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<pre>

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
Volume 3, Slice 6, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 6
       "Bent, James" to "Bibirine"

Author: Various

Release Date: December 9, 2010 [EBook #34612]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net






</pre>



<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
<tr>
<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
</td>
<td class="norm">
A couple of typographical errors have been corrected. They
appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
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when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
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display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>

<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>

<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<hr class="full" />
<h3>VOLUME III SLICE VI<br /><br />
Bent, James to Bibirine</h3>
<hr class="full" />
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">

<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BENT, JAMES THEODORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BERSERKER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BENTHAM, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BERT, PAUL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BENTHAM, JEREMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BERTANI, AGOSTINO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BERTAT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BERTAUT, JEAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BERTH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGÈNE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BENTLEY, RICHARD</a> (English scholar)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BENTLEY, RICHARD</a> (British publisher)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BENTON, THOMAS HART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BERTHON, EDWARD LYON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BENTON HARBOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BERTHOUD, FERDINAND</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BENUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BEN VENUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BERTIN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BENZALDEHYDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BERTINORO, OBADIAH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BENZENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BERTINORO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BENZIDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BERTOLD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BENZOIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BENZOIN</a> (ketone-alcohol)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BERTRAM, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BENZOIN</a> (balsamic resin)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BENZOPHENONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BERTRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BENZYL ALCOHOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BÉRULLE, PIERRE DE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BEOTHUK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BERVIE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BEÖTHY, ÖDÖN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BEOWULF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BERWICKSHIRE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BEQUEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BERWICK-UPON-TWEED</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BÉRAIN, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BERYL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BERYLLIUM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BERAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BERYLLONITE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BÉRARD, JOSEPH FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BERZELIUS, JÖNS JAKOB</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BERAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BERAUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BESANÇON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BERBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BESANT, SIR WALTER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BERBERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BERBERINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BESKOW, BERNHARD VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BERBERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BERCEUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BESOM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BERCHEM, NICOLAAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BESSARABIA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BERCHTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BESSARION, JOHANNES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BERCHTESGADEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BERCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BESSÈGES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BERDICHEV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BERDYANSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BESSEL FUNCTION</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BEREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BESSEMER, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BEREKHIAH NAQDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BESSEMER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BERENGARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BESSIÈRES, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BÉRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BESSUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BERENICE</a> (princesses)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BERENICE</a> (seaport of Egypt)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BESTIA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BERESFORD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BET and BETTING</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BEREZINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BETAÏNE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BEREZOV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BETEL NUT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BEREZOVSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BETHANY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BETHEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BERGAMASK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BÉTHENCOURT, JEAN DE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BERGAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BETHESDA</a> (Jerusalem)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BERGAMOT, OIL OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BETHESDA</a> (Wales)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BERGEDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BETH-HORON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BERGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BETHLEHEM</a> (Palestine)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BERGEN-OP-ZOOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BETHLEHEM</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BERGERAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BETHLEHEMITES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BERGHAUS, HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BETHLEN, GABRIEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BERGK, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BETHNAL GREEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BERGLER, STEPHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BÉTHUNE</a> {family)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BÉTHUNE, CONON DE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BERGSCHRUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BÉTHUNE</a> (town of France)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BERGUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BETROTHAL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BERHAMPUR</a> (Bengal, India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BETTERMENT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BERHAMPUR</a> (Madras, India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BETTERTON, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BERI-BERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BETTIA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BERING, VITUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BETTINELLI, SAVERIO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BERING ISLAND, SEA and STRAIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BETTWS Y COED</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BERING SEA ARBITRATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BETUL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BERJA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BETWA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BERKA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEUDANT, FRANÇOIS SULPICE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BERKELEY</a> (English family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BERKELEY, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEULÉ, CHARLES ERNEST</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BERKELEY</a> (California, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BEUTHEN</a> (Niederbeuthen)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BERKELEY</a> (town of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BEUTHEN</a> (Oberbeuthen)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BERKHAMPSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BEVEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BERKSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BEVERLEY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BÊRLAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BEVERLY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BEVIS OF HAMPTON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BERLIN, ISAIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BEWDLEY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BERLIN</a> (German city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BEWICK, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BERLIN</a> (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BEXHILL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BERLIN</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BERLIN</a> (carriage)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BEXLEY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BERLIOZ, HECTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BEY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BERM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BEYBAZAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BERMONDSEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BEYLE, MARIE HENRI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BERMUDAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BERMUDEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BERN</a> (Swiss canton)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BEZA, THEODORE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BERN</a> (Swiss city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BEZANT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BERNARD, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BEZANTÉE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BERNARD OF CHARTRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BERNARD, CHARLES DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BEZEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BERNARD, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">BÉZIQUE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BERNARD, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">BEZWADA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">BHAGALPUR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BERNARD, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">BHAMO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BERNARD, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">BHANDARA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">BHANG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BERNAUER, AGNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">BHARAHAT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BERNAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">BHARAL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BERNAYS, JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">BHARATPUR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BERNBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">BHATGÁON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">BHATTIANA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BERNERS, JULIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">BHAU DAJI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">BHAUNAGAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BERNHARDT, SARAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">BHEESTY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">BHERA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BERNI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">BHILS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BERNICIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">BHIMA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BERNICIAN SERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">BHIWANI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">BHOPAL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BERNIS, FRANÇOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">BHOPAWAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BERNKASTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">BHOR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BERNOULLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">BHUJ</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BERNSTEIN, AARON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">BHUTAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">BIARRITZ</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">BIAS</a>  (Sage of Greece)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BEROSSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">BIAS</a> (something oblique)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BERRY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">BIBERACH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">BIBIRINE</a></td></tr>
</table>

<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BENT, JAMES THEODORE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1852-1897), English traveller,
was the son of James Bent of Baildon House, near Leeds, Yorkshire,
where he was born on the 30th of March 1852. He was
educated at Repton school and Wadham College, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1875. In 1877 he married Mabel, daughter of
R.W. Hall-Dare of Newtownbarry, Co. Wexford, and she became
his companion in all his travels. He went abroad every year and
became thoroughly acquainted with Italy and Greece. In 1879
he published a book on the republic of San Marino, entitled <i>A
Freak of Freedom</i>, and was made a citizen of San Marino; in the
following year appeared <i>Genoa: How the Republic Rose and
Fell</i>, and in 1881 a <i>Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi</i>. He spent considerable
time in the Aegean archipelago, of which he wrote in
<i>The Cyclades: or Life among the Insular Greeks</i> (1885). From
this period Bent devoted himself particularly to archaeological
research. The years 1885-1888 were given up to investigations
in Asia Minor, his discoveries and conclusions being communicated
to the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> and other magazines
and reviews. In 1889 he undertook excavations in the Bahrein
Islands of the Persian Gulf, and found evidence that they had
been a primitive home of the Phoenician race. After an expedition
in 1890 to Cilicia Trachea, where he obtained a valuable collection
of inscriptions, Bent spent a year in South Africa, with the object,
by investigation of some of the ruins in Mashonaland, of throwing
light on the vexed question of their origin and on the early history
of East Africa. He made the first detailed examination of the
Great Zimbabwe. Bent described his work in <i>The Ruined Cities
of Mashonaland</i> (1892). In 1893 he investigated the ruins of
Axum and other places in the north of Abyssinia, partially made
known before by the researches of Henry Salt and others, and <i>The
Sacred City of the Ethiopians</i> (1893) gave an account of this
expedition. Bent now visited at considerable risk the almost
unknown Hadramut country (1893-1894), and during this and
later journeys in southern Arabia he studied the ancient history
of the country, its physical features and actual condition. On
the Dhafar coast in 1894-1895 he visited ruins which he identified
with the Abyssapolis of the frankincense merchants. In 1895-1896
he examined part of the African coast of the Red Sea,
finding there the ruins of a very ancient gold-mine and traces of
what he considered Sabean influence. While on another journey
in South Arabia (1896-1897), Bent was seized with malarial fever,
and died in London on the 5th of May 1897, a few days after his
return. Mrs Bent, who had contributed by her skill as a photographer
and in other ways to the success of her husband&rsquo;s
journeys, published in 1900 <i>Southern Arabia, Soudan and Sakotra</i>,
in which were given the results of their last expedition into that
region. The conclusions at which Bent arrived as to the Semitic
origin of the ruins in Mashonaland have not been accepted by
archaeologists, but the value of his pioneer work is undeniable
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zimbabwe</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENT.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> 1. (From &ldquo;to bend&rdquo;), primarily the result of bending;
hence any inclination from the straight, as in curved objects like
a hook or a bow; this survives in the modern phrase &ldquo;to follow
one&rsquo;s own bent,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> to pursue a certain course in a direction
deviating from the normal, as also in such phrases as Chaucer&rsquo;s
&ldquo;Downward on a hill under a bent,&rdquo; indicating a hollow or
declivity in the general configuration of the land. From the
bending of a bow comes the idea of tension, as in Hamlet, &ldquo;they
fool me to the top of my bent,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> to the utmost of my capacity.
2. (From the O. Eng. <i>beonet</i>, a coarse, rushy grass growing in wet
places; cf. the Ger. <i>Binse</i>, a reed), the name (&ldquo;bent&rdquo; or
&ldquo;bennet&rdquo;) popularly applied to several kinds of grass and
surviving in the form &ldquo;bent-grass.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTHAM, GEORGE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1800-1884), English botanist, was
born at Stoke near Portsmouth on the 22nd of September 1800.
His father, Sir Samuel Bentham (1757-1831), was the only
brother of Jeremy Bentham, the publicist, and of scarcely
inferior ability though in a different direction. Devoting himself
in early life to the study of naval architecture, Sir Samuel went
to Russia to visit the naval establishments in the Baltic and
Black Seas. He was induced to enter the service of the empress
Catherine II., built a flotilla of gunboats and defeated the Turkish
fleet. For this he was made, in addition to other honours,
colonel of a cavalry regiment. On the death of the empress he
returned to England to be employed by the admiralty, and was
sent (1805-1807) again to Russia to superintend the building
of some ships for the British navy. He attained the rank, under
the admiralty, of inspector-general of naval works. He introduced
a multitude of improvements in naval organization, and
it was largely through his recommendation that M.I. Brunel&rsquo;s
block-making machinery was installed at Portsmouth.</p>

<p>George Bentham had neither a school nor a college education,
but early acquired the power of giving sustained and concentrated
attention to any subject that occupied him&mdash;one essential
condition of the success he attained as perhaps the greatest
systematic botanist of the 19th century. Another was his
remarkable linguistic aptitude. At the age of six to seven he
could converse in French, German and Russian, and he learnt
Swedish during a short residence in Sweden when little older.
At the close of the war with France, the Benthams made a long
tour through that country, staying two years at Montauban,
where Bentham studied Hebrew and mathematics in the
Protestant Theological School. They eventually settled in the
neighbourhood of Montpellier where Sir Samuel purchased a
large estate.</p>

<p>The mode in which George Bentham was attracted to the
botanical studies which became the occupation of his life is
noteworthy; it was through the applicability to them of the
logical methods which he had imbibed from his uncle&rsquo;s writings,
and not from any special attraction to natural history pursuits.
While studying at Angoulême a copy of A.P. de Candolle&rsquo;s
<i>Flore française</i> fell into his hands and he was struck with the
analytical tables for identifying plants. He immediately proceeded
to test their use on the first that presented itself. The
result was successful and he continued to apply it to every plant
he came across. A visit to London in 1823 brought him into contact
with the brilliant circle of English botanists. In 1826, at the
pressing invitation of his uncle, he agreed to act as his secretary,
at the same time entering at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn and reading for the
bar. He was called in due time and in 1832 held his first and
last brief. The same year Jeremy Bentham died, leaving his
property to his nephew. His father&rsquo;s inheritance had fallen to
him the previous year. He was now in a position of modest
independence, and able to pursue undistractedly his favourite
studies. For a time these were divided between botany,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
jurisprudence and logic, in addition to editing his father&rsquo;s professional
papers. Bentham&rsquo;s first publication was his <i>Catalogue des
plantes indigènes des Pyrénées et du Bas Languedoc</i> (Paris, 1826),
the result of a careful exploration of the Pyrenees in company
with G.A. Walker Arnott (1799-1868), afterwards professor of
botany in the university of Glasgow. It is interesting to notice
that in it Bentham adopted the principle from which he never
deviated, of citing nothing at second-hand. This was followed
by articles on various legal subjects: on codification, in which
he disagreed with his uncle, on the laws affecting larceny and
on the law of real property. But the most remarkable production
of this period was the <i>Outline of a New System of Logic, with a
Critical Examination of Dr Whately&rsquo;s Elements of Logic</i> (1827).
In this the principle of the quantification of the predicate was
first explicitly stated. This Stanley Jevons declared to be
&ldquo;undoubtedly the most fruitful discovery made in abstract
logical science since the time of Aristotle.&rdquo; Before sixty copies
had been sold the publisher became bankrupt and the stock
went for wastepaper. The book passed into oblivion, and it was
not till 1873 that Bentham&rsquo;s claims to priority were finally
vindicated against those of Sir William Hamilton by Herbert
Spencer. In 1836 he published his <i>Labiatarum genera et species</i>.
In preparing this work he visited, between 1830-1834, every
European herbarium, several more than once. The following
winter was passed in Vienna, where he produced his <i>Commentationes
de Leguminosarum generibus</i>, published in the annals of
the Vienna Museum. In 1842 he removed to Pontrilas in Herefordshire.
His chief occupation for some succeeding years was
his contributions to the <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni
Vegetabilis</i>, which was being carried on by his friend, A.P.
deCandolle. In all these dealt with some 4730 species.</p>

<p>In 1854 he found the maintenance of a herbarium and library
too great a tax on his means. He therefore offered them to the
government on the understanding that they should form the
foundation of such necessary aids to research in the Royal
Botanic Gardens at Kew. At the same time he contemplated
the abandonment of botanical work. Fortunately, he yielded
to the persuasion of Sir William Hooker, John Lindley and other
scientific friends. In 1855 he took up his residence in London,
and worked at Kew for five days a week, with a brief summer
holiday, from this time onwards till the end of his life. As his
friend Asa Gray wrote: &ldquo;With such methodical habits, with
freedom from professional or administrative functions, which
consume the time of most botanists, with steady devotion to his
chosen work, and with nearly all authentic material and needful
appliances at hand or within reach, it is not so surprising that
he should have undertaken and have so well accomplished such
a vast amount of work, and he has the crowning merit and happy
fortune of having completed all that he undertook.&rdquo; The
government, in 1857, sanctioned a scheme for the preparation
of a series of Floras or descriptions in the English language
of the indigenous plants of British colonies and possessions.
Bentham began with the <i>Flora Hongkongensis</i> in 1861, which
was the first comprehensive work on any part of the little-known
flora of China. This was followed by the <i>Flora Australiensis</i>,
in seven volumes (1863-1878), the first flora of any large continental
area that had ever been finished. His greatest work
was the <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, begun in 1862, and concluded in
1883 in collaboration with Sir Joseph Hooker, &ldquo;the greater
portion being,&rdquo; as Sir Joseph Hooker tells us, &ldquo;the product of
Bentham&rsquo;s indefatigable industry.&rdquo; As age gradually impaired
his bodily powers, he seemed at last only to live for the completion
of this monumental work.</p>

<p>When the last revise of the last sheet was returned to the
printer, the stimulus was withdrawn, and his powers seemed
suddenly to fail him. He began a brief autobiography, but the
pen with which he had written his two greatest works broke in
his hand in the middle of a page. He accepted the omen, laid
aside the unfinished manuscript and patiently awaited the not
distant end. He died on the both of September 1884, within a
fortnight of his 84th birthday.</p>

<p>The scientific world received the <i>Genera Plantarum</i> with as
unanimous an assent as was accorded to the <i>Species Plantarum</i>
of Linnaeus. Bentham possessed, as Professor Daniel Oliver
remarked, &ldquo;an insight of so special a character as to deserve the
name of genius, into the relative value of characters for practical
systematic work, and as a consequence of this, a sure sifting of
essentials from non-essentials in each respective grade.&rdquo; His
preparation for his crowning work had been practically lifelong.
There are few parts of the world upon the botany of which he
did not touch. In the sequence and arrangement of the great
families of flowering plants, different views from those of
Bentham may be adopted. But Bentham paved the way by an
intimate and exact statement of the structural facts and their
accurate relationship, which is not likely to be improved.
In method and style, in descriptive work, Bentham was a
supreme master. This, to quote Professor Oliver again, is
&ldquo;manifest not only in its terseness, aptness and precision, but
especially in the judicious selection of diagnostic marks, and
in the instinctive estimate of probable range in variation,
which long experience and innate genius for such work could
alone inspire.&rdquo;</p>
<div class="author">(W. T. T.-D.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTHAM, JEREMY<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1748-1832), English philosopher and
jurist, was born on the 15th of February 1748 in Red Lion Street,
Houndsditch, London, in which neighbourhood his grandfather
and father successively carried on business as attorneys. His
father, who was a wealthy man and possessed at any rate a
smattering of Greek, Latin and French, was thought to have
demeaned himself by marrying the daughter of an Andover
tradesman, who afterwards retired to a country house near
Reading, where young Jeremy spent many happy days. The
boy&rsquo;s talents justified the ambitious hopes which his parents
entertained of his future. When three years old he read eagerly
such works as Rapin&rsquo;s <i>History</i> and began the study of Latin.
A year or two later he learnt to play the violin and to speak
French. At Westminster school he obtained a reputation for
Greek and Latin verse writing; and he was only thirteen when
he was matriculated at Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, where his most
important acquisition seems to have been a thorough acquaintance
with Sanderson&rsquo;s logic. He became a B.A. in 1763, and in
the same year entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, and took his seat as a
student in the queen&rsquo;s bench, where he listened with rapture to
the judgments of Lord Mansfield. He managed also to hear
Blackstone&rsquo;s lectures at Oxford, but says that he immediately
detected the fallacies which underlay the rounded periods of the
future judge.</p>

<p>Bentham&rsquo;s family connexions would naturally have given him
a fair start at the bar, but this was not the career for which he
was preparing himself. He spent his time in making chemical
experiments and in speculating upon legal abuses, rather than in
reading Coke upon Littleton and the Reports. On being called
to the bar he &ldquo;found a cause or two at nurse for him, which he
did his best to put to death,&rdquo; to the bitter disappointment of his
father, who had confidently looked forward to seeing him upon
the woolsack. The first fruits of Bentham&rsquo;s studies, the <i>Fragment
on Government</i>, appeared in 1776. This masterly attack upon
Blackstone&rsquo;s praises of the English constitution was variously
attributed to Lord Mansfield, Lord Camden and Lord Ashburton.
One important result of its publication was that, in 1781, Lord
Shelburne (afterwards first marquess of Lansdowne) called upon
its author in his chambers at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. Henceforth
Bentham was a frequent guest at Bowood, where he saw the best
society and where he met Miss Caroline Fox (daughter of the
second Lord Holland), to whom he afterwards made a proposal
of marriage. In 1785 Bentham started, by way of Italy and
Constantinople, on a visit to his brother, Samuel Bentham, a
naval engineer, holding the rank of colonel in the Russian
service; and it was in Russia that he wrote his <i>Defence of Usury</i>.
Disappointed after his return to England in 1788 in the hope
which he had entertained, through a misapprehension of something
said by Lord Lansdowne, of taking a personal part in the
legislation of his country, he settled down to the yet higher task
of discovering and teaching the principles upon which all sound
legislation must proceed. The great work, upon which he had
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
been engaged for many years, the <i>Principles of Morals and
Legislation</i>, was published in 1789. His fame spread widely and
rapidly. He was made a French citizen in 1792; and his advice
was respectfully received in most of the states of Europe and
America, with many of the leading men of which he maintained an
active correspondence. In 1817 he became a bencher of Lincoln&rsquo;s
Inn. His ambition was to be allowed to prepare a code of laws
for his own or some foreign country. During nearly a quarter
of a century he was engaged in negotiations with the government
for the erection of a &ldquo;Panopticon,&rdquo; for the central inspection
of convicts; a plan suggested to him by a building designed by
his brother Samuel, for the better supervision of his Russian
shipwrights. This scheme, which it was alleged would render
transportation unnecessary, was eventually abandoned, and
Bentham received in 1813, in pursuance of an act of parliament,
£23,000 by way of compensation. It was at a later period of his
life that he propounded schemes for cutting canals through the
isthmus of Suez and the isthmus of Panama. In 1823 he established
the <i>Westminster Review</i>. Emboldened perhaps by the
windfall of 1813, Bentham in the following year took a lease of
Ford Abbey, a fine mansion with a deer-park, in Dorsetshire;
but in 1818 returned to the house in Queen&rsquo;s Square Place which
he had occupied since the death of his father in 1792. It was
there that he died on the 6th of June 1832 in his eighty-fifth year.
In accordance with his directions, his body was dissected in the
presence of his friends, and the skeleton is still preserved in
University College, London.</p>

<p>Bentham&rsquo;s life was a happy one of its kind. His constitution,
weakly in childhood, strengthened with advancing years so as
to allow him to get through an incredible amount of sedentary
labour, while he retained to the last the fresh and cheerful
temperament of a boy. An ample inherited fortune permitted
him to pursue his studies undistracted by the necessity for
earning a livelihood, and to maximize the results of his time and
labour by the employment of amanuenses and secretaries. He
was able to gather around him a group of congenial friends and
pupils, such as the Mills, the Austins and Bowring, with whom
he could discuss the problems upon which he was engaged, and
by whom several of his books were practically rewritten from
the mass of rough though orderly memoranda which the master
had himself prepared. Thus, for instance, was the <i>Rationale of
Judicial Evidence</i> written out by J.S. Mill and the <i>Book of
Fallacies</i> by Bingham. The services which Dumont rendered in
recasting as well as translating the works of Bentham were still
more important.</p>

<p>The popular notion that Bentham was a morose visionary is
far removed from fact. It is true that he looked upon general
society as a waste of time and that he disliked poetry as
&ldquo;misrepresentation&rdquo;; but he intensely enjoyed conversation, gave
good dinners and delighted in music, in country sights and in
making others happy. These features of Bentham&rsquo;s character
are illustrated in the graphic account given by the American
minister, Richard Rush, of an evening spent at his London house
in the summer of the year 1818. &ldquo;If Mr Bentham&rsquo;s character
is peculiar,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;so is his place of residence. It was a
kind of blind-alley, the end of which widened into a small,
neat courtyard. There by itself stands Mr Bentham&rsquo;s house.
Shrubbery graced its area and flowers its window-sills. It was
like an oasis in the desert. Its name is the Hermitage. Mr
Bentham received me with the simplicity of a philosopher. I
should have taken him for seventy or upwards. Everything
inside the house was orderly. The furniture seemed to have
been unmoved since the days of his fathers, for I learned that it
was a patrimony. A parlour, library and dining-room made up
the suite of apartments. In each was a piano, the eccentric
master of the whole being fond of music as the recreation of his
literary hours. It is a unique, romantic-like homestead. Walking
with him into the garden, I found it dark with the shade of
ancient trees. They formed a barrier against all intrusion.
The company was small but choice. Mr Brougham; Sir
Samuel Romilly; Mr Mill, author of the well-known work on
India; M. Dumont, the learned Genevan, once the associate of
Mirabeau, were all who sat down to table. Mr Bentham did not
talk much. He had a benevolence of manner suited to the
philanthropy of his mind. He seemed to be thinking only of
the convenience and pleasure of his guests, not as a rule of
artificial breeding as from Chesterfield or Madame Genlis, but
from innate feeling. Bold as are his opinions in his works, here
he was wholly unobtrusive of theories that might not have
commended the assent of all present. When he did converse
it was in simple language, a contrast to his later writings, where
an involved style and the use of new or universal words are
drawbacks upon the speculations of a genius original and profound,
but with the faults of solitude. Yet some of his earlier
productions are distinguished by classical terseness.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Residence
at the Court of London</i>, p. 286.) Bentham&rsquo;s love of flowers and
music, of green foliage and shaded walks, comes clearly out in
this pleasant picture of his home life and social surroundings.</p>

<p>Whether or no he can be said to have founded a school, his
doctrines have become so far part of the common thought of the
time, that there is hardly an educated man who does not accept
as too clear for argument truths which were invisible till Bentham
pointed them out. His sensitively honourable nature, which
in early life had caused him to shrink from asserting his belief
in Thirty-nine articles of faith which he had not examined, was
shocked by the enormous abuses which confronted him on
commencing the study of the law. He rebelled at hearing the
system under which they flourished described as the perfection
of human reason. But he was no merely destructive critic. He
was determined to find a solid foundation for both morality and
law, and to raise upon it an edifice, no stone of which should be
laid except in accordance with the deductions of the severest
logic. This foundation is &ldquo;the greatest happiness of the greatest
number,&rdquo; a formula adopted from Priestly or perhaps first from
Beccaria. The phrase may, however, be found in writers of an
earlier date than these, <i>e.g.</i> in Hutcheson&rsquo;s <i>Enquiry</i>,
published in 1725. The pursuit of such happiness is taught by the
&ldquo;utilitarian&rdquo; philosophy, an expression used by Bentham himself
in 1802, and therefore not invented by J.S. Mill, as he supposed,
in 1823. In order to ascertain what modes of action are most
conducive to the end in view, and what motives are best fitted
to produce them, Bentham was led to construct marvellously
exhaustive, though somewhat mechanical, tables of motives.
With all their elaboration, these tables are, however, defective,
as omitting some of the highest and most influential springs of
action. But most of Bentham&rsquo;s conclusions may be accepted
without any formal profession of the utilitarian theory of morals.
They are, indeed, merely the application of a rigorous common
sense to the facts of society. That the proximate ends at which
Bentham aimed are desirable hardly any one would deny,
though the feasibility of the means by which he proposes to
attain them may often be questioned, and much of the new
nomenclature in which he thought fit to clothe his doctrines
may be rejected as unnecessary. To be judged fairly, Bentham
must be judged as a teacher of the principles of legislation. With
the principles of private morals he really deals only so far as is
necessary to enable the reader to appreciate the impulses which
have to be controlled by law.</p>

