Athena was the air goddess of the Greeks, or, in Ruskin's phrase, "the +queen of the air." She was known also by the name Pallas, and among the +Romans as Minerva. As the air comes to us from out the great dome of the +sky, so Athena was said to have sprung fully armed from the head of her +father Zeus. The old Homeric hymn tells how + + "Wonder strange possessed + The everlasting gods that shape to see, + Shaking a javelin keen, impetuously + Rush from the crest of [ae]gis-bearing Jove."[5] + +[5] In Shelley's translation. + +Her eyes were blue, the color of the sky; her hair hung in ringlets over +her shoulders. Her dress was + + "A gorgeous robe + Of many hues, which her own hands had wrought."[6] + +[6] Iliad, Book viii., lines 483, 484. + +When arrayed for war she wore a golden helmet and carried a shield, or +_[ae]gis_. In the centre of this shield was fastened the gorgon's head +which Perseus had cut off with her aid. In her hand she wielded a mighty +spear. + +The owl was her symbolic bird, and she was called _glaukopis_, or +owl-eyed, because her wisdom gave her sight in darkness. The serpent was +the emblem of her command over the beneficent and healing influences in +the earth. Her favorite plant was the fruitful olive, valued by the +Greeks both for the beauty of its foliage and for the usefulness of its +oil. + +In the fortunes of war, when it was for defensive aims, Athena took an +intense interest and an active part. In the war between the Greeks and +the Trojans, she was on the side of the Greeks, who sought to recover +from their enemies their queen Helen, whom the Trojan prince had +captured. When the Greek army assembled before the walls of Troy-- + + "Among them walked + The blue-eyed Pallas, bearing on her arm + The priceless [ae]gis, ever fair and new, + And undecaying; from its edge there hung + A hundred golden fringes, fairly wrought, + And every fringe might buy a hecatomb. + With this and fierce, defiant looks she passed + Through all the Achaian host, and made their hearts + Impatient for the march and strong to endure + The combat without pause,--for now the war + Seemed to them dearer than the wished return + In their good galleys to the land they loved."[7] + +[7] Iliad, Book ii., lines 549-560 in Bryant's translation. + +As the air gives us the breath of life, so Athena gave inspiration to +the heart of man. It was her friendly mission to fill with "strength and +courage" the hearts of those who were beset by difficulties of many +kinds.[8] To Achilles, lamenting the death of Patroclus, she came with +nectar and ambrosia, that his limbs might not grow faint with hunger.[9] +It was because of her aid that Diomed could proudly declare, "Minerva +will not let my spirit falter;" and when he cast his spear, "Minerva +kept the weapon faithful to its aim."[10] + +[8] See the Iliad, Book v., line 2, and the Odyssey, Book i., line 396. + +[9] Iliad, Book xix., lines 427-429. + +[10] Iliad, Book v., lines 309 and 352. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ATHENA GIUSTINIANA (MINERVA MEDICA) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +To Athena Ulysses owed his safe return to Ithaca after the adventures +related in the Odyssey. It was her adroit planning which brought +together the long lost father and his son Telemachus, with the faithful +wife Penelope. She also found ways to help Jason when he went in search +of the golden fleece; she aided Hercules in his labors and guided the +hand of Perseus when he cut off the Gorgon's head. + +Athena was also the patroness of the industrial arts. She was skilful in +weaving and needlework, making both her own and others' beautiful robes +and teaching the craft to some favored mortals. She was, in short, the +personification of "inspired and impulsive wisdom in human conduct and +human art, giving the instinct of infallible decision, and of faultless +invention."[11] Finally, and not least important, Athena was one of the +agencies in the productiveness of the earth, and hence the patron +goddess of farmers. + +[11] From Ruskin's _Queen of the Air_. + +Our statue shows as many as possible of the attributes of the goddess. +The figure is tall and stately and magnificently developed. The Greek +ideal of beauty was to let nature have its way in the human body, +unhindered by any such restraints of clothing as our modern fashions +have invented. The broad shoulders and ample waist bespeak the splendid +strength of the goddess. + +The neck rises from the shoulders like a column to support the well-set +head. A tunic falls in straight folds to the feet, and over this is worn +a long mantle gathered over the left shoulder. Upon her breast hangs the +shield, here made very small, and the helmet and spear complete her +equipment as a goddess of war. At her side coils the emblematic serpent. + +Her aspect is far from warlike. The face is intellectual and the +expression thoughtful. This is the goddess of wisdom reflecting upon +grave concerns. The mouth is set somewhat proudly, and the countenance +is full of a dignified reserve. The masterful element, so strong in her +character, is admirably expressed. There is something almost austere in +the beauty of this virgin goddess. A majestic being like this is not one +to be familiarly approached. + + + + +III + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + + +To understand the history and meaning of the bas-relief reproduced in +our illustration, we must first learn something of the worship of Athena +in her chosen city of Athens. An annual festival was held here in her +honor, and every four years occurred a very elaborate celebration called +the Panathen[ae]a. The Panathen[ae]a lasted several days, and attracted +throngs of people from all parts of Greece. There were contests in +gymnastics and music, torch-races, horse-races, feasts and dances. +Sacrifices of oxen were offered on the altar of the goddess, every state +having to furnish an ox for the purpose. The climax was reached on the +last day, when a great procession started at sunrise and traversed the +streets of the city to the temple of Athena. It is with this procession +that the bas-relief of our picture is connected, as we shall presently +see. + +Some time before the festival a group of Athenian maidens of the noblest +families had made and embroidered for Athena a beautiful robe called the +_peplos_. This was carried above the procession, stretched like a sail +on the mast of a ship which was rolled through the street on wheels. The +pageant was made up of many different companies. There were the +Athenian magistrates, grave and dignified, maidens carrying sacrificial +vessels, men bearing trays of cakes, citharists (harpists) and +flute-players, old men with olive branches, four-horse chariots with +armed warriors, rows of young men mounted on prancing steeds, and +attendants with the cattle for the sacrifice. + +During the invasion of Greece by the Persians, the temple of Athena in +Athens was destroyed by fire. Later, on its site, was erected another to +replace it, called the Parthenon. The city was now at the height of its +prosperity under the statesman Pericles. At this time also lived the +great sculptor Phidias, and to him Pericles intrusted the decoration of +the new temple. + +The Parthenon was built of Pentelic marble, and the temple proper was +surrounded by a portico supported on rows of columns. The outside of the +building was richly adorned with bas-reliefs. There were designs in the +triangular spaces under the roof called _pediments_. Above the columns +ran a series of panels called _metopes_. Finally, there was a _frieze_ +extending around the temple wall, to be seen from within the portico. It +is a bit of this frieze which is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: London Stereoscopic Co., Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HORSEMEN FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE + +_British Museum, London_] + +The Panathenaic procession is the subject carried the entire length of +this bas-relief decoration. On the portion running across one end were +depicted the scenes of preparation. Men are in the act of mounting their +horses, some having spirited animals to deal with, and all making ready +for the start. At the opposite end is the scene of the arrival at the +temple. Here sit the gods to receive the sacrifice, while the +magistrates stand ready to perform the rites, and maidens approach with +the vessels. On the two long sides the procession is seen actually in +motion. Here are represented all the figures which took part in such +occasions; old men and maidens, musicians, horsemen, charioteers, and +sacrificial animals, all moving forward on their way. Group follows +group, with that contrast and variety which give interest to a pageant, +and with the proper orderliness to give it unity. + +Our panel shows us a line of horsemen riding four abreast. Though it is +broken and defaced, we catch at once the spirit of the work. The horses +are splendid animals; with dilated nostrils, and necks proudly arched, +they seem to prance to the music of the flutes. Though they are well +matched in size and type, no two are really alike. Every one has as +distinct a character as a human being, and lovers of horses might choose +each his own favorite from the four. + +Only two of the riders fall within our range of vision. They are +handsome youths, with the perfectly formed head and finely cut profile +which we learn to recognize as the Greek ideal of beauty. The line +across forehead and nose is perfectly straight, and the line connecting +nose and chin forms a corresponding angle. Both faces bear the stamp of +refinement and high breeding which mark them as belonging to the class +of Athenian nobles. + +Though the two youths have so similar a cast of countenance, they are +quite unlike in temperament. The farther one is of a somewhat dreamy, +poetic nature. He rides with bent head as if in a reverie. His companion +is of a sterner, more virile type. He looks straight before him, and +carries his head with a sense of the dignity of the occasion. + +Both youths sit their horses as if born in the saddle. Horse and rider +are one, animated by a single dominant will. The Athenian youth were +trained from childhood in all sorts of manly exercise. The normal +development of the body was of first importance in the Greek educational +system. These young men are typical examples of the fine specimens of +manhood which that training produced. + + + + +IV + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + + + "The white armed queen, + Juno, the mistress of the golden throne." + +It is thus that the Iliad describes Hera, the wife of Zeus, now more +often called by her Roman name Juno. The marriage union between the +ruler of the gods and his queen represented the Greek ideal of perfect +conjugal happiness. Hera was therefore the goddess who presided over +human marriages, and was the type of matronly virtue and dignity. As the +queen of heaven, she had it in her power to bestow great riches, honor, +and influence upon her favorites. + +In the Trojan war she was, like Athena, a partisan of the Greeks, and +once or twice even accompanied the war goddess to the battlefield. +Usually, however, her pursuits were of a more peaceful and domestic +order. She was a very beautiful goddess, "ox-eyed" in the quaint Greek +phrase, that is, with large expressive eyes. She had the august and +majestic bearing befitting a queen, and is usually described in classic +literature as wearing a veil. A long passage in the Iliad gives an +account of her toilet when arraying herself for a special occasion. +After bathing in ambrosia, and anointing with oil, + + "When thus her shapely form + Had been anointed, and her hands had combed + Her tresses, she arranged the lustrous curls, + Ambrosial, beautiful, that clustering hung + Round her immortal brow. And next she threw + Around her an ambrosial robe, the work + Of Pallas, all its web embroidered o'er + With forms of rare device. She fastened it + Over the breast with clasps of gold, and then + She passed about her waist a zone which bore + Fringes a hundred-fold, and in her ears + She hung her three-gemmed ear-rings, from whose gleam + She won an added grace. Around her head + The glorious goddess drew a flowing veil, + Just from the loom, and shining like the sun; + And, last, beneath her bright white feet she bound + The shapely sandals."[12] + +[12] Iliad, Book xiv., lines 210-226 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the prettiest stories about Hera is that in which she acted as +the friend of Jason. Jason was the son of a dethroned king and was +brought up by the centaur Chiron. When he came of age he set forth, with +much good advice from Chiron, to reclaim his father's kingdom. On his +journey he came to a swollen stream which seemed well-nigh impassable. +As he was considering the danger of crossing it, an old woman on the +bank begged him to carry her over. This was a hazardous undertaking, and +the young man was sorely tempted to refuse her. At last his kindness +triumphed and he consented. Taking her on his back, he struggled across +the river at the peril of his life. When he set her safely on the +opposite bank, a wonderful thing happened. "She grew fairer than all +women, and taller than all men on earth; and her garments shone like the +summer sea, and her jewels like the stars of heaven; and over her +forehead was a veil, woven of the golden clouds of sunset, and through +the veil she looked down on him with great soft heifer's eyes; with +great eyes, mild and awful, which filled all the glen with light."[13] +Then he knew that this was Hera, and from thenceforth she was his guide +in every time of need. + +[13] From Kingsley's _Greek Heroes_: the Argonauts. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +BUST OF HERA (JUNO) + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The bust of Hera, reproduced in our illustration, shows how the Greeks +liked to think of their queen goddess. We at once recognize the features +assigned to her by tradition; the large eyes set somewhat far apart, the +low, broad forehead, the mild expression. The waving hair is parted, and +gathered at the back in a matronly coiffure, and over it is worn the +crown of a queen. + +We have seen that in Greek sculpture the artist was not always left to +represent the divinities according to his own imagination. For each one +a certain fixed type had been gradually thought out in very early times, +and this type was handed down from generation to generation. A statue or +bust could always be recognized without any title. No one, for instance, +could ever mistake Zeus for Apollo, or confuse Hera and Athena. + +By comparing this head of Hera with that of Athena in our previous +illustration, we can see how perfectly sculpture carried out the +distinctions in the two characters. Hera was less intellectual than +Athena, and had perhaps more distinctly feminine charms. The mouth has +less strength and firmness, the expression more mildness. Her beauty is +naturally of a more matronly type than that of the virgin goddess. The +crown which she wears belongs as distinctly to her as does the helmet to +Athena. + +A careful examination of the face suggests that it may have been studied +from actual life. If, as some critics believe, the bust was made in Rome +by some Greek sojourning there after the conquest of his own nation, a +noble Roman matron may have been the model. Be that as it may, this is +Hera as the Greeks worshipped her, and perhaps the best existing +representation of the great goddess. + + + + +V + +THE APOXYOMENOS + + +An important part of the Greek system of education was the training of +the body in physical exercise. For this purpose there were gymnasia in +every city, where the youth were trained in running, leaping, wrestling, +throwing the javelin, and casting the discus. Great spaces were occupied +by these gymnasia, which included buildings for dressing-rooms and +baths, porticoes and halls used as assembly-rooms, walks, gardens, and +the pal[ae]stra, or wrestling-field. + +Every four years a great national festival was held at Olympia, +consisting of games or contests in the various athletic sports. Every +freeman of Hellenic blood had a birthright to take part in them. The +contestants were required to undergo a preparatory training, often +lasting months, in the gymnasium of Elis, the province in which Olympia +was situated. + +During the progress of the games a universal truce was proclaimed +throughout Greece. All hostilities ceased for the time, and the Greeks +as a united people assembled at Olympia for the joyous celebration in +honor of Zeus. So important were these Olympic games that they were used +as a standard for reckoning time. In assigning a date to an event, the +Greeks used to say that it took place in this or that Olympiad, an +Olympiad being the period of four years between two successive +festivals. + +We may well believe that the Olympic festivals, as well as the ordinary +daily exercise in the city gymnasia, had great attractions for +sculptors. The pal[ae]stra must have been a favorite resort of artists. +What a sight it was when the young men came out of the dressing-rooms +stripped for running, their bodies shining with oil,--what a play of +muscles in the lithe young limbs as the runners "pressed toward the mark +for the prize of the high calling!" The course was usually of deep sand, +and was about three miles in length. The runners trained for special +emergencies attained extraordinary speed and endurance. The race over, +each youth returned to the dressing-rooms of the gymnasium and, taking a +small instrument called the _strigil_, made of metal, ivory, or horn, +scraped the oil from his body. + +It is in this cleansing process that the young man of our illustration +is engaged. The statue on this account is called the Apoxyomenos, which +is a Greek word meaning "scraping himself." It represents a typical +incident of the life of the gymnasium, such as might be seen any day of +the year. + +Tall and graceful, with slender flexible limbs, the youth stands in an +attitude of rest, scraping his right arm. In his fingers is the die +which marks his number in the race. His body rests upon one leg, but so +light is his poise that he is ready to change his position momentarily. +Neither attitude nor countenance shows any sense of exhaustion, only +that delicious fatigue which makes rest so enjoyable. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APOXYOMENOS + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +There is a passage in the Greek poet Aristophanes' comedy of the +Clouds, in which a speaker urges upon a young man the life of the +gymnasium. "Fresh and fair in beauty-bloom," he says, "you shall pass +your days in the wrestling-ground, or run races beneath the sacred olive +trees, crowned with white reed, in company with a pure-hearted friend, +smelling of bindweed, and leisure hours, and the white poplar that sheds +her leaves, rejoicing in the prime of spring when the plane tree +whispers to the lime." This is the kind of life typified in the figure +of our statue,[14] a side of Greek life which no one can overlook if he +would understand the genius of the Greek nation. + +[14] The application of this passage to the Apoxyomenos is made by J. A. +Symonds in his _Greek Poets_. + +It must not be supposed that our statue represents an actual individual. +It is not a portrait, but an imaginary typical figure. It is true that +portrait statues of athletes were made in great numbers, as we shall +note again in another chapter. It was indeed this practical experience +among athletes that led sculptors to see what a perfect human figure +ought to be. In the study of many different forms they developed an idea +of a type common to all and uniting all the perfections. Certain +sculptors figured out what they regarded as the true proportions of the +ideal human form. One of these was Lysippus, who is believed to have +executed this statue as an illustration of his theories. We note as the +special characteristics of his ideal figure that it is tall, with slim +light limbs, and a rather small head, about one eighth the total height. + +We may now see how such a statue as the Apoxyomenos was a preparatory +study for statues of the gods. The gods were to be represented in the +most perfect human forms which it was possible to conceive, and by +working out typical figures like this, forms were found worthy of the +noblest subjects. Thus the proportions discovered by Lysippus were +peculiarly appropriate for the lighter, fleeter gods, as Apollo and +Hermes. + +Lysippus executed his works entirely in bronze, and the statue +reproduced in our illustration is a marble copy of the original, which +was long since lost. + + + + +VI + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + + +Ph[oe]bus Apollo was the Greek god of day, who drove the great chariot +of the sun across the sky from dawn to sunset. As the sun's rays pierce +the air with darts of fire, so Apollo is an archer god carrying a quiver +full of arrows. The old Homeric hymn calls him-- + + "Heaven's far darter, the fair king of days + Whom even the gods themselves fear when he goes + Through Jove's high house; and when his goodly bows + He goes to bend, all from their thrones arise + And cluster near t' admire his faculties."