<p>As a teacher of legislation he inquires of all institutions whether
their utility justifies their existence. If not, he is prepared to
suggest a new form of institution by which the needful service
may be rendered. While thus engaged no topic is too large for
his mental grasp, none too small for his notice; and, what is still
rarer, every topic is seen in its due relation to the rest. English
institutions had never before been thus comprehensively and
dispassionately surveyed. Such improvements as had been
necessitated were mere makeshifts, often made by stealth. The
rude symmetry of the feudal system had been long ago destroyed
by partial and unskilful adaptations to modern commercial life,
effected at various dates and in accordance with various theories.
The time had come for deliberate reconstruction, for inquiring
whether the existence of many admitted evils was, as it was said
to be, unavoidable; for proving that the needs of society may be
classified and provided for by contrivances which shall not clash
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
with one another because all shall be parts of a consistent whole.
This task Bentham undertook, and he brought to it a mind absolutely
free from professional or class feeling, or any other species
of prejudice. He mapped out the whole subject, dividing and
subdividing it in accordance with the principle of &ldquo;dichotomy.&rdquo;
Having reached his ultimate subdivisions he subjects each to the
most thorough and ingenious discussion. His earlier writings
exhibit a lively and easy style, which gives place in his later
treatises to sentences which are awkward from their effort after
unattainable accuracy, and from the newly-invented technical
nomenclature in which they are expressed. Many of Bentham&rsquo;s
phrases, such as &ldquo;international,&rdquo; &ldquo;utilitarian,&rdquo; &ldquo;codification,&rdquo;
are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them,
especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it.
His neology is one among many instances of his contempt for the
past and his wish to be clear of all association with it. His was,
indeed, a typically logical, as opposed to a historical, mind.
For the history of institutions which, thanks largely to the
writings of Sir Henry Maine, has become a new and interesting
branch of science, Bentham cared nothing. Had he possessed
such a knowledge of Roman law as is now not uncommon in
England, he must doubtless have taken a different view of many
subjects. The logical and historical methods can, however,
seldom be combined without confusion; and it is perhaps
fortunate that Bentham devoted his long life to showing how
much may be done by pursuing the former method exclusively.
His writings have been and remain a storehouse of instruction
for statesmen, an armoury for legal reformers. &ldquo;Pillé par tout
le monde,&rdquo; as Talleyrand said of him, &ldquo;il est toujours riche.&rdquo;
To trace the results of his teaching in England alone would be to
write a history of the legislation of half a century. Upon the
whole administrative machinery of government, upon criminal
law and upon procedure, both criminal and civil, his influence
has been most salutary; and the great legal revolution which in
1873 purported to accomplish the fusion of law and equity is not
obscurely traceable to the same source. Those of Bentham&rsquo;s
suggestions which have hitherto been carried out have affected
the matter or contents of the law. The hopes which have been
from time to time entertained, that his suggestions for the
improvement of its form and expression were about to receive
the attention which they deserved, have hitherto been
disappointed. The services rendered by Bentham to the world
would not, however, be exhausted even by the practical adoption
of every one of his recommendations. There are no limits to the
good results of his introduction of a true method of reasoning into
the moral and political sciences.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Bentham&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>, together with an Introduction by J. Hill
Burton, selections from his correspondence and a biography, were
published by Dr Bowring, in eleven closely printed volumes (1838-1843).
This edition does not include the <i>Deontology</i>, which, much
rewritten, had been published by Bowring in 1834. Translations
of the <i>Works</i> or of separate treatises have appeared in most
European languages. Large masses of Bentham&rsquo;s MSS., mostly
unpublished, are preserved at University College, London (see
T. Whittaker&rsquo;s <i>Report</i>, 1892, on these MSS., as newly
catalogued and reclassified by him in 155 parcels);
also in the British Museum (see E. Nys, <i>Études de droit
international et de droit politique</i>, 1901, pp. 291-333).
See farther on the life and writings of Bentham:
J.H. Burton, <i>Benthamiana</i> (1843);
R. von Mohl, <i>Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften</i>,
bk. iii. (1858), pp. 595-635;
R.K. Wilson, <i>History of Modern English Law</i> (1875), pp. 133-170;
J.S. Mill, <i>Dissertations</i> (1859), vol. i. pp. 330-392;
L. Stephen, <i>The English Utilitarians</i> (1900), vol. i.;
<i>A Fragment on Government</i>, edited by F.C. Montague (1891);
<i>The Law Quarterly Review</i> (1895), two articles on Bentham&rsquo;s influence in Spain;
A.V. Dicey, <i>Law and Opinion in England</i> (1905), pp. 125-209;
C.M. Atkinson, <i>Jeremy Bentham</i> (1905).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1774-1839), governor-general
of India, was the second son of the 3rd duke of Portland and was
born on the 14th of September 1774. He entered the army, rose
to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and was present at Marengo.
In 1803 he was nominated governor of Madras, where he
quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir Henry Gwillim, and several
members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at Vellore in 1807 led
to his recall. His name was considered at this time for the
post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead;
and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord
Amherst in that office. His governor-generalship (1827-1835)
was notable for many reforms, chief among which were the
suppression of the Thugs (<i>q.v.</i>), the abolition of suttee, and the
making of the English language the basis of education in India.
It was on this last subject that Lord Macaulay&rsquo;s famous minute
was written. Lord William&rsquo;s administration was essentially
peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died at Paris on
the 17th of June 1839.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Demetrius C. Boulger, <i>Lord William Bentinck</i>, in the
&ldquo;Rulers of India&rdquo; series (1892).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>
better known as <span class="sc">Lord George Bentinck</span> (1802-1848),
British politician, was the second surviving son of the
fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister of Viscountess
Canning, and was born on the 27th of February 1802. He was
educated at home until he obtained his commission as cornet in
the 10th hussars at the age of seventeen. He practically retired
from the army in 1822 and acted for some time as private
secretary to his uncle George Canning. In 1828 he succeeded
his uncle Lord William Bentinck as member for Lynn-Regis, and
continued to represent that constituency during the remaining
twenty years of his life. His failures as a speaker in parliament
seem to have discouraged him from the attempt to acquire
reputation as a politician, and till within three years of his death
he was little known out of the sporting world. As one of the
leaders on &ldquo;the turf,&rdquo; however, he was distinguished by that
integrity, judgment and indomitable determination which,
when brought to bear upon weightier matters, quickly gave him
a position of first-rate importance in the political world. On his
first entrance into parliament he belonged to the moderate Whig
party, and voted in favour of Catholic emancipation, as also for
the Reform Bill, though he opposed some of its principal details.
Soon after, however, he joined the ranks of the opposition, with
whom he sided up to the important era of 1846. When, in that year,
Sir Robert Peel openly declared in favour of free trade, the
advocates of the corn-laws, then without a leader, after several
ineffectual attempts at organization, discovered that Lord George
Bentinck was the only man of position and family (for Disraeli&rsquo;s
time was not yet come) around whom the several sections of the
opposition could be brought to rally. His sudden elevation took
the public by surprise; but he soon gave convincing evidence of
powers so formidable that the Protectionist party under his
leadership was at once stiffened into real importance. Towards
Peel, in particular, his hostility was uncompromising. Believing,
as he himself expressed it, that that statesman and his colleagues
had &ldquo;hounded to the death his illustrious relative&rdquo; Canning, he
combined with his political opposition a degree of personal
animosity that gave additional force to his invective. On
entering on his new position, he at once abandoned his connexion
with the turf, disposed of his magnificent stud and devoted his
whole energies to the laborious duties of a parliamentary leader.
Apart from the question of the corn-laws, however, his politics
were decidedly independent. In opposition to the rest of his
party, he supported the bill for removing the Jewish disabilities,
and was favourable to the scheme for the payment of the Roman
Catholic clergy in Ireland by the landowners. The result was
that on December 23rd, 1847, he wrote a letter resigning the
Protectionist leadership, though he still remained active in politics.
But his positive abilities as a constructive statesman were not to
be tested, for he died suddenly at Welbeck on the 21st of September 1848.
It was to be left to Disraeli to bring the Conservative
party into power, with Protection outside its programme.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Lord George Bentinck: a Political Biography</i> (1851), by
B. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1443-1508), tyrant of Bologna,
descended from a powerful family which exercised great influence
in Bologna during the 15th century, was born after the murder
of his father, then chief magistrate of the commune. In 1462
Giovanni contrived to make himself master of the city, although
it was nominally a fief of the church under a papal legate. He
ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, but the
brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and his
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices, to some extent
compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare
Borgia (<i>q.v.</i>) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1500,
when he was crushing the various despots of Romagna, but
Bentivoglio was saved for the moment by French intervention.
In 1502 he took part in the conspiracy against Cesare, but, when
the latter obtained French assistance, he abandoned his
fellow-conspirators and helped Borgia to overcome them. During
the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded Alexander VI.
in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope,
Julius II., was determined to reduce all the former papal states
to obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side,
he led an army against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio
and forced him to abandon the city (November 1506). The
deposed tyrant took refuge with the French, whom he trusted
more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;P. Litta, <i>Le Famiglie celebri Italiane</i>, vol, iii.
(Milan, 1834); P. Villari, <i>Machiavelli</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1892);
M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i> (London, 1897);
A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1579-1644), Italian cardinal, statesman
and historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. After studying
at Padua, he went to reside at Rome, and was received with
great favour by Pope Clement VIII., who made him his private
chamberlain. The next pope, Paul V., created him archbishop
of Rhodes in 1607, and appointed him as nuncio to Flanders and
afterwards to France; on his return to Rome in 1621 he was
created cardinal and entrusted by Louis XIII. with the
management of French affairs at the papal court. He became the
intimate friend of Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him to the
suburban see of Palestrina in 1691. An able writer and skilful
diplomatist, Bentivoglio was marked out as Urban&rsquo;s successor,
but he died suddenly on the 7th of September 1644 at the opening
of the conclave. Bentivoglio&rsquo;s principal works are:&mdash;<i>Della
Guerra di Fiandria</i> (best edition, Cologne, 1633-1639), translated
into English by Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654);
<i>Relazioni di G. Bentivoglio in tempo delle sue Nunziature di
Fiandria e di Francia</i> (Cologne, 1630);
<i>Lettere diplomatiche di Guido Bentivoglio</i> (Brussels, 1631,
frequently reprinted, best edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 vols., Turin, 1852).
The complete edition of his works was published at Venice in 1668 in 4to.
A selection of his letters has been adopted as a classic in the Italian
schools.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTLEY, RICHARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1662-1742), English scholar and
critic, was born at Oulton near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on the
27th of January 1662. His grandfather had suffered in person
and estate in the royalist cause, and the family were in
consequence in reduced circumstances. Bentley&rsquo;s mother, the
daughter of a stonemason in Oulton, was a woman of excellent
understanding and some education, as she was able to give her
son his first lessons in Latin. From the grammar school of
Wakefield Richard Bentley passed to St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
being admitted subsizar in 1676. He afterwards obtained
a scholarship and took the degree of B.A. in 1680 (M.A. 1683).
He never succeeded to a fellowship, being appointed by his
college, before he was twenty-one, headmaster of Spalding
grammar school. In this post he did not remain long, being
selected by Dr Edward Stillingfleet, dean of St Paul&rsquo;s, to be
domestic tutor to his son. This appointment introduced Bentley
at once to the society of the most eminent men of the day,
threw open to him the best private library in England, and
brought him into familiar intercourse with Dean Stillingfleet,
a man of sound understanding, who had not shrunk from exploring
some of the more solid and abstruse parts of ancient learning.
The six years which he passed in Stillingfleet&rsquo;s family were
employed, with the restless energy characteristic of the man, in
exhausting the remains of the Greek and Latin writers, and
laying up those stores of knowledge upon which he afterwards
drew as circumstances required.</p>

<p>In 1689 Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentley&rsquo;s
pupil went to reside at Oxford in Wadham College, accompanied
by his tutor. Bentley&rsquo;s introductions and his own merits
placed him at once on a footing of intimacy with the most
distinguished scholars in the university, Dr John Mill, Humphrey
Hody, Edward Bernard. Here he revelled in the MS. treasures
of the Bodleian, Corpus and other college libraries. He projected
and occupied himself with collections for vast literary schemes.
Among these are specially mentioned a <i>corpus</i> of the
fragments of the Greek poets and an edition of the Greek
lexicographers. But his first publication was in connexion with
a writer of much inferior note. The Oxford (Sheldonian) press
was about to bring out an edition (the <i>editio princeps</i>) from the
unique MS. in the Bodleian of the Greek <i>Chronicle</i> (a universal
history down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560) of John of Antioch (date uncertain,
between 600 and 1000), called John Malalas or &ldquo;John the Rhetor&rdquo;;
and the editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund Hall,
had requested Bentley to look through the sheets and
make any remarks on the text. This originated Bentley&rsquo;s
<i>Epistola ad Millium</i>, which occupies less than one hundred pages
at the end of the Oxford <i>Malalas</i> (1691). This short tractate at
once placed Bentley at the head of all living English scholars.
The ease with which, by a stroke of the pen, he restores passages
which had been left in hopeless corruption by the editors of the
<i>Chronicle</i>, the certainty of the emendation and the command
over the relevant material, are in a style totally different from
the careful and laborious learning of Hody, Mill or E. Chilmead.
To the small circle of classical students (lacking the great critical
dictionaries of modern times) it was at once apparent that there
had arisen in England a critic whose attainments were not to be
measured by the ordinary academical standard, but whom these
few pages had sufficed to place by the side of the great Grecians
of a former age. Unfortunately this mastery over critical science
was accompanied by a tone of self-assertion and presumptuous
confidence which not only checked admiration, but
was calculated to rouse enmity. Dr Monk, indeed, Bentley&rsquo;s
biographer, charged him (in his first edition, 1830) with an
indecorum of which he was not guilty. &ldquo;In one place,&rdquo; writes
Dr Monk, &ldquo;he accosts Dr Mill as <span class="grk" title="o Ioannidion">&#8038; &#7992;&#969;&#945;&#957;&#957;&#953;&#948;&#943;&#959;&#957;</span> (Johnny),
an indecorum which neither the familiarity of friendship, nor the
licence of a dead language, can justify towards the dignified head
of a house.&rdquo; But the object of Bentley&rsquo;s apostrophe was not his
correspondent Dr Mill, but his author John Malalas, whom in
another place he playfully appeals to as &ldquo;Syrisce.&rdquo; From this
publication, however, dates the origin of those mixed feelings
of admiration and repugnance which Bentley throughout his
career continued to excite among his contemporaries.</p>

<p>In 1690 Bentley had taken deacon&rsquo;s orders in the Church. In
1692 he was nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination which
was repeated in 1694. He was offered the appointment a third
time in 1695 but declined it, being by that time involved in too
many other undertakings. In the first series of lectures
(&ldquo;A Confutation of Atheism&rdquo;) he endeavours to present the Newtonian
physics in a popular form, and to frame them (especially
in opposition to Hobbes) into a proof of the existence of an
intelligent Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton,
then living in Trinity College, on the subject. The second series,
preached in 1694, has not been published and is believed to be
lost. Andrew Kippis, the editor of the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>,
mentions MS. copies of them as in existence. Scarcely was
Bentley in priest&rsquo;s orders before he was preferred to a prebendal
stall in Worcester cathedral. In 1693 the keepership of the
royal library becoming vacant, great efforts were made by his
friends to obtain the place for Bentley, but through court
interest the post was given to Mr Thynne. An arrangement,
however, was made, by which the new librarian resigned in favour
of Bentley, on condition that he received an annuity of £130
for life out of the salary, which only amounted to £200. To
these preferments were added in 1695 a royal chaplaincy and
the living of Hartlebury. In the same year Bentley was elected
a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1696 proceeded to the
degree of D.D. The recognition of continental scholars came
in the shape of a dedication, by Graevius, prefixed to a
dissertation of Albert Rubens, <i>De Vita Flavii Mallii Theodori</i>,
published at Utrecht in 1694.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span></p>

<p>While these distinctions were being accumulated upon Bentley,
his energy was making itself felt in many and various directions.
He had official apartments in St James&rsquo;s Palace, and his first care
was the royal library. He made great efforts to retrieve this
collection from the dilapidated condition into which it had been
allowed to fall. He employed the mediation of the earl of
Marlborough to beg the grant of some additional rooms in the
palace for the books. The rooms were granted, but Marlborough
characteristically kept them for himself. Bentley enforced the
law against the publishers, and thus added to the library nearly
1000 volumes which they had neglected to deliver. He was
commissioned by the university of Cambridge to obtain Greek
and Latin founts for their classical books, and accordingly he
had cast in Holland those beautiful types which appear in the
Cambridge books of that date. He assisted Evelyn in his
<i>Numismata</i>. All Bentley&rsquo;s literary appearances at this time were
of this accidental character. We do not find him settling down
to the steady execution of any of the great projects with which
he had started. He designed, indeed, in 1694 an edition of
Philostratus, but readily abandoned it to G. Olearius,
(Öhlschläger), &ldquo;to the joy,&rdquo; says F.A. Wolf, &ldquo;of Olearius and of
no one else.&rdquo; He supplied Graevius with collations of Cicero,
and Joshua Barnes with a warning as to the spuriousness of the
<i>Epistles of Euripides</i>, which was thrown away upon that blunderer,
who printed the epistles and declared that no one could doubt
their genuineness but a man <i>perfrictae frontis aut judicii imminuti</i>.
Bentley supplied to Graevius&rsquo;s <i>Callimachus</i> a masterly collection
of the fragments with notes, published at Utrecht in 1697.</p>

<p>The <i>Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris</i>, the work on which
Bentley&rsquo;s fame in great part rests, originated in the same casual way.
William Wotton, being about to bring out in 1697 a second
edition of his book on <i>Ancient and Modern Learning</i>, claimed of
Bentley the fulfilment of an old promise to write a paper exposing
the spuriousness of the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. This paper was
resented as an insult by the Christ Church editor of Phalaris,
Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, who in getting the MS. in
the royal library collated for his edition (1695) had had a little
quarrel with Bentley. Assisted by his college friends, particularly
Atterbury, Boyle wrote a reply, &ldquo;a tissue,&rdquo; says Dr Alexander Dyce
(in his edition of Bentley&rsquo;s Works, 1836-1838), &ldquo;of superficial
learning, ingenious sophistry, dexterous malice and happy
raillery.&rdquo; The reply was hailed by the public as crushing and
went immediately into a second edition. It was incumbent on
Bentley to rejoin. This he did (1699) in what Porson styles &ldquo;that
immortal dissertation,&rdquo; to which no answer was or could be
given, although the truth of its conclusions was not immediately
recognized. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phalaris</a></span>.)</p>

<p>In the year 1700 Bentley received that main preferment which,
says De Quincey, &ldquo;was at once his reward and his scourge for the
rest of his life.&rdquo; The six commissioners of ecclesiastical patronage
unanimously recommended Bentley to the crown for the mastership
of Trinity College, Cambridge. This college, the most
splendid foundation in the university of Cambridge, and in the
scientific and literary reputation of its fellows the most eminent
society in either university, had in 1700 greatly fallen from its
high estate. It was not that it was more degraded than the other
colleges, but its former lustre made the abuse of endowments in
its case more conspicuous. The eclipse had taken place during
the reaction which followed 1660, and was owing to causes which
were not peculiar to Trinity, but which influenced the nation at
large. The names of John Pearson and Isaac Barrow, and,
greater than either, that of Newton, adorn the college annals of
this period. But these were quite exceptional men. They had not
inspired the rank and file of fellows of Trinity with any of their
own love for learning or science. Indolent and easy-going clerics,
without duties, without a pursuit or any consciousness of the
obligation of endowments, they haunted the college for the
pleasant life and the good things they found there, creating
sinecure offices in each other&rsquo;s favour, jobbing the scholarships
and making the audits mutually pleasant. Any excuse served
for a banquet at the cost of &ldquo;the house,&rdquo; and the celibacy
imposed by the statutes was made as tolerable as the decorum
of a respectable position permitted. To such a society Bentley
came, obnoxious as a St John&rsquo;s man and an intruder, unwelcome
as a man of learning whose interests lay outside the walls of the
college. Bentley replied to their concealed dislike with open
contempt, and proceeded to ride roughshod over their little
arrangements. He inaugurated many beneficial reforms in
college usages and discipline, executed extensive improvements
in the buildings, and generally used his eminent station for the
promotion of the interests of learning both in the college and in
the university. But this energy was accompanied by a domineering
temper, an overweening contempt for the feelings and even
for the rights of others, and an unscrupulous use of means when
a good end could be obtained. Bentley, at the summit of classical
learning, disdained to associate with men whom he regarded as
illiterate priests. He treated them with contumely, while he was
diverting their income to public purposes. The continued drain
upon their purses&mdash;on one occasion the whole dividend of the year
was absorbed by the rebuilding of the chapel&mdash;was the grievance
which at last roused the fellows to make a resolute stand. After
ten years of stubborn but ineffectual resistance within the college,
they had recourse in 1710 to the last remedy&mdash;an appeal to the
visitor, the bishop of Ely (Dr Moore). Their petition is an
ill-drawn invective, full of general complaints and not alleging
any special delinquency. Bentley&rsquo;s reply (<i>The Present State of
Trinity College, &amp;c.</i>, 1710) is in his most crushing style. The
fellows amended their petition and put in a fresh charge, in which
they articled fifty-four separate breaches of the statutes as having
been committed by the master. Bentley, called upon to answer,
demurred to the bishop of Ely&rsquo;s jurisdiction, alleging that the
crown was visitor. He backed his application by a dedication of
his <i>Horace</i> to the lord treasurer (Harley). The crown lawyers
decided the point against him; the case was heard (1714) and a
sentence of ejection from the mastership ordered to be drawn up,
but before it was executed the bishop of Ely died and the process
lapsed. The feud, however, still went on in various forms. In
1718 Bentley was deprived by the university of his degrees, as a
punishment for failing to appear in the vice-chancellor&rsquo;s court in
a civil suit; and it was not till 1724 that the law compelled the
university to restore them. In 1733 he was again brought to trial
before the bishop of Ely (Dr Greene) by the fellows of Trinity
and was sentenced to deprivation, but the college statutes
required the sentence to be exercised by the vice-master (Dr
Walker), who was Bentley&rsquo;s friend and refused to act. In vain
were attempts made to compel the execution of the sentence,
and though the feud was kept up till 1738 or 1740 (about thirty
years in all) Bentley remained undisturbed.</p>

<p>During the period of his mastership, with the exception of the
first two years, Bentley pursued his studies uninterruptedly,
although the results in the shape of published works seem
incommensurable. In 1709 he contributed a critical appendix
to John Davies&rsquo;s edition of Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Tusculan Disputations</i>.
In the following year he published his emendations on the <i>Plutus</i>
and <i>Nubes</i> of Aristophanes, and on the fragments of Menander
and Philemon. The last came out under the name of &ldquo;Phileleutherus
Lipsiensis,&rdquo; which he made use of two years later in his
<i>Remarks on a late Discourse of Freethinking</i>, a reply to
Anthony Collins the deist. For this he received the thanks of the
university, in recognition of the service thereby rendered to the
church and clergy. His <i>Horace</i>, long contemplated and in the
end written in very great haste and brought out to propitiate public
opinion at a critical period of the Trinity quarrel, appeared in
1711. In the preface he declared his intention of confining his
attention to criticism and correction of the text, and ignoring
exegesis. Some of his 700 or 800 emendations have been accepted,
but the majority of them are now rejected as unnecessary and
prosaic, although the learning and ingenuity shown in their
support are remarkable. In 1716, in a letter to Dr Wake,
archbishop of Canterbury, he announced his design of preparing
a critical edition of the New Testament. During the next four
years, assisted by J.J. Wetstein, an eminent biblical critic,
who claimed to have been the first to suggest the idea to Bentley,
he collected materials for the work, and in 1720 published
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
<i>Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament</i>, with
specimens of the manner in which he intended to carry it out.
He proposed, by comparing the text of the Vulgate with that of
the oldest Greek MSS., to restore the Greek text as received by
the church at the time of the council of Nice. A large number
of subscribers to the work was obtained, but it was never completed.
His <i>Terence</i> (1726) is more important than his <i>Horace</i>,
and it is upon this, next to the <i>Phalaris</i>, that his reputation
mainly rests. Its chief value consists in the novel treatment
of the metrical questions and their bearing on the emendation
of the text. To the same year belong the <i>Fables</i> of Phaedrus
and the <i>Sententiae</i> of Publius Syrus. The <i>Paradise Lost</i> (1732),
undertaken at the suggestion of Queen Caroline, is generally
regarded as the most unsatisfactory of all his writings. It is
marred by the same rashness in emendation and lack of poetical
feeling as his Horace; but there is less excuse for him in this
case, since the English text could not offer the same field for
conjecture. He put forward the idea that Milton employed both
an amanuensis and an editor, who were to be held responsible
for the clerical errors, alterations and interpolations which
Bentley professed to detect. It is uncertain whether this was
a device on the part of Bentley to excuse his own numerous
corrections, or whether he really believed in the existence of this
editor. Of the contemplated edition of Homer nothing was
published; all that remains of it consists of some manuscript and
marginal notes in the possession of Trinity College. Their chief
importance lies in the attempt to restore the metre by the insertion
of the lost digamma. Among his minor works may be mentioned:
the <i>Astronomica</i> of Manilius (1739), for which he had
been collecting materials since 1691; a letter on the Sigean
inscription on a marble slab found in the Troad, now in the
British Museum; notes on the <i>Theriaca</i> of Nicander and on Lucan,
published after his death by Cumberland; emendations of
Plautus (in his copies of the editions by Pareus, Camerarius and
Gronovius, edited by Schröder, 1880, and Sonnenschein, 1883).
<i>Bentleii Critica Sacra</i> (1862), edited by A.A. Ellis, contains the
epistle to the Galatians (and excerpts), printed from an interleaved
folio copy of the Greek and Latin Vulgate in Trinity College.
A collection of his <i>Opuscula Philologica</i> was published
at Leipzig in 1781. The edition of his works by Dyce (1836-1838)
is incomplete.</p>

<p>He had married in 1701 Joanna, daughter of Sir John
Bernard of Brampton in Huntingdonshire. Their union lasted
forty years. Mrs Bentley died in 1740, leaving a son, Richard,
and two daughters, one of whom married in 1728 Mr Denison
Cumberland, grandson of Richard Cumberland, bishop of Peterborough.
Their son was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist.
Surrounded by his grandchildren, Dr Bentley experienced the
joint pressure of age and infirmity as lightly as is consistent with
the lot of humanity. He continued to amuse himself with reading;
and though nearly confined to his arm-chair, was able to
enjoy the society of his friends and several rising scholars,
J. Markland, John Taylor, his nephews Richard and Thomas
Bentley, with whom he discussed classical subjects. He was
accustomed to say that he should live to be eighty, adding that a
life of that duration was long enough to read everything worth
reading. He fulfilled his own prediction, dying of pleurisy on
the 14th of July 1742. Though accused by his enemies of being
grasping, he left not more than £5000 behind him. A few Greek
MSS., brought from Mount Athos, he left to the college library;
his books and papers to his nephew, Richard Bentley. Richard,
who was a fellow of Trinity, at his death in 1786 left the papers
to the college library. The books, containing in many cases
valuable manuscript notes, were purchased by the British Museum.</p>

<p>Of his personal habits some anecdotes are related by his
grandson, Richard Cumberland, in vol. i. of his <i>Memoirs</i> (1807).
The hat of formidable dimensions, which he always wore during
reading to shade his eyes, and his preference of port to claret
(which he said &ldquo;would be port if it could&rdquo;) are traits embodied
in Pope&rsquo;s caricature (<i>Dunciad</i>, b. 4), which bears in other respects
little resemblance to the original. He did not take up the habit
of smoking till he was seventy. He held the archdeaconry of
Ely with two livings, but never obtained higher preference in
the church. He was offered the (then poor) bishopric of Bristol
but refused it, and being asked what preferment he would consider
worth his acceptance, replied, &ldquo;That which would leave
him no reason to wish for a removal.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Bentley was the first, perhaps the only, Englishman who can
be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning, although
perhaps not a great classical scholar. Before him there were only
John Selden, and, in a more restricted field, Thomas Gataker and
Pearson. But Selden, a man of stupendous learning, wanted the
freshness of original genius and confident mastery over the whole
region of his knowledge. &ldquo;Bentley inaugurated a new era of the
art of criticism. He opened a new path. With him criticism
attained its majority. Where scholars had hitherto offered
suggestions and conjectures, Bentley, with unlimited control over
the whole material of learning, gave decisions&rdquo; (Mähly). The
modern German school of philology does ungrudging homage to
his genius. Bentley, says Bunsen, &ldquo;was the founder of historical
philology.&rdquo; And Jakob Bernays says of his corrections of the
<i>Tristia</i>, &ldquo;corruptions which had hitherto defied every attempt
even of the mightiest, were removed by a touch of the fingers of
this British Samson.&rdquo; The English school of Hellenists, by which
the 18th century was distinguished, and which contains the names
of R. Dawes, J. Markland, J. Taylor, J. Toup, T. Tyrwhitt,
Richard Porson, P.P. Dobree, Thomas Kidd and J.H. Monk,
was the creation of Bentley. And even the Dutch school of the
same period, though the outcome of a native tradition, was in no
small degree stimulated and directed by the example of Bentley,
whose letters to the young Hemsterhuis on his edition of Julius
Pollux produced so powerful an effect on him, that he became one
of Bentley&rsquo;s most devoted admirers.</p>

<p>Bentley was a source of inspiration to a following generation of
scholars. Himself, he sprang from the earth without forerunners,
without antecedents. Self-taught, he created his own science.
It was his misfortune that there was no contemporary gild of
learning in England by which his power could be measured, and
his eccentricities checked. In the <i>Phalaris</i> controversy his
academical adversaries had not sufficient knowledge to know how
absolute their defeat was. Garth&rsquo;s couplet&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;So diamonds take a lustre from their foil,</p>
<p class="i05">And to a Bentley &rsquo;tis we owe a Boyle&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">expressed the belief of the wits or literary world of the time.
The attacks upon him by Pope, John Arbuthnot and others are
evidence of their inability to appreciate his work. To them,
textual criticism seemed mere pedantry and useless labour. It
was not only that he had to live with inferiors, and to waste his
energy in a struggle forced upon him by the necessities of his
official position, but the wholesome stimulus of competition and
the encouragement of a sympathetic circle were wanting. In a
university where the instruction of youth or the religious
controversy of the day were the only known occupations,
Bentley was an isolated phenomenon, and we can hardly wonder
that he should have flagged in his literary exertions after his
appointment to the mastership of Trinity. All his vast acquisitions
and all his original views seem to have been obtained before 1700.
After this period he acquired little and made only spasmodic
efforts&mdash;the <i>Horace</i>, the <i>Terence</i> and the <i>Milton</i>. The
prolonged mental concentration and mature meditation, which
alone can produce a great work, were wanting to him.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>F.A. Wolf, <i>Literarische Analekten</i>, i. (1816);
Monk, <i>Life of Bentley</i> (1830);
J. Mähly, <i>Richard Bentley, eine Biographie</i> (1868);
R.C. Jebb, <i>Bentley</i> (&ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series, 1882),
where a list of authorities bearing on Bentley&rsquo;s life and work is given.
For his letters see <i>Bentlei et doctorum virorum ad eum Epistolae</i> (1807);
<i>The Correspondence of Richard Bentley</i>, edited by C. Wordsworth (1842).
See also J.E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, ii. 401-410 (1908);
and the <i>Bibliography of Bentley</i>, by A.T. Bartholomew
and J.W. Clark (Cambridge, 1908).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTLEY, RICHARD<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1794-1871), British publisher, was born
in London in 1794. His father owned the <i>General Evening Post</i>
in conjunction with John Nichols, to whom Richard Bentley, on
leaving St Paul&rsquo;s school, was apprenticed to learn the printing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
trade. With his brother <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1785-1868), an antiquarian of
some repute, he set up a printing establishment, but in 1829 he
began business as a publisher in partnership with Henry Colburn
in New Burlington Street. Colburn retired in 1832 and Bentley
continued business on his own account. In 1837 he began
<i>Bentley&rsquo;s Miscellany</i>, edited for the first three years of its existence
by Charles Dickens, whose <i>Oliver Twist</i>, with Cruikshank&rsquo;s
illustrations, appeared in its pages. Bentley and his son <span class="sc">George</span>
(1828-1895), as Richard Bentley &amp; Son, published works by R.H.
Barham, Theodore Hook, Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli, Judge Haliburton
and others; also the &ldquo;Library of Standard Novels&rdquo; and the
&ldquo;Favourite Novel Library.&rdquo; In the latter series Mrs Henry
Wood&rsquo;s <i>East Lynne</i> appeared. In 1866 the firm took over the
publication of <i>Temple Bar</i>, with which <i>Bentley&rsquo;s Miscellany</i> was
afterwards incorporated. Richard Bentley died on the 10th of
September 1871. His son, George Bentley, and his grandson,
Richard Bentley, junior, continued the business until it was
absorbed (1898) by Macmillan &amp; Co.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also <i>R. Bentley &amp; Son</i> (Edinburgh, 1886), a history of the
firm reprinted from <i>Le Livre</i> (October, 1885).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTON, THOMAS HART<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1782-1858), American statesman,
was born at Hillsborough, Orange county, North Carolina, on the
14th of March 1782. His father, an Englishman of refinement
and scholarship, died in 1790, leaving the boy under the influence
of a very superior mother, from whom he received lessons in book
learning, piety and temperance quite unusual in the frontier
country. His home studies, facilitated by his father&rsquo;s fine
library, were supplemented by a brief stay at the university of
North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1799. The family removed,
probably in this year, to a large tract of land which had been
acquired by the father on the outskirts of the Indian country (at
Benton Town, now Leipers Fork) near Franklin, Tennessee.
The following years, during which Benton was at various times
school teacher, farmer, lawyer and politician, were the distinctively
formative period of his life. His intense democracy and
many features of his boldly cast personality were perfectly
representative of the border people among whom he lived; although
his education, social standing and force of character
placed him above his fellows. In 1809 he served a term as state
senator. Between 1815 and 1817 he transferred his interests to
St Louis, Missouri, and in 1820 was elected United States senator
from the new state. His senatorial career of thirty years (1821-1851)
was one of extreme prominence. A friendship early formed
in Tennessee for Andrew Jackson was broken in 1813 by an armed
fracas between the principals and their friends, but after the
presidential election of 1824 Benton became a Jacksonian
Democrat and Jackson&rsquo;s close friend, and as such was long the
Democratic leader in the Senate, his power being greatest during
Jackson&rsquo;s second term. He continued to be the administration&rsquo;s
right-hand man under Van Buren, but gradually lost influence
under Polk, with whom he finally broke both personally and
politically.</p>

<p>The events of Benton&rsquo;s political life are associated primarily
with three things: the second United States Bank, westward
expansion and slavery. In the long struggles over the bank,
the deposits and the &ldquo;expunging resolution&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the resolution
to expunge from the records of the Senate the vote of censure
of President Jackson for his removal of the government deposits
from the bank), Benton led the Jackson Democrats. His opposition
to a national bank and insistence on the peculiar virtues of
&ldquo;hard money,&rdquo; whence his sobriquet of &ldquo;Old Bullion,&rdquo; went
back to his Tennessee days. In all that concerned the expansion
of the country and the fortunes of the West no public man was
more consistent or more influential than Benton, and none so clear
of vision. Reared on the border, and representing a state long
the farthermost outpost across the Mississippi in the Indian
country, he held the ultra-American views of his section as
regarded foreign relations generally, and the &ldquo;manifest destiny&rdquo;
of expansion westward especially. It was quite natural that he
should advocate the removal westward of the Indian tribes,
should urge the encouragement of trade with Sante Fé (New
Mexico), and should oppose the abandonment in the Spanish
treaty of 1819 of American claims to Texas. He once thought
the Rocky Mountains the proper western limit of the United
States (1824), but this view he soon outgrew. He was the
originator of the policy of homestead laws by which the public
lands were used to promote the settlement of the west by home-seekers.
No other man was so early and so long active for
transcontinental railways. But Benton was not a land-grabber,
whether in the interest of slavery or of mere jingoism. In the
case of Oregon, for instance, he was firmly against joint occupation
with Great Britain, but he was always for the boundary of
49° and never joined in the campaign-jingo cry of &ldquo;Fifty-four
Forty or Fight.&rdquo; It was he who chiefly aided Polk in withdrawing
from that untenable position. He despised pretexts
and intrigues. Both in the case of Oregon and in that of Texas,
though one of the earliest and most insistent of those who
favoured their acquisition, yet in the face of southern and
western sentiment he denounced the sordid and devious intrigues
and politics connected with their acquisition, and kept clear of
these. For the same reason he opposed the Mexican War, though
not its prosecution once begun. In the Texas question slavery
was prominent. Toward slavery Benton held a peculiarly
creditable attitude. A southerner, he was a slaveholder; but
he seems to have gradually learned that slavery was a curse to
the South, for in 1844 he declared that he would not introduce
it into Texas lands &ldquo;where it was never known,&rdquo; and in 1849
proclaimed that his personal sentiments were &ldquo;against the
institution of slavery.&rdquo; In the long struggle over slavery in the
territories, following 1845, he was for the extreme demands of
neither section; not because he was timorous or a compromiser,&mdash;no
man was less of either,&mdash;but because he stood unwaveringly
for justice to both sections, never adopting exaggerated views
that must or even could be compromised. The truth is that he
was always a westerner before he was a southerner and a union
man before all things else; he was no whit less national than
Webster. Hence his distrust and finally hatred of Calhoun,
dating from the nullification episode of 1832-1833. As the South
under Calhoun&rsquo;s lead became increasingly sectional and
aggressive, Benton increasingly lost sympathy with her. Though
he despised political inaction Abolitionists, and hated their
propaganda as inimical to the Union, he would not therefore
close the national mails to Abolition literature, nor abridge the
right of petition. No statesman was more prescient of the
disunion tendencies of Calhoun&rsquo;s policies, and as early as 1844
he prophetically denounced the treason to the Union toward
which the South was drifting. He would not drift with her for
the sake of slavery, and this was his political undoing. In 1851
Missouri rejected him in his sixth candidacy for the Senate, after
he had been an autocrat in her politics for thirty years. In 1852
he was elected to the House of Representatives, but his opposition
to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise caused his defeat
in 1854. An unsuccessful campaign for the governorship of
Missouri in 1856 ended his political career. He died at
Washington on the 10th of April 1858.</p>

<p>Benton&rsquo;s entire career was eminently creditable, and he is,
besides, one of the most picturesque figures in American political
history. His political principles&mdash;whether as regarded lobbying,
congressional jobbing, civil service or great issues of legislation
and foreign affairs&mdash;were of the highest. He was so independent
that he had great dislike for caucuses, and despised party platforms&mdash;although
he never voted any but the Democratic ticket,
even when his son-in-law, J.C. Frémont, was the Republican
presidential candidate in 1856; nor would he accept instructions
from the Missouri legislature. His career shows no truckling
to self-interest, and on large issues he outgrew partisanship.
Although palpably inferior to each of his great senatorial colleagues,
Webster, Clay and Calhoun, in some gifts, yet if character,
qualities and career be taken in the whole his were possibly the
most creditable of all. Benton was austere, aggressive and vain;
besides, he had a fatal deficiency of humour. Nevertheless he
had great influence, which was a deserved tribute to his ability
and high character. An indefatigable student, he treated all
subjects capably, and especially in questions of his country&rsquo;s
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
history and the exploration of the West had few equals&mdash;in the
latter none. He acted always with uncalculating boldness, and
defended his acts with extraordinary courage and persistence.
Benton wrote a <i>Thirty Years&rsquo; View ... of the American
Government</i> (2 vols., 1854-1856), characteristic of the author&rsquo;s
personality; it is of great value for the history of his time. He
also compiled an <i>Abridgment of the Debates of Congress</i>, 1789-1850
(16 vols., 1857-1861), likewise of great usefulness; and published
a bitter review of the Dred Scott decision full of extremely
valuable historical details&mdash;<i>Historical and Legal Examination
of ... the Dred Scott Case</i> (1857). All were written in the last
eight years of his life and mostly in the last three.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best biography is that by W.M. Meigs, <i>Life of Thomas Hart
Benton</i> (Philadelphia and London, 1904). See also Theodore
Roosevelt&rsquo;s <i>Thomas Hart Benton</i> (Boston, 1887), in the &ldquo;American
Statesmen&rdquo; series, which admirably brings out Benton&rsquo;s significance
as a western man; and Joseph M. Rogers&rsquo;s <i>Thomas Hart Benton</i>
(Philadelphia, 1905) in the &ldquo;American Crisis&rdquo; series.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENTON HARBOR,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a city of Berrien county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the Saint Joseph river, about 1 m. from Lake Michigan
(with which it is connected by a ship canal), near the S.W. corner
of the state, and 1 m. N.E. of St Joseph. Pop. (1890) 3692;
(1900) 6562, of whom 795 were foreign-born; (1904) 6702;
(1910) 9185. It is served by the Père Marquette, the Michigan
Central, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis
railways, by electric railways to St Joseph and Niles, Mich.,
and South Bend, Indiana, and for a part of the year by steamboat
lines to Chicago and Milwaukee. One mile south-east of the city
are a sanitarium and the Eastman mineral springs; within the
city also there are springs and bath-houses. Near the city is a
communistic religious community, the Israelite House of David,
founded in 1903, the members believe that they are a part of the
144,000 elect (Revelation, vii, xiv) ultimately to be redeemed.
Benton Harbor has a large trade in fruit (peaches, grapes, pears,
cherries, strawberries, raspberries and apples) and other market
garden produce raised in the vicinity. The city&rsquo;s manufactures
include fruit baskets, preserved fruits, cider, vinegar, pickles,
furniture, lumber and stationers&rsquo; supplies, particularly material
for the &ldquo;loose-leaf ledger&rdquo; system of accounting. Benton
Harbor, which was known as Bronson Harbor until 1865, was
incorporated as a village in 1869, was chartered as a city in 1891,
and in 1903 received a new charter.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENUE,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a river of West Africa, the largest and most important
affluent of the Niger (<i>q.v.</i>), which it joins after a course of over
800 m. in a general east to west direction from its source in the mountains of Adamawa. Through the Tuburi marshes there is a
water connexion between the Benue (Niger) and Shari (Lake Chad)
systems.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEN VENUE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a mountain in south-west Perthshire, Scotland,
10 m. W. of Callander. Its principal peaks are 2393 and 2386 ft.
high, and, owing to its position near the south-eastern shore of
Loch Katrine, its imposing contour is one of the most familiar
features in the scenery of the Trossachs, the mountain itself
figuring prominently in <i>The Lady of the Lake</i>. On its northern
base, close to the lake, Sir Walter Scott placed the Coir-nan-Uriskin,
or &ldquo;Goblin&rsquo;s Cave.&rdquo; Immediately to the south of the
cave is the dell called Beal(ach)-nam-Bo, or &ldquo;Cattle Pass,&rdquo;
through which were driven to the refuge of the Trossachs the herds
lifted by the Highland marauders in their excursions to the lands
south of Loch Lomond. The pass, though comparatively
unvisited, offers the grandest scenery in the district.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZALDEHYDE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (oil of bitter almonds), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO, the
simplest representative of the aromatic aldehydes. It was first
isolated in 1803 and was the subject of an important investigation
by J. v. Liebigin 1837 (<i>Annalen</i>, 1837, 22, p. 1). It occurs naturally
in the form of the glucoside amygdalin (C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">27</span>NO<span class="su">11</span>), which is
present in bitter almonds, cherries, peaches and the leaves of the
cherry laurel; and is obtained from this substance by hydrolysis
with dilute acids:</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">27</span>NO<span class="su">11</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = HCN + 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p>

<p class="noind">It occurs free in bitter almonds, being formed by an enzyme
decomposition of amygdalin (<i>q.v.</i>). It may also be prepared
by oxidizing benzyl alcohol with concentrated nitric acid; by
distilling a mixture of calcium benzoate and calcium formate; by
the condensation of chlor-oxalic ester with benzene in the presence
of aluminium chloride, the ester of the ketonic acid formed
being then hydrolysed and the resulting acid distilled:</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + Cl·CO·COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> + HCl,<br />
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·COOH = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + CO<span class="su">2</span>;</p>

<p class="noind">by the action of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid and hydrochloric
acid on benzene, an aldime being formed as an intermediate
product:</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcr">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + HCN + HCl =</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : NH·HCl,</td></tr>

<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Benzaldine hydrochloride</td></tr>

<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : NH·HCl + H<span class="su">2</span>O = NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO;</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">and by the action of chromium oxychloride on toluene dissolved
in carbon bisulphide (A. Etard, <i>Berichte</i>, 1884, 17, pp. 1462, 1700).</p>

<p>Technically it is prepared from toluene, by converting it into
benzyl chloride, which is then heated with lead nitrate:</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>Cl + Pb(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2NO<span class="su">2</span> + PbCl·OH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO,</p>

<p class="noind">or, by conversion into benzal chloride, which is heated with milk
of lime under pressure.</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHCl<span class="su">2</span> + CaO = CaCL<span class="su">2</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p>

<p class="noind">E. Jacobsen has also obtained benzaldehyde by heating benzal
chloride with glacial acetic acid:</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHCl<span class="su">2</span> + CH<span class="su">3</span>COOH = CH<span class="su">3</span>COCl + HCl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p>

<p class="noind">Benzaldehyde is a colourless liquid smelling of bitter almonds.
Its specific gravity is 1.0636 (<span class="spp">0</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">0</span>° C.), and it boils at 179.1° C.
(751.3 mm). It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily
volatile in steam. It possesses all the characteristic properties of
an aldehyde; being readily oxidized to benzoic acid; reducing
solutions of silver salts; forming addition products with
hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid and sodium bisulphite; and giving
an oxime and a hydrazone. On the other hand, it differs from
the aliphatic aldehydes in many respects; it does not form an
addition product with ammonia but condenses to hydrobenzamide
(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH)<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>; on shaking with alcoholic potash it undergoes
simultaneous oxidation and reduction, giving benzoic acid and
benzyl alcohol (S. Cannizzaro); and on warming with alcoholic
potassium cyanide it condenses to benzoin (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>

<p>The oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid when exposed
to air is not one of ordinary oxidation, for it has been observed in
the case of many compounds that during such oxidation, as much
oxygen is rendered &ldquo;active&rdquo; as is used up by the substance
undergoing oxidation; thus if benzaldehyde is left for some time
in contact with air, water and indigosulphonic acid, just as much
oxygen is used up in oxidizing the indigo compound as in oxidizing
the aldehyde. A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger (<i>Berichte</i>, 1900,
33, pp. 858, 2480) have shown that benzoyl hydrogen peroxide
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·O·OH is formed as an intermediate product and that
this oxidizes the indigo compound, being itself reduced to benzoic
acid; they have also shown that this peroxide is soluble in
benzaldehyde with production of benzoic acid, and it must be
assumed that the oxidation of benzaldehyde proceeds as shown
in the equations:</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + O<span class="su">2</span> = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·O·OH,<br />
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·O·OH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO = 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Further see G. Bodlander, <i>Ahrens Sammlung</i>, 1899, iii. 470;
W.P. Jorissen, <i>Zeit. für phys. Chem.</i>, 1897, 22, p. 56; C. Engler and
W. Wild, <i>Berichte</i>, 1897, 30, p. 1669.</p>
</div>

<p>The oxime of benzaldehyde (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : N·OH), formed by the
addition of hydroxylamine to the aldehyde, exhibits a characteristic
behaviour when hydrochloric acid gas is passed into its
ethereal solution, a second modification being produced. The
former (known as the &alpha; or benz-anti-aldoxime) melts at 34-35° C.;
the latter (&beta; or benz-syn-aldoxime) melts at 130° C. and is slowly
transformed into the &alpha; form. The difference between the two
forms has been explained by A. Hantzsch and A. Werner
(<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 11) by the assumption of the different spatial
arrangement of the atoms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereo-Isomerism</a></span>). On account
of the readiness with which it condenses with various compounds,
benzaldehyde is an important synthetic reagent. With aniline
it forms benzylidine aniline C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : N·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, and with acetone,
benzal acetone C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : CH·CO·CH<span class="su">3</span>. Heated with anhydrous
sodium acetate and acetic anhydride it gives cinnamic acid (<i>q.v.</i>);
with ethyl bromide and sodium it forms triphenyl-carbinol
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span>C·OH; with dimethylaniline and anhydrous zinc chloride
it forms leuco-malachite green C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>; and
with dimethylaniline and concentrated hydrochloric acid it gives
dimethylaminobenzhydrol, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH(OH)C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. Heated
with sulphur it forms benzoic acid and stilbene:</p>

<p class="center">2C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O + S = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>CHS,<br />
2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHS = 2S + C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">12</span>.</p>

<p class="noind">Its addition compound with hydrocyanic acid gives mandelic
acid C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH(OH)·COOH on hydrolysis; when heated with
sodium succinate and acetic anhydride, phenyl-iso-crotonic acid
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : CH·CH<span class="su">2</span>COOH is produced, which on boiling is
converted into &alpha;-naphthol C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">7</span>OH. It can also be used for the
synthesis of pyridine derivatives, since A. Hantzsch has shown
that aldehydes condense with aceto-acetic ester and ammonia to
produce the homologues of pyridine, thus:</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:528px; height:85px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p class="pt2 noind">On nitration it yields chiefly meta-nitro-benzaldehyde, crystallizing
in needles which melt at 58° C. The ortho-compound may be
obtained by oxidizing ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with alkaline
potassium permanganate in the presence of benzene; or from
ortho-nitrobenzyl chloride by condensing it with aniline,
oxidizing the product so obtained to ortho-nitrobenzylidine
aniline, and then hydrolysing this compound with an acid
(<i>Farben fabrik d. Meister, Lucius und Brüning</i>). It crystallizes
in yellowish needles, which are volatile in steam and melt at 46° C.
It is used in the artificial production of indigo (see <i>German
Patent</i> 19768).</p>

<p>Para-nitrobenzaldehyde crystallizes in prisms melting at
107° C. and is prepared by the action of chromium oxychloride on
para-nitrotoluene, or by oxidizing para-nitrocinnamic acid. By
the reduction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with ferrous sulphate
and ammonia, ortho-aminobenzaldehyde is obtained. This
compound condenses in alkaline solution with compounds
containing the grouping &mdash;CH<span class="su">2</span>&mdash;CO&mdash; to form quinoline (<i>q.v.</i>)
or its derivatives; thus, with acetaldehyde it forms quinoline,
and with acetone, &alpha;-methyl quinoline. With urea it gives
quinazolone <img style="width:80px; height:49px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /> and with mandelic nitrile and its
homologues it forms oxazole derivatives (S.S. Minovici, <i>Berichte</i>,
1896, 29, p. 2097).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZENE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>, a hydrocarbon discovered in 1825 by
Faraday in the liquid produced in the compression of the
illuminating gas obtained by distilling certain oils and fats.
E. Mitscherlich prepared it in 1834 by distilling benzoic acid
with lime; and in 1845 Hofmann discovered it in coal-tar. It
was named &ldquo;benzin&rdquo; or &ldquo;benzine&rdquo; by Mitscherlich in 1833,
but in the following year Liebig proposed &ldquo;benzol&rdquo; (the termination
<i>ol</i> being suggested by the Lat. <i>oleum</i>, oil); the form
&ldquo;benzene&rdquo; was due to A.W. Hofmann. The word &ldquo;benzine&rdquo;
is sometimes used in commerce for the coal-tar product, but also
for the light petroleum better known as petroleum-benzine;
a similar ambiguity is presented by the word &ldquo;benzoline,&rdquo;
which is applied to the same substances as the word &ldquo;benzine.&rdquo;
&ldquo;Benzene&rdquo; is the term used by English chemists, &ldquo;benzol&rdquo;
is used in Germany, and &ldquo;benzole&rdquo; in France.</p>

<p>Benzene is manufactured from the low-boiling fractions of
the coal-tar distillate (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>). The first successful
fractionation of coal-tar naphtha was devised by C.B. Mansfield
(1819-1855), who separated a benzol distilling below 100° from
a less volatile naphtha by using a simple dephlegmator. At first,
the oil was manufactured principally for combustion in the
Read-Holliday lamp and for dissolving rubber, but the development
of the coal-tar colour industry occasioned a demand for
benzols of definite purity. In the earlier stages 30%, 50% and
90% benzols were required, the 30% being mainly used for the
manufacture of &ldquo;aniline for red,&rdquo; and the 90% for &ldquo;aniline for
blue.&rdquo; (The term &ldquo;30% benzol&rdquo; means that 30% by volume
distils below 100°.) A purer benzol was subsequently required
for the manufacture of aniline black and other dye-stuffs. The
process originally suggested by Mansfield is generally followed,
the success of the operation being principally conditioned by the
efficiency of the dephlegmator, in which various improvements
have been made. The light oil fraction of the coal-tar distillate,
which comes over below 140° and consists principally of benzene,
toluene and the xylenes, yields on fractionation (1) various
volatile impurities such as carbon disulphide, (2) the benzene
fraction boiling at about 80° C., (3) the toluene fraction boiling
at 100°, (4) the xylene fraction boiling at 140°. The fractions are
agitated with strong sulphuric acid, and then washed with a
caustic soda solution. The washed products are then refractionated.
The toluene fraction requires a more thorough
washing with sulphuric acid in order to eliminate the thiotolene,
which is sulphonated much less readily than thiophene.</p>

<p>Benzene is a colourless, limpid, highly refracting liquid, having
a pleasing and characteristic odour. It may be solidified to
rhombic crystals which melt at 5.4° C. (Mansfield obtained
perfectly pure benzene by freezing a carefully fractionated
sample.) It boils at 80.4°, and the vapour is highly inflammable,
the flame being extremely smoky. Its specific gravity is 0.899
at 0° C. It is very slightly soluble in water, more soluble in
alcohol, and completely miscible with ether, acetic acid and
carbon disulphide. It is an excellent solvent for gums, resins,
fats, &amp;c.; sulphur, phosphorus and iodine also dissolve in it.
It sometimes separates with crystals of a solute as &ldquo;benzene
of crystallization,&rdquo; as for example with triphenylmethane,
thio-p-tolyl urea, tropine, &amp;c.</p>

<p>Benzene is of exceptional importance commercially on account
of the many compounds derivable from it, which are exceedingly
valuable in the arts. Chemically it is one of the most interesting
substances known, since it is the parent of the enormous number
of compounds styled the &ldquo;aromatic&rdquo; or &ldquo;benzenoid&rdquo; compounds.
The constitution of the benzene ring, the isomerism
of its derivatives, and their syntheses from aliphatic or open-chain
compounds, are treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>. A
summary of its chemical transformations may be given here,
and reference should be made to the articles on the separate
compounds for further details.</p>

<p>Passed through a red-hot tube, benzene vapour yields hydrogen,
diphenyl, diphenylbenzenes and acetylene; the formation of
the last compound is an instance of a reversible reaction, since
Berthelot found that acetylene passed through a red-hot tube
gave some benzene. Benzene is very stable to oxidants, in fact
resistance to oxidation is a strong characteristic of the benzene
ring. Manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize it to benzoic
and o-phthalic acid; potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid
breaks the ring; and ozone oxidizes it to the highly explosive
white solid named ozo-benzene, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. Hydriodic acid reduces
it to hexamethylene (cyclo-hexane or hexa-hydro-benzene);
chlorine and bromine form substitution and addition products,
but the action is slow unless some carrier such as iodine, molybdenum
chloride or ferric chloride for chlorine, and aluminium
bromide for bromine, be present. It is readily nitrated to nitrobenzene,
two, and even three nitro groups being introduced if
some dehydrator such as concentrated sulphuric acid be present.
Sulphuric acid gives a benzene sulphonic acid.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZIDINE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Dipara-diamino-diphenyl</span>), NH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·NH<span class="su">2</span>,
a chemical base which may be prepared by the reduction of the
corresponding dinitro-diphenyl, or by the reduction of azo-benzene
with tin and hydrochloric acid. In this latter case
hydrazo-benzene C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NH·NH·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span> is first formed and then
undergoes a peculiar re-arrangement into benzidine (see H.
Schmidt and G. Schultz, <i>Annalen</i>, 1881, 207, p. 320; O.N. Witt
and Hans v. Helmont, <i>Berichte</i>, 1894, 27, p. 2352; P. Jacobson,
<i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 994). Benzidine crystallizes in plates (from
water) which melt at 122° C., and boil above 360° C., and is characterized
by the great insolubility of its sulphate. It is a di-acid
base and forms salts with the mineral acids. It is readily
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
brominated and nitrated; when the nitration is carried out in
the presence of sulphuric acid, the nitro-groups take up the
meta position with regard to the amino-groups. Benzidine finds
commercial application since its tetrazo compound couples
readily with amino-sulphonic acids, phenol carboxylic acids,
and phenol and naphthol-sulphonic acids to produce substantive
cotton dyes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>). Among such dyestuffs are chrysamine
or flavophenine, obtained from salicylic acid and diazotized
benzidine, and congo red obtained from sodium
naphthionate and diazotized benzidine. On the constitution
of benzidine see G. Schultz (<i>Annalen</i>, 1874, 174, p. 227).</p>

<p><i>The Benzidine and Semidine Change.</i>&mdash;Aromatic hydrazo
compounds which contain free para positions are readily converted
by the action of acids, acid chlorides and anhydrides into
diphenyl derivatives; thus, as mentioned above, hydrazo-benzene
is converted into benzidine, a small quantity of
diphenylin being formed at the same time. The two products
are separated by the different solubilities of their sulphates.
This reaction is known as the <i>benzidine transformation</i>. If,
however, one of the para positions in the hydrazo compound
is substituted, then either diphenyl derivatives or azo compounds
are formed, or what is known as the <i>semidine change</i> takes place
(P. Jacobson, <i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 992; 1893, 26, p. 681; 1896,
29, p. 2680; <i>Annalen</i>, 1895, 287, p. 97; 1898, 303, p. 290).
A para mono substituted hydrazo compound in the presence
of a hydrochloric acid solution of stannous chloride gives either
a para diphenyl derivative (the substituent group being eliminated),
an ortho-semidine, a para-semidine, or a diphenyl base,
whilst a decomposition with the formation of amines may also
take place. The nature of the substituent exerts a specific
influence on the reaction; thus with chlorine or bromine,
ortho-semidines and the diphenyl bases are the chief products;
the dimethylamino, &minus;N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, and acetamino, &minus;NHCOCH<span class="su">3</span>,
groups give the diphenyl base and the para-semidine respectively.
With a methyl group, the chief product is an ortho-semidine,
whilst with a carboxyl group, the diphenyl derivative is the
chief product. The ortho- and para- semidines can be readily
distinguished by their behaviour with different reagents; thus
with nitrous acid the ortho-semidines give azimido compounds,
whilst the para-semidines give complex diazo derivatives;
with formic or acetic acids the ortho-semidines give anhydro
compounds of a basic character, the para-semidines give acyl
products possessing no basic character. The carbon disulphide
and salicylic aldehyde products have also been used as means
of distinction, as has also the formation of the stilbazonium bases
obtained by condensing ortho-semidines with benzil (O.N. Witt,
<i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 1017).</p>

<p>Structurally we have:&mdash;</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:176px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img756.jpg" alt="" /></div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZOIC ACID,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span> or C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH, the simplest representative
of the aromatic acids. It occurs naturally in some
resins, especially in gum benzoin (from <i>Styrax benzoin</i>), in
dragon&rsquo;s blood, and as a benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams.
It can be prepared by the oxidation of toluene, benzyl alcohol,
benzaldehyde and cinnamic acid; by the oxidation of benzene
with manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric acid in the
cold (L. Carius, <i>Ann</i>. 1868, 148, p. 51); by hydrolysis of benzonitrile
or of hippuric acid; by the action of carbon dioxide on
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and
J.M. Crafts, <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i> 1888 [6], 14, p. 441); by the action
of carbon dioxide on monobrombenzene in the presence of
sodium; by condensing benzene and carbonyl chloride in
presence of aluminium chloride, the benzoyl chloride formed
being subsequently hydrolysed; and similarly from benzene
and chlorformamide:&mdash;</p>

<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + Cl·CONH<span class="su">2</span> = HCl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CONH<span class="su">2</span>,</p>

<p class="noind">the benzamide being then hydrolysed. It may also be prepared
by boiling benzyl chloride with dilute nitric acid (G. Lunge,
<i>Berichte</i>, 1877, 10, p. 1275); by fusing sodium benzene sulphonate
with sodium formate: C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>Na + HCO<span class="su">2</span>Na = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COONa + NaHSO<span class="su">3</span>;
by heating calcium phthalate with calcium hydroxide
to 330°-350° C.; by heating benzotrichloride with water in a
sealed tube, and from the hippuric acid which is found in the
urine of the herbivorae. For this purpose the urine is concentrated
and the hippuric acid precipitated by the addition of
hydrochloric acid; it is then filtered and boiled for some time
with concentrated hydrochloric acid, when it is hydrolysed into
benzoic and amido-acetic acid. It is made commercially by
boiling benzotrichloride (obtained from toluene) with milk of
lime, the calcium benzoate so obtained being then decomposed
by hydrochloric acid</p>

<p class="center">2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CCl<span class="su">3</span> + 4Ca(OH)<span class="su">2</span> = (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COO)<span class="su">2</span>Ca + 3CaCl<span class="su">2</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p>

<p class="noind">Benzoic acid crystallizes in glistening leaflets (from water)
which melt at 121.4° C. and boil at 249.2° C. (H. Kopp). Its
specific heat is 0.1946. It sublimes readily and is volatile in
steam. It is readily soluble in hot water and the ordinary organic
solvents, but is only slightly soluble in cold water. When heated
with lime, it is decomposed, benzene being formed; if its vapours
are passed over heated zinc dust, it is converted into benzaldehyde
(A. Baeyer, <i>Ann</i>. 1866, 140, p. 296). Distillation of its
calcium salt gives benzophenone (<i>q.v.</i>) with small quantities of
other substances, but if the calcium salt be mixed with calcium
formate and the mixture distilled, benzaldehyde is produced.
By the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solution of the
acid, benzyl alcohol, tetrahydrobenzoic acid and hexahydrobenzoic
acid are formed. The salts of benzoic acid are known
as the benzoates and are mostly soluble in water. They are
readily decomposed by mineral acids with the production of
benzoic acid, and on addition of ferric chloride to their neutral
solutions give a reddish-brown precipitate of ferric benzoate.</p>

<p>Benzoic anhydride, (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO)<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by the action of
benzoyl chloride on sodium benzoate, or by heating benzoyl
chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid (R. Anschütz, <i>Ann</i>. 1884,
226, p. 15). It crystallizes in needles, melting at 42° C., and boiling
at 360° C. It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alcohol
and ether.</p>

<p>Benzoyl chloride, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COCl, is formed by distilling a mixture
of phosphorus pentachloride and benzoic acid; by the action of
chlorine on benzaldehyde, or by passing a stream of hydrochloric
acid gas over a mixture of benzoic acid and phosphorus pentoxide
heated to 200° C. (C. Friedel, <i>Ber.</i> 1869, 2, p. 80). It is a colourless
liquid of very unpleasant smell, which boils at 198° C., and
solidifies in a freezing mixture, the crystals obtained melting at
&minus;1° C. It shows all the characteristic properties of an acid
chloride.</p>

<p>Ethyl benzoate, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, is best prepared by boiling
benzoic acid and alcohol with a small quantity of sulphuric
acid for some hours (E. Fischer and A. Speier, <i>Berichte</i>, 1896,
28, p. 3252). It is a colourless liquid of boiling point 213° C.</p>

<p><i>Benzamide</i>, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CONH<span class="su">2</span>, is prepared by the action of benzoyl
chloride on ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or from ethyl
benzoate and ammonia. It crystallizes (from water) in glistening
leaflets which melt at 130° C. and boil at 288° C. Its silver salt
behaves as if it were the salt of an imido benzoic acid, since it
yields benzimido ethyl ether C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C( : NH)·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> with ethyl
iodide (J. Tafel and C. Enoch, <i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 1550).</p>

<p>Chlor-, brom-, iodo- and fluor-benzoic acids are known and can
be obtained by oxidizing the corresponding halogen toluenes,
or from the amido acids, or by substitution. Nitration of benzoic
acid gives chiefly meta-nitro-benzoic acid. The ortho- and
para-nitro-benzoic acids can be obtained by oxidizing ortho-and
para-nitro-cinnamic acids. Ortho-amino-benzoic acid,
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·NH<span class="su">2</span>·COOH (anthranilic acid), is closely related to indigo
(<i>q.v.</i>).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span></p>