[15] + +[15] In Chapman's translation. + +If we count up all the gifts which the sunlight brings us, we shall have +a list of the offices of Apollo. He brought the spring and the summer, +and ripened the grain for harvest. He warded off disease and healed the +sick. One of his earliest adventures was to slay the serpent Python +lurking in the caves of Mt. Parnassus. Like the legend of St. George and +the Dragon, the story is an allegory of the triumph of light over +darkness, health over disease, the power of good over the power of evil. + +Apollo was also the patron of music, having received from Hermes the +gift of the lyre. He was wont to play at the banquets of the gods, and +the poet Shelley describes his music in these words:-- + + "And then Apollo with the plectrum strook + The chords, and from beneath his hands a crash + Of mighty sounds rushed up, whose music shook + The soul with sweetness, and like an adept + His sweeter voice a just accordance kept."[16] + +[16] From Shelley's translation of the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_. + +Poetry and the dance were also under Apollo's protection, and he was the +leader of the nine muses. + +His highest office was prophecy, and in all his temples the priestesses +gave mystic revelations of the future. The most famous of these was at +Delphi, built over an opening in the ground, whence a strange vapor +rose. The priestess, a young woman called a _pythia_, from the python +slain by Apollo, sat over this opening on a three-legged seat, or +tripod, and answered the questions brought to her. Her sayings were in +verses called _oracles_, supposed to be communicated to her by the god. + +Now, as might be expected, the character of Apollo was as pure and +transparent as the sunlight itself. He required clean hands and pure +hearts of those who worshiped him. As the sunlight shines into the dark +places of the earth, driving the shadows away, so Apollo hated all that +was dark and evil in human life. He was not only the rewarder of good +but the punisher of evil. In Shelley's "Hymn of Apollo" these words are +put in the god's mouth:-- + + "The sunbeams are my shafts, with which I kill + Deceit, that loves the night and fears the day; + + All men who do or even imagine ill + Fly me, and from the glory of my ray + Good minds and open actions take new might, + Until diminished by the reign of night." + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE APOLLO BELVEDERE + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +The head of Apollo in our illustration is from a famous full-length +statue of the god known as the Apollo Belvedere. The name Belvedere, +which is useful only to distinguish the statue from others of the same +subject, comes from the fact that the marble once adorned a pavilion of +the Vatican called the Belvedere. + +The god stands with left arm extended holding, it is supposed, either a +bow or a shield. A quiver of arrows is slung across his back, and a +chlamys, or cloak, hangs over his left shoulder. His is the proud +attitude of one who is defending some sacred trust. So he holds his head +high and gazes steadily before him as if watching an arrow speed to its +mark, or perhaps scanning the vanguard of an approaching army. The +expression is not a little haughty, and one detects an almost disdainful +curve of the lips as if the god regarded the enemy with scorn. The face +is cut in an aristocratic mould, with fine sensitive lines which mark +the lover of music and poetry. In fact, the refinement of his beauty has +something of a feminine quality. + +The carefully curled hair is gathered in a bow knot on the top of his +head. It may indeed be supposed that the handsome young god was by no +means unconscious of his charms, and took no little pains to display +them to good advantage. + +The Apollo, however, is a god worthy of our admiration for the noble +purity of his countenance. Surely, all base thoughts and mean motives +would be put to shame by this pure presence. + +The poet Byron, whose "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" describes many +interesting sights in Greece and Italy, has written these lines about +the Apollo Belvedere:-- + + "The Lord of the unerring bow, + The god of life, and poesy, and light-- + The sun, in human limbs array'd, and brow + All radiant from his triumph in the fight; + The shaft hath just been shot--the arrow bright + With an immortal's vengeance; in his eye + And nostril beautiful disdain, and might, + And majesty flash their full lightnings by, + Developing in that one glance the deity." + + + + +VII + +DEMETER (CERES) + + +The Greeks worshipped among their deities a goddess called Demeter, +which means "mother earth." It was her office to attend to the sowing +and reaping and all kinds of farm work. She first taught mankind the use +of the plough; she helped the men in their threshing and the women in +their baking. All country folk sought her blessing in their labors. She +was, in fact, a personification of nature, and perhaps it is a remnant +of the old Greek belief in our speech that we still refer to "mother +earth" and "mother nature." + +Demeter's only child was a daughter, Persephone, and upon her she +lavished all a mother's fond devotion. The story runs that one day +Persephone was gathering posies in the meadow when a strange accident +overtook her. A beautiful flower suddenly attracted her attention, the +like of which she had never before seen. When she put forth her hand to +pluck it, the entire plant came up by the roots, leaving a hole in the +ground. The hole widened into a great crack, the earth shook with a +mighty thundering, and out dashed a chariot drawn by coal-black steeds, +bearing Pluto, the king of the lower regions. He caught up the +astonished Persephone, and away they sped again into the gloomy kingdom +beyond the Styx, where Persephone was installed as queen. + +Demeter, missing her daughter, inquired everywhere what had become of +the maiden, but none could tell her. Then she lighted a torch and began +a weary search for the lost child. Nine days she wandered without +finding any clew. But on the tenth day she met the old witch Hecate, who +had heard Persephone scream when she was carried away. Together the two +sought Apollo, who sees all the doings of gods and men, and he told them +the whole story. "Then a more terrible grief took possession of Demeter, +and ... she forsook the assembly of the gods and abode among men for a +long time, veiling her beauty under a worn countenance so that none who +looked upon her knew her." She declared that the earth should not again +bring forth fruit till she had seen her daughter. + +It comforted her not a little in this time of mourning to take a +mother's care of a certain sickly little child she chanced upon. +Disguised as a nurse, she fed the child upon ambrosia, held him in her +bosom, and at night covered him in a bed of coals. Under this treatment +he thrived amazingly; but the parents discovered the nurse's strange +ways and became alarmed. Their anxiety was turned to dismay when they +learned that this was a goddess, who would have made their son immortal +but for their interference. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +DEMETER (CERES) + +_Vatican Gallery, Rome_] + +In the mean time the crops fell into a bad state, and it was a year of +grievous famine. Demeter still kept her vow to let no green thing appear +upon the earth. Then Zeus came to the rescue of perishing humanity. He +sent a messenger to Pluto begging him to let Persephone return to her +mother. The request was granted, the chariot was made ready, but the +wily king first pressed his bride to eat with him some pomegranate +seeds, designing that she should return to him again. Mother and +daughter were now joyfully reunited, but not without further separation; +for a portion of each year Persephone returned to her kingdom below the +earth, reappearing in the spring to visit her mother. And this is why to +this day the harvest is followed by winter until the spring revisits the +earth.[17] + +[17] The story of Demeter and Persephone is related in the Homeric _Hymn +to Demeter_, of which an abridged English version is given in the +chapter on the Myth of Demeter and Persephone in Pater's _Greek +Studies_. The same chapter refers to various other ancient forms of the +story, one of the most important being that of Ovid's Metamorphoses, +translated into English blank verse by Edward King. + +In all this story we see that the most striking characteristic of +Demeter is her motherliness. In some respects she is like Hera, because +both are matrons and are patterns of the domestic virtues. But while +Hera is the model wife, Demeter is the model mother. + +It is the motherliness of our statue which makes us feel sure that it +must be intended to represent Demeter.[18] The goddess stands holding in +her outstretched right hand a sheaf of wheat, and lifting high in the +left hand the torch with which she journeyed round the world. It is as +if she stood on the threshold of the opening season awaiting her +daughter's return. She gazes straight before her with a look of +expectancy as if she already saw her child from afar. Her face is +lighted by a smile of welcome. One can fancy how tenderly those motherly +arms will fold the child to her heart, and how gladly the daughter will +pillow her head on that broad bosom. + +[18] See in the _Historical Directory_ another subject assigned to the +statue. + +The figure is in striking contrast to the statue of Athena which we have +studied. The virgin goddess is stately and unapproachable in her panoply +of wisdom, but the great mother seems to invite our confidence. She is +one to whom a frightened child might run, sure of being soothed. To her +the sorrowing would turn, fearing no repulse. She would welcome, she +would understand, she would comfort. There is strength and repose in +every line of her majestic figure. + +The statue illustrates admirably the grandeur and simplicity of the best +Greek art. The long straight lines of the drapery, unbroken by any +unnecessary folds, are the secret of the impression of tranquil dignity +in the work. + + + + +VIII + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + + +The imagination of the Greeks peopled the woods and waters with all +sorts of mythical beings, among which one of the most delightful was the +faun. This was a creature half human, half animal, which frolicked in +the woods in spring time. In outward appearance it looked much like a +human being, except that it had pointed furry ears. In nature, however, +it was closely akin to the animals, and lived a free happy life, with +none of the thoughts and cares which beset the soul of man. + +Our statue represents a sculptor's conception of this sportive being. It +is famous not only because it is a celebrated work of art, but because +it takes an important place in a celebrated novel. This is the "marble +faun" which gives the title to Hawthorne's book. It will be remembered +that in the beginning of the story, a party of friends are visiting the +museum of the Capitol in Rome, where the statue stands. Suddenly they +notice the resemblance which one of their number, a young Italian named +Donatello, bears to the statue. They bid him take the same attitude, and +the likeness is complete. The writer describes the statue in these +words: "The Faun is the marble image of a young man leaning his right +arm on the trunk or stump of a tree; one hand hangs carelessly by his +side; in the other he holds the fragment of a pipe, or some such sylvan +instrument of music. His only garment--a lion's skin,[19] with the claws +upon his shoulder--falls halfway down his back, leaving the limbs and +entire front of the figure nude. The form, thus displayed, is +marvellously graceful, but has a fuller and more rounded outline, more +flesh, and less of heroic muscle, than the old sculptors were wont to +assign to their types of masculine beauty.[20] The character of the face +corresponds with the figure; it is most agreeable in outline and +feature, but rounded and somewhat voluptuously developed, especially +about the throat and chin; the nose is almost straight, but very +slightly curves inward, thereby acquiring an indescribable charm of +geniality and humor. The mouth, with its full yet delicate lips, seems +so nearly to smile outright that it calls forth a responsive smile. The +whole statue--unlike anything else that ever was wrought in that severe +material of marble--conveys the idea of an amiable and sensual creature, +easy, mirthful, apt for jollity, yet not incapable of being touched by +pathos. It is impossible to gaze long at this stone image without +conceiving a kindly sentiment towards it, as if its substance were warm +to the touch, and imbued with actual life. It comes very close to some +of our pleasantest sympathies." + +[19] More likely a leopard's skin. + +[20] Compare, for instance, the slender figure of the Apoxyomenos. + +[Illustration: Alinari, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE FAUN OF PRAXITELES + +_Capitol Museum, Rome_] + +After this description the writer goes on to analyze the nature of the +Faun. "The being here represented," he says, "is endowed with no +principle of virtue, and would be incapable of comprehending such; but +he would be true and honest by dint of his simplicity. We should expect +from him no sacrifice or effort for an abstract cause; there is not an +atom of martyr's stuff in all that softened marble; but he has a +capacity for strong and warm attachment, and might act devotedly through +its impulse, and even die for it at need. It is possible, too, that the +Faun might be educated through the medium of his emotions, so that the +coarser animal portion of his nature might eventually be thrown into the +background, though never utterly expelled." + +The original statue, of which the marble of the Capitol is a copy, was +the work of the sculptor Praxiteles. As Hawthorne says: "Only a sculptor +of the finest imagination, the most delicate taste, the sweetest +feeling, and the rarest artistic skill--in a word, a sculptor and a poet +too--could have ... succeeded in imprisoning the sportive and frisky +thing in marble." We are presently to see again in the head of Hermes +that Praxiteles was indeed a remarkable sculptor. The Faun, however, is +the more difficult subject of the two, for it was puzzling to think what +expression would be proper to a being partly human, but without a soul. + +It is said that Praxiteles himself considered the Faun one of his two +best works. It had been impossible for his friends to get an expression +of opinion from him in regard to his statues, until one day a trick was +devised to betray him. He was told that his studio was on fire, when he +exclaimed that his labor was all lost if the Faun and the Eros were +destroyed. + +The Faun originally stood in the street of the Tripods at Athens, but +what has now become of it we do not know. The statue in our illustration +is one of the most celebrated copies. Many travellers make a special +pilgrimage to see it, and seeing it recall the words of Hawthorne, +describing the spell it casts upon the spectator. "All the pleasantness +of sylvan life, all the genial and happy characteristics of creatures +that dwell in woods and fields, will seem to be mingled and kneaded into +one substance, along with the kindred qualities in the human soul. +Trees, grass, flowers, woodland streamlets, cattle, deer, and +unsophisticated man--the essence of all these was compressed long ago, +and still exists, within that discolored marble surface of the Faun of +Praxiteles." + + + + +IX + +SOPHOCLES + + +One of the greatest of Greek writers was the tragic poet Sophocles. He +was born near Athens in the year 495 B. C., and was educated after the +manner of the Greek youth of his time. Every advantage was given him for +the study of music and poetry, and also for that gymnastic training +which, as we have seen, was so important in Greek education. + +Sophocles was a handsome youth, and acquitted himself well in the +pal[ae]stra. When he was sixteen years of age the great battle of Salamis +was fought and won by the Greeks. In the celebration of this victory at +Athens, Sophocles led with dance and lyre the chorus of young men who +sang the p[ae]an or hymn of victory. That such an honor should be given him +shows how graceful and gifted he must have been. + +The beginning of his literary career came when he was in his +twenty-fifth year. At that time a solemn festival was held in Athens in +memory of the ancient King Theseus, whose bones had been brought thither +from the island of Scyros. Now all religious festivals in Greece were +celebrated with contests, some athletic, others artistic and literary. +On this occasion there was a contest of dramatic poets. [AE]schylus was at +that time the greatest of living tragedians, and as he was among the +contestants, it might have been supposed that no other candidate could +have succeeded. Sophocles now came forward with his first tragedy, and +so remarkable was it found to be that the judges pronounced him victor. + +From this time forth Sophocles continually grew in dramatic and literary +power. Twenty times he obtained the first prize in other contests, and +many times also the second prize. The amount of his work was prodigious. +Most of his dramas are lost, but we still have a half dozen or more to +show us the noble quality of his work. The finest are perhaps those +called [OE]dipus Tyrannus, [OE]dipus Coloneus, and Antigone, all dealing +with the tragic fate of an ancient royal family. + +Athens was justly proud of her great poet and bestowed various honors +upon him. He was even made a general, and served in the war against +Samos; but nature had made him a poet, and it is as a poet that we must +always think of him. Full of years and honors, he died in Athens at the +age of ninety. Of him the Greek poet Phrynicus wrote,-- + + "Thrice happy Sophocles! in good old age + Blessed as a man, and as a craftsman blessed, + He died: his many tragedies were fair, + And fair his end, nor knew he any sorrow." + +Our portrait shows admirably what manner of man he was, handsome and +dignified, in the prime of life. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +SOPHOCLES + +_Lateran Museum, Rome_] + +The scanty folds of his toga reveal the fine lines of his graceful +figure. The pose shows the bodily vigor which his early athletic +training gave him. He holds his head erect in a manner suggestive of his +military life. The face is that of an idealist and a poet, a man who +sees splendid visions. Yet it is not altogether dreamy in the ordinary +sense; it has the alert, energetic aspect of one who would turn from +vision to action. It is not hard to believe the tale of his one hundred +and twenty-three dramas: such a man would fill his life with activity. +The face has, too, the expression of genial kindliness which made the +great poet so beloved of his fellow men. His must have been that calm, +equable temperament not easily ruffled, which goes with the +self-respecting nature. A receptacle at his side is filled with the +scrolls of his tragedies. He stands in the attitude of a poet reciting +his lines to an assembled audience. + +The statue shows how sane was the Greek ideal of intellectual greatness. +In those days genius did not mean eccentricity, but the rule of life was +a sound mind in a sound body. It is a mistaken notion of our own times +that bodily health must be sacrificed to the training of the brain. It +is even supposed by some that oddities of dress and manner are signs of +greatness. + +The Greeks had no such delusions. Here is Sophocles, the greatest +dramatic poet of antiquity, a magnificent specimen of symmetrically +developed manhood. He is a man who has made the most of life's +opportunities as he understood them. He enjoys perfect bodily vigor; he +is as well a man of the world, at ease among men. There is evidently +nothing of the recluse in his character. He wears his beard carefully +trimmed as one who looks well to his personal appearance. Yet +intellectual greatness is stamped on face and bearing: the noble +countenance marks him as a poet. + +There was a period in Greek history when it was a custom to adorn public +buildings with statues of famous men, living or dead. Libraries were +appropriately decorated with statues of poets, and we fancy that our +statue of Sophocles was made for such a purpose. The original is +supposed to have been set up by a certain Athenian statesman named +Lycurgus in the fourth century B. C. + + + + +X + +ARES SEATED + + +Old soldiers tell us that sometimes in the thick of a battle men fight +as though possessed by a spirit of fury. The excitement of the conflict +seems to arouse an impulse of bloodthirstiness in them, and for the +moment they seem to exult in the carnage. In the ancient methods of +warfare, when a battle was literally a hand-to-hand conflict, this +spirit of brutality was of course even more marked. In the wars among +the early Greeks men fell upon one another with the violence of wild +animals. + +The Greeks with their ready gift for personification conceived of this +spirit of warfare as a supernatural being acting on human lives. He was +called Ares, the god whose special delight was to incite the fierce +passions of men. + +It was natural that the Greeks should refer his influence chiefly to +their enemies. On their own part they preferred to think that their +armies were inspired by the prudent spirit of self-defense embodied in +Athena. This explains why in the Iliad Ares was on the side of the +Trojans, while Athena aided the Greeks. Thus Ares and Athena were +brought into direct rivalry, the spirit of violence against the spirit +of strategy. + +An instance is related when Athena makes an appeal to her enemy, the +translation running in these words, the Roman name Mars being used for +Ares. + + "Mars, Mars, thou slayer of men, thou steeped in blood, + Destroyer of walled cities! should we not + Leave both the Greeks and Trojans to contend, + And Jove to crown with glory whom he will, + While we retire, lest we provoke his wrath?"