<p>Gum benzoin, which contains from 12 to 20% of benzoic acid,
is used in medicine as the essential constituent of benzoated lard,
<i>Adeps benzoatus</i>, which owes its antiseptic properties to benzoic
acid; and in friar&rsquo;s balsam, <i>Tinctura benzoini composita</i>, which
is an ancient and valuable medicament, still largely used for
inhalation in cases of laryngitis, bronchitis and other inflammatory
or actually septic conditions of the respiratory tract. It
owes its value to the benzoic acid which it contains. A fluid
drachm of friar&rsquo;s balsam may be added to a pint of water at a
temperature of about 140° F., and the resultant vapour may be
inhaled from the spout of a kettle or from a special inhaler.
Benzoic acid itself, ammonium benzoate and sodium benzoate
are all administered internally in doses of from five to thirty
grains. The ammonium salt is most often employed, owing to
the stimulant character of the ammonium base. The acid itself
is a powerful antiseptic. When administered internally, it
causes the appearance of hippuric acid in the urine. This is due
to its combination in the body with glycocoll. The combination
probably occurs in the kidney. The hippuric acid in the urine
acts as a stimulant and disinfectant to the urinary mucous
membrane. Benzoic acid is also excreted by the bronchi and
tends to disinfect and stimulate the bronchial mucous membrane.
Hence the value of friar&rsquo;s balsam. The acid and its salts are
antipyretic and were used in Germany instead of salicylates in
rheumatic fever. But the most important fact is that ammonium
benzoate is largely used&mdash;often in combination with urinary
anodynes such as tincture of hyoscyamus&mdash;as a urinary antiseptic
in cases of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) and pyelitis
(inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZOIN,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHOH·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, a ketone-alcohol, which may
be prepared by boiling an alcoholic solution of benzaldehyde
with potassium cyanide; by reducing benzil (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)
with zinc and acetic acid; or by the oxidation of hydrobenzoin
(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>-CHOH-CHOH-C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>). It is a colourless, crystalline solid,
readily soluble in alcohol and ether, melting at 137° C. and boiling
at 343-344° C. On passing the vapour of benzoin over heated lead
oxide, it is converted into benzil and benzophenone. Owing to
the readiness with which it is oxidized, it acts as a reducing
agent, giving a red precipitate of cuprous oxide with Fehling&rsquo;s
solution in the cold. Chlorine and nitric acid oxidize it to benzil;
chromic acid mixture and potassium permanganate, to benzoic
acid and benzaldehyde. On heating with zinc dust, desoxy-benzoin
(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>) is obtained; sodium amalgam
converts it into hydrobenzoin; and fuming hydriodic acid at
130° C. gives dibenzyl (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>). By fusion with
alkali it is converted into benzil; and with an alcoholic solution
of benzaldehyde in presence of ammonia it forms amarine (triphenyl
dihydro-glyoxaline). In the presence of sulphuric acid
it condenses with nitriles to oxazoles (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZOIN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gum Benjamin</span> (supposed to be from Arab.
<i>luban</i>, frankincense, the first syllable being dropped in Romanic
as if it were the article), a balsamic resin obtained from <i>Styrax
benzoin</i>, a tree of considerable size, native to Sumatra and Java,
and from other species of <i>Styrax</i>. It is obtained by making
incisions in the bark of the trees, and appears to be formed as
the result of the wound, not to be secreted normally. There are
several varieties of benzoin in commerce: (1) Siam benzoin,
which apparently does not come from <i>Styrax benzoin</i>, is the
finest and most aromatic, and occurs in the form of small &ldquo;tears,&rdquo;
rarely exceeding 2 in. in length by ½ in. in thickness, and of
&ldquo;blocks&rdquo; made up of these tears agglomerated by a clear
reddish-brown resin. The odour of Siam benzoin is partly due
to the presence of vanillin, and the substance contains as much
as 38% of benzoic acid but no cinnamic acid. (2) Sumatra
benzoin occurs only in masses formed of dull red resin enclosing
white tears. It contains about 20% of cinnamic acid in addition
to 18 or even more of benzoic. (3) Palembang benzoin, an inferior
variety, said to be obtained from <i>Styrax benzoin</i> in Sumatra,
consists of greyish translucent resinous masses, containing small
white opaque tears. It does not appear to contain cinnamic
acid. Large quantities of benzoin are used as incense. Its
medicinal uses depend on the contained benzoic acid (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZOPHENONE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Diphenyl Ketone</span>), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, the
simplest representative of the true aromatic ketones. It may be
prepared by distilling calcium benzoate; by condensing benzene
with benzoyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium
chloride; by the action of mercury diphenyl on benzoyl chloride,
or by oxidizing diphenylmethane with chromic acid. It is a
dimorphous substance existing in two enantiotropic forms, one
melting at 26° C. and the other at 48° C: (Th. Zmcke, <i>Berichte</i>, 1871,
4, p. 576). It boils at 306.1° C., under a pressure of 760.32 mm. It
is reduced by sodium amalgam to <i>benzhydrol</i> or <i>diphenyl carbinol</i>
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CHOH·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>; a stronger reducing agent, such as hydriodic
acid in the presence of amorphous phosphorus converts it into
<i>diphenylmethane</i> (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>. Potash fusion converts it into
benzene and benzoic acid. With phenylhydrazine it forms a
hydrazone, and with hydroxylamine an oxime, which exists in
one form only; if, however, one of the phenyl groups in the oxime
be substituted in any way then two stereo-isomeric oximes are
produced (cf. <span class="sc">Stereo-Isomerism</span>); thus parachlorbenzophenone
oxime exists in two different forms (V. Meyer and K.F. Auwers,
<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 2403). Many derivatives are known, thus
ortho-amino-benzophenone, melting at 106° C., can be obtained
by reduction of the corresponding nitro compound; it condenses
under the influence of heated lead monoxide to an acridine
derivative and with acetone in presence of caustic soda it gives
a quinoline. <i>Tetramethyl-diamido-benzophenone</i> or <i>Michler&rsquo;s
ketone</i>, CO[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N·(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>, melting at 173°, is of technical
importance, as by condensation with various substances it can be
made to yield dye-stuffs. It is prepared by the action of carbonyl
chloride on dimethyl aniline in the presence of aluminium
chloride: COCl<span class="su">2</span> + 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2HCl + CO[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BENZYL ALCOHOL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Phenyl Carbinol</span>), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, occurs
as a benzoic ester in Peru balsam, as cinnamic ester in Tolu balsam,
as acetic ester in essential oil of jasmine, and also in storax. It
may be synthetically prepared by the reduction of benzoyl
chloride; by the action of nitrous acid on benzylamine; by
boiling benzyl chloride with an aqueous solution of potassium
carbonate, or by the so-called &ldquo;Cannizzaro&rdquo; reaction, in which
benzaldehyde is shaken up with caustic potash, one half of the
aldehyde being oxidized to benzoic acid, and the other half
reduced to the alcohol. (<i>Berichte</i>, 1881, 14, p. 2394).</p>

<p class="center">2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + KOH = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOK + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH.</p>

<p class="noind">It is a colourless liquid, with a faint aromatic smell, and boils at
206° C. On oxidation with nitric acid it is converted into
benzaldehyde, whilst chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid.
Reduction by means of hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 140° C.
gives toluene, whilst on distillation with alcoholic potash, toluene
and benzoic acid are formed.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEOTHUK,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians formerly
dwelling in the interior of Newfoundland. A certain mystery
attaches to them, since investigation of the few words of their
language which have survived suggests that they were of distinct
stock. The name (of Micmac origin) is said to mean simply &ldquo;red
men.&rdquo; They were bitterly hostile to the French settlers, and
were hunted down and killed off until 1820, when a few survivors
made their escape into Labrador. The last of them is believed
to have died in 1829.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEÖTHY, ÖDÖN<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1796-1854), Hungarian deputy and orator,
was born at Grosswardein, his father being a retired officer and
deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Bihar. At the age of
sixteen he served in the war against Napoleon, and was present
at the great battle of Leipzig. Like so many others of his compatriots,
he picked up Liberal ideas abroad. He was sent to
parliament by his county in 1826 and again in 1830, but did not
become generally known till the session of 1832-1836, when along
with Deák he, as a liberal Catholic, defended the Protestant point
of view in &ldquo;the mixed marriages question.&rdquo; He was also an
energetic advocate of freedom of speech. After parliament rose
he carried his principles to their logical conclusion by marrying
a Protestant lady and, being denied a blessing on the occasion by
an indignant bishop, publicly declared that he could very well
dispense with such blessings. In 1841 he was elected deputy
lord-lieutenant of his county to counteract the influence of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
lord-lieutenant, Lajos Tisza, and powerfully promoted the
popular cause by his eloquence and agitation. After 1843 the
conservatives succeeded in excluding him both from parliament
and from his official position in the county; but during the
famous &ldquo;March Days&rdquo; (1848) he regained all his authority,
becoming at the same time a commander of militia, a deputy
and lord-lieutenant. At the first session of the Upper House
(5th of July 1848), he moved that it should be radically reformed,
and during the war of Independence he energetically served the
Hungarian government as a civil commissioner and lord justice.
Towards the end of the war he reappeared as a deputy at the
Szeged diet, and on the flight of the government took refuge first
with Richard Cobden in London and subsequently in Jersey,
where he made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo. Thence he
went to Hamburg, to meet his wife, and died there on the 7th of
December 1854. Beöthy was a man of extraordinary ability
and character, and an excellent debater. He also exercised as
much influence socially over his contemporaries as politically,
owing to his unfailing tact and pleasant wit.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Antal Csengery, <i>Hungarian Orators and Statesmen</i> (Hung.,
Budapest, 1851).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEOWULF<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of
Old English, and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has
come down to us in a single MS., written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, which
contains also the Old English poem of Judith, and is bound up
with other MSS. in a volume in the Cottonian collection now at
the British Museum. The subject of the poem is the exploits
of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, king of the
&ldquo;G&#275;atas,&rdquo; <i>i.e</i>. the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar,
from whom a part of southern Sweden has received its present
name Götland.</p>

<p><i>The Story.</i>&mdash;The following is a brief outline of the story, which
naturally divides itself into five parts.</p>

<p>1. Beowulf, with fourteen companions, sails to Denmark, to
offer his help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called
&ldquo;Heorot&rdquo;) has for twelve years been rendered uninhabitable
by the ravages of a devouring monster (apparently in gigantic
human shape) called Grendel, a dweller in the waste, who used
nightly to force an entrance and slaughter some of the inmates.
Beowulf and his friends are feasted in the long-deserted Heorot.
At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the strangers alone.
When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters, the iron-barred
doors having yielded in a moment to his hand. One of Beowulf&rsquo;s
friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles with the
monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, though
mortally wounded, breaks from the conqueror&rsquo;s grasp, and
escapes from the hall. On the morrow, his bloodstained track
is followed until it ends in a distant mere.</p>

<p>2. All fear being now removed, the Danish king and his
followers pass the night in Heorot, Beowulf and his comrades
being lodged elsewhere. The hall is invaded by Grendel&rsquo;s
mother, who kills and carries off one of the Danish nobles.
Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with sword and
corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under the
waves, he fights with Grendel&rsquo;s mother, and kills her. In the
vault he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head, and
brings it back in triumph.</p>

<p>3. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his
native land. He is welcomed by Hygelac. and relates to him
the story of his adventures, with some details not contained in
the former narrative. The king bestows on him lands and
honours, and during the reigns of Hygelac and his son Heardred
he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is killed
in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king in his stead.</p>

<p>4. After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for fifty years,
his country is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an
ancient burial-mound, full of costly treasure. The royal hall
itself is burned to the ground. The aged king resolves to fight,
unaided, with the dragon. Accompanied by eleven chosen
warriors, he journeys to the barrow. Bidding his companions
retire to a distance, he takes up his position near the entrance
to the mound&mdash;an arched opening whence issues a boiling stream. I
The dragon hears Beowulf&rsquo;s shout of defiance, and rushes forth,
breathing flames. The fight begins; Beowulf is all but overpowered,
and the sight is so terrible that his men, all but one,
seek safety in flight. The young Wiglaf, son of Weohstan,
though yet untried in battle, cannot, even in obedience to his
lord&rsquo;s prohibition, refrain from going to his help. With Wiglaf&rsquo;s
aid, Beowulf slays the dragon, but not before he has received
his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the barrow, and returns
to show the dying king the treasures that he has found there.
With his last breath Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and
ordains that his ashes shall be enshrined in a great mound,
placed on a lofty cliff, so that it may be a mark for sailors far
out at sea.</p>

<p>5. The news of Beowulf&rsquo;s dear-bought victory is carried to
the army. Amid great lamentation, the hero&rsquo;s body is laid on
the funeral pile and consumed. The treasures of the dragon&rsquo;s
hoard are buried with his ashes; and when the great mound is
finished, twelve of Beowulf&rsquo;s most famous warriors ride around
it, celebrating the praises of the bravest, gentlest and most
generous of kings.</p>

<p><i>The Hero.</i>&mdash;Those portions of the poem that are summarized
above&mdash;that is to say, those which relate the career of the hero
in progressive order&mdash;contain a lucid and well-constructed story,
told with a vividness of imagination and a degree of narrative
skill that may with little exaggeration be called Homeric. And
yet it is probable that there are few readers of Beowulf who have
not felt&mdash;and there are many who after repeated perusal continue
to feel&mdash;that the general impression produced by it is that of
a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the multitude and the
character of the episodes. In the first place, a very great part
of what the poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented
in regular sequence, but by way of retrospective mention or
narration. The extent of the material thus introduced out of
course may be seen from the following abstract.</p>

<p>When seven years old the orphaned Beowulf was adopted by
his grandfather king Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, and was
regarded by him with as much affection as any of his own sons.
In youth, although famed for his wonderful strength of grip,
he was generally despised as sluggish and unwarlike. Yet even
before his encounter with Grendel, he had won renown by his
swimming contest with another youth named Breca, when after
battling for seven days and nights with the waves, and slaying
many sea-monsters, he came to land in the country of the Finns.
In the disastrous invasion of the land of the Hetware, in which
Hygelac was killed, Beowulf killed many of the enemy, amongst
them a chieftain of the Hugas, named Daeghrefn, apparently
the slayer of Hygelac. In the retreat he once more displayed
his powers as a swimmer, carrying to his ship the armour of
thirty slain enemies. When he reached his native land, the
widowed queen offered him the kingdom, her son Heardred being
too young to rule. Beowulf, out of loyalty, refused to be made
king, and acted as the guardian of Heardred during his minority,
and as his counsellor after he came to man&rsquo;s estate. By giving
shelter to the fugitive Eadgils, a rebel against his uncle the king
of the &ldquo;Sw&#275;on&rdquo; (the Swedes, dwelling to the north of the
Gautar), Heardred brought on himself an invasion, in which he
lost his life. When Beowulf became king, he supported the cause
of Eadgils by force of arms; the king of the Swedes was killed,
and his nephew placed on the throne.</p>

<p><i>Historical Value.</i>&mdash;Now, with one brilliant exception&mdash;the
story of the swimming-match, which is felicitously introduced
and finely told&mdash;these retrospective passages are brought in
more or less awkwardly, interrupt inconveniently the course of
the narrative, and are too condensed and allusive in style to
make any strong poetic impression. Still, they do serve to
complete the portraiture of the hero&rsquo;s character. There are,
however, many other episodes that have nothing to do with
Beowulf himself, but seem to have been inserted with a deliberate
intention of making the poem into a sort of cyclopaedia of
Germanic tradition. They include many particulars of what
purports to be the history of the royal houses, not only of the
Gautar and the Danes, but also of the Swedes, the continental
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and the Heathobeards,
besides references to matters of unlocalized heroic story such
as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are not named, and
the Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain
there is no mention; and though there are some distinctly
Christian passages, they are so incongruous in tone with the
rest of the poem that they must be regarded as interpolations.
In general the extraneous episodes have no great appropriateness
to their context, and have the appearance of being abridged
versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry.
Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased by a
curiously irrelevant prologue. It begins by celebrating the
ancient glories of the Danes, tells in allusive style the story of
Scyld, the founder of the &ldquo;Scylding&rdquo; dynasty of Denmark, and
praises the virtues of his son Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf
had been the hero of the poem, the opening would have
been appropriate; but it seems strangely out of place as an
introduction to the story of his namesake.</p>

<p>However detrimental these redundancies may be to the poetic
beauty of the epic, they add enormously to its interest for
students of Germanic history or legend. If the mass of traditions
which it purports to contain be genuine, the poem is of unique
importance as a source of knowledge respecting the early history
of the peoples of northern Germany and Scandinavia. But the
value to be assigned to <i>Beowulf</i> in this respect can be determined
only by ascertaining its probable date, origin and manner of
composition. The criticism of the Old English epic has therefore
for nearly a century been justly regarded as indispensable to the
investigation of Germanic antiquities.</p>

<p>The starting-point of all <i>Beowulf</i> criticism is the fact (discovered
by N.F.S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes
of the poem belongs to authentic history. Gregory of Tours,
who died in 594, relates that in the reign of Theodoric of Metz
(511-534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, and carried off many
captives and much plunder to their ships. Their king, whose
name appears in the best MSS. as Chlochilaicus (other copies
read Chrochilaicus, Hrodolaicus, &amp;c.), remained on shore intending
to follow afterwards, but was attacked by the Franks under
Theodobert, son of Theodoric, and killed. The Franks then
defeated the Danes in a naval battle, and recovered the booty.
The date of these events is ascertained to have been between
512 and 520. An anonymous history written early in the eighth
century (<i>Liber Hist. Francorum</i>, cap. 19) gives the name of the
Danish king as Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the
land of the Attoarii. Now it is related in <i>Beowulf</i> that Hygelac
met his death in fighting against the Franks and the Hetware
(the Old English form of Attoarii). The forms of the Danish
king&rsquo;s name given by the Frankish historians are corruptions of
the name of which the primitive Germanic form was Hugilaikaz,
and which by regular phonetic change became in Old English
<i>Hygel&#257;c</i>, and in Old Norse Hugleikr. It is true that the invading
king is said in the histories to have been a Dane, whereas the
Hygelac of Beowulf belonged to the &ldquo;G&#275;atas&rdquo; or Gautar. But
a work called <i>Liber Monstrorum</i>,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> preserved in two MSS. of the
10th century, cites as an example of extraordinary stature a
certain &ldquo;Huiglaucus, king of the Getae,&rdquo; who was killed by the
Franks, and whose bones were preserved on an island at the
mouth of the Rhine, and exhibited as a marvel. It is therefore
evident that the personality of Hygelac, and the expedition in
which, according to <i>Beowulf</i>, he died, belong not to the region of
legend or poetic invention, but to that of historic fact.</p>

<p>This noteworthy result suggests the possibility that what the
poem tells of Hygelac&rsquo;s near relatives, and of the events of his
reign and that of his successor, is based on historic fact. There
is really nothing to forbid the supposition; nor is there any
unlikelihood in the view that the persons mentioned as belonging
to the royal houses of the Danes and Swedes had a real existence.
It can be proved, at any rate, that several of the names are
derived from the native traditions of these two peoples. The
Danish king Hrothgar and his brother Halga, the sons of Healf-dene,
appear in the <i>Historia Danica</i> of Saxo as Roe (the founder
of Roskilde) and Helgo, the sons of Haldanus. The Swedish
princes Eadgils, son of Ohthere, and Onela, who are mentioned
in <i>Beowulf</i>, are in the Icelandic <i>Heimskringla</i> called Adils son of
&#332;ttarr, and &#256;li; the correspondence of the names, according to
the phonetic laws of Old English and Old Norse, being strictly
normal. There are other points of contact between <i>Beowulf</i> on
the one hand and the Scandinavian records on the other, confirming
the conclusion that the Old English poem contains much of
the historical tradition of the Gautar, the Danes and the Swedes,
in its purest accessible form.</p>

<p>Of the hero of the poem no mention has been found elsewhere.
But the name (the Icelandic form of which is Bj&#333;lfr) is genuinely
Scandinavian. It was borne by one of the early settlers in
Iceland, and a monk named Biuulf is commemorated in the
<i>Liber Vitae</i> of the church of Durham. As the historical character
of Hygelac has been proved, it is not unreasonable to accept the
authority of the poem for the statement that his nephew Beowulf
succeeded Heardred on the throne of the Gautar, and interfered
in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. His swimming exploit
among the Hetware, allowance being made for poetic exaggeration,
fits remarkably well into the circumstances of the story told
by Gregory of Tours; and perhaps his contest with Breca may
have been an exaggeration of a real incident in his career; and
even if it was originally related of some other hero, its attribution
to the historical Beowulf may have been occasioned by his
renown as a swimmer.</p>

<p>On the other hand, it would be absurd to imagine that the
combats with Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon
can be exaggerated representations of actual occurrences. These
exploits belong to the domain of pure mythology. That they
have been attributed to Beowulf in particular might seem to be
adequately accounted for by the general tendency to connect
mythical achievements with the name of any famous hero.
There are, however, some facts that seem to point to a more
definite explanation. The Danish king &ldquo;Scyld Sc&#275;fing,&rdquo; whose
story is told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son Beowulf,
are plainly identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf, and his son Beaw,
who appear among the ancestors of Woden in the genealogy of
the kings of Wessex given in the <i>Old English Chronicle</i>. The story
of Scyld is related, with some details not found in <i>Beowulf</i>, by
William of Malmesbury, and, less fully, by the 10th-century
English historian Ethelwerd, though it is told not of Scyld
himself, but of his father Sceaf. According to William&rsquo;s version,
Sceaf was found, as an infant, alone in a boat without oars, which
had drifted to the island of &ldquo;Scandza.&rdquo; The child was asleep
with his head on a <i>sheaf</i>, and from this circumstance he obtained
his name. When he grew up he reigned over the Angles at
&ldquo;Slaswic.&rdquo; In <i>Beowulf</i> the same story is told of Scyld, with the
addition that when he died his body was placed in a ship, laden
with rich treasure, which was sent out to sea unguided. It is
clear that in the original form of the tradition the name of the
foundling was Scyld or Sceldwea, and that his cognomen <i>Scefing</i>
(derived from <i>sc&#275;af</i>, a sheaf) was misinterpreted as a patronymic.
Sceaf, therefore, is no genuine personage of tradition, but merely
an etymological figment.</p>

<p>The position of Sceldwea and Beaw (in Malmesbury&rsquo;s Latin
called Sceldius and Beowius) in the genealogy as anterior to
Woden would not of itself prove that they belong to divine
mythology and not to heroic legend. But there are independent
reasons for believing that they were originally gods or demi-gods.
It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of victories over
Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth of
Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already
become a theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might
easily suggest the idea of enriching his story by adding to it the
achievements of Beaw. At the same time, the tradition that the
hero of these adventures was a son of Scyld, who was identified
(whether rightly or wrongly) with the eponymus of the Danish
dynasty of the Scyldings, may well have prompted the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
supposition that they took place in Denmark. There is, as we
shall see afterwards, some ground for believing that there were
circulated in England two rival poetic versions of the story of the
encounters with supernatural beings: the one referring them to
Beowulf the Dane, while the other (represented by the existing
poem) attached them to the legend of the son of Ecgtheow, but
ingeniously contrived to do some justice to the alternative
tradition by laying the scene of the Grendel incident at the court
of a Scylding king.</p>

<p>As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English
kings, it seems likely that the traditions of his exploits may have
been brought over by the Angles from their continental home.
This supposition is confirmed by evidence that seems to show
that the Grendel legend was popularly current in this country.
In the schedules of boundaries appended to two Old English
charters there occurs mention of pools called &ldquo;Grendel&rsquo;s mere,&rdquo;
one in Wiltshire and the other in Staffordshire. The charter that
mentions the Wiltshire &ldquo;Grendel&rsquo;s mere&rdquo; speaks also of a place
called <i>B&#275;owan h&#257;m</i> (&ldquo;Beowa&rsquo;s home&rdquo;), and another Wiltshire
charter has a &ldquo;Scyld&rsquo;s tree&rdquo; among the landmarks enumerated.
The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited
by dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is
perhaps a trace of it in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow,
which means &ldquo;dragon&rsquo;s barrow.&rdquo;</p>

<p>While, however, it thus appears that the mythic part of the
Beowulf story is a portion of primeval Angle tradition, there is
no proof that it was originally peculiar to the Angles; and even if
it was so, it may easily have passed from them into the poetic
cycles of the related peoples. There are, indeed, some reasons
for suspecting that the blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw
and the historical Beowulf may have been the work of Scandinavian
and not of English poets. Prof. G. Sarrazin has pointed
out the striking resemblance between the Scandinavian legend of
Bödvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the poem. In each, a
hero from Gautland slays a destructive monster at the court of a
Danish king, and afterwards is found fighting on the side of
Eadgils (Adils) in Sweden. This coincidence cannot well be due
to mere chance; but its exact significance is doubtful. On the
one hand, it is possible that the English epic, which unquestionably
derived its historical elements from Scandinavian song, may
be indebted to the same source for its general plan, including the
blending of history and myth. On the other hand, considering
the late date of the authority for the Scandinavian traditions, we
cannot be sure that the latter may not owe some of their material
to English minstrels. There are similar alternative possibilities
with regard to the explanation of the striking resemblances
which certain incidents of the adventures with Grendel and the
dragon bear to incidents in the narratives of Saxo and the
Icelandic sagas.</p>

<p><i>Date and Origin.</i>&mdash;It is now time to speak of the probable date
and origin of the poem. The conjecture that most naturally presents
itself to those who have made no special study of the question,
is that an English epic treating of the deeds of a Scandinavian
hero on Scandinavian ground must have been composed in the
days of Norse or Danish dominion in England. This, however, is
impossible. The forms under which Scandinavian names appear
in the poem show clearly that these names must have entered English
tradition not later than the beginning of the 7th century. It
does not indeed follow that the extant poem is of so early a date;
but its syntax is remarkably archaic in comparision with that of
the Old English poetry of the 8th century. The hypothesis that
<i>Beowulf</i> is in whole or in part a translation from a Scandinavian
original, although still maintained by some scholars, introduces
more difficulties than it solves, and must be dismissed as untenable.
The limits of this article do not permit us to state and
criticize the many elaborate theories that have been proposed
respecting the origin of the poem. All that can be done is to set
forth the view that appears to us to be most free from objection.
It may be premised that although the existing MS. is written in
the West-Saxon dialect, the phenomena of the language indicate
transcription from an Anglian (<i>i.e</i>. a Northumbrian or Mercian)
original; and this conclusion is supported by the fact that while
the poem contains one important episode relating to the Angles,
the name of the Saxons does not occur in it at all.</p>

<p>In its original form, <i>Beowulf</i> was a product of the time when
poetry was composed not to be read, but to be recited in the halls
of kings and nobles. Of course an entire epic could not be recited
on a single occasion; nor can we suppose that it would be thought
out from beginning to end before any part of it was presented to
an audience. A singer who had pleased his hearers with a tale of
adventure would be called on to tell them of earlier or later events
in the career of the hero; and so the story would grow, until it
included all that the poet knew from tradition, or could invent in
harmony with it. That <i>Beowulf</i> is concerned with the deeds of a
foreign hero is less surprising than it seems at first sight. The
minstrel of early Germanic times was required to be learned not
only in the traditions of his own people, but also in those of the
other peoples with whom they felt their kinship. He had a
double task to perform. It was not enough that his songs should
give pleasure; his patrons demanded that he should recount
faithfully the history and genealogy both of their own line and of
those other royal houses who shared with them the same divine
ancestry, and who might be connected with them by ties of
marriage or warlike alliance. Probably the singer was always
himself an original poet; he might often be content to reproduce
the songs that he had learned, but he was doubtless free to
improve or expand them as he chose, provided that his inventions
did not conflict with what was supposed to be historic truth. For
all we know, the intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia,
which enabled their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends
of Danes, Gautar and Swedes, may not have ceased until their
conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. And even after
this event, whatever may have been the attitude of churchmen
towards the old heathen poetry, the kings and warriors would be
slow to lose their interest in the heroic tales that had delighted
their ancestors. It is probable that down to the end of the 7th
century, if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and
Mercia continued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many
another hero of ancient days.</p>

<p>Although the heathen Angles had their own runic alphabet,
it is unlikely that any poetry was written down until a generation
had grown up trained in the use of the Latin letters learned from
Christian missionaries. We cannot determine the date at which
some book-learned man, interested in poetry, took down from
the lips of a minstrel one of the stories that he had been accustomed
to sing. It may have been before 700; much later it
can hardly have been, for the old heathen poetry, though its
existence might be threatened by the influence of the church,
was still in vigorous life. The epic of Beowulf was not the only
one that was reduced to writing: a fragment of the song about
Finn, king of the Frisians, still survives, and possibly several
other heroic poems were written down about the same time.
As originally dictated, <i>Beowulf</i> probably contained the story
outlined at the beginning of this article, with the addition of one
or two of the episodes relating to the hero himself&mdash;among them
the legend of the swimming-match. This story had doubtless
been told at greater length in verse, but its insertion in its
present place is the work of a poet, not of a mere redactor. The
other episodes were introduced by some later writer, who had
heard recited, or perhaps had read, a multitude of the old heathen
songs, the substance of which he piously sought to preserve
from oblivion by weaving it in an abridged form, into the texture
of the one great poem which he was transcribing. The Christian
passages, which are poetically of no value, are evidently of
literary origin, and may be of any date down to that of the
extant MS. The curious passage which says that the subjects
of Hrothgar sought deliverance from Grendel in prayer at the
temple of the Devil, &ldquo;because they knew not the true God,&rdquo;
must surely have been substituted for a passage referring sympathetically
to the worship of the ancient gods.</p>

<p>An interesting light on the history of the written text seems
to be afforded by the phenomena of the existing MS. The poem
is divided into numbered sections, the length of which was
probably determined by the size of the pieces of parchment of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
which an earlier exemplar consisted. Now the first fifty-two
lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his son Beowulf,
stand outside this numbering. It may reasonably be inferred
that there once existed a written text of the poem that did not
include these lines. Their substance, however, is clearly ancient.
Many difficulties will be obviated if we may suppose that this
passage is the beginning of a different poem, the hero of which
was not Beowulf the son of Ecgtheow, but his Danish namesake.
It is true that Beowulf the Scylding is mentioned at the beginning
of the first numbered section; but probably the opening lines
of this section have undergone alteration in order to bring them
into connexion with the prefixed matter.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The volume containing the <i>Beowulf</i> MS. (then,
as now, belonging to the Cottonian collection, and numbered
&ldquo;Vitellius A. xv.&rdquo;) was first described by Humphrey Wanley in
1705, in his catalogue of MSS., published as vol. iii. of G. Hickes&rsquo;s
<i>Thesaurus Veterum Linguarum Septentrionalium</i>. In 1786 G.J.
Thorkelin, an Icelander, made or procured two transcripts of the
poem, which are still preserved in the Royal Library at Copenhagen,
and are valuable for the criticism of the text, the MS. having subsequently
become in places less legible. Thorkelin&rsquo;s edition (1815) is
of merely historic interest. The first edition showing competent
knowledge of the language was produced in 1833 by J.M. Kemble.
Since then editions have been very numerous. The text of the poem
was edited by C.W.M. Grein in his <i>Bibliothek der angelsächsischen
Poesie</i> (1857), and again separately in 1867. Autotypes of the MS.
with transliteration by Julius Zupitza, were issued by the Early
English Text Society in 1882. The new edition of Grein&rsquo;s <i>Bibliothek</i>,
by R.P. Wülker, vol. i. (1883), contains a revised text with critical
notes. The most serviceable separate editions are those of M. Heyne
(7th ed., revised by A. Socin, 1903), A.J. Wyatt (with English notes
and glossary, 1898), and F. Holthausen (vol. i., 1905).</p>