[21] + +[21] Iliad, Book v., lines 33-37. + +As a matter of fact, however, both deities continued to aid their +favorites. Mars was forced to yield before the skill and prudence of +Athena. Guided by the goddess the Greek hero Diomed wounds and drives +him from the battle.[22] + +[22] Iliad, Book v., lines 1068-1075. + +In spite of his violent nature Mars was a handsome god, "stately, swift, +unwearied, puissant." Though war was his chief delight he was quite +susceptible to the tender passion. Venus was the object of his devotion, +and the goddess of love returned the war god's admiration. It was she +who soothed his wounded vanity when Athena mocked him in the presence of +the gods and struck him to earth with a stone.[23] + +[23] Iliad, Book xxi., lines 500 _et seq._ + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ARES SEATED + +_Ludovisi Villa, Rome_] + +The statue reproduced in our illustration shows the god in his mildest +aspect. He is seated in a meditative attitude, clasping his hands over +his upraised knee. His splendidly developed body is relaxed in a posture +of repose, the shield is laid aside for a moment, and he rests from his +labors. In the best period of Greek sculpture it was entirely contrary +to the laws of taste to represent Ares in any warlike action. The gods +must always be portrayed in a dignified repose befitting their +superiority to mankind. Not then in his attitude or expression do we +find any sign of the character of the god. There is no suggestion of +unrest in his quiet posture. + +The shape of his head perhaps gives some hint of his combative nature. +The cast of countenance, too, shows an impulsive temper, weak in +intellectual qualities, and quick to anger. Yet he is undeniably +attractive, with his well-chiseled features and clustering curls. The +small ear is as delicately cut as a woman's. The fine athletic figure is +such as any warrior might covet; muscular and supple, it is full of +power even in repose. The attitude of easy grace displays its best +points to advantage. + +Sitting on the ground in front of the god is the figure of a mischievous +baby boy. This is the little god Eros, who in Greek mythology was +supposed to be the inspirer of love. The artist meant to suggest that +the subject of Ares' meditations might be some affair of the heart. +Certainly his mild smile would carry out that interpretation. Some +critics have thought, however, that the statue did not originally +include the child. + +As we study the modelling of the figure, the free sweep of the long +lines delights the eye. We shall come to understand from repeated +examples that the best Greek sculptors thoroughly mastered the secret of +fine lines. Our illustration is somewhat unusual because the figure is +seated. Even in this position, however, the sculptor gives us a sense +of the perfect grace and lightness of the pose. There is nothing heavy +or immovable in the attitude. We can easily imagine how the god, rising +lightly to his feet, would stand erect and beautiful, ready for action. + + + + +XI + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + + +To do his errands and carry his messages through the universe the +supreme god Zeus had a herald, Hermes, the god of the wind. As the wind +blows out of the great sky, so Hermes descended from Olympus to earth to +do the sky god's bidding. Equipped as a herald he wore a winged cap and +winged sandals, which carried him about with great speed. He had also a +short sword bent like a scythe, given him by Zeus with the cap and +sandals. He possessed the strange power of making himself invisible, and +of assuming different forms. As he had besides a ready wit and an +eloquent tongue, he could make himself very useful. It was one of his +common tasks to carry sleep to mortals, and his most solemn office was +to conduct the souls of the dying to the other world. + +This is the way the Odyssey describes Hermes setting forth on one of the +errands of Zeus:-- + + "The herald Argicide obeyed, + And hastily beneath his feet he bound + The fair ambrosial golden sandals, worn + To bear him over ocean like the wind, + And o'er the boundless land. His wand he took, + Wherewith he softly seals the eyes of men, + And opens them at will from sleep."[24] + +[24] Book v., lines 55-61 in Bryant's translation. + +One of the most famous adventures of Hermes was the slaying of the +many-eyed monster Argus, from whom he rescued the unhappy Io. This is +why the old Greek poet, whom we have quoted, calls the god the Argicide. +Another of his well known missions was the care of the motherless infant +Bacchus, whom he conveyed to the nymphs of Nysa to be reared. An +adventurer himself, Hermes was ever ready to aid heroes in their +exploits. It was with his sword that Perseus cut off the Gorgon's head: +we may read the story in Hawthorne's "Wonder-Book" and Kingsley's "Greek +Heroes." + +Nor was Hermes above a bit of mischief now and then. An old Homeric hymn +tells of a sly prank he played upon Apollo, when he was a mere baby, +stealing the herds of Admetus which Apollo was keeping. He was an +ingenious fellow too, and this is how he invented the lyre. Taking from +the beach a tortoise, he cleaned out the shell, pierced it with holes, +and stretched from hole to hole, at regular intervals, cords of sheep +gut. + + "When he had wrought the lovely instrument + He tried the chords, and made division meet, + Preluding with the plectrum, and there went + Up from beneath his hand a tumult sweet + Of mighty sounds."[25] + +[25] From the Homeric _Hymn to Mercury_ in Shelley's translation, Stanza +ix. + +[Illustration: English Photographic Co., Athens, Photo. John Andrew & +Son, Sc. + +HEAD OF THE OLYMPIAN HERMES + +_Museum, Olympia_] + +With this instrument Apollo was so delighted that Hermes straightway +presented it to him, to make some amends, as it were, for the injury +done him. In return Apollo bestowed the _caduceus_, or wand, upon +Hermes, and the two gods vowed eternal friendship. + +The Greeks were very fond of their god Hermes. He was not too grand to +be companionable, like the awe-inspiring Zeus or the haughty Apollo. +They thought of him as a blithe, gentle being whose lighthearted ways +and easy good nature made him a general favorite. It was an early custom +to set up in his honor stone posts at the crossroads. Sometimes they +were topped by the heads of other gods, but these were called for him, +_herm[ae]_. In the course of time better statues were made in full length +figure. The head reproduced in our illustration is from such an one +which used to stand in a temple of Olympia, from the ruins of which it +was unearthed a few years ago. + +The entire right arm and parts of both legs are missing, but the other +portions of the statue show the god's position. He is leaning against a +tree trunk, holding on his left arm the infant Bacchus, who was, as we +have seen, consigned to his care by Zeus. Hermes is not, however, +looking at the child, but gazes dreamily before him, his head bent in +the pensive pose which we see. The features are cut with typical Greek +regularity, but the countenance has besides its own individual charm. +The droop of the upper eyelid suggests a dreamy nature, and in the curve +of the smiling lips is a hint of playfulness. The lower forehead is +full, showing over the eyes the bar of flesh which marks the strongly +masculine nature. The closely cropped curls preserve the perfect +contour of the head. The small, beautiful ear is as daintily modeled as +the ringlets of hair. + +The face wins us at once with its gentle amiability. It is tender and +playful, and withal exquisitely refined and courteous. What a +deferential listener is suggested in that pose of the head! The pure +outline of the face calls to mind those knights of chivalry who gathered +about King Arthur's Round Table, and one wonders if Sir Galahad himself +might not have looked like this. + +This statue is the work of the great sculptor Praxiteles, and is the +only original marble in existence direct from his hands. All the rest of +his work is known from descriptions and copies. We can understand, then, +how sculptors and critics the world over have examined it to study the +sculptor's methods. It is of Parian marble, much stained with iron rust +from its long entombment under the soil. + + + + +XII + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + + +We have seen how important a part in the Greek national life was +occupied by the Olympic Games. They were regarded as a sacred +institution of the gods, and to contend in them was a religious +consecration. None could enter them who had been guilty of dishonorable +conduct or sacrilege, and young men from the noblest families were not +above taking part. The prizes were wreaths of wild parsley, olive, and +pine, having no intrinsic worth, but of priceless value to the +recipients. To win them was the highest ambition of many a Greek youth. + +The victor was led forth before the people, crowned with the wreath and +bearing a palm branch in his hand. Heralds proclaimed his name and that +of his father. Banquets were spread in his honor, and songs were +composed in his praise.[26] From thenceforth he was a person of +distinction. Finally his statue was set up in the _altis_ or sacred +grove of Olympia. There were at one time as many as three thousand such +statues in the place. + +[26] See, for instance, Pindar's _Olympic Odes_. + +It will be readily seen that in statues of athletes the sculptor had +greater freedom than in statues of the gods. The latter must be +represented in dignified attitudes of repose, but the former would +naturally be portrayed in some characteristic posture of action. It is +so with the statue in our illustration called the Discobolus or +Disk-thrower. + +The game of disk-throwing was very old, so old that there were Greek +legends of famous games played by the gods and heroes. Apollo sometimes +tried his hand at it, and also Perseus. The discus, or disk, was a heavy +round plate of metal, bronze or iron, about eight inches in diameter, +grasped in one hand, swung around to give it a rotary motion, and then +sent flying through the air. A modern authority explains that it was +thrown not as the quoit is to-day, with arm and shoulder only, but by +bringing into play and utilizing every limb and muscle of the body. +"Immediately preceding the actual hurling of the discus, therefore, +there had to be a general storing up and compression of energy which, +when suddenly set free, produced the violence of the projection. The +principle is simply that of the spring which, when compressed, shoots +out from the centre. The greater the contortion of the body, the more +each muscle and sinew is strung towards one centre, the greater will be +the impetus when this compression is suddenly set free."[27] + +[27] Waldstein, in _Essays on the Art of Pheidias_, page 49. + +[Illustration: John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE DISCOBOLUS (THE DISK-THROWER) + +_Lancelotti Palace, Rome_] + +Our statue shows the disk-thrower at the moment immediately preceding +the throw. As described by the ancient writer Lucian, "he is bent down +into the position for the throw, turning towards the hand that holds the +disk, and all but bending on one knee, he seems as if he would +straighten himself up at the throw." + +The modern critic whom we have already quoted shows that when we view +the statue from the front, "all the lines of the modelling indicate the +tension of the sinews towards the contracted centre of the body, and the +legs, neck, and shoulders tend towards the same point." When we walk +around the statue, all the lines in the back and sides "seem to lead +towards that central point like the spiral contraction of a spring." It +is by thus suggesting the concentration of energy on the part of the +Discobolus that the figure appears so full of life and action. + +By the choice of this posture the artist was enabled to model his figure +on magnificent sculpturesque lines. One long fine curve sweeps along the +right arm, is continued down the left arm, and is carried to completion +in the left leg and foot. The counter curve starts under the right +shoulder, and sweeps down the right side and leg. + +The original statue of the Discobolus was executed in bronze, and our +reproduction is from one of several ancient copies in marble. In some of +these the original head of the statue has been replaced by another, but +the copy we see here has a fine, vigorous head. The English critic, +Walter Pater,[28] describes the face "as smooth but spare, and tightly +drawn over muscle and bone." He shows too how sympathetic the face is +with the whole intention of the statue, "as the source of will."[29] + +[28] In the chapter on Athletic Prizemen, in _Greek Studies_. + +[29] This opinion is the more interesting because the face of the +Discobolus is commonly criticised for "absence of emotional expression." +See Furtw[:a]ngler's _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, p. 173. + +The sculptor of the Discobolus was Myron, who lived in the period +between the Persian War and the middle of the fifth century. His work +shows his fondness for movement, though many of his subjects did not +permit him to indulge his taste. He made a specialty of figures of +athletes, both commemorative portrait statues and typical figures. We do +not know whether this statue represents an actual Olympic victor, or is +a typical figure, like the Apoxyomenos. In any case it gives an +excellent idea of the great influence exercised upon Greek life by the +athletic games. + + + + +XIII + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (VENUS OF MILO) + + +By Greek tradition the fairest of the goddesses was Aphrodite, the +goddess of love and beauty. To her every lover paid his vows and every +maiden prayed for charms. An old legend relates that she was born from +the foam of the sea, hence the name Aphrodite, which means "foam-born." +Among the Romans she was called Venus. At her birth the island of Cyprus +received her. + + "Where the force + Of gentle-breathing Zephyr steer'd her course + Along the waves of the resounding sea, + While yet unborn in that soft foam she lay + That brought her forth." + +Here she emerged "a goddess in the charms of awful beauty." The Hours +welcomed her eagerly, taking her in their arms and putting a crown of +gold upon her head. As she went on her way, flowers grew in her path,-- + + "Where her delicate feet + Had pressed the sands, green herbage flowering sprang."[30] + +[30] An account of the birth of Aphrodite is given in Hesiod's +_Theogony_ and in the Homeric _Hymn to Venus_, and the quotations here +are drawn from both sources. + +As we have already seen, there were among the Greek divinities two other +goddesses besides Aphrodite specially famed for their beauty,--Athena +and Hera. Tradition tells how the beauty of the three was tested. An +apple was thrown into their midst inscribed "For the fairest," and a +contention at once arose as to the rightful owner. Paris, the prince of +Troy, being chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Aphrodite, who promised +him for a wife the fairest woman in Greece, that is, Helen.[31] This was +the real cause of the Trojan War, in which the Greeks sought to recover +their stolen princess. Aphrodite being at the bottom of the trouble +remained through the war on the Trojan side. + +[31] See Tennyson's poem, _Oenone_. + +Oddly enough the beautiful goddess was mated to the ugliest of the gods, +the lame blacksmith Heph[ae]stus (or Vulcan). At his forge were made those +fateful arrows of the little god Eros (or Cupid), the mother standing by +to tip their points with honey. + +The power of love in human life made the ideal of Aphrodite very dear to +the hearts of the Greeks. All that is most tender and sacred in this +human relation was personified in her. As love ennobles the life and +makes it unselfish, so, they reasoned, must Aphrodite be a grand and +noble being. Again, as love glorifies the life, and brings joy into its +commonest details, she must also be beautiful and laughter-loving. In +short, one cannot think of any quality of love which was not reflected +in the person of the glorious goddess. Temples were built in her honor, +and she was worshiped in festivals and sacrificial rites. Statues of her +were set up in many places, and one of the most famous which has come +down to us is reproduced in our illustration. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Fr[`e]res, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +THE APHRODITE OF MELOS (THE VENUS OF MILO) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +We have now learned by repeated instances that the Greeks had such +definite ideas of their deities that their statues were as readily +recognized as if they represented actual persons. The sculptors followed +types accepted by tradition as the best embodiment of the characters +they stood for. So especially with Zeus, Athena, and Hera, and so again +with Aphrodite. She must be supremely fair, with a beauty less austere +than that of the maiden Athena, less regal than that of Hera, and more +fascinating than either. + +We see then at once that the beautiful figure of our illustration must +be Aphrodite, or Venus. In looking at her we think, not of wisdom, or +force, or power, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of +her body on one foot, and advancing the other with knee bent. The +posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, describing a +fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped, but the upper part of the +body is uncovered, and in some mysterious way the sculptor has imparted +to the marble a seeming softness as of real flesh. The head is as +exquisitely set as a flower on its stalk. The parted hair is drawn back +in rippling waves over the low forehead. + +The eyes are not very wide open, having something of a dreamy languor. +"Melting eyes" are indeed characteristic of Venus, and an analytical +critic has explained that this effect is produced in sculpture by a +"slight elevation of the inner corner of the lower eyelid." The nose is +perfectly cut, the mouth and chin are moulded in adorable curves. Yet to +say that every feature is of faultless perfection is but cold praise. No +analysis can convey the sense of her peerless beauty. + +The statue originally stood on the Greek island of Melos, where it was +discovered in 1820 in this broken state. Many wise heads have been +puzzled to know the position of the missing arms. Some have thought that +the goddess carried a shield, and others have fancied her holding the +traditional apple. There have also been many discussions as to the date +of the work. Now if the statue had been made in the fifth century B. C., +the goddess would have been fully draped; if in the fourth century, +entirely without drapery. Our sculptor then belonged to neither of these +periods, and combined the characteristics of both. It is a fault on his +part to have placed the drapery in an impossible position, whence in +actual life it would immediately fall of its own weight. Yet we do not +think of such criticisms when we see it. The beautiful body rising above +the drapery reminds us of the myth of Aphrodite emerging from the sea +foam. Her beauty is a union of strength and sweetness, a perfect +embodiment of a nature at harmony with itself and its surroundings. + + + + +XIV + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + + +There was once a man named Orpheus, who lived in the land of Thrace. It +was said that his father was Apollo, and his mother the muse Calliope; +so it is not strange that he was both poet and musician. So enchanting +was the music of his lyre that wild animals came forth from their haunts +to hear him. Even trees and rocks seemed to feel the magic influence of +the strain. + +He had a beautiful wife named Eurydice, whom he loved dearly, and they +were happy together till a sad accident separated them. She was bitten +one day by a poisonous serpent, and died from the effects of the wound. +There was no more happiness on earth for Orpheus, and he determined to +seek Eurydice in the underworld of the dead. + +Now the gates of the lower regions were guarded by a three-headed dog +named Cerberus, but even this fierce beast was subdued by the entrancing +music of Orpheus, who + + "Through the unsubstantial realm + Populous with phantom ghosts of buried men, + Undaunted passed to where Persephone + Sits by the monarch of that cheerless folk + Of shadows throned--and struck his lyre, and sang." + +Pouring forth the mournful tale of his lost love, he appealed to the +gods to give him back Eurydice. So eloquent was his plea that all who +listened were "moved to weeping." Then for the first time the iron +cheeks of the Furies were wet with tears, and + + "Of the nether realm + Nor King nor Queen had heart to say him nay." + +Eurydice was brought forth and restored to her husband, but a single +condition was laid upon Orpheus in leading her out. Until they had +regained the earth he was not to look backward, or the boon would be +forfeited. The Latin poet Ovid tells how the two fared forth together +from the underworld, and how Orpheus failed in the conditions of the +agreement. + + "Through the silent realm + Upward against the steep and fronting hill + Dark with obscurest gloom, the way he led: + And now the upper air was all but won, + When fearful lest the toil o'ertask her strength + And yearning to behold the form he loved, + An instant back he looked,--and back the shade + That instant fled.... + ...One last + And sad 'Farewell,' scarce audible, she sighed, + And vanished to the ghosts that late she left."[32] + +[32] From the Metamorphoses, Book x, in Henry King's translation, from +which also the other quotations are drawn. + +[Illustration: D. Anderson, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE + +_Albani Villa, Rome_] + +Our bas-relief represents a scene of parting between Orpheus and +Eurydice, and we may take it, as we please, to refer to their first or +to their last farewell. It seems, however, to apply more appropriately +to the first departure of Eurydice to the unknown land. She lays her +hand fondly upon her husband's shoulder, and he touches it gently as if +to detain her. + +The figure on the other side is the messenger god Hermes, whose mission +is to conduct departing spirits to the other world.[33] He has come for +Eurydice, and he takes her by the hand to draw her away. For a moment +husband and wife gaze into each other's eyes with love and sorrow, while +the messenger waits with exquisite courtesy. + +[33] See page 61. + +Though the Greeks had many tales of sorrow in their poetry and +mythology, they did not often illustrate them in their art. The subjects +of their sculpture are nearly always happy ones. Even here, you see, +grief is made so beautiful and dignified that we forget to feel sad +about the parting. We think most of the love and devotion between +Orpheus and Eurydice. + +The simple story of the bas-relief touches us more readily perhaps than +the grand statues of the gods. People like in art something which +corresponds to the common human lives of all. + +The garment worn by Eurydice seems quite like that of the goddess +Demeter. The drapery is very full in front, falling in long straight +folds. At the side it is scantier and shows the motion of the figure in +walking. The short tunic worn by the other figures is a picturesque +costume, and the mantle swinging over one shoulder is very graceful. +When one contrasts with these classical draperies the stiff dress of +modern times, one wonders that the sculptor of to-day does not throw +down his chisel in despair. + +The style of the draperies often enables a critic to decide in what +period a work of art was produced. In the best art the folds are always +simple: it is a sure sign of declining art when the folds are +complicated and broken. Here we see the few simple, severe lines which +mark the purest classical taste. + + + + +XV + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + + +Upon the death of Alexander the Great there was much disputing among his +generals as to what should become of the various provinces of his +empire, including Greece. It was finally decided that the Greek cities +should be left free. A general named Ptolemy soon broke this agreement +and entered Greece, whereupon another named Antigonus promptly proceeded +to punish him. Antigonus had a son Demetrius, who was a skilful +engineer, and was called Poliorcetes, "besieger of cities," for his +success in raising sieges. He was sent to Athens with a fleet of two +hundred and fifty ships, and won the gratitude of the city for +delivering it from the hands of Ptolemy. Demetrius next turned his +attention to the island of Cyprus, of which Ptolemy was in possession. +The rival forces met off Salamis, 306 B. C., in a fierce sea fight, and +Demetrius was victorious. + +Now the Greeks were fond of commemorating notable events by the erection +of statues, and it was an old custom among them to set up a statue of +victory in honor of any success of arms on land or sea. We have seen how +natural it was for them to attribute the affairs of life to the agency +of the deities. So in war, greatly as they praised their armies and +their generals, it was to Nike, the goddess of victory, that they gave +the chief credit of success. This goddess was conceived as a winged +being attendant upon both Zeus and Athena, who, as we have seen, +controlled the destinies of war. + +To Nike then, this winged goddess of victory, was due the wonderful +success of Demetrius over Ptolemy's fleet before Salamis, and it was +fitting that her statue should commemorate the event. The spot chosen +for it was the island of Samothrace, which stands so high above water +level that it is very conspicuous in the northern Greek archipelago. + +The goddess was represented standing on the prow of a vessel as if +leading the fleet to success. It may be that the old Greek idea of a +goddess at the prow was the origin of the "figure head" for so many +years carried by every ship that sailed the seas. The vessels in those +old days were called _triremes_, being propelled by rowers who sat at +their oars in three _tiers_, or banks, which gave the name to the craft. +The goddess stood in the middle of what was called the _ikrion proras_, +which would correspond to the forecastle deck. In her right hand she +held a trumpet to her lips, and in her left she carried a crosstree, the +framework of a trophy. + +[Illustration: Neurdein Fr[`e]res, Photo. John Andrew & Son, Sc. + +NIKE (THE WINGED VICTORY) + +_The Louvre, Paris_] + +The figure is in an erect poise with the chest held high. You will +notice that a walker making his way against the wind bends the body +forward to resist its force, while one who is borne along on some +vehicle in the face of the wind steadies himself upright. So with Nike; +the attitude expresses the sense of exhilaration from the rush of wind +in the face of one borne along on a moving vessel. The breeze beats the +thin drapery back upon her, outlining the beautiful curves of bust and +limb, and fluttering behind her in the air. The broad pinions which +would retard the ship's motion if spread open are folded to cut the air +like the prow. + +When the statue was set up and the colossal figure in white marble was +seen against the blue sky of a southern land, what an inspiration it +must have been as a symbol of success! What discouraged heart could look +at such a figure and not be thrilled with new ambition! The statue of +Nike was not the only tribute to the victory of Demetrius. Some special +coins were struck in honor of the event, including gold staters and +silver tetradrachms, specimens of which still exist. The design on the +obverse of these coins represented the statue of Nike. + +Years passed, and at length the independence of the Greeks was crushed +under the heel of the Roman conqueror. Many places were laid waste +throughout the peninsula and the Greek islands. Temples were destroyed +and pillaged, and statues were thrown from their pedestals and buried +beneath the soil and d['e]bris. Our statue of Nike shared the sad fate +which befell so many other great works of art. For centuries it lay in +fragments in the ruins surrounding a temple in Samothrace. Then came the +explorer with pickaxe and shovel, some of the precious bits were +recovered, and learned men set to work to put them together again. The +coins of Demetrius were their guide, and the tiny figure of Nike +engraved thereon was the model after which the great statue was +reconstructed. + +The head and arms are still missing, and a fanciful conceit might +suggest that these losses were the marks of a hard-fought battle. +Success has been dearly bought, but the goddess emerges, erect and +undaunted, her tattered wings beating the air victoriously. As we look +at the statue we think less of what it lacks than of what it is. Perhaps +if head and arms were there we should not have eyes for the glorious +lines in the figure itself. One particularly fine line is the continuous +curve running across the bust and the arched top of the wings. + +The figure gives us a sense of motion which fairly quickens the blood in +our veins. We, too, seem to feel the strong salt breeze in our faces, +speeding through the air with courage high, and hope steadily set toward +victory. + + + + +XVI + +PERICLES + + +In the history of ancient Greece the half century included between the +years 480 and 430 B. C. is called the Age of Pericles. During forty +years of this period Pericles was the political leader of Athens. Under +his guidance the city reached the height of her power as the capital of +an empire composed of tributary states. Nor was political power the +chief glory of Athens at this time. She was the centre of arts and +science for the whole world. This was the age of great Greek literature, +when [AE]schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote their immortal dramas. It +was also the age of great oratory, when the Athenians constantly heard +"the purest lessons of patriotism put forth in the loftiest forms of +eloquence." Finally, it was the age of great art, when architecture and +sculpture attained perfection and when Phidias, the foremost Greek +sculptor, produced his masterpieces. + +Pericles was the dominating spirit in all this brilliant company. It was +his able statesmanship which made and executed the ambitious plans for +the aggrandizement of the city. It was, moreover, his generalship which +carried out successfully so many military expeditions. His eloquence +gave him great influence over the people. He had the art of controlling +men and moving their passions as a musician plays on the strings of his +instrument. Upon his return from the Samian war he delivered a +remarkable funeral oration on those who had fallen in battle. Still +again, his oration in honor of the heroes of the Peloponnesian war was a +noble eulogy of Athens and the Athenians. + +The part of Pericles' career which interests us most in our study of +Greek art is his zeal in beautifying Athens with works of architecture +and sculpture. He covered the Acropolis, as the great hill in Athens was +called, with beautiful buildings richly adorned with sculpture. He +appointed Phidias superintendent of all the public edifices, and +employed the most skilled workmen. Besides many temples, a theatre for +music, called an _odeum_, was built, and Pericles introduced into the +Panathenaic festival a contest in music held in this place. In addition +to the public buildings erected, Pericles caused a long wall to be built +to surround the city with fortifications. + +It may be supposed that all these improvements cost a great deal of +money, and there were not lacking men who criticised Pericles for +extravagance in the use of public funds. In an assembly of the people, +the great statesman called upon them to say if they thought he had spent +too much. "Yes," came the answer. "Then," said he, "be it charged to my +account, not yours, only let the edifices be inscribed with my name, not +that of the people of Athens." At this they cried out that he might +spend all he pleased of the public funds, and the criticism was +silenced. The story shows the quick wit of the orator, as well as his +knowledge of human nature. He knew he was safe in appealing to the pride +of the people in their city. + +At the close of his long career Pericles was seized with the plague, and +lay sick unto death. As his friends gathered about his death-bed they +recounted his great deeds and many victories. Suddenly he interrupted +them by exclaiming that they were praising only those qualities in which +he was no greater than other men. In his own estimate, the most +honorable trait of his character was that "no Athenian through his means +had ever put on mourning." + +Pericles was in fact a true patriot and a benefactor of his people. In +the administration of public affairs he showed an upright and honorable +character. Though all his life handling the public funds and increasing +the wealth of the state, it is said that he added not one drachma to his +own estate. He managed his private fortune with great prudence and +dispensed many charities to the needy. His manners were calm and +moderate, and he never gave way to envy or anger. His biographer, +Plutarch, has written of him that "where severity was required, no man +was ever more moderate, or if mildness was necessary, no man better kept +up his dignity than Pericles." + +Pericles was a man of fine and striking presence, with a countenance +cast in the mould we have come to know as the typical Greek. His head +was somewhat abnormally long, and the nickname "onion head" was given +him on this account. Plutarch says that this peculiarity accounts for +the fact that he was always represented in portraits as wearing a +helmet. + +We have reason to believe that the bust reproduced in our frontispiece +was made soon after his successful war against Samos. It represents him +then in the fullness of his manhood and at the height of his success and +popularity. The handsome face is full of refinement and shows the calm, +equable temperament which made him a leader. His qualities of +statesmanship strike us most forcibly in the portrait. We should hardly +suspect that this was a great military commander. Yet that here is a +master of men, we can easily believe. One can imagine him standing +before a great multitude, moving them with the power of his eloquence. + + + + +PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND FOREIGN WORDS + + +The Diacritical Marks given are those found in the latest edition of +Webster's International Dictionary. + + +EXPLANATION OF DIACRITICAL MARKS. + + A Dash (_) above the vowel denotes the long sound, as in + f[=a]te, [=e]ve, t[=i]me, n[=o]te, [=u]se. + + A Dash and a Dot ([.=x]) above the vowel denote the same sound, + less prolonged. + + A Curve ([)x]) above the vowel denotes the short sound, as in + [)a]dd, [)e]nd, [)i]ll, [)o]dd, [)u]p. + + A Dot (.) above the vowel a denotes the obscure sound of a in + p[.a]st, [.a]b[=a]te, Am[)e]ric[.a]. + + A Double Dot () above the vowel a denotes the broad sound of a + in f[:a]ther, [:a]lms. + + A Double Dot () below the vowel a denotes the sound of a in + b[a:]ll. + + A Wave (~) above the vowel e denotes the sound of e in h[~e]r. + + A Circumflex Accent (^) above the vowel o denotes the sound of o + in b[^o]rn. + + A dot (.) below the vowel u denotes the sound of u in the French + language. + + N indicates that the preceding vowel has the French nasal tone. + + [,c] sounds like $s$. + + [-c] sounds like $k$. + + [s=] sounds like $z$. + + [=g] is hard as in [=g]et. + + [.g] is soft as in [.g]em. + + + Achaian ([.a]-k[=a]'y[.a]n). + + Achilles ([.a]-k[)i]l'l[=e]z). + + Acropolis ([.a]-kr[)o]p'[.=o]-l[)i]s). + + Admetus ([)a]d-m[=e]'t[)u]s). + + [AE]gis ([=e]'j[)i]s). + + [AE]schylus ([)e]s'k[)i]-l[)u]s). + + Agoracritus ([)a]g-[.=o]-r[)a]k'r[)i]-t[)u]s). + + Agrippa ([.a]-gr[)i]p'[.a]). + + Albani ([:a]l-b[:a]'n[=e]). + + Alcamenes ([)a]l-k[)a]m'[)e]-n[=e]z). + + [:a]l't[)i]s. + + Antigone ([)a]n-t[)i][=g]'[=o]-n[=e]). + + Antigonus ([)a]n-t[)i][=g]'[=o]-n[)u]s). + + Antium ([)a]n'sh[)i]-[)u]m). + + Aphrodite ([)a]f-r[.=o]-d[=i]'t[=e]). + + Apollo ([.a]-p[)o]l'[=o]). + + Apoxyomenos ([)a]-p[)o]x-[)i]-[)o]m'[.=e]-n[)o]s). + + Ares ([=a]'r[=e]z). + + Argicide ([:a]r'j[)i]-s[=i]d). + + Argonauts ([:a]r'[=g][=o]-n[a:]tz). + + [:a]r'[=g][)u]s. + + Aristophanes ([)a]r-[)i]s-t[)o]f'[.a]-n[=e]z). + + Athena ([)a]-th[=e]'n[.a]). + + Athens ([)a]th'[)e]nz). + + + Bacchus (b[)a]k'[)u]s). + + Belvedere (b[)e]l-v[.=e]-d[=e]r'). + + Bernini (b[)e]r-n[=e]'n[=e]). + + Brunn (br[)oo]n). + + + caduceus (k[.a]-d[=u]'s[.=e]-[)u]s). + + C[)a]l'[.a]m[)i]s. + + C[)a]ll[=i]'[=o]p[=e]. + + Centaur (s[)e]n't[a:]r). + + Cerberus (s[~e]r'b[.=e]-r[)u]s). + + Ceres (s[=e]'r[=e]z). + + Chiron (k[=i]'r[)o]n). + + Collignon (k[)o]l-l[.=e]n-y[^o]N'). + + Cr[)e]s'[)i]l[.a]s. + + Cyprus (s[=i]'pr[)u]s). + + + Delphi (d[)e]l'f[=i]). + + D[)e]m[=e]'t[~e]r. + + D[)e]m[=e]'tr[)i][)u]s. + + D[=i]'[.=o]m[)e]d. + + D[)i]sc[)o]b'[.=o]l[)u]s. + + d[)i]s'k[)o]s. + + D[)o]n[:a]t[)e]l'l[=o]. + + + Elgin ([)e]l'[=g][)i]n). + + Eros ([=e]'r[)o]s). + + Euphranor ([=u]-fr[=a]'n[^o]r). + + Euripides ([=u]-r[)i]p'[)i]-d[=e]z). + + Eurydice ([=u]-r[)i]d'[=i]-s[.=e]). + + + Furtw[:a]ngler (f[=oo]rt'v[.=a]ng-l[~e]r). + + + G[)a]l'[.a]h[)a]d. + + Giustiniana (j[)oo]s-t[=e]-n[=e]-[:a]'n[:a]). + + glaukopis (gl[a:]-k[=o]'p[)i]s). + + Gorgon ([=g][^o]r'[=g][)o]n). + + + H[)e]c'[.=a]t[=e]. + + H[)e]ll[)e]n[)i]s't[)i]c. + + Heph[ae]stus (h[.=e]-f[)e]s't[)u]s). + + H[=e]'r[:a]. + + Her[ae]um (h[.=e]-r[=e]'[)u]m). + + H[)e]r'c[=u]l[=e][s=]. + + herm[ae] (h[~e]r'm[=e]). + + H[~e]r'm[=e][s=]. + + H[=e]'s[)i][)o]d. + + + [)i]k'r[)i][)o]n pr[=o]'r[:a]s. + + Iliad ([)i]l'[)i]-[.a]d). + + Io ([=i]'[=o]). + + Ithaca ([)i]th'[.a]-k[.a]). + + + J[=a]'s[)o]n. + + J[=u]'n[=o]. + + J[=u]'p[)i]t[~e]r. + + + Lancelotti (l[:a]n-ch[.=a]-l[)o]t'[=e]). + + L[)a]t'[~e]r[.a]n. + + Leochares (l[.=e]-[)o]k'[.a]-r[=e]z). + + Louvre (l[=oo]'vr). + + Lucian (l[=u]'sh[)i]-[.a]n). + + Ludovisi (l[=o=o]-d[=o]-v[=e]'z[=e]). + + Lutatius Catulus (l[=u]-t[=a]'sh[)i]-[)u]s k[)a]t'[=u]-l[)u]s). + + L[=y]c[^u]r'g[)u]s. + + L[=y]s[)i]p'p[)u]s. + + + M[:a]rs. + + M[)e]d'[)i]c[:a]. + + M[=e]'l[)o]s. + + M[~e]r'c[=u]r[)y]. + + M[)e]t[.a]m[)o]r'ph[=o]s[=e][s=]. + + M[)e]t'[=o]p[=e][s=]. + + M[=i]'l[=o]. + + M[)i]n[~e]r'v[.a]. + + M[=y]'r[)o]n. + + + N[)e]m'[)e]s[)i]s. + + N[=i]'k[=e]. + + N[=y]'s[.a]. + + + [=o]d[=e]'[)u]m. + + Odyssey ([)o]d'[)i]-s[)i]). + + [OE]dipus Coloneus ([)e]d'[)i]-p[)u]s k[=o]-l[=o]-n[=e]'-[)u]s). + + [OE]dipus Tyrannus ([)e]d'[)i]-p[)u]s t[)i]-r[)a]n'-[)u]s). + + [OE]none ([=e]-n[=o]'n[.=e]). + + Olympia ([=o]-l[)i]m'p[)i]-[.a]). + + Olympiad ([=o]-l[)i]m'p[)i]-[)a]d). + + Olympic ([=o]-l[)i]m'p[)i]k). + + Olympus ([=o]-l[)i]m'p[)u]s). + + Orpheus ([^o]r'f[=u]s). + + Otricoli ([=o]-tr[=e]'k[=o]-l[=e]). + + Ovid ([)o]v'[)i]d). + + + pal[ae]stra (p[.a]-l[)e]s'tr[.a]). + + P[)a]l'l[.a]s. + + Panathen[ae]a (p[)a]n-[)a]th-[.=e]-n[=e]'[.a]). + + P[)a]n[)a]th[.=e]n[=a]'[)i]c. + + P[:a]rn[)a]s's[)u]s. + + P[:a]r'th[.=e]n[)o]n. + + P[=a]'t[~e]r. + + P[.=a]tr[=o]'cl[)u]s. + + Peloponnesian (p[)e]l-[.=o]-p[)o]n-n[=e]'sh[.a]n). + + P[.=e]n[)e]l'[=o]p[.=e]. + + P[)e]nt[)e]l'[)i]c. + + p[)e]p'l[)o]s. + + P[)e]r'[)i]cl[=e]s. + + Persephone (p[~e]r-s[)e]f'[=o]-n[=e]). + + Perseus (p[~e]r's[=u]s). + + Phidias (f[)i]d'[)i]-[.a]s). + + Ph[oe]bus (f[=e]'b[)u]s). + + Phrynicus (fr[)i]n'[)i]-k[)u]s). + + P[)i]n'd[.a]r. + + pl[)e]c'tr[)u]m. + + Pl[)i]n'[)y]. + + Plutarch (pl[=u]'t[:a]rk). + + Pl[=u]'t[=o]. + + P[)o]l[)i]cl[=y]'t[)u]s. + + P[)o]l[)i][^o]r[,c][=e]'t[=e][s=]. + + Pr[)a]x[)i]t'[)e]l[=e][s=]. + + Ptolemy (t[)o]l'[)e]-m[)i]). + + P[)y]th'[)i][.a]. + + P[=y]'th[)o]n. + + + Reber, von (f[)o]n r[=a]'b[~e]r). + + + S[)a]l'[.a]m[)i]s. + + S[=a]'m[)i][.a]n. + + S[=a]'m[)o]s. + + Samothrace (s[)a]m'[.=o]-thr[=a]s). + + Sc[=o]'p[.a]s. + + Scyros (s[=i]'r[)o]s). + + S[)o]ph'[=o]cl[=e][s=]. + + strigil (str[)i]'j[)i]l). + + St[)y]x. + + Symonds (s[)i]m'[)u]ndz). + + + Telemachus (t[.=e]-l[)e]m'[.a]-k[)u]s). + + Terracina (t[)e]r-r[:a]-ch[=e]'n[:a]). + + Th[=e][)o][=g]'[=o]n[)y]. + + Theseus (th[=e]'s[=u]s). + + Thrace (thr[=a]s). + + Trastevere (tr[:a]s-t[=a]-v[=a]'r[=a]). + + trireme (tr[=i]'r[=e]m). + + Tr[=o]'j[.a]n. + + + Ulysses ([=u]-l[)y]s's[=e]z). + + + Vatican (v[)a]t'[)i]-k[.a]n). + + V[=e]'n[)u]s. + + V[)u]l'c[.a]n. + + + Waldstein (w[a:]ld'st[=i]n). + + + Zeus (z[=u]s). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Greek Sculpture, by Estelle M. 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