<p>Eleven English translations of the poem have been published
(see C.B. Tinker, <i>The Translations of Beowulf</i>, 1903). Among these
may be mentioned those of J.M. Garnett (6th ed., 1900), a literal
rendering in a metre imitating that of the original; J. Earle (1892)
in prose; W. Morris (1895) in imitative metre, and almost unintelligibly
archaistic in diction; and C.B. Tinker (1902) in prose.</p>

<p>For the bibliography of the earlier literature on <i>Beowulf</i>, and a
detailed exposition of the theories therein advocated, see R.P.
Wülker, <i>Grundriss der angelsächsischen Litteratur</i> (1882). The views
of Karl Müllenhoff, which, though no longer tenable as a whole,
have formed the basis of most of the subsequent criticism, may be
best studied in his posthumous work, <i>Beovulf, Untersuchungen über
das angelsächsische Epos</i> (1889). Much valuable matter may be
found in B. ten Brink, <i>Beowulf, Untersuchungen</i> (1888). The work
of G. Sarrazin, <i>Beowulf-studien</i> (1888), which advocates the strange
theory that <i>Beowulf</i> is a translation by Cynewulf of a poem by the
Danish singer Starkadr, contains, amid much that is fanciful, not
a little that deserves careful consideration. The many articles by
E. Sievers and S. Bugge, in <i>Beiträdge zur Geschichte der deutschen
Sprache und Litteratur</i> and other periodicals, are of the utmost
importance for the textual criticism and interpretation of the
poem.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in Berger de Xivrey, <i>Traditions Tératologiques</i> (1836),
from a MS. in private hands. Another MS., now at Wolfenbüttel,
reads &ldquo;Hunglacus&rdquo; for Huiglaucus, and (ungrammatically) &ldquo;gentes&rdquo;
for <i>Getis</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEQUEST<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>becwethan</i>, to declare or express in
words; cf. &ldquo;quoth&rdquo;), the disposition of property by will.
Strictly, &ldquo;bequest&rdquo; is used of personal, and &ldquo;devise&rdquo; of real
property. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legacy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will or Testament</a></span>.)</p>



<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉRAIN, JEAN<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1638-1711), known as &ldquo;the Elder,&rdquo; Belgian
draughtsman and designer, painter and engraver of ornament,
was born in 1638 or 1639 at Saint Mihiel (Meuse) and died in
Paris on the 24th of January 1711. In 1674 he was appointed
<i>dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet de Roi</i>, in succession to
Gissey, whose pupil he is believed to have been. From 1677
onward he had apartments, near to those of André Charles
Boulle (<i>q.v.</i>), for whom he made many designs, in the Louvre,
where he died. After the death of Le Brun he was commissioned
to compose and supervise the whole of the exterior decoration
of the king&rsquo;s ships. Without possessing great originality he was
inventive and industrious, and knew so well how to assimilate
the work of those who had preceded him (especially Raffaelle&rsquo;s
arabesques) and to adapt it to the taste of the time that his
designs became the rage. He furnished designs for the decorations
and costumes used in the opera performances, for court
festivals, and for public solemnities such as funeral processions,
and inspired the ornamentations of rooms and of furniture to
such an extent that a French writer says that nothing was done
during his later years which he had not designed, or at least which
was not in his manner. He was, in fact, the oracle of taste and
the supreme pontiff whose fiat was law in all matters of decoration.
His numerous designs were for the most part engraved
under his own superintendence, and a collection of them was
published in Paris in 1711 by his son-in-law, Thuret, clockmaker
to the king. There are three books, <i>&OElig;uvre de J. Bérain, Ornements
inventés par J. Bérain</i> and <i>&OElig;vres de J. Bérain contenant
des ornements d&rsquo;architecture</i>. His earliest known works show him
as engraver&mdash;twelve plates in the collection of <i>Diverses pièces
de serrurerie inventées par Hughes Brisville el gravées par Jean
Bérain</i> (Paris, 1663), and in 1667 ten plates of designs for the use
of gunsmiths. M. Guilmard in <i>Les Maîtres ornemanistes</i>, gives
a complete list of his published works.</p>

<p>His son <span class="sc">Jean Bérain</span>, &ldquo;the Younger&rdquo; (1678-1726), was born
in Paris, where he also died. He was his father&rsquo;s pupil, and
exercised the same official functions after his death. Thus he
planned the funeral ceremonies at St Denis on the death of the
dauphin, and afterwards made the designs for the obsequies
of Louis XIV. He is perhaps best known as an engraver. He
engraved eleven plates of the collection <i>Ornements de peinture et
de sculpture qui sont dans la galerie d&rsquo;Apollon au chasteau du
Louvre, et dans le grand appartement du roy au palais des Tuileries</i>
(Paris, 1710), which have been wrongly attributed to his father,
the <i>Mausolei du duc de Bourgogne</i>, and that of <i>Marie-Louise
Gabrielle de Savoie, reine d&rsquo;Espagne</i> (1714), &amp;c. His work is
exceedingly difficult to distinguish from his father&rsquo;s, the similarity
of style being remarkable.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Claude Bérain</span>, brother of the elder Jean, was still living
in 1726. He was engraver to the king, and executed a good
number of plates of ornament and arabesque of various kinds,
some of which are included in his more distinguished brother&rsquo;s
works.</p>
<div class="author">(J. P. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1780-1857), French song-writer,
was born in Paris on the 19th of August 1780. The
aristocratic <i>de</i> was a piece of groundless vanity on the part
of his father, who had assumed the name of Béranger de Mersix.
He was descended in truth from a country innkeeper on the one
side, and, on the other, from a tailor in the rue Montorgueil.
Of education, in the narrower sense, he had but little. From
the roof of his first school he beheld the capture of the Bastille,
and this stirring memory was all that he acquired. Later on
he passed some time in a school at Péronne, founded by one
Bellenglise on the principles of Rousseau, where the boys were
formed into clubs and regiments, and taught to play solemnly
at politics and war. Béranger was president of the club, made
speeches before such members of Convention as passed through
Péronne, and drew up addresses to Tallien or Robespierre at
Paris. In the meanwhile he learned neither Greek nor Latin&mdash;not
even French, it would appear; for it was after he left
school, from the printer Laisney, that he acquired the elements
of grammar. His true education was of another sort. In his
childhood, shy, sickly and skilful with his hands, as he sat at
home alone to carve cherry stones, he was already forming for
himself those habits of retirement and patient elaboration which
influenced the whole tenor of his life and the character of all that
he wrote. At Péronne he learned of his good aunt to be a stout
republican; and from the doorstep of her inn, on quiet evenings,
he would listen to the thunder of the guns before Valenciennes,
and fortify himself in his passionate love of France and distaste
for all things foreign. Although he could never read Horace
save in a translation, he had been educated on <i>Télémaque</i>, Racine
and the dramas of Voltaire, and taught, from a child, in the
tradition of all that is highest and most correct in French.</p>

<p>After serving his aunt for some time in the capacity of waiter,
and passing some time also in the printing-office of one Laisney,
he was taken to Paris by his father. Here he saw much low
speculation, and many low royalist intrigues. In 1802, in
consequence of a distressing quarrel, he left his father and began
life for himself in the garret of his ever memorable song. For
two years he did literary hackwork, when he could get it, and
wrote pastorals, epics and all manner of ambitious failures.
At the end of that period (1804) he wrote to Lucien Bonaparte,
enclosing some of these attempts. He was then in bad health,
and in the last state of misery. His watch was pledged. His
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
wardrobe consisted of one pair of boots, one greatcoat, one pair
of trousers with a hole in the knee, and &ldquo;three bad shirts which
a friendly hand wearied itself in endeavouring to mend.&rdquo; The
friendly hand was that of Judith Frère, with whom he had been
already more or less acquainted since 1796, and who continued
to be his faithful companion until her death, three months before
his own, in 1857. She must not be confounded with the Lisette
of the songs; the pieces addressed to her (<i>La Bonne Vieille,
Maudit printemps</i>, &amp;c.) are in a very different vein. Lucien
Bonaparte interested himself in the young poet, transferred to
him his own pension of 1000 francs from the Institute, and set
him to work on a <i>Death of Nero</i>. Five years later, through the
same patronage, although indirectly, Béranger became a clerk
in the university at a salary of another thousand.</p>

<p>Meanwhile he had written many songs for convivial occasions,
and &ldquo;to console himself under all misfortunes&rdquo;; some, according
to M. Boiteau, had been already published by his father, but
he set no great store on them himself; and it was only in 1812,
while watching by the sick-bed of a friend, that it occurred to
him to write down the best he could remember. Next year he
was elected to the <i>Caveau Moderne</i>, and his reputation as a
song-writer began to spread. Manuscript copies of <i>Les Gueux, Le
Sénateur</i>, above all, of <i>Le Roi d&rsquo;Yvetot</i>, a satire against Napoleon,
whom he was to magnify so much in the sequel, passed from
hand to hand with acclamation. It was thus that all his best
works went abroad; one man sang them to another over all the
land of France. He was the only poet of modern times who
could altogether have dispensed with printing.</p>

<p>His first collection escaped censure. &ldquo;We must pardon
many things to the author of <i>Le Roi d&rsquo;Yvetot</i>,&rdquo; said Louis XVIII.
The second (1821) was more daring. The apathy of the Liberal
camp, he says, had convinced him of the need for some bugle
call of awakening. This publication lost him his situation in the
university, and subjected him to a trial, a fine of 500 francs and
an imprisonment of three months. Imprisonment was a small
affair for Béranger. At Sainte Pélagie he occupied a room (it
had just been quitted by Paul Louis Courier), warm, well
furnished, and preferable in every way to his own poor lodging,
where the water froze on winter nights. He adds, on the occasion
of his second imprisonment, that he found a certain charm in
this quiet, claustral existence, with its regular hours and long
evenings alone over the fire. This second imprisonment of nine
months, together with a fine and expenses amounting to 1100
francs, followed on the appearance of his fourth collection.
The government proposed through Laffitte that, if he would submit
to judgment without appearing or making defences, he should
only be condemned in the smallest penalty. But his public
spirit made him refuse the proposal; and he would not even ask
permission to pass his term of imprisonment in a <i>Maison de santé</i>,
although his health was more than usually feeble at the time.
&ldquo;When you have taken your stand in a contest with government,
it seems to me,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;ridiculous to complain of the
blows it inflicts on you, and impolitic to furnish it with any
occasion of generosity.&rdquo; His first thought in La Force was to
alleviate the condition of the other prisoners.</p>

<p>In the revolution of July he took no inconsiderable part.
Copies of his song, <i>Le Vieux Drapeau</i>, were served out to the
insurgent crowd. He had been for long the intimate friend and
adviser of the leading men; and during the decisive week his
counsels went a good way towards shaping the ultimate result.
&ldquo;As for the republic, that dream of my whole life,&rdquo; he wrote in
1831, &ldquo;I did not wish it should be given to us a second time
unripe.&rdquo; Louis Philippe, hearing how much the song-writer
had done towards his elevation, expressed a wish to see and speak
with him; but Béranger refused to present himself at court,
and used his favour only to ask a place for a friend, and a pension
for Rouget de l&rsquo;Isle, author of the famous <i>Marseillaise</i>, who was
now old and poor, and whom he had been already succouring
for five years.</p>

<p>In 1848, in spite of every possible expression of his reluctance,
he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and that by so large
a number of votes (204,471) that he felt himself obliged to
accept the seat. Not long afterwards, and with great difficulty,
he obtained leave to resign. This was the last public event of
Béranger&rsquo;s life. He continued to polish his songs in retirement,
visited by nearly all the famous men of France. He numbered
among his friends Chateaubriand, Thiers, Jacques Laffitte,
Michelet, Lamennais, Mignet. Nothing could exceed the
amiability of his private character; so poor a man has rarely
been so rich in good actions; he was always ready to receive
help from his friends when he was in need, and always forward
to help others. His correspondence is full of wisdom and kindness,
with a smack of Montaigne, and now and then a vein of
pleasantry that will remind the English reader of Charles Lamb.
He occupied some of his leisure in preparing his own memoirs,
and a certain treatise on <i>Social and Political Morality</i>, intended
for the people, a work he had much at heart, but judged at last
to be beyond his strength. He died on the 16th July 1857.
It was feared that his funeral would be the signal for some
political disturbance; but the government took immediate
measures, and all went quietly. The streets of Paris were lined
with soldiers and full of townsfolk, silent and uncovered. From
time to time cries arose:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Honneur, honneur à Béranger!</i>&rdquo;</p>

<p>The songs of Béranger would scarcely be called songs in
England. They are elaborate, written in a clear and sparkling
style, full of wit and incision. It is not so much for any lyrical
flow as for the happy turn of the phrase that they claim superiority.
Whether the subject be gay or serious, light or passionate,
the medium remains untroubled. The special merits of the
songs are merits to be looked for rather in English prose than
in English verse. He worked deliberately, never wrote more
than fifteen songs a year and often less, and was so fastidious
that he has not preserved a quarter of what he finished. &ldquo;I
am a good little bit of a poet,&rdquo; he says himself, &ldquo;clever in the
craft, and a conscientious worker to whom old airs and a modest
choice of subjects (<i>le coin où je me suis confiné</i>) have brought some
success.&rdquo; Nevertheless, he makes a figure of importance in
literary history. When he first began to cultivate the <i>chanson</i>,
this minor form lay under some contempt, and was restricted
to slight subjects and a humorous guise of treatment. Gradually
he filled these little chiselled toys of verbal perfection with ever
more and more of sentiment. From a date comparatively early
he had determined to sing for the people. It was for this reason
that he fled, as far as possible, the houses of his influential friends
and came back gladly to the garret and the street corner. Thus
it was, also, that he came to acknowledge obligations to Emile
Debraux, who had often stood between him and the masses as
interpreter, and given him the key-note of the popular humour.
Now, he had observed in the songs of sailors, and all who labour,
a prevailing tone of sadness; and so, as he grew more masterful
in this sort of expression, he sought more and more after what
is deep, serious and constant in the thoughts of common men.
The evolution was slow; and we can see in his own works examples
of every stage, from that of witty indifference in fifty
pieces of the first collection, to that of grave and even tragic
feeling in <i>Les Souvenirs du peuple</i> or <i>Le Vieux Vagabond</i>. And
this innovation involved another, which was as a sort of prelude
to the great romantic movement. For the <i>chanson</i>, as he says
himself, opened up to him a path in which his genius could
develop itself at ease; he escaped, by this literary postern,
from strict academical requirements, and had at his disposal
the whole dictionary, four-fifths of which, according to La Harpe,
were forbidden to the use of more regular and pretentious poetry.
If he still kept some of the old vocabulary, some of the old
imagery, he was yet accustoming people to hear moving subjects
treated in a manner more free and simple than heretofore;
so that his was a sort of conservative reform, preceding the
violent revolution of Victor Hugo and his army of uncompromising
romantics. He seems himself to have had glimmerings of
some such idea; but he withheld his full approval from the
new movement on two grounds:&mdash;first, because the romantic
school misused somewhat brutally the delicate organism of the
French language; and second, as he wrote to Sainte-Beuve
in 1832, because they adopted the motto of &ldquo;Art for art,&rdquo; and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
set no object of public usefulness before them as they wrote.
For himself (and this is the third point of importance) he had a
strong sense of political responsibility. Public interest took
a far higher place in his estimation than any private passion
or favour. He had little toleration for those erotic poets who
sing their own loves and not the common sorrows of mankind,
&ldquo;who forget,&rdquo; to quote his own words, &ldquo;forget beside their
mistress those who labour before the Lord.&rdquo; Hence it is that
so many of his pieces are political, and so many, in the later
times at least, inspired with a socialistic spirit of indignation
and revolt. It is by this socialism that he becomes truly modern
and touches hands with Burns.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Ma biographie</i> (his own memoirs) (1858);
<i>Vie de Béranger</i>, by Paul Boiteau (1861);
<i>Correspondance de Béranger</i>, edited by Paul Boiteau (4 vols., 1860);
<i>Béranger et Lamennais</i>, by Napoléon Peyrat (1857);
<i>Quarante-cinq lettres de Béranger publiées par Madame Louise Colet</i>
(almost worthless) (1857);
<i>Béranger, ses amis, ses ennemis et ses critiques</i>, by A. Arnould (2 vols., 1864);
J. Janin, <i>Béranger et son temps</i> (2 vols., 1866);
also Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vol. i.;
J. Carson, <i>Béranger et la légende napoleonienne</i> (1897)
A bibliography of Béranger&rsquo;s works was
published by Jules Brivois in 1876.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. L. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERAR,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> known also as the <span class="sc">Hyderabad Assigned Districts</span>,
formerly a province administered on behalf of the nizam of
Hyderabad by the British government, but since the 1st of
October 1903 under the administration of the commissioner-general
for the Central Provinces (<i>q.v.</i>). The origin of the name
Berar is not known, but may perhaps be a corruption of Vidarbha,
the name of a kingdom in the Deccan of which, in the period of
the Mahabharata, Berar probably formed part. The history
of Berar belongs generally to that of the Deccan, the country
falling in turn under the sway of the various dynasties which
successively ruled in southern India, the first authentic records
showing it to have been part of the Andhra or Satavahana
empire. On the final fall of the Chalukyas in the 12th century,
Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of Deogiri, and
remained in their possession till the Mussulman invasions at the
end of the 13th century. On the establishment of the Bahmani
dynasty in the Deccan (1348) Berar was constituted one of the
four provinces into which their kingdom was divided, being
governed by great nobles, with a separate army. The perils
of this system becoming apparent, the province was divided
(1478 or 1479) into two separate governments, named after
their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani dynasty
was, however, already tottering to its fall; and in 1490
Imad-ul-Mulk, governor of Gawil, who had formerly held all
Berar, proclaimed his independence and proceeded to annex
Mahur to his new kingdom. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a
Kanarese Hindu, but had been captured as a boy in one of
the expeditions against Vijayanagar and reared as a Mussulman.
He died in 1504 and his direct descendants held the sultanate
of Berar until 1561, when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by
his minister Tufal Khan, who assumed the kingship. This
gave a pretext for the intervention of Murtaza Nizam Shah of
Ahmednagar, who in 1572 invaded Berar, imprisoned and put
to death Tufal Khan, his son Shams-ul-Mulk, and the ex-king
Burhan, and annexed Berar to his own dominions. In 1595
Sultan Murad, son of the emperor Akbar, besieged Ahmednagar,
and was bought off by the formal cession of Berar.</p>

<p>Murad, founding the city of Shahpur, fixed his seat at Berar,
and after his death in 1598, and the conquest of the Deccan by
Akbar, the province was united with Ahmednagar and Khandesh
under the emperor&rsquo;s fifth son, Daniyal (d. 1605), as governor.
After Akbar&rsquo;s death (1605) Berar once more became independent
under the Abyssinian Malik Ambar (d. 1626), but in the first
year of Shah Jahan&rsquo;s reign it was again brought under the sway
of the Mogul empire. Towards the close of the 17th century
the province began to be overrun by the Mahrattas, and in 1718
the Delhi government formally recognized their right to levy
blackmail (<i>chauth</i>) on the unhappy population. In 1724 the
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah established the independent line of
the nizams of Hyderabad, and thenceforth the latter claimed
to be <i>de jure</i> sovereigns of Berar, with exception of certain
districts (Mehkar, Umarkhed, &amp;c.) ceded to the peshwa in 1760
and 1795. The claim was contested by the Bhonsla rajas, and
for more than half a century the miserable country was ground
between the upper and the nether millstone.</p>

<p>This condition of things was ended by Wellesley&rsquo;s victories
at Assaye and Argaon (1803), which forced the Bhonsla raja to
cede his territories west of the Wardha, Gawilgarh and Narnala.
By the partition treaty of Hyderabad (1804) these ceded territories
in Berar were transferred to the nizam, together with some
tracts about Sindkhed and Jalna which had been held by Sindhia.
By a treaty of 1822, which extinguished the Mahratta right
to levy <i>chauth</i>, the Wardha river was fixed as the eastern
boundary of Berar, the Melghat and adjoining districts in the
plains being assigned to the nizam in exchange for the districts
east of the Wardha held by the peshwa.</p>

<p>Though Berar was no longer oppressed by its Mahratta taskmasters
nor harried by Pindari and Bhil raiders, it remained
long a prey to the turbulent elements let loose by the sudden
cessation of the wars. From time to time bands of soldiery,
whom the government was powerless to control, scoured the
country, and rebellion succeeded rebellion till 1859, when the last
fight against open rebels took place at Chichamba near Risod.
Meanwhile the misery of the country was increased by the
reckless raising of loans by the nizam&rsquo;s government and the
pledging of the revenues to a succession of great farmers-general.
At last the British government had to intervene effectively,
and in 1853 a new treaty was signed with the nizam, under
which the Hyderabad contingent was to be maintained by the
British government, while for the pay of this force and in
satisfaction of other claims, certain districts were &ldquo;assigned&rdquo; to
the East India Company. It was these &ldquo;Hyderabad Assigned
Districts&rdquo; which were popularly supposed to form the province
of Berar, though they coincided in extent neither with the
Berar of the nizams nor with the old Mogul province. In 1860,
by a new treaty which modified in the nizam&rsquo;s favour that of
1853, it was agreed that Berar should be held in trust by the
British government for the purposes specified in the treaty of 1853.</p>

<p>Under British control Berar rapidly recovered its prosperity.
Thousands of cultivators who had emigrated across the Wardha
to the peshwa&rsquo;s dominions, in order to escape the ruinous fiscal
system of the nizam&rsquo;s government, now returned; the American
Civil War gave an immense stimulus to the cotton trade; the
laying of a line of railway across the province provided yet
further employment, and the people rapidly became prosperous
and contented.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), and authorities
there quoted.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉRARD, JOSEPH FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1789-1828), French physician
and philosopher, was born at Montpellier. Educated at
the medical school of that town, he afterwards went to Paris,
where he was employed in connexion with the <i>Dictionnaire des
sciences médicales</i>. He returned in 1816, and published a work,
<i>Doctrine médicale de l&rsquo;école de Montpellier</i> (1819), which is
indispensable to a proper understanding of the principles of the
Vitalistic school. In 1823 he was called to a chair of medicine
at Paris, which he held for three years; he was then nominated
professor of hygiene at Montpellier. His health gave way under
his labours, and he died in 1828. His most important book is his
<i>Doctrines des rapports du physique et du moral</i> (Paris, 1823).
He held that consciousness or internal perception reveals to us the
existence of an immaterial, thinking, feeling and willing subject,
the self or soul. Alongside of this there is the vital force, the
nutritive power, which uses the physical frame as its organ.
The soul and the principle of life are in constant reciprocal action,
and the first owes to the second, not the formation of its faculties,
but the conditions under which they are evolved. He showed
himself unable to understand the points of view of those whom
he criticized, and yet his own theories, midway between vitalism
and animism, are entirely destitute of originality.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>To the <i>Esprit des doctrines médicales de Montpellier</i>, published
posthumously (Paris, 1830), the editor, H. Pétiot, prefixed an account
of his life and works; see also Damiron, <i>Phil. en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span>
siècle</i> (Paris, 1834); C.J. Tissot, <i>Anthropologie générale</i> (1843).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERAT<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Slav. <i>Byelgorod</i>; Turk. <i>Arnaut-Beligradi</i>), the
capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Iannina, southern Albania,
Turkey; on the river Ergene, Ergeni or Osum, a left-hand
tributary of the Semeni. Pop. (1900) about 15,000. Berat is
a fortified town, situated in a fertile valley, which produces
wine, olive-oil, fruit and grain. It is the see of an Orthodox
metropolitan, and the inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are
Albanian and the remainder principally Greek, are equally
divided in religion between Christianity and Islam.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERAUN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Czech <i>Beroun</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
27 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9693, mostly Czech.
It is situated at the confluence of the Beraun with the Litawa
river, and is the seat of important textile industry, sugar-refining,
corn-milling and brewing. Lime-kilns and the manufacture of
cement, and smelting and iron works are carried on in the
environs. Beraun is a place of immemorial antiquity. It was
originally called <i>na Brod&#283;</i> (by the ford), and received the name
of Bern, Berun or Verona in the 13th century, when it obtained
the privileges of a city from the emperor Charles IV., who was
specially attached to the place, calling it &ldquo;Verona mea.&rdquo; Under
his patronage the town rapidly prospered. In 1421 Zizka
stormed the town, which later on was retaken and devastated
by the troops of Duke Leopold, bishop of Passau. During the
Thirty Years&rsquo; War it was sacked by the Imperialists, the
Saxons and the Swedes in turn; and in the first Silesian war the
same fate befell it at the hands of the French and Bavarians.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERBER,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town and mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. The town is on the right bank of the Nile,
1140 ft. above sea-level, in 18° 1&rsquo; N., 33° 59&prime; E., and 214 m. by
rail N.W. of Khartum. Pop. about 6000. Berber derived its
importance from being the starting-point of the caravan route,
242 m. long, across the Nubian desert to the Red Sea at Suakin,
a distance covered in seven to twelve days. It was also one of
the principal stopping-places between Cairo and Khartum. The
caravan route to the Red Sea was superseded in 1906 by a railway,
which leaves the Wadi Halfa-Khartum line at the mouth of the
Atbara. Berber thus lost the Red Sea trade. It remains the
centre and market-place for the produce of the Nile valley for a
considerable distance. East of the town is an immense plain,
which, if irrigated, would yield abundant crops.</p>

<p>Berber, or El Mekerif, is a town of considerable antiquity.
Before its conquest by the Egyptians in 1820 its ruler owed
allegiance to the kings of Sennar. It was captured by the
Mahdists on the 26th of May 1884, and was re-occupied by the
Anglo-Egyptian army on the 6th of September 1897. It was
the capital of the mudiria until 1905, in which year the
headquarters of the province were transferred to Ed Damer, a town
near the confluence of the Nile and Atbara. At the northern
end of the mudiria is Abu Hamed (<i>q.v.</i>), important as a railway
junction for Dongola mudiria. The best-known of the tribes
inhabiting the province are the Hassania, Jaalin, Bisharin and
Kimilab. During the Mahdia most of these tribes suffered
severely at the hands of the dervishes. In 1904 the total
population of the province was estimated at 83,000. It has since
considerably increased. The riverain population is largely
engaged in agriculture, the chief crops cultivated being durra,
barley, wheat and cotton.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERBERA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> chief town and principal port of the British
Somaliland protectorate, North-East Africa, 155 m. S. of Aden,
in 10° 26&prime; N., 45° 4&prime; E. Berbera stands at the head of a deep
inlet which forms the only completely sheltered haven on the
south side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the residence of the
commissioner of the protectorate and the headquarters of the
Somaliland battalion of the King&rsquo;s African Rifles. The harbour
is eleven to thirteen fathoms deep at the entrance (indicated by
a lighthouse), decreasing to five fathoms near the shore.
Ocean-going steamers find ample accommodation. There are two piers
and numerous warehouses. The town is built in two divisions&mdash;the
native town to the east, the new town, laid out by the
Egyptians (1875-1877), to the west. The majority of the
better-class houses are of rubble, one-storeyed and flat-roofed.
The public buildings include the fort, hospital and barracks.
There are a Roman Catholic mission-house and convent and a
government school. The affairs of the town are administered by
a municipality. The water-supply is brought to the town by an
aqueduct from the hills some 8 m. distant. The bulk of the
inhabitants are Somali, who have abandoned a nomadic life and
adopted largely the ways of the Arab and Indian traders. The
permanent population is under 10,000; but from October to
April the population rises to 30,000 or more by the arrival of
caravans from Ogaden and Dolbahanta. The traders bring
with them tents on the backs of camels and these are pitched near
the native town. Their merchandise consists of sheep and goats,
gum and resin, skins and ostrich feathers. The trade is almost
entirely with Aden, of which Berbera may be considered a
commercial dependency. The value of the goods brought in yearly
by caravan exceeds on the average £100,000. The total trade
of the port for the five years 1901-1902 to 1905-1906 averaged
over £200,000 a year. The chief articles of import are cotton
goods (European white longcloth and American grey shirting),
rice and jowari, flour, dates, sugar and tobacco (the last from
Rotterdam). Berbera is said to have been founded by the
Ptolemies among the <i>Barbari</i> of the adjacent coast lands. It
fell subsequently into the possession of Arabs and was included
in the Mahommedan state of Adel. At the time of the visit to
the town of R.F. Burton and J.H. Speke (1854) it was governed
by its own sheiks. In 1870 it was claimed by the khedive
Ismail, but was not permanently occupied by Egypt until 1875.
In 1884 it passed into the possession of Great Britain (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Somaliland</a></span>, § 2, <i>History</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERBERINE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>, an alkaloid occurring together with
the alkaloids oxyacanthine C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, berbamine C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>,
hydrastine C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">6</span>, and canadine C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>, in <i>Berberis
vulgaris</i>; it also occurs in other plants, <i>Berberis aristata, B. aquifolium,
Hydrastis canadensis</i>, &amp;c. It is a yellow, crystalline
solid, insoluble in ether and chloroform, soluble in 4½ parts of
water at 21°, and moderately soluble in alcohol. It is a monacid
base; the hydrochloride, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>·HCl, is insoluble in cold
alcohol, ether and chloroform, and soluble in 500 parts of water;
the acid sulphate, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> dissolves in about 100 parts
of water. Canadine is a tetrahydroberberine.</p>

<p>Its constitution was worked out by W.H. Perkin (<i>J.C.S.</i>,
1889, 55, p. 63; 1890, 57, p. 991). This followed from
a study of the decomposition products, there being obtained
hemipinic acid (CH<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>(COOH)<span class="su">2</span>, and a substance which
proved to be &omega;-amino-ethyl-piperonyl carboxylic acid,
CH<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> : C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·COOH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>NH<span class="su">2</span>. His formula was modified
by Gadamer (<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1902, 1, p. 555), who made the free
base an aldehyde, but the salts of an <i>iso</i>-quinolinium type.
This formula, which necessitates the presence of two asymmetric
carbon atoms in an alkyl tetrahydroberberine, has been accepted
by M. Freund and F. Mayer (<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, 1, p. 632), who
showed that two racemic propyl tetrahydroberberines are
produced when propyl dihydroberberine is reduced.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERBERS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name under which are included the various
branches of the indigenous &ldquo;Libyan&rdquo; race of North Africa.
Since the dawn of history the Berbers have occupied
the tract between the Mediterranean and the
<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span>
Sahara from Egypt to the Atlantic. The origin of the name
is doubtful. Some believe it to be derived from the word
<span class="grk" title="barbaroi">&#946;&#940;&#961;&#946;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span> (barbarians), employed first by the Greeks and later by
the Romans. Others attribute the first use of the term to the
Arab conquerors. However this may be, tribal titles, <i>Barabara</i>
and <i>Beraberata</i>, appear in Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 and 1300
<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the Berbers were probably intimately related with the
Egyptians in very early times. Thus the true ethnical name may
have become confused with <i>Barbari</i>, the designation naturally
used by classical conquerors. To the Egyptians they were
known as &ldquo;Lebu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Mashuasha,&rdquo; &ldquo;Tamahu,&rdquo; &ldquo;Tehennu&rdquo;
and &ldquo;Kahaka&rdquo;; a long list of names is found in Herodotus, and
the Romans called them Numidae, Gaetuli and Mauri, terms
which have been derived respectively from the Greek <span class="grk" title="nomades">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#948;&#949;&#962;</span>
(nomads), the name Gued&rsquo;oula, of a great Berber tribe, and the
Hebrew <i>mahur</i> (western). To speak of more modern times
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
there can be enumerated the Zouaoua and Jebalia (Tripoli and
Tunisia); the Chauwia, Kabyles and Beni-Mzab (Algeria); the
Shlûh (Chlouah), Amazîgh and Berbers (Morocco); the Tuareg,
Arnóshagh, Sorgu, &amp;c. (Sahara). These tribes have many sub-tribes,
each with a distinctive name. Among the Azgar, an
important division of the Tuareg, one of the noble or free tribes,
styled Aouraghen, is said to descend from a tribe named Avrigha.
The Avrigha, or Afrigha, in ancient times occupied the coast
lands near Carthage, and some scholars derive the word Africa
from their name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa, Roman</a></span>). In regard to the ethnic
relations of the Berbers there has been much dispute. The
antiquity of their type is evidenced by the monuments of Egypt,
where their ancestors are pictured with the same comparatively
blond features which many of them still display. The aborigines
of the Canary Islands, the Guanches, would seem almost certainly,
from the remains of their language, to have been Berbers. But
the problem of the actual origin of the Berber race has not yet
been solved. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory is that of
Sergi, who includes the Berbers in the &ldquo;Mediterranean Race.&rdquo;
General L.L.C. Faidherbe regards them as indigenous Libyans
mingled with a fair-skinned people of European origin. Dr Franz
Pruner-Bey, Henri Duveyrier and Prof. Flinders Petrie maintain
that they are closely related to the ancient Egyptians. Connexion
has been traced between the early Libyan race and the
Cro-Magnon and other early European races and, later, the
Basque peoples, Iberians, Picts, Celts and Gauls. The megalithic
monuments of Iberia and Celtic Europe have their counterparts
in northern Africa, and it is suggested that these were all
erected by the same race, by whatever name they be known,
Berbers and Libyans in Africa, Iberians in Spain, Celts, Gauls
and Picts in France and Britain.</p>

<p>In spite of a history of foreign conquest&mdash;Phoenician, Greek,
Roman, Vandal, Arab and French&mdash;the Berber physical type
and the Berber temperament and nationality have
persisted since the stone age. The numerous invasions
<span class="sidenote">Characteristics.</span>
have naturally introduced a certain amount of foreign
blood among the tribes fringing the Mediterranean, but those
farther inland have preserved their racial purity to a surprising
degree. Though considerable individual differences of type
may be found in every village, the Berbers are distinctively a
&ldquo;white&rdquo; race, and the majority would, if clad in European
costume, pass unchallenged as Europeans. Dark hair and
brown or hazel eyes are the rule; blue-eyed blonds are found,
but their frequency has been considerably overstated. The invaders
who have most affected the Berber race are the Arabs,
but the two races, with a common religion, often a common
government, with the same tribal groupings, have failed to
amalgamate to any great extent. This fact has been emphasized
by Dr R.G. Latham, who writes: &ldquo;All that is not Arabic in the
kingdom of Morocco, all that is not Arabic in the French provinces
of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis, Tripoli
and Fezzan, is Berber.&rdquo; The explanation lies in a profound
distinction of character. The Arab is a herdsman and a nomad;
the Berber is an agriculturist and a townsman. The Arab has
built his social structure on the Koran, which inculcates absolutism,
aristocracy, theocracy; the Berber, despite his nominal
Mahommedanism, is a democrat, with his <i>Jemáa</i> or &ldquo;Witangemot&rdquo;
and his <i>Kanum</i> or unwritten code, the Magna Carta
of the individual&rsquo;s liberty as opposed to the community&rsquo;s good.
The <i>Kanum</i> forbids no sort of exercise of individual will, so long
as it is not inimical to the right or rights of other individuals.
The Arabizing of the Berbers is indeed limited to little beyond
the conversion of the latter to Islam. The Arab, transported
to a soil which does not always suit him, so far from thriving,
tends to disappear, whereas the Berber becomes more and more
aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At present he
forms at least three-fifths of the population in Algeria, and in
Morocco the proportion is greater. The difference between the
Berber and the Arab of the Barbary States is summed up by
Dr Randall MacIver in the following words:&mdash;&ldquo;The Berber gives
the impression of being, as he is, the descendant of men who have
lived in sturdy independence, self-governing and self-reliant.
The Arab is the degenerate offspring of a race which only from
its history and past records can claim any title to respect.
Cringing, venal, avaricious, dishonest, the Arab combines all
the faults of a vicious nature with those which a degraded
religion inculcates or encourages. The Berber, on the other
hand, is straightforward, honest, by no means averse to
money-making, but not unscrupulous in the methods which
he employs to this end, intelligent in a degree to which the
ordinary Arab never approaches, and trustworthy as no Arab
can be.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The Berber&rsquo;s village is his state, and the government is vested
in an assembly, the <i>Jemáa</i>, formed of all males old enough to
observe the fast of Ramadan. By them are determined
all matters of peace or war, legislation, taxation
<span class="sidenote">Government.</span>
and justice. The executive officer is the <i>Amin</i>, a kind
of mayor, elected from some influential family in which the
dignity is often in practice hereditary. He owes his position
to the good-will of his fellows, receives no remuneration, and
resigns as soon as he loses the confidence of the people. By
him are appointed certain <i>Temman</i> (sing. <i>Tamen</i>) who act as overseers,
though without executive powers, in the various quarters
of the village. The poorest Berber has as great a voice in affairs
as the richest. The undue power of the <i>Jemáa</i> is checked by
vendetta and a sort of lynch law, and by the formation of parties
(<i>sofs</i>), within or without the assembly, for trade, political
and other purposes. The Berbers are a warlike people who have
never been completely subjugated. Every boy as soon as he
reaches sixteen is brought into the <i>Jemáa</i> and given weapons
which he carries till he is sixty. Though each village is absolutely
independent as far as its internal affairs are concerned,
two or more are often connected by administrative ties to form
an <i>Arsh</i> or tribe. A number of these tribes form a <i>Thakebilt</i>
or confederation, which is an extremely loose organization. An
exception to this form of government is constituted by the
Tuareg, whose organization, owing to their peculiar circumstances
of life, is monarchical. Wars are declared by special
messengers; the exchange of sticks or guns renders an armistice
inviolable. In some tribes a tablet, on which is inscribed the
name of every man fit to bear arms, is placed in the mosque.
The Berbers, though Mahommedans, do not often observe the
prescribed ablutions; they break their fast at Ramadan; and
eat wild boar&rsquo;s flesh and drink fig brandy. On the other hand,
saints, both male and female, are paid more reverence by Berbers
than by Arabs. Around their tombs their descendants settle,
and thus sacred villages, often of considerable size, spring up.
Almost every village, too, has its saint or prophet, and disputes
as to their relative sanctity and powers cause fierce feuds.
The hereditary caste known as Marabouts are frequently in open
opposition to the absolute authority of the <i>Jemáa</i>. They are
possessed of certain privileges, such as exemption from the
chief taxes and the duty of bearing arms. They, however, often
take a foremost part in tribal administration, and are frequently
called upon to perform the office of arbitrators in questions of
disputed policy, &amp;c. In the <i>Jemáa</i>, too, the Marabout at times
takes the place of honour and keeps order. The Berbers, if
irreligious, are very superstitious, never leaving their homes
without exorcizing evil spirits, and have a good and evil interpretation
for every day of the week. Many Berbers still retain
certain Christian and Jewish usages, relics of the pre-Islamitic
days in North Africa, but of their primitive religion there is no
trace. They are seldom good scholars, but those under French
rule take all the advantage they can of the schools instituted
by the government. Their social tendencies are distinctly
communistic; property is often owned by the family in common,
and a man can call upon the services of his fellow villagers for
certain purposes, as the building of a house. Provision for the
poor is often made by the community.</p>

<p>The dress of the Berbers was formerly made of home-woven
cloth, and the manufacture of woollen stuffs has always been
one of the chief occupations of their women. The men
wear a tunic reaching to the knees, the women a longer
<span class="sidenote">Customs.</span>
garment. For work the men use a leather apron, and in the cold
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
season and in travelling a burnous, usually a family heirloom, old
and ragged; the women, in winter, throw a coloured cloth over
their shoulders. The men&rsquo;s hair is cut short but their beards
are allowed to grow. In some districts there are peculiar customs,
such as the wearing of small silver nose-rings, seen in
El-Jofra. The Berbers&rsquo; weapons are those of the Arab: the
long straight sword, the slightly curved and highly ornamented
dagger, and the long gun. Berbers are not great town-builders.
Their villages, however, are often of substantial appearance:
with houses of untrimmed stones, occasionally with two storeys,
built on hills, and invariably defended by a bank, a stone wall
or a hedge. Sometimes their homes are mere huts of turf, or of
clay tiles, with mortar made from lime and clay or cow-dung.
The sloping roof is covered with reeds, straw or stones. The
living room is on the right, the cattle-stall on the left. The
dwelling is surrounded by a garden or small field of grain. The
second storey is not added till a son marries. In the villages of
the western Atlas the greater part of the upper storey consists
of a sort of rough verandah. In this mountain district the natives
spend the winter in vaults beneath the houses, and, for the sake
of warmth, the tenements are built very close. Agriculture,
which is carried on even in the mountain districts by means of
laboriously constructed terraces, is antiquated in its methods.
The plough, often replaced on the steeper slopes by the hoe,
is similar to that depicted in ancient Egyptian drawings, and
hand irrigation is usual. A sickle, toothed like a saw, is used
for reaping. Corn is trodden by oxen, and kept in osier baskets
narrowing to the top, or clay granaries. The staple crop is
barley, but wheat, lentils, vetches, flax and gourds are also
cultivated. Tobacco, maize and potatoes have been introduced;
and the aloe and prickly pear, called in Morocco the Christian
fig, are also found. The Kabyles understand grafting, have
fine orchards and grow vines. The Beni-Abbas tribe in the
Algerian Atlas is famed for its walnuts, and many tribes keep
bees, chiefly for the commercial value of the wax. The Berber
diet largely consists of cucumbers, gourds, water-melons and
onions, and a small artichoke (<i>Cynara humilis</i>) which grows
wild. At the beginning and end of their meal they drink a
strongly sweetened liquid made from green tea and mint. Tea-drinking
probably became a habit in Morocco about the beginning
of the 19th century; coffee came by way of Algiers. At
feasts the food is served on large earthenware dishes with high
basket-work covers, like bee-skeps but twice as high.</p>

<p>The Berbers have many industries. They mine and work
iron, lead and copper. They have olive presses and flour mills,
and their own millstone quarries, even travelling into
Arab districts to build mills for the Arabs. They
<span class="sidenote">Industries.</span>
make lime, tiles, woodwork for the houses, domestic
utensils and agricultural implements. They weave and dye
several kinds of cloth, tan and dress leather and manufacture
oil and soap. Without the assistance of the wheel the women
produce a variety of pottery utensils, often of very graceful
design, and decorated with patterns in red and black. Whole
tribes, such as the Beni-Sliman, are occupied in the iron trade;
the Beni-Abbas made firearms before the French conquest, and
even cannon are said to have been made by boring. Before it
was proscribed by the French, the manufacture of gunpowder
was general. The native jewellers make excellent ornaments
in silver, coral and enamel. In some places wood-carving has
been brought to considerable perfection; and native artists
know how to engrave on metal both by etching and the burin.
In its collective industry the Berber race is far superior to the
Arab. The Berbers are keen traders too, and, after the harvest,
hawk small goods, travelling great distances.</p>

<p>A Berber woman has in many ways a better position than her
Arab sister. True, her birth is regarded as an event of no
moment, while that of a boy is celebrated by great
rejoicings, and his mother acquires the right to wear
<span class="sidenote">Women.</span>
on her forehead the <i>tafzint</i>, a mark which only the women who
have borne an heir can assume. Her husband buys and can
dismiss her at will. She has most of the hard work to do, and
is little better than a servant. When she is old and past work,
especially if she has not been the mother of a male child,
she is often abandoned. But she has a voice in public affairs;
she has laws to protect her, manages the household and goes
unveiled; she has a right to the money she earns; she can
inherit under wills, and bequeath property, though to avoid
the alienation of real property, succession to it is denied her.
But most characteristic of her social position is the Berber
woman&rsquo;s right to enter into a sacred bond or agreement, represented
by the giving of the <i>anaya</i>. This is some symbolic object,
stick or what not, which passes between the parties to a contract,
the obligations under which, if not fulfilled by the contracting
parties during their lives, become hereditary. Female saints,
too, are held in high honour; and the Berber pays his wife the
compliment of monogamy. The Kabyle women have stood side
by side with their husbands in battle. Among many Berber
tribes the law of inheritance is such that the eldest daughter&rsquo;s
son succeeds. South of Morocco proper, Gerhard Rohlfs, who
travelled extensively in the region (<i>c.</i> 1861-1867), states that
a Berber religious corporation, the <i>Savia Kartas</i>, was ruled over
by a woman, the chief&rsquo;s wife. The Berbers consult their women
in many matters, and only one woman is really held in low
esteem. She, curiously, is the <i>kuata</i> or &ldquo;go-between,&rdquo; even
though her services are only employed in the respectable task
of arranging marriages. Berber women are intelligent and
hard-working, and, when young, very pretty and graceful.
The Berbers, unlike the Arabs, do not admire fat women.
Among the Kabyles the adulteress is put to death, as are those
women who have illegitimate children, the latter suffering with
their mothers.</p>

<p>Though Arabic has to a considerable extent displaced the
Berber language, the latter is still spoken by millions of people
from Egypt to the Atlantic and from the Mediterranean
to the Sudan. It is spoken nowhere else, though, as
<span class="sidenote">Language.</span>
has been said, place-names in the Canary Islands and other
remains of the aboriginal language there prove it to have been
the native tongue. Although the Berber tongue shows a certain
affinity with Semitic in the construction both of its words and
sentences Berber is quite distinct from the Semitic languages;
and a remarkable fact is that in spite of the enormous space
over which the dialects are spread and the thousands of years
that some of the Berber peoples have been isolated from the rest,
these dialects show but slight differences from the long-extinct
Hamitic speech from which all are derived. Whatever these
dialects be called, the Kabyle, the Shilha, the Zenati, the Tuareg
or Tamashek, the Berber language is still essentially one, and
the similarity between the forms current in Morocco, Algeria,
the Sahara and the far-distant oasis of Siwa is much more marked
than between the Norse and English in the sub-Aryan Teutonic
group. The Berbers have, moreover, a writing of their own,
peculiar and little used or known, the antiquity of which is
proved by monuments and inscriptions ranging over the whole
of North Africa.</p>

<p>The various spoken dialects, though apparently very unlike
each other, are not more dissimilar than are Portuguese, Spanish,
French and Italian, and their differences are doubtless attributable
to the lack of a literary standard. Even where different
words are used, there is evidence of a common stem from which
the various branches have sprung. The great difficulty of
satisfactory comparison arises from the fact that few of the
Beber dialects possess any writings. The <i>Tawahhid</i> (The Unity
of God), said to have been written in Moroccan Berber and believed
to be the oldest African work in existence, except Egyptian
and Ethiopic, was the work of the Muwahhadi leader, Ibn
Tumart the Mahdi, at a time when the officials of the Kairawan
mosque were dismissed because they could not speak Berber.
Most of the writings found, however, have been in the form of
inscriptions, chiefly on ornaments. A collection of the various
signs of the alphabet has shown thirty-two letters, four more
than Arabic. De Slane, in his notes on the Berber historian
Ibn Khald&#363;n, shows the following points of similarity to the
Semitic class:&mdash;its tri-literal roots, the inflections of the verb,
the formation of derived verbs, the genders of the second and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
third persons, the pronominal affixes, the aoristic style of tense,
the whole and broken plurals and the construction of the phrase.
Among the peculiar grammatical features of Berber may be
mentioned two numbers (no dual), two genders and six cases,
and verbs with one, two, three and four radicals, and imperative
and aorist tense only. As might be expected the Berber tongue
is most common in Morocco and the western Sahara&mdash;the regions
where Arab dominion was least exercised. When Arabic is
mentioned as the language of Morocco it is seldom realized how
small a proportion of its inhabitants use it as their mother tongue.
Berber is the real language of Morocco, Arabic that of its creed
and government.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;General A. Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, <i>La
Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1872-1873); D.
Randall-MacIver and Antony Wilkin, <i>Libyan Notes</i> (London, 1901);
Antony Wilkin, <i>Among the Berbers of Algeria</i> (London, 1900);
G. Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race</i> (London, 1901), and <i>Africa,
Antropologia della Stirpe Comitica</i> (Turin, 1897); Henri Duveyrier,
<i>Exploration du Sahara</i> (1864), <i>Les Progrès de la géographie en
Algérie</i> (1867-1871), <i>Bull. de la Soc. Khédiviale de Géog</i>. (1876);
E. Renan, &ldquo;La Société Berbère,&rdquo; <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, vol. for 1873;
M.G. Olivier, &ldquo;Recherches sur l&rsquo;origine des Berbères,&rdquo; <i>Bull. de
l&rsquo;Acad. d&rsquo;Hippone</i> (1867-1868); F.G. Rohlfs, <i>Reise durch Marokko</i>
(1869); <i>Quer durch Afrika</i> (1874-1875); General Faidherbe,
<i>Collection complète des inscriptions numidiques</i> (<i>lybiques</i>) (1870), and
<i>Les Dolmens d&rsquo;Afrique</i> (1873); H.M. Flinders Petrie in <i>The Academy</i>,
20th of April 1895; Jules Lionel, <i>Races berbères</i> (1894); Sir H.H.
Johnston, &ldquo;A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara,&rdquo; <i>Geog. Journal</i>,
vol. xi., 1898; De Slane&rsquo;s translation of Ibn Khaldun, <i>Hist, des
Berbères</i> (Algiers, 1852); W.Z. Ripley, <i>Races of Europe</i> (London,
1900); Dr Malbot, &ldquo;Les Chaouias&rdquo; in <i>L&rsquo;Anthropologie</i>, 1897 (p. 14);
General Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, <i>Instructions sur l&rsquo;anthropologie
de l&rsquo;Algérie</i> (Paris, 1874); E.T. Hamy, <i>La Nécropole berbère
d&rsquo;Henchir el-&rsquo;Assel</i> (Paris, 1896), and <i>Cités et nécropoles berbères
de l&rsquo;Enfida</i> (<i>Tunisie moyenne</i>) (<i>ib.</i> 1904).</p>

<p>Berber dictionaries:&mdash;<i>Venture de Paradis</i> (Paris, 1844); Brosselard
(<i>ib</i>. 1844); Delaporte (<i>ib</i>. 1844, by order of minister of war);
J.B. Creusat, <i>Essai de dictionnaire français-kabyle</i> (Algiers, 1873);
A. Hanoteau, <i>Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek, &amp;c.</i> (Paris,
1860); Minutoli, <i>Siwah Dialect</i> (Berlin, 1827).</p>

<p>Folklore, &amp;c.:&mdash;J. Rivière, <i>Recueil de contes populaires de la
Kabylie</i> (1882); R. Basset, <i>Contes populaires berbères</i> (1887); P. le
Blanc de Prébois, <i>Essai de contes kabyles, avec traduction en français</i>
(Batna, 1897); H. Stumine, <i>Marchen der Berbern van Tamazratt in
Südtunisien</i> (Leipzig, 1900).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERCEUSE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Fr. for a &ldquo;lullaby,&rdquo; from <i>berceau</i>, a cradle), a
cradle-song, the German <i>Wiegenlied</i>, a musical composition with
a quiet rocking accompaniment.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERCHEM<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Berghem</span>), <b>NICOLAAS</b> (1620-1683), Dutch
painter, was born at Haarlem. He received instruction from
his father (Pieter Claasz van Haarlem) and from the painters
Van Goyen, Jan Wils and Weenix. It is not known why he
called himself Berchem (or Berighem, and other variants).
His pictures, of which he produced an immense number,
were in great demand, as were also his etchings and drawings.
His landscapes are highly esteemed; and many of them
have been finely engraved by John Visscher. His finest
pictures are at the Amsterdam Museum and at the Hermitage,
St Petersburg.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERCHTA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (English Bertha), a fairy in South German mythology.
She was at first a benevolent spirit, the counterpart
of Hulda in North German myth. Later her character changed
and she came to be regarded as a witch. In Pagan times Berchta
had the rank of a minor deity.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERCHTESGADEN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a town of Germany, beautifully situated
on the south-eastern confines of the kingdom of Bavaria, 1700 ft.
above the sea on the southern declivity of the Untersberg, 6 m.
S.S.E. from Reichenhall by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,046. It is
celebrated for its extensive mines of rock-salt, which were
worked as early as 1174. The town contains three old churches,
of which the early Gothic abbey church with its Romanesque
cloister is most notable, and some good houses. Apart from the
salt-mines, its industries include toys and other small articles
of wood, horn and ivory, for which the place has long been
famous. The district of Berchtesgaden was formerly an independent
spiritual principality, founded in 1100 and secularized
in 1803. The abbey is now a royal castle, and in the neighbourhood
a hunting-lodge was built by King Maximilian II. in 1852.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERCK,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a bathing resort of northern France, in the department
of Pas-de-Calais, 25 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906)
7638. It comprises two parts&mdash;Berck-Ville, 1½ m. from the
shore, and Berck-Plage, the latter with a fine sandy beach.
There are two children&rsquo;s hospitals, the climate proving peculiarly
beneficial in the treatment of scrofulous affections. About
150 boats are employed in the fisheries, and herrings form the
staple of an active trade. Boat-building and fish-curing are
carried on.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERDICHEV,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of W. Russia, in the government of
Kiev, 116 m. S.W. of Kiev by rail and not far from the borders
of Volhynia. The cathedral of the Assumption, finished in
1832, is the principal place of worship. The fortified Carmelite
monastery, founded in 1627, was captured and plundered by
Chmielnicki, chief of the Zaporogian Cossacks, in 1647, and
disestablished in 1864. An extensive trade is carried on in
peltry, silk goods, iron and wooden wares, salt fish, grain, cattle
and horses. Four fairs are held yearly, the most important
being on the 12th of June and the 15th of August. The numerous
minor industries include the manufacture of tobacco, soap,
candles, oil, bricks and leather. Pop. (1867) 52,563; (1897)
53,728, Jews forming about 80%. In the treaty of demarcation
between the Lithuanians and the Poles in 1546 Berdichev was
assigned to the former. In 1768 Pulaski, leader of the confederacy
of Bar, fled, after the capture of that city, to Berdichev,
and there maintained himself during a siege of twenty-five days.
The town belongs to the Radziwill family.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERDYANSK,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a seaport town of Russia, in the government
of Taurida, on the north coast of the Sea of Azov, in 46° 45&prime;
N. lat. and 36° 40&prime; E. long. The principal industries are in
bricks and tiles, tallow and macaroni. The roads are protected
from every wind except the south, which occasions a heavy
surf; but against this a mole was constructed in 1863. The
chief articles of export are cereals, flour, wool, hemp, skins
and fish; and the imports include hardwares, fruits, oil and
petroleum. In the immediate neighbourhood are salt-lagoons.
Pop. (1867) 12,223; (1900) 29,168.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEREA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 131 m.
by rail S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 762. Berea is served by
the Louisville &amp; Nashville railway. It is pleasantly situated
on the border between the Blue Grass and the Mountain regions.
The town is widely known as the seat of Berea College, which
has done an important work among the mountaineers of
Kentucky and of Tennessee. The college has about 70 acres
of ground (and about 4000 acres of mountain land for forestry
study), with a large recitation hall, a library, a chapel (seating
1400 persons), a science hall, an industrial hall, a brick-making
plant, a woodwork building, a printing building, a tabernacle
for commencement exercises and other buildings. In 1908
Berea had 65 instructors and 1150 students; and it paid the
tuition of 141 negro students in Fisk University (Nashville,
Tennessee) and in other institutions. The school out of which
Berea College has developed was founded in the anti-slavery
interests in 1855. An attempt was made to procure for it a
college charter in 1859, but the slavery interests caused it to be
closed before the end of that year and it was not reopened until
1865, the charter having then been obtained, as Berea College.
Negroes as well as whites were admitted until 1904, when education
of the two races at the same institution was prohibited by
an act of the state legislature (upheld by the U.S. Supreme
Court in 1908). This act did not, however, prohibit an institution
from maintaining separate schools for the two races,
provided these schools were at least 25 m. apart, and a separate
school for the negroes was at once projected by Berea.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEREKHIAH NAQDAN,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> Jewish fabulist, author of a collection
of <i>Fox Fables</i>, written in Hebrew. As his title implies (Naqdan = punctuator
of the Biblical text), Berekhiah was also a grammarian.
He further wrote an ethical treatise and was the
author of various translations. His date is disputed. Most
authorities place him in the 13th century, but J. Jacobs has
identified him with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew of
the 12th century.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERENGARIUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Berengar</span>] (d. 1088), medieval theologian,
was born at Tours early in the 11th century; he was educated in
the famous school of Fulbert of Chartres, but even in early life
seems to have exhibited great independence of judgment.
Appointed superintendent of the cathedral school of his native
city, he taught with such success as to attract pupils from all
parts of France, and powerfully contributed to diffuse an interest
in the study of logic and metaphysics, and to introduce that
dialectic development of theology which is designated the
scholastic. The earliest of his writings of which we have any
record is an <i>Exhortatory Discourse</i> to the hermits of his district,
written at their own request and for their spiritual edification.
It shows a clear discernment of the dangers of the ascetic life,
and a deep insight into the significance of the Augustinian
doctrine of grace. Sometime before 1040 Berengar was made
archdeacon of Angers. It was shortly after this that rumours
began to spread of his holding heretical views regarding the
sacrament of the eucharist. He had submitted the doctrine of
transubstantiation (already generally received both by priests
and people, although in the west it had been first unequivocally
taught and reduced to a regular theory by Paschasius Radbert
in 831) to an independent examination, and had come to the
conclusion that it was contrary to reason, unwarranted by
Scripture, and inconsistent with the teaching of men like
Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine. He did not conceal this
conviction from his scholars and friends, and through them the
report spread widely that he denied the common doctrine
respecting the eucharist. His early friend and school companion,
Adelmann, archdeacon of Liége, wrote to him letters of expostulation
on the subject of this report in 1046 and 1048; and a
bishop, Hugo of Langres, wrote (about 1049) a refutation of the
views which he had himself heard Berengar express in conversation.
Berengar&rsquo;s belief was not shaken by their arguments and
exhortations, and hearing that Lanfranc, the most celebrated
theologian of that age, strongly approved the doctrine of
Paschasius and condemned that of &ldquo;Scotus&rdquo; (really Ratramnus),
he wrote to him a letter expressing his surprise and urging him
to reconsider the question. The letter, arriving at Bec when
Lanfranc was absent at Rome (1050), was sent after him, but was
opened before it reached him, and Lanfranc, fearing the scandal,
brought it under the notice of Pope Leo IX. Because of it
Berengar was condemned as a heretic without being heard, by
a synod at Rome and another at Vercelli, both held in 1050.
His enemies in France cast him into prison; but the bishop of
Angers and other powerful friends, of whom he had a considerable
number, had sufficient influence to procure his release. At the
council of Tours (1054) he found a protector in the papal legate,
the famous Hildebrand, who, satisfied himself with the fact that
Berengar did not deny the real presence of Christ in the sacramental
elements, succeeded in persuading the assembly to be content
with a general confession from him that the bread and wine,
after consecration, were the body and blood of the Lord, without
requiring him to define how. Trusting in Hildebrand&rsquo;s support,
and in the justice of his own cause, he presented himself at the
synod of Rome in 1059, but found himself surrounded by zealots,
who forced him by the fear of death to signify his acceptance of
the doctrine &ldquo;that the bread and wine, after consecration, are
not merely a sacrament, but the true body and the true blood
of Christ, and that this body is touched and broken by the hands
of the priests, and ground by the teeth of the faithful, not merely
in a sacramental but in a real manner.&rdquo; He had no sooner done
so than he bitterly repented his weakness; and acting, as he
himself says, on the principle that &ldquo;to take an oath which never
ought to have been taken is to estrange one&rsquo;s self from God, but
to retract what one has wrongfully sworn to, is to return back to
God,&rdquo; when he got safe again into France he attacked the
transubstantiation theory more vehemently than ever. He
continued for about sixteen years to disseminate his views by
writing and teaching, without being directly interfered with by
either his civil or ecclesiastical superiors, greatly to the scandal
of the multitude and of the zealots, in whose eyes Berengar was
&ldquo;ille apostolus Satanae,&rdquo; and the academy of Tours the &ldquo;Babylon
nostri temporis.&rdquo; An attempt was made at the council of
Poitiers in 1076 to allay the agitation caused by the controversy,
but it failed, and Berengar narrowly escaped death in a tumult.
Hildebrand, now pope as Gregory VII., next summoned him to
Rome, and, in a synod held there in 1078, tried once more to
obtain a declaration of his orthodoxy by means of a confession
of faith drawn up in general terms; but even this strong-minded
and strong-willed pontiff was at length forced to yield to the
demands of the multitude and its leaders; and in another synod
at Rome (1079), finding that he was only endangering his own
position and reputation, he turned unexpectedly upon Berengar
and commanded him to confess that he had erred in not teaching
a change <i>as to substantial reality</i> of the sacramental bread and
wine into the body and blood of Christ. &ldquo;Then,&rdquo; says Berengar,
&ldquo;confounded by the sudden madness of the pope, and because
God in punishment for my sins did not give me a steadfast
heart, I threw myself on the ground, and confessed with impious
voice that I had erred, fearing the pope would instantly pronounce
against me the sentence of condemnation, and, as a
necessary consequence, that the populace would hurry me to
the worst of deaths.&rdquo; He was kindly dismissed by the pope not
long after, with a letter recommending him to the protection of
the bishops of Tours and Angers, and another pronouncing
anathema on all who should do him any injury or call him a
heretic. He returned home overwhelmed with shame and bowed
down with sorrow for having a second time been guilty of a
great impiety. He immediately recalled his forced confession,
and besought all Christian men &ldquo;to pray for him, so that his
tears might secure the pity of the Almighty.&rdquo; He now saw,
however, that the spirit of the age was against him, and
hopelessly given over to the belief of what he had combated as a
delusion. He withdrew, therefore, into solitude, and passed the
rest of his life in retirement and prayer on the island of St Côme
near Tours. He died there in 1088.</p>

<p>Berengar left behind him a considerable number of followers.
All those who in the middle ages denied the substantial presence
of the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist were commonly
designated Berengarians. They differed, of course, in many
respects, even in regard to the nature of the supper. Berengar&rsquo;s
own views on the subject may be thus summed up:&mdash;1. That
bread and wine should become flesh and blood and yet not lose
the properties of bread and wine was, he held, contradictory to
reason, and therefore irreconcilable with the truthfulness of God.
2. He admitted a change (<i>conversio</i>) of the bread and wine into
the body of Christ, in the sense that to those who receive them
they are transformed by grace into higher powers and influences&mdash;into
the true, the intellectual or spiritual body of Christ. The
unbelieving receive the external sign or <i>sacramentum</i>; but the
believing receive in addition, although invisibly, the reality
represented by the sign, the <i>res sacramenti</i>. 3. He rejected the
notion that the sacrament of the altar was a constantly renewed
sacrifice, and held it to be merely a commemoration of the one
sacrifice of Christ. 4. He dwelt strongly on the importance of
men looking away from the externals of the sacrament to the
spirit of love and piety. The transubstantiation doctrine seemed
to him full of evil, from its tendency to lead men to overvalue
what was sensuous and transitory. 5. He rejected with indignation
the miraculous stories told to confirm the doctrine of
transubstantiation. 6. Reason and Scripture seemed to him
the only grounds on which a true doctrine of the Lord&rsquo;s supper
could be rested. He attached little importance to mere ecclesiastical
tradition or authority, and none to the voice of majorities,
even when sanctioned by the decree of a pope. In this, as in
other respects, he was a precursor of Protestantism.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The opinions of Berengar are to be ascertained from the works
written in refutation of them by Adelmann, Lanfranc, Guitmund, &amp;c.;
from the fragments of the <i>De sacr. coena adv. Lanfr. liber</i>, edited
by Stäudlin (1820-1829); and from the <i>Liber posterior</i>, edited by
A.F. and F.T. Vischer (1834). See the collection of texts by
Sudendorf (1850); the <i>Church Histories</i> of Gieseler, ii. 396-411
(Eng. trans.), and Neander, vi. 221-260 (Eng. trans.); A. Harnack&rsquo;s
<i>History of Dogma</i>, Hauréau&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la philosophie scolastique</i>, i.
225-238; Hermann Reuter, <i>Geschichte der religiosen Aufklarung des Mittelalters</i>,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
vol. i. (Berlin, 1875); L. Schwabe, <i>Studien zur Geschichte
des Zweilen Abendmahlstreits</i> (1887); and W. Broecking, &ldquo;Bruno
von Angers und Berengar von Tours,&rdquo; in <i>Deutsche Zeitichrift für
Geschichtewissenschaft</i> (vol. xii., 1895).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span>
(1785-1866), known as Bérenger de la Drôme, French lawyer
and politician, son of a deputy of the third estate of Dauphiné
to the Constituent Assembly, was born at Valence on the 31st of
May 1785. He entered the magistracy and became <i>procureur
général</i> at Grenoble, but resigned this office on the restoration
of the Bourbons. He now devoted himself mainly to the study
of criminal law, and in 1818 published <i>La Justice criminelle en France</i>, in which with great courage he attacked the special
tribunals, provosts&rsquo; courts or military commissions which were
the main instruments of the Reaction, and advocated a return
to the old common law and trial by jury. The book had a
considerable effect in discrediting the reactionary policy of the
government; but it was not until 1828, when Bérenger was
elected to the chamber, that he had an opportunity of exercising
a personal influence on affairs as a member of the group known
as that of constitutional opposition. His courage, as well as his
moderation, was again displayed during the revolution of 1830,
when, as president of the parliamentary commission for the trial
of the ministers of Charles X., he braved the fury of the mob and
secured a sentence of imprisonment in place of the death penalty
for which they clamoured.</p>

<p>His position in the chamber was now one of much influence,
and he had a large share in the modelling of the new constitution,
though his effort to secure a hereditary peerage failed. Above
all he was instrumental in framing the new criminal code, based
on more humanitarian principles, which was issued in 1835.
It was due to him that, in 1832, the right, so important in actual
French practice, was given to juries to find &ldquo;extenuating
circumstances&rdquo; in cases when guilt involved the death penalty.
In 1831 he had been made a member of the court of appeal (<i>cour
de cassation</i>), and the same year was nominated a member of the
academy of moral and political sciences. He was raised to the
peerage in 1839. This dignity he lost owing to the revolution of
1848; and as a politician his career now ended. As a judge,
however, his activity continued. He was president of the high
courts of Bourges and Versailles in 1840. Having been appointed
president of one of the chambers of the court of cassation, he
devoted himself entirely to judicial work until his retirement,
under the age limit, on the 31st of May 1860. He now withdrew
to his native town, and occupied himself with his favourite work
of reform of criminal law. In 1833 he had shared in the foundation
of a society for the reclamation of young criminals, in which
he continued to be actively interested to the end. In 1851 and
1852, on the commission of the academy of moral sciences, he
had travelled in France and England for the purpose of examining
and comparing the penal systems in the two countries. The
result was published in 1855 under the title <i>La Répression pénale,
comparaison du système pénitentiaire en France et en Angleterre.</i>
He died on the 15th of May 1866.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">René Bérenger</span> (1830-&emsp;&emsp;), continued the work of
his father, and at the outbreak of the revolution of 1870 was
<i>avocat général</i> of Lyons. He served as a volunteer in the Franco-German
War, being wounded at Nuits on the 28th of December.
Returned to the National Assembly by the department of Drõme,
he was for a few days in 1873 minister of public works under
Thiers. He then entered the senate, of which he was vice-president from 1894 to 1897. He founded in 1871 a society for
the reclamation of discharged prisoners, and presided over
various bodies formed to secure improvement of the public
morals. He succeeded Charles Lucas in 1890 at the Academy
of Moral and Political Science.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERENICE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bernice</span>, the Macedonian forms of the Greek
Pherenice, the name of (A) five Egyptian and (B) two Jewish
princesses.</p>

<p>(A) 1. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Lagus, wife of an obscure
Macedonian soldier and subsequently of Ptolemy Soter, with
whose bride Eurydice she came to Egypt as a lady-in-waiting.
Her son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was recognized as heir over the
heads of Eurydice&rsquo;s children. So great was her ability and her
influence that Pyrrhus of Epirus gave the name Berenicis to a
new city. Her son Philadelphus decreed divine honours to her
on her death. (See Theocritus, <i>Idylls</i> xv. and xvii.)</p>

<p>2. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wife of
Antiochus Theos of Syria, who, according to agreement with
Ptolemy (249), had divorced his wife Laodice and transferred
the succession to Berenice&rsquo;s children. On Ptolemy&rsquo;s death,
Antiochus repudiated Berenice and took back Laodice, who,
however, at once poisoned him and murdered Berenice and
her son. The prophecy in Daniel xi. 6 seq. refers to these
events.</p>

<p>3. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and
the wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes. During her husband&rsquo;s
absence on an expedition to Syria, she dedicated her hair to
Venus for his safe return, and placed it in the temple of the
goddess at Zephyrium. The hair having by some unknown
means disappeared, Conon of Samos, the mathematician and
astronomer, explained the phenomenon in courtly phrase, by
saying that it had been carried to the heavens and placed among
the stars. The name <i>Coma Berenices</i>, applied to a constellation,
commemorates this incident. Callimachus celebrated the
transformation in a poem, of which only a few lines remain,
but there is a fine translation of it by Catullus. Soon after her
husband&rsquo;s death (221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) she was murdered at the instigation
of her son Ptolemy IV., with whom she was probably associated
in the government.</p>

<p>4. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, also called <span class="sc">Cleopatra</span>, daughter of Ptolemy X.,
married as her second husband Alexander II., grandson of
Ptolemy VII. He murdered her three weeks afterwards.</p>

<p>5. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, eldest sister of
the great Cleopatra. The Alexandrines placed her on the throne
in succession to her father (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). She married Seleucus
Cybiosactes, but soon caused him to be slain, and married
Archelaus, who had been made king of Comana in Pontus (or in
Cappadocia) by Pompey. Auletes was restored and put both
Berenice and Archelaus to death in 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>

<p>(B) 1. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Salome, sister of Herod I., and
wife of her cousin Aristobulus, who was assassinated in 6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
Their relations had been unhappy and she was accused of complicity in his murder. By Aristobulus she was the mother of
Herod Agrippa I. Her second husband, Theudion, uncle on the
mother&rsquo;s side of Antipater, son of Herod I., having been put to
death for conspiring against Herod, she married Archelaus.
Subsequently she went to Rome and enjoyed the favour of the
imperial household.</p>

<p>2. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and
born probably about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 28. She was first married to Marcus,
son of the alabarch<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Alexander of Alexandria. On his early
death she was married to her father&rsquo;s brother, Herod of Chalcis,
after whose death (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 48) she lived for some years with her
brother, Agrippa II. Her third husband was Polemon, king of
Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and returned to Agrippa,
with whom she was living in 60 when Paul appeared before him
at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). During the devastation of Judaea by
the Romans, she fascinated Titus, whom along with Agrippa she
followed to Rome as his promised wife (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75). When he
became emperor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 79) he dismissed her finally, though
reluctantly, to her own country. Her influence had been exercised
vainly on behalf of the Jews in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66, but the burning
of her palace alienated her sympathies. For her influence see
Juvenal, <i>Satires</i>, vi., and Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> ii. 2.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Alabarch or Arabarch (Gr. <span class="grk" title="alabarchys">&#7936;&#955;&#945;&#946;&#940;&#961;&#967;&#951;&#962;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="arabarchys">&#7936;&#961;&#945;&#946;&#940;&#961;&#967;&#951;&#962;</span>),
the name of the head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria under the Ptolemaic
and Roman rules.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERENICE,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> an ancient seaport of Egypt, on the west coast of
the Red Sea, in 23° 56&prime; N., 35° 34&prime; E. Built at the head of a gulf,
the <i>Sinus Immundus</i>, or Foul Bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered on
the north by Ras Benas (<i>Lepte Extrema</i>). The port is now
nearly filled up, has a sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached
only by small craft. Most important of the ruins is a temple;
the remnants of its sculptures and inscriptions preserve the name
of Tiberius and the figures of many deities, including a goddess
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
of the emerald mines. Berenice was founded by Ptolemy II.
(285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in order to shorten the dangerous Red Sea
voyages, and was named in honour of his mother. For four or
five centuries it became the entrepot of trade between India,
Arabia and Upper Egypt. From it a road, provided with
watering stations, leads north-west across the desert to the Nile
at Coptos. In the neighbourhood of Berenice are the emerald
mines of Zabara and Saket.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>
(1846-&emsp;&emsp;), British admiral, second son of the 4th marquess
of Waterford, was born in Ireland, and entered the &ldquo;Britannia&rdquo;
as a naval cadet in 1859. He became lieutenant in 1868, and
commander in 1875. In 1874 he was returned to parliament as
Conservative M.P. for Waterford, retaining his seat till 1880, and
he was already known in this period as a gallant officer, with a
special interest in naval administration. In 1875-1876 he accompanied
the then prince of Wales on his visit to India as naval
A.D.C.; from 1878 to 1881 he was commander of the royal yacht
&ldquo;Osborne.&rdquo; He was in command of the gunboat &ldquo;Condor&rdquo;
in the Mediterranean when the Egyptian crisis of 1882 occurred;
and he became a popular hero in England in connexion with
the bombardment of Alexandria (July 11), when he took his
ship close in to the forts and engaged them with such conspicuous
gallantry that the admiral ordered a special signal &ldquo;Well done,
Condor!&rdquo; He was promoted captain for his services, and, after
taking an active part in the re-establishment of order in Alexandria,
he served again in Egypt on Lord Wolseley&rsquo;s staff in
the expedition of 1884-85, commanding the naval brigade at
Abu Klea, Abu Kru and Metemmeh, and, with the river steamer
&ldquo;Safieh,&rdquo; rescuing Sir C. Wilson and his party, who had been
wrecked on returning from Khartum (Feb. 4, 1885). In
November 1885 he was again returned to parliament as member
for East Marylebone (re-elected 1886), and in Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s
ministry of 1886 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty. The
press agitation in favour of a stronger navy was now in full swing,
and it was well known that in Lord Charles Beresford it had an
active supporter; but very little impression was made on the
government, and in 1888 he resigned his office on this question,
a dramatic step which had considerable effect. In the House of
Commons he advocated an expenditure of twenty millions sterling
on the fleet, and the passing of the Naval Defence Act in 1889
was largely due to his action. At the end of 1889 he became
captain of the cruiser &ldquo;Undaunted&rdquo; in the Mediterranean, and
when this ship was paid off in 1893 he was appointed in command
of the steam reserve at Chatham, a post he held for three years.
In 1897 he became rear-admiral, and again entered parliament,
winning a by-election at York; he retained his seat till 1900,
but was mainly occupied during these years by a mission to
China on behalf of the Associated Chambers of Commerce; he
published his book <i>The Break-up of China</i> in 1899. In 1902 he
was returned to parliament for Woolwich, but resigned on his
appointment to command the Channel squadron (1903-1905);
in 1905 he was given the command of the Mediterranean fleet,
and from 1906 to 1909 was commander-in-chief of the Channel
fleet; in 1906 he became a full admiral. At sea he had always
shown himself a remarkable disciplinarian, possessed of great
influence over his men, and his reputation as one who would,
if necessary, prove a great fighting commander was second to
none; and, even when serving afloat and therefore unable to
speak direct to the public, he was in the forefront of the campaign
for increased naval efficiency. During the administration (1903-1910)
of Sir John Fisher (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fisher, Baron</a></span>) as first sea lord of
the admiralty it was notorious that considerable friction existed
between them, and both in the navy and in public a great deal
of party-spirit was engendered in the discussion of their
opposing views. When Lord Charles Beresford&rsquo;s term expired
as commander-in-chief in March 1909 he was finally &ldquo;unmuzzled,&rdquo;
and the attack which for some years his supporters had made
against Sir J. Fisher&rsquo;s administration came to a head at a moment
coinciding with the new shipbuilding crisis occasioned by the
revelations as to the increase of the German fleet. He himself
came forward with proposals for a large increase in the navy
and a reorganization of the administrative system, his first step
being a demand for an inquiry, to which the government
promptly assented (May) in the shape of a small Committee
under the prime minister. Its report (August), however, gave
him no satisfaction, and he proceeded with his public campaign,
bitterly attacking the ministerial policy. In January 1910, at
the general election, he was returned as Conservative M.P. for
Portsmouth; but meanwhile Sir John Fisher&rsquo;s term of office
came to an end, and in his successor, Admiral Sir Arthur Knyvet
Wilson (b. 1842), the navy obtained a first sea lord who commanded
universal confidence.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, JOHN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1738-1805), Irish statesman, was a
younger son of Sir Marcus Beresford, who, having married
Catherine, sole heiress of James Power, 3rd earl of Tyrone, was
created earl of Tyrone in 1746. After the death of the earl in
1763, Beresford&rsquo;s mother successfully asserted her claim <i>suo jure</i>
to the barony of La Poer. John Beresford, born on the 14th of
March 1738, thus inherited powerful family connexions. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish
bar, and entered the Irish parliament as member for Waterford
in 1760. His industry, added to the influence of his family,
procured his admission to the privy council in 1768, and his
appointment as one of the commissioners of revenue two years
later. In 1780 he became first commissioner of revenue, a
position which gave him powerful influence in the Irish administration.
He introduced some useful reforms in the machinery
of taxation; and he was the author of many improvements in the
architecture of the public buildings and streets of Dublin. He
was first brought into conflict with Grattan and the popular
party, in 1784, by his support of the proposal that the Irish
parliament in return for the removal of restrictions on Irish
trade should be bound to adopt the English navigation laws.
In 1786 he was sworn a member of the English privy council,
and the power which he wielded in Ireland through his numerous
dependants and connexions grew to be so extensive that a few
years later he was spoken of as the &ldquo;king of Ireland.&rdquo; He was a
vehement opponent of the increasing demand for relief of the
Roman Catholics; and when it became known that Lord Fitzwilliam
was to succeed Lord Westmorland as lord lieutenant
in 1795 for the purpose of carrying out a conciliatory policy,
Beresford expressed strong hostility to the appointment. One
of Fitzwilliam&rsquo;s first acts was to dismiss Beresford from his
employment but with permission to retain his entire official
salary for life, and with the assurance that no other member of
his family would be removed. Beresford immediately exerted
all his influence with his friends in England, to whom he described
himself as an injured and persecuted man; he appealed to Pitt,
and went in person to London to lay his complaint before the
English ministers. There is little doubt that the recall of Lord
Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v</i>.), which was followed by such momentous
consequences in the history of Ireland, was, as the viceroy himself
believed, mainly due to Beresford&rsquo;s dismissal. There had been
a misunderstanding on the point between Pitt and Fitzwilliam.
The latter, whose veracity was unimpeachable, asserted that
previous to his coming to Ireland he had informed the prime
minister of his intention to dismiss Beresford, and that Pitt had
raised no objection. Pitt denied all recollection of any such
communication, and on the contrary described the dismissal as
&ldquo;an open breach of the most solemn promise.&rdquo;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In a letter to
Lord Carlisle, justifying his action, Fitzwilliam mentioned that
malversation had been imputed to Beresford. Beresford sent a
challenge to Fitzwilliam, but the combatants were interrupted
on the field and Fitzwilliam then made an apology.</p>

<p>When Lord Camden replaced Fitzwilliam in the viceroyalty
in March 1795, Beresford resumed his former position. On the
eve of the rebellion in 1798 his letters to Lord Auckland gave an
alarming description of the condition of Ireland, and he counselled
strong measures of repression. When first consulted by Pitt on
the question of the union Beresford appears to have disliked the
idea; but he soon became reconciled to the policy and warmly
supported it. After the union Beresford continued to represent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
Waterford in the imperial parliament, and he remained in office
till 1802, taking an active part in settling the financial relations
between Ireland and Great Britain. He died near Londonderry
on the 5th of November 1805. John Beresford was twice
married: in 1760 to a foreign lady, Constantia Ligondes, who
died in 1772; and, secondly, in 1774 to Barbara Montgomery, a
celebrated beauty who figures in Sir Joshua Reynolds&rsquo;s picture
of &ldquo;The Graces.&rdquo; He had large families by both marriages.
His son, John Claudius, kept a riding school in Dublin, which
acquired an evil reputation as the chief scene of the floggings
by which evidence was extorted of the conspiracy which came
to a head in 1798. He took a prominent part in the Irish House
of Commons, where he unsuccessfully moved the reduction of
the proposed Irish contribution to the imperial exchequer in
the debates on the Act of Union, of which, unlike his father, he
was to the last an ardent opponent.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Correspondence of the Right Hon. John Beresford</i>, edited by
W. Beresford (2 vols., London, 1854); Edward Wakefield, <i>An
Account of Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1812); Earl Stanhope, <i>Life of
William Pitt</i> (4 vols., London, 1861); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of
Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vols. iii., iv., v. (5 vols., London,
1892).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, ii, 301.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span>
(1768-1854), British general and Portuguese marshal, illegitimate
son of the first marquess of Waterford, was born on the 2nd of
October 1768. He entered the British army in 1785, and while
in Nova Scotia with his regiment in the following year lost the
sight of one eye by a shooting accident. He first distinguished
himself at Toulon in 1793, receiving two years later the command
of the 88th regiment (Connaught Rangers). In 1799 his regiment
was ordered to India, and a few months later Beresford left with
Sir David Baird&rsquo;s expedition for Egypt, and was placed in
command of the first brigade which led the march from Kosseir
across the desert. When, on the evacuation of Egypt in 1803,
he returned home, his reputation was established. In 1805 he
accompanied Sir David Baird to South Africa, and was present
at the capture of Cape Town and the surrender of the colony.
From South Africa he was despatched to South America. He
had little difficulty in capturing Buenos Aires with only a couple
of regiments. But this force was wholly insufficient to hold the
colony. Under the leadership of a French <i>émigré</i>, the chevalier
de Timers, the colonists attacked Beresford, and at the end of
three days&rsquo; hard fighting he was compelled to capitulate. After
six months&rsquo; imprisonment he escaped, and reached England in
1807, and at the end of that year he was sent to Madeira, occupying
the island in the name of the king of Portugal. After six
months in Madeira as governor and commander-in-chief, during
which he learnt Portuguese and obtained an insight into the
Portuguese character, he was ordered to join Sir Arthur
Wellesley&rsquo;s army in Portugal. He was first employed as commandant
in Lisbon, but accompanied Sir John Moore on the
advance into Spain, and took a conspicuous part in the battle of
Corunna (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>). In February 1809 Beresford
was given the task of reorganizing the Portuguese army. In
this task, by systematic weeding-out of inefficient officers and
men, he succeeded beyond expectation. By the summer of 1810
he had so far improved the <i>moral</i> and discipline of the force
that Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regiments
with English ones, and at Busaco Portuguese and English fought
side by side. Beresford&rsquo;s services in this battle were rewarded
by the British government with a knighthood of the Bath and
by the Portuguese with a peerage.</p>

<p>In the spring of 1811 Wellington was compelled to detach
Beresford from the Portuguese service. The latter was next
in seniority to General (Lord) Hill who had gone home on sick
leave, and on him, therefore, the command of Hill&rsquo;s corps now
devolved. Unfortunately Beresford never really gained the
confidence of his new troops. At Campo Mayor his light cavalry
brigade got out of hand, and a regiment of dragoons was practically
annihilated. He invested Badajoz with insufficient forces,
and on the advance of Soult he was compelled to raise the siege
and offer battle at Albuera. His personal courage was even
more than usually conspicuous, but to the initiative of a junior
staff officer, Colonel (afterwards Viscount) Hardinge, rather than
to Beresford&rsquo;s own generalship, was the hardly-won victory to
be attributed. Beresford then went back to his work of
reorganizing the Portuguese army. He was present at the
siege of Badajoz and at the battle of Salamanca, where he was
severely wounded (1812). In 1813 he was present at the battle
of Vittoria, and at the battles of the Pyrenees, while at the battle
of the Nivelle, the Nive and Orthez he commanded the British
centre, and later he led a corps at the battle of Toulouse. At
the close of the Peninsular War he was created Baron Beresford
of Albuera and Cappoquin, with a pension of £2000 a year, to be
continued to his two successors.</p>

<p>In 1819 the revolution in Portugal led to the dismissal of the
British officers in the Portuguese service. Beresford therefore
left Portugal and placed the question of the arrears of pay of his
army before the king at Rio Janeiro. On his return the new
Portuguese government refused to allow him to land, and he
accordingly left for home. On arriving in England he turned
his attention to politics, and strongly supported the duke of
Wellington in the House of Lords. In 1823 his barony was made
a viscounty, and when the duke of Wellington formed his first
cabinet in 1828 he gave Beresford the office of master-general
of the ordnance. In 1830 Beresford retired from politics, and
for some time subsequently he was occupied in a heated controversy
with William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular
War, who had severely criticised his tactics at Albuera. On this
subject Wellington&rsquo;s opinion of Beresford is to the point. The
duke had no illusions as to his being a great general, but he
thought very highly of his powers of organization, and he went
so far as to declare, during the Peninsular War, that, in the event
of his own death, he would on this ground recommend Beresford
to succeed him. The last years of Beresford&rsquo;s life were spent at
Bedgebury, Kent, where he had purchased a country estate.
He died on the 8th of January 1854.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEREZINA,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a river of Russia, in the government of Minsk,
forming a tributary of the Dnieper. It rises in the marshes of
Borizov and flows south, inclining to east, for 350 m. (250 m.
navigable), for the most part through low-lying but well-wooded
country. As a navigable river, and forming a portion of the
canal system which unites the Black Sea with the Baltic, it is of
importance for commerce, but is subject to severe floods. It was
just above Borizov that Napoleon&rsquo;s army forced the passage
of the Berezina, with enormous losses, on the 26th-28th of
November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEREZOV<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>. a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of
Tobolsk, 700 m. N. of the city of that name, situated on three
hills on the left bank of the Sosva, 26 m. above its mouth in the
Ob, in 63° 55&prime; N. lat. and 65° 7&prime; E. long. It has more than once
suffered from conflagrations&mdash;for example, in 1710 and 1808.
Prince Menshikov, the favourite of Peter the Great and Catherine
I., died here an exile, in 1729. In 1730 his enemy and rival,
Prince Dolgoruki, was interned here with his family; and in
1742 General Ostermann was sent to Berezov with his wife and
died there in 1747. The yearly mean temperature is 25° Fahr.,
the maximum cold being 4.7°. It has a cathedral, near which
lie buried Mary Menshikov, once betrothed to the tsar Peter II.,
and some of the Dolgorukis. There is some trade in furs,
mammoth bones, dried and salted fish. Pop. (1897) 1073.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEREZOVSK,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a village of east Russia, in the government of
Perm, on the eastern slope of the Urals, 8 m. N.E. of Ekaterinburg.
It is the centre of an important gold-mining region
(5 m. by 2½) of the same name. The mines have been known
since 1747. The inhabitants also manufacture boots, cut stone
and carry on cabinet-making.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERG<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>Ducatus Montensis</i>), a former duchy of Germany, on
the right bank of the Rhine, bounded N. by the duchy of Cleves,
E. by the countship of La Marck and the duchy of Westphalia,
and S. and W. by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about
1120 sq. m. The district was raised in 1108 to the rank of a
countship, but did not become a duchy till 1380, after it had
passed into the possession of the Jülich family. In 1423 the
duchy of Jülich fell to Adolf of Berg, and in 1437 the countship
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
of Ravensberg was united to the duchies. The male line of the
dukes of Jülich-Berg-Ravensberg became extinct in 1511, and
the duchy passed by marriage to John III. (d. 1539), duke of
Cleves and count of La Marck, whose male line became extinct
with the death of John William, bishop of Münster, in 1609.
Of the latter&rsquo;s four sisters, the eldest (Marie Eleonore) was
married to Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, the second (Anna)
to Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, the third (Magdalena)
to John, count palatine of Zweibrücken, and the fourth (Sybille)
to Charles of Habsburg, margrave of Burgau. The question of
the succession led to a prolonged contest, which was one of the
causes of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. It was settled in 1614 by a
partition, under which Berg, with Jülich, was assigned to the
count palatine of Neuburg, in whose line it remained till 1742,
when it passed to the Sultzbach branch of the house of Wittelsbach.
On the death of Charles Theodore, the last of this line, in
1799, Jülich and Berg fell to Maximilian Joseph of Zweibrücken
(Maximilian I. of Bavaria), who ceded the duchies in 1806 to
Napoleon. Berg was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the
duchy of Cleves and other possessions, on Joachim Murat, who
bore the title of grand-duke of Berg; and after Murat&rsquo;s elevation
to the throne of Naples, it was transferred to Louis, the son of
the king of Holland. By the congress of Vienna in 1815 it was
made over to Prussia.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See B. Schönneshöfer, <i>Geschichte des Bergischen Landes</i>
(Elberfeld, 1895); Stokvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire, &amp;c.</i> vol. iii.
(Leiden, 1890-1893); and R. Göcke, <i>Das Grossherzogtum Berg
unter Joachim Murat, Napoleon I<span class="sp">er</span> und Louis Napoleon, 1806-1813</i>
(Cologne, 1877).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGAMASK,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bergomask</span> (from the town of Bergamo in
North Italy), a clumsy rustic dance (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Midsummer
Night&rsquo;s Dream</i>, v. 360) copied from the natives of Bergamo,
reputed to be very awkward in their manners.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGAMO<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (anc. <i>Bergomum</i>), a city and episcopal see of
Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Bergamo, situated
at the foot of the Alps, at the junction of the Brembo and Serio,
33½ m. N.E. of Milan by rail, and 26 m. direct. Pop. (1901)
town, 25,425; commune, 46,861. The town consists of two
distinct parts, the older Città Alta, upon a hill 1200 ft. above
sea-level, strongly fortified by the Venetians, and the new town
(Città Bassa) below, the two being connected by a funicular
railway. The most interesting building of the former is the fine
Romanesque church of S. Maria Maggiore, founded in 1137 and
completed in 1355, with a baroque interior and some interesting
works of art. Adjoining it to the north is the Cappella Colleoni,
with a richly sculptured polychrome façade, and a modernized
interior, containing the fine tombs of Bartolommeo Colleoni
(<i>c.</i> 1400-1475), a native of Bergamo, and his daughter Medea.
The work was executed in 1470-1476 by Giovanni Antonio
Amadeo, who was also employed at the Certosa di Pavia. The
market-place (now Piazza Garibaldi) contains the Gothic Palazzo
Vecchio or Broletto; close by are the cathedral (1614) and a
small baptistery of 1340, rebuilt in 1898. The lower town
contains an important picture-gallery, consisting of three collections
of works of north Italian masters, one of which was
bequeathed in 1891 by the art critic Giovanni Morelli. Bergamo
has fine modern buildings and numerous silk and cotton factories.
It also has a considerable cattle market, though its yearly Fiera
di S. Alessandro (the patron saint) has lost some of its importance.
Railways radiate from it to Lecco, Ponte della Selva, Usmate
(for Monza or Seregno), Treviglio (on the main line from Milan
to Verona and Venice) and (via Rovato) to Brescia, and steam
tramways to Treviglio, Sarnico and Soncino.</p>

<p>The ancient Bergomum was the centre of the tribe of the
Orobii; it became, after their subjection to Rome, a Roman
municipality with a considerable territory, and after its destruction
by Attila, became the capital of a Lombard duchy. From
1264 to 1428 it was under Milan, but then became Venetian, and
remained so until 1797. Remains of the Roman city are not
visible above ground, but various discoveries made are recorded
by G. Mantovani in <i>Not. Scav</i>., 1890, 25.</p>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGAMOT, OIL OF,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> an essential oil obtained from the rind
of the fruit of the Citrus bergamia. The bergamot is a small
tree with leaves and flowers like the bitter orange, and a round
fruit nearly 3 in. in diameter, having a thin lemon-yellow smooth
rind. The tree is cultivated in southern Calabria, whence the
entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. Machinery is mostly
used to express the oil from the fruit, which is gathered in
November and December. The oil, which on standing deposits
a stearoptene, bergamot camphor or bergaptene, is a limpid
greenish-yellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0.882 to 0.886, and
its powerful but pleasant odour is mainly due to the presence of
linalyl acetate, or <i>bergamiol</i>, which can be artificially prepared by heating linalol with acetic anhydride. The chief use of
bergamot oil is in perfumery. The word apparently is derived
from the Italian town Bergamo. The name Bergamot, for a
variety of pear, is an entirely different word, supposed to be a
corruption of the Turkish <i>beg-armudi</i> (= prince&rsquo;s pear; cf.
Ger. <i>Fürstenbirn</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGEDORF,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the territory of Hamburg,
on the river Bille, 10 m. by rail E. by S. from the city. Pop.
(1900) 23,728. It produces vegetables and fruit for the Hamburg
markets, and carries on tanning, glass manufacture, brewing
and brick-making. It received civic rights in 1275, belonged to
Lübeck and Hamburg conjointly from 1420 to 1868, and in the
latter year was purchased by Hamburg. The surrounding district,
exceptionally fertile marshland, is known as Die Vierlande,
being divided into four parishes, whence the name is derived.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGEN,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a city and seaport of Norway, forming a separate
county (<i>amt</i>), on the west coast, in lat. 60° 23&prime; N. (about
that of the Shetland Islands). Pop. (1900) 72,179. It lies at
the head of the broad Byfjord, and partly on a rocky promontory
(Nordnaes) between the fine harbour (Vaagen) and the Puddefjord.
Its situation is very beautiful, the moist climate (mean annual
rainfall, 74 in.) fostering on the steep surrounding hills a
vegetation unusually luxuriant for the latitude. Behind the town lie
the greater and lesser Lungegaard Lakes, so that the site is in
effect a peninsula. The harbour is crowded with picturesque
timber-ships and fishing-smacks, and is bordered by quays.
The principal street is Strandgaden, on the Nordnaes, parallel
with the harbour, communicating inland with the <i>torv</i> or
marketplace, which fronts the harbour and contains the fish and fruit
market. The portion of the city on the mainland rises in an
amphitheatre. The houses, of wood or stucco, are painted in
warm reds and yellows. On the banks of the lesser Lungegaard
Lake is the small town park, and above the greater lake the
pleasant Nygaards park, with an aquarium adjoining. Among
the principal buildings are the cathedral (rebuilt in the 16th
century), and several other churches, among which the Mariae
Kirke with its Romanesque nave is the earliest; a hospital,
diocesan college, naval academy, school of design and a theatre.
An observatory and biological station are maintained. The
museums are of great interest. The Vestlandske fishery and
industrial museum also contains a picture gallery, and exhibition
of the Bergen Art Union (<i>Kunstforening</i>). The Bergen museum
contains antiquities and a natural history collection. The
Hanseatic museum is housed in a carefully-preserved <i>gaard</i>, or
store-house and offices of the Hanseatic League of German
merchants, who inhabited the German quarter (Tydskenbryggen)
and were established here in great strength from 1445 to 1558
(when the Norwegians began to find their presence irksome),
and brought much prosperity to the city in that period. The
Bergenhus and Fredriksberg forts defend the north and south
entries of the harbour respectively. The first was originally
built in the 13th century by King Haakon Haakonsson, and
subsequently enlarged; and still bears marks of an English
attack when a Dutch fleet was driven to shelter here in 1665.
Near it are remains of another old fort, the Sverresborg. Electric
trams ply in the principal streets.</p>

<p>Bergen is the birthplace of the poets Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754)
and Johan Welhaven (1807-1873), of Johan Dahl the
painter (1788-1857), of Ole Bull (1810-1880) and Edvard Grieg
the musicians. There are statues to Holberg and Bull, and also
to Christie, president of the Storthing (parliament) in 1815 and 1818.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span></p>

<p>Bergen ranks first of the Norwegian ship-owning centres,
having risen to this position from fifth in 1879. The trade,
however, is exceeded by that of Christiania. The staple export
trade is in fish and their products: other exports are
butter, copper ore and hides. The principal imports are coal,
machinery, salt, grain and provisions. The manufactures are
not extensive, but the preparation of fish products, shipbuilding,
weaving and distillery, with manufactures of paper, pottery,
tobacco and ropes are carried on. Bergen is an important centre
of the extensive tourist traffic of Norway. Regular steamers
serve the port from Hull and Newcastle (about 40 hours), from
Hamburg, and from all the Norwegian coast towns. Many
local steamers penetrate the fjords, touching at every village and
<i>gaard</i>. Bergen is the nearest port to the famous Hardanger
Fjord, and is the starting-point of a remarkable railway which
runs through many tunnels and fine scenery towards Vossevangen
or Voss. In 1896 a beginning was made with the continuation
of this line through the mountains to connect with
Christiania. In the first 50 m. from Voss the line ascends 4080 ft.,
passing through a tunnel 5796 yds. long.</p>

<p>Bergen (formerly Björgvin) was founded by King Olaf
Kyrre in 1070-1075, and rapidly grew to importance, the
Byfjord becoming the scene of several important engagements
in the civil wars of subsequent centuries. The famous
Hansa merchants maintained a failing position here till 1764.
The town suffered frequently from fire, as in 1702 and 1855,
and the broad open spaces (<i>Almenninge</i>) which interrupt
the streets are intended as a safeguard against the spread of
flames.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Y. Nielsen, <i>Bergen fra die äldste tider indtil nutiden</i> (Christiania,
1877); H. Jager, <i>Bergen og Bergenserne</i> (Bergen, 1889).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town in the province of North Brabant,
Holland, situated on both sides of the small river Zoom, near
its confluence with the East Scheldt, 38½ m. by rail E. by N. of
Flushing. It is connected by steam tramway with Antwerp
(20 m. S.) and with the islands of Tholen and Duiveland to the
north-west. Pop. (1900) 13,663. The houses are well built, the
market-places and squares handsome and spacious. It possesses
a port and an arsenal, and contains a fine town hall, with portraits
of the ancient margraves of Bergen-op-Zoom, a Latin school,
and an academy of design and architecture. The remains of
the old castle of the margraves have been converted into barracks.
The tower is still standing and is remarkable for its increase in
size as it rises, which causes it to rock in a strong wind. The
church contains a monument to Lord Edward Bruce, killed in a
duel with Sir Edward Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset, in
1613. There are numerous tile-works and potteries of fine ware;
and a considerable trade is carried on in anchovies and oysters
caught in the Scheldt. A large sugar-beet industry has also
sprung up here in modern times.</p>

<p>Bergen-op-Zoom is a very old town, but little is known of its
early history beyond the fact that it was taken by the Normans
in 880. In the 13th century it became the seat of Count Gerhard
of Wesemael, who surrounded it with walls and built a castle.
By the end of the 15th century it had become one of the most
prosperous towns of Holland, on account of its fisheries and its
cloth-trade. In 1576 the town joined the United Netherlands,
and was shortly afterwards fortified. In 1588 it was successfully
defended against the duke of Parma by an English and Dutch
garrison commanded by Colonel Morgan, and in 1605 it was
suddenly attacked by Du Terail. In 1622 the Spaniards, under
Spinola, made another attempt to take the town, but were
forced to abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks and
the loss of 1200 men. Towards the end of the 17th century the
fortifications were greatly strengthened by Coehoorn, and in
1725 they were further extended. In 1747, however, the town
was taken by the French, under Marshal Löwendahl, who
surprised it by means of a subterranean passage. Restored at
the end of the war, it was again taken by the French under
Pichegru in 1795. The English, under Sir Thomas Graham,
afterwards Lord Lynedoch, in March 1814 made an attempt to
take it by a <i>coup de main</i>, but were driven back with great loss
by the French, who surrendered the place, however, by the
treaty of peace in the following May.</p>

<p>The lordship of Bergen-op-Zoom appears, after the definite
union of the Low Countries with the Empire in 924, as an
hereditary fief of the Empire, and the succession of its lords may
be traced from Henry (1098-1125), who also held Breda. In
1533 it was raised to a margraviate by the emperor Charles V.,
and was held by various families until in 1799 it passed, through
the Sultzbach branch of the Wittelsbachs, to the royal house of
Bavaria, by whom it was renounced in favour of the Batavian
republic in 1801.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGERAC,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Dordogne, on the right bank
of the Dordogne, 60 m. E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Cahors.
Pop. (1906) town, 10,545; commune, 15,623. The river is
rendered navigable by a large dam and crossed by a fine bridge
which leads to the suburb of La Madeleine. Apart from a few
old houses in the older quarter by the river, the town contains
no monuments of antiquarian interest. There is a handsome
modern church built in the middle of the 19th century. Bergerac
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce and a communal college. Wine of fine quality
is grown in the district and is the chief source of the commerce
of the town, which is mainly carried on with Libourne and
Bordeaux. There is trade in grain, truffles, chestnuts, brandy
and in the salmon of the Dordogne. The town has flour-mills,
iron-works, tanneries, distilleries and nursery-gardens, and it
has manufactures of casks and of vinegar. There are quarries
of millstone in the vicinity. In the 16th century Bergerac was a
very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants
having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the
religious wars and by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685).
It was in 1577 the scene of the signing of the sixth peace between
the Catholics and Protestants. Its fortifications and citadel
were demolished by Louis XIII. in 1621.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGHAUS, HEINRICH<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1797-1884), German geographer,
was born at Kleve on the 3rd of May 1797. He was trained as a
surveyor, and after volunteering for active service under General
Tauenzien in 1813, joined the staff of the Prussian trigonometrical
survey in 1816. He carried on a geographical school at
Potsdam in company with Heinrich Lange, August Petermann,
and others, and long held the professorship of applied mathematics
at the Bauakademie. But he is most famous in connexion
with his cartographical work. His greatest achievement was the
<i>Physikalischer Atlas</i> (Gotha, 1838-1848), in which work, as in
others, his nephew <span class="sc">Hermann Berghaus</span> (1828-1890) was
associated with him. He had also a share in the re-issue of the
great <i>Stieler Handatlas</i> (originally produced by Adolf Stieler in
1817-1823). and in the production of other atlases. His written
works were numerous and important, including <i>Allgemeine
Länder- und Völkerkunde</i> (Stuttgart, 1837-1840), <i>Grundriss der
Geographie in fünf Bückern</i> (Berlin, 1842), <i>Die Völker des Erdballs</i>
(Leipzig, 1845-1847), <i>Was man van der Erde weiss</i> (Berlin, 1856-1860),
and various large works on Germany. In 1863 he published
<i>Briefwechsel mit Alexander van Humboldt</i> (Leipzig). He
died at Stettin on the 17th of February 1884.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGK, THEODOR<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1812-1881), German philologist, was
born at Leipzig on the 22nd of May 1812. After studying at the
university of his native town, where he profited by the instruction
of G. Hermann, he was appointed in 1835 to the lectureship
in Latin at the orphan school at Halle. After holding posts
at Neustrelitz, Berlin and Cassel, he succeeded (1842) K.F.
Hermann as professor of classical literature at Marburg. In
1852 he went to Freiburg, and in 1857 returned to Halle. In
1868 he resigned his professorship, and settled down to study and
literary work in Bonn. He died on the 20th of July 1881, at
Ragatz in Switzerland, where he had gone for the benefit of his
health. Bergk&rsquo;s literary activity was very great, but his reputation
mainly rests upon his work in connexion with Greek literature
and the Greek lyric poets. His <i>Poetae Lyrici Graeci</i> (1843. 5th
ed. 1900, &amp;c.), and <i>Griechische Litteraturgeschichte</i> (1872-1887,
completed by G. Hinrichs and R. Peppmüller) are standard
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span>
works. He also edited Anacreon (1834), the fragments of
Aristophanes (1840), Aristophanes (3rd ed., 1872), Sophocles (and
ed., 1868), a lyric anthology (4th ed., 1890). Among his other
works may be mentioned: <i>Augusti Rerum a se gestarum Index</i>
(1873); <i>Inschriften römischer Schleudergeschosse</i> (1876); <i>Zur
Geschichte und Topographie der Rheinlande in römischer Zeit</i>
(1882); <i>Beiträge zur römischen Chronologie</i> (1884).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Kleine philologische Schriften</i> have been edited by Peppmüller
(1884-1886), and contain, in addition to a complete list of his writings,
a sketch of his life. See Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol</i> iii. 146 (1908).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGLER, STEPHAN,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> German classical scholar, was born
about 1680 at Kronstadt in Transylvania. The date of his death
is uncertain. After studying at Leipzig, he went to Amsterdam,
where he edited Homer and the <i>Onomasticon</i> of Julius Pollux
for Wetzstein the publisher. Subsequently, at Hamburg, he
assisted the great bibliographer J.A. Fabricius in the production
of his <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> and his edition of Sextus Empiricus.
He finally found a permanent post in Bucharest as secretary to
the prince of Walachia, Alexander Mavrocordato, whose work
<span class="grk" title="Peri ton kathaekonton">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#954;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span> (<i>De Officiis</i>) he had previously translated
for Fritzsch, the Leipzig bookseller, by whom he had been
employed as proof-reader and literary hack. In the prince&rsquo;s
library Bergler discovered the introduction and the first three
chapters of Eusebius&rsquo;s <i>Demonstratio Evangelica</i>. He died in
Bucharest, and was buried at his patron&rsquo;s expense. According
to another account, Bergler, finding himself without means,
drifted to Constantinople, where he came to an untoward end
(<i>c</i>. 1740). He is said to have become a convert to Islam; this
report was probably a mistake for the undisputed fact that he
embraced Roman Catholicism. Bergler led a wild and irregular
life, and offended his friends and made many enemies by his
dissipated habits and cynical disposition. In addition to writing
numerous articles for the Leipzig <i>Acta Eruditorum</i>, Bergler
edited the editio princeps of the Byzantine historiographer
Genesius (1733), and the letters of Alciphron (1715), in which
seventy-five hitherto unpublished letters were for the first time
included.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1735-1784), Swedish chemist
and naturalist, was born at Katrineberg, Vestergötland, Sweden,
on the 20th of March 1735. At the age of seventeen he entered
the university of Upsala. His father wished him to read either
law or divinity, while he himself was anxious to study mathematics
and natural science; in the effort to please both himself
and his father he overworked himself and injured his health.
During a period of enforced abstinence from study, he amused
himself with field botany and entomology, to such good purpose
that he was able to send Linnaeus specimens of several new kinds
of insects, and in 1756 he succeeded in proving that, contrary to
the opinion of that naturalist, <i>Coccus aquaticus</i> was really the
ovum of a kind of leech. In 1758, having returned to Upsala,
he graduated there, and soon afterwards began to teach mathematics
and physics at the university, publishing papers on the
rainbow, the aurora, the pyroelectric phenomena of tourmaline,
&amp;c. In 1767 Johann Gottschalck Wallerius (1709-1785) having
resigned the chair of chemistry and mineralogy, Bergman determined
to become a candidate, though he had paid no particular
attention to chemistry. As evidence of his attainments he
produced a memoir on the manufacture of alum, but his pretensions
were strongly opposed, and it was only through the
influence of Gustavus III., then crown prince and chancellor
of the university, that he gained the appointment, which he
held till the end of his life. He died at Medevi on Lake Vetter
on the 8th of July 1784. Bergman&rsquo;s most important chemical
paper is his <i>Essay on Elective Attractions</i> (1775), a study of
chemical affinity. In methods of chemical analysis, both by the
blowpipe and in the wet way, he effected many improvements,
and he made considerable contributions to mineralogical and
geological chemistry, and to crystallography. He also made
observations of the transit of Venus in 1761, and published a
<i>Physical Description of the Earth</i> in 1766.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His works were collected and printed in 6 vols. as <i>Opuscula
Physica et Chemica</i> in 1779-1790, and were translated into French,
German and English.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGSCHRUND<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Berg</i>, mountain; <i>Schrund</i>, cleft or
crevice), a gaping crack in the upper part of a snowfield or
glacier, near the rock wall, caused by the glacier moving bodily
away from the mountain-side as the mass settles downwards.
The crack is roughly parallel to the rock-face of the upper edge
of the glacier basin, and extends downwards to the solid rock
beneath the glacier where at the bottom of this huge crevasse
there are blocks of ice, and large pieces of rock torn off
by the lower portion of the glacier from the rock wall and
floor.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERGUES,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of
Nord, at the junction of the canal of the Colme with canals to
Dunkirk and Furnes (in Belgium), 5 m. S.S.E. of Dunkirk by
rail. Pop. (1906) 4499. The town has a belfry, the finest in
French Flanders, dating from the middle of the 16th century
and restored in the 19th century. The church of St Martin is
a brick building of the 17th century in the Gothic style with a
modern façade. The town hall, dating from the latter half of
the 19th century, contains a municipal library and an interesting
collection of pictures. The industries of the town include
brewing and malting, and the manufacture of brushes and
oil.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERHAMPUR,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of British India, the headquarters
of Murshidabad district, in Bengal, situated on the left bank of
the river Bhagirathi, 5 m. below Murshidabad city. Pop. (1901)
24,397. Berhampur was fixed upon after the battle of Plassey
as the site of the chief military station for Bengal; and a huge
square of brick barracks was erected in 1767, at a cost of £300,000.
Here was committed the first overt act of the mutiny, on the
25th of February 1857. No troops are now stationed here, and
the barracks have been utilized for a jail, a lunatic asylum and
other civic buildings. A college, founded by government in
1853, was made over in 1888 to a local committee, being mainly
supported by the munificence of the rani Svarnamayi. In
the municipality of Berhampur is included the remnant of
the once important, but now utterly decayed city of Cossimbazar
(<i>q.v</i>.).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERHAMPUR,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of British India, in the presidency of
Madras. Pop. (1901) 25,729. It is the headquarters of Ganjam
district, and is situated about 9 m. from the sea. It is a station
on the East Coast railway, which connects Calcutta with
Madras. Berhampur had a military cantonment, sometimes
distinguished as Baupur, containing a wing of a native regiment;
but the troops have been transferred elsewhere. There is some
weaving of silk cloth, and export trade in sugar. The college,
originally founded by government, is now maintained by the
raja of Kallikota. Silk-weaving and sugar-manufacture are
carried on.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERI-BERI,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a tropical disease of the greatest antiquity, and
known to the Chinese from an extremely remote period. It
gradually dropped out of sight of European practice, until an
epidemic in Brazil in 1863, and the opening up of Japan, where
it prevailed extensively, and the investigations into the disease
in Borneo, brought it again into notice. The researches of
Scheube and Bälz in Japan, and of Pekelharing and Winkler
in the Dutch Indies, led to its description as a form of peripheral
neuritis (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>). The geographical distribution
of beri-beri is between 45° N. and 35° S. It occurs in
Japan, Korea and on the Chinese coast south of Shanghai; in
Manila, Tongking, Cochin China, Burma, Singapore, Malacca,
Java and the neighbouring islands; also in Ceylon, Mauritius,
Madagascar and the east coast of Africa. In the Western
hemisphere it is found in Cuba, Panama, Venezuela and South
America. It has been carried in ships to Australia and to
England. Sir P. Manson has &ldquo;known it originate in the port of
London in the crews of ships which had been in harbour for
several months,&rdquo; and he suggests that when peripheral neuritis
occurs in epidemic form it is probably beri-beric.</p>

<p>The cause is believed by many authorities to be an infective
agent of a parasitic nature, but attempts to identify it have not
been entirely successful. It is &ldquo;not obviously communicable
from person to person&rdquo; (Manson), but may be carried from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
place to place. It clings to particular localities, buildings and
ships, in which it has a great tendency to occur; for instance,
it is apt to break out again and again on certain vessels trading
to the East. It haunts low-lying districts along the coast, and
the banks of rivers. Moisture and high temperature are required
to develop its activity, which is further favoured by bad ventilation,
overcrowding and underfeeding. Another strongly
supported hypothesis is that it is caused by unwholesome diet.
The experience of the Japanese navy points strongly in this
direction. Beri-beri was constantly prevalent among the sailors
until 1884, when the dietary was changed. A striking and progressive
diminution at once set in, and continued until the disease
wholly disappeared. Major Ronald Ross suggested that beri-beri
was really arsenical poisoning. A natural surmise is that
it is due to some fungoid growth affecting grain, such as rice,
maize or some other food stuff commonly used in the localities
where beri-beri is prevalent, and among sailors. The conditions
under which their food is kept on board certain ships might
explain the tendency of the disease to haunt particular vessels.
Dr Charles Hose is the principal advocate of this theory. Having
had much experience of beri-beri in Sarawak, he associates it
with the eating of mouldy rice, a germ in the fungus constituting
the poison. But Dr Hose&rsquo;s views as to rice have been strongly
opposed by Dr Hamilton Wright and others.</p>

<p>The most susceptible age is from 15 to 40. Children under
15 and persons over 50 or 60 are rarely attacked. Men are more
liable than women. Race has no influence. Previous attacks
powerfully predispose.</p>

<p>The symptoms are mainly those of peripheral neuritis with
special implication of the phrenic and the pneumogastric
nerves. There is usually a premonitory stage, in which the
patient is languid, easily tired, depressed, and complains of
numbness, stiffness and cramps in the legs; the ankles are
oedematous and the face is puffy. After this, pronounced
symptoms set in rapidly, the patient suddenly loses power
in the legs and is hardly able to walk or stand; this paresis is
accompanied by partial anaesthesia, and by burning or tingling
sensations in the feet, legs and arms; the finger-tips are numb,
the calf muscles tender. These symptoms increase, the oedema
becomes general, the paralysis more marked; breathlessness
and palpitation come on in paroxysms; the urine is greatly
diminished. There is no fever, unless it is of an incidental character,
and no brain symptoms arise. The patient may remain
in this condition for several days or weeks, when the symptoms
begin to subside. On the disappearance of the oedema the
muscles of the leg are found to be atrophied. Recovery is very
slow, but appears to be certain when once begun. When death
occurs it is usually from syncope through over-distension of the
heart. The mortality varies greatly, from 2 to 50% of the cases.
The disease is said to be extremely fatal among the Malays.
After death there is found to be serious infiltration into all the
tissues, and often haemorrhages into the muscles and nerves, but
the most important lesion is degeneration of the peripheral
nerves. The cerebrospinal centres are not affected, and the
degeneration of the nerve-fibres is more marked the farther they
are from the point of origin. The implication of the phrenic
and pneumogastric nerves, and of the cardiac plexus, accounts
for the breathlessness, palpitation and heart failure; that of
the vaso-motor system for the oedema and diminution of urine,
and that of the spinal nerves for the loss of power, the impairment
and perversion of sensation. According as these nerves
are variously affected the symptoms will be modified, some
being more prominent in one case and some in another.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See Sir Patrick Manson, <i>Tropical Diseases</i> (new
ed., 1907), for a critical discussion of the subject, see <i>The Times</i> of
28th October 1905; a full bibliography is given by Manson in
Allbutt and Rolleston&rsquo;s <i>System of Medicine</i> (1907).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERING<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Behring</span>), <b>VITUS</b> (1680-1741), Danish navigator,
was born in 1680 at Horsens. In 1703 he entered the Russian
navy, and served in the Swedish war. A series of explorations
of the north coast of Asia, the outcome of a far-reaching plan
devised by Peter the Great, led up to Bering&rsquo;s first voyage to
Kamchatka. In 1725, under the auspices of the Russian government,
he went overland to Okhotsk, crossed to Kamchatka, and
built the ship &ldquo;Gabriel.&rdquo; In her he pushed northward in 1728,
until he could no longer observe any extension of the land to the
north, or its appearance to the east. In the following year he
made an abortive search for land eastward, and in 1730 returned
to St Petersburg. He was subsequently commissioned to a
further expedition, and in 1740 established the settlement of
Petropavlosk in Kamchatka; and built two vessels, the &ldquo;St
Peter&rdquo; and &ldquo;St Paul,&rdquo; in which in 1741 he led an expedition
towards America. A storm separated the ships, but Bering
sighted the southern coast of Alaska, and a landing was made at
Kayak Island or in the vicinity. Bering was forced by adverse
conditions to return quickly, and discovered some of the Aleutian
Islands on his way back. He was afflicted with scurvy, and
became too ill to command his ships, which were at last driven
to refuge on an uninhabited island in the south-west of Bering
Sea, where Bering himself and many of his company died. This
island bears his name. Bering died on the 19th of December
1741. It was long before the value of his work was recognized;
but Captain Cook was able to prove his accuracy as an observer.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See G.F. Müller, <i>Sammlung russischer Geschichten</i>, vol. iii.
(St Petersburg, 1758); P. Lauridsen, <i>Bering og de Russishe
Opdagelsesrejser</i> (Copenhagen, 1885).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERING ISLAND, SEA<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> and <b>STRAIT</b>. These take their
name from the explorer Vitus Bering. The island (also called
Avatcha), which was the scene of his death, lies in the south-western
part of the sea, off the coast of Kamchatka, being one
of the Commander or Komandor group, belonging to Russia.
It is 69 m. long and 28 m. in extreme breadth; the area is 615
sq. m. The extreme elevation is about 300 ft. The smaller
Copper Island lies near. The islands are treeless, and the climate
is severe, but there is a population of about 650. Bering Sea is
the northward continuation of the Pacific Ocean, from which
it is demarcated by the long chain of the Aleutian Islands. It
is bounded on the east by Alaska, and on the west by the Siberian
and Kamchatkan coast. Its area is estimated at 870,000 sq. m.
In the north and east it has numerous islands (St Lawrence,
St Matthew, Nunivak and the Pribiloff group) and is shallow;
in the south-west it reaches depths over 2000 fathoms. The
seal-fisheries are important (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bering Sea Arbitration</a></span>).
The sea is connected with the Arctic Ocean northward by Bering
Strait, at the narrowest part of which East Cape (Deshnev) in
Asia approaches within about 56 m. of Cape Prince of Wales on
the American shore. North and south of these points the coasts
on both sides rapidly diverge. They are steep and rocky, and
considerably indented. The extreme depth of the strait
approaches 50 fathoms, and it contains two small islands known
as the Diomede Islands. These granite domes, lacking a harbour,
lie about a mile apart, and the boundary line between the
possessions of Russia and the United States passes between them.
They are occupied by a small tribe of about 80 Eskimo, who have
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
from early times plied the trade of middlemen between Asia and
America. They call the western island Nunárbook and the
eastern Ignálook. Haze and fogs greatly prevail in the strait,
which is never free of ice.</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:529px; height:384px" src="images/img775.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p class="pt2">The earliest names associated with the exploration of Bering
Strait are those of Russians seeking to extend their trading
facilities. Isai Ignatiev made a voyage eastward from the
Kolyma river in 1646, and Simon Dezhnev in 1648 followed
his route and prolonged it, rounding the East or Dezhnev Cape,
and entering the strait. The post of Anadyrsk was founded on
the river Anadyr, and overland communications were gradually
opened up. A Russian named Popov first learnt a rumour of the
existence of islands east of Cape Dezhnev, and of the proximity
of America, and presently there followed the explorations of
Vitus Bering. In 1731 the navigator Michael Gvosdev was
driven by storm from a point north of Cape Dezhnev to within
sight of the Alaskan coast, which he followed for two days.
Under Bering on his last voyage (1741) was Commander Chirikov
of the &ldquo;St Paul,&rdquo; and after being separated from his leader
during foggy weather this officer reached the Alaskan coast and
explored a considerable stretch of it. Lieutenant Waxel and
William Steller, a naturalist, left at the head of Bering&rsquo;s party
after his death, by their researches laid the foundation of the
important fur trade of these waters. The Aleutian Islands
gradually became known in the pursuit of this trade, through
Michael Novidiskov (1745) and his successors, and it was not
until Captain James Cook, working from the south, explored
the sea and strait in 1778 that the tide of discovery set farther
northward.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERING SEA ARBITRATION<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>. The important fishery
dispute between Great Britain and the United States, which
was closed by this arbitration, arose in the following circumstances.</p>

<p>In the year 1867 the United States government had purchased
from Russia all her territorial rights in Alaska and the adjacent
islands. The boundary between the two powers, as laid down
by the treaty for purchase, was a line drawn from the middle of
Bering Strait south-west to a point midway between the
Aleutian and Komandorski Islands dividing Bering Sea into two
parts, of which the larger was on the American side of this line.
This portion included the Pribiloff Islands, which are the principal
breeding-grounds of the seals frequenting those seas. By
certain acts of congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the
killing of seals was prohibited upon the islands of the Pribiloff
group and in &ldquo;the waters adjacent thereto&rdquo; except upon certain
specified conditions. No definition of the meaning of the words
&ldquo;adjacent waters&rdquo; was given in the act. In 1870 the exclusive
rights of killing seals upon these islands was leased by the United
States to the Alaska Commercial Company, upon conditions
limiting the numbers to be taken annually, and otherwise providing
for their protection. As early as 1872 the operations of
foreign sealers attracted the attention of the United States
government, but any precautions then taken seem to have been
directed against the capture of seals on their way through the
passages between the Aleutian Islands, and no claim to jurisdiction
beyond the three-mile limit appears to have been put
forward. On the 12th of March 1881, however, the acting
secretary of the United States treasury, in answer to a letter
asking for an interpretation of the words &ldquo;waters adjacent
thereto&rdquo; in the acts of 1868 and 1873, stated that all the waters
east of the boundary line were considered to be within the waters
of Alaska territory. In March 1886 this letter was communicated
to the San Francisco customs by Mr Daniel Manning,
secretary of the treasury, for publication. In the same summer
three British sealers, the &ldquo;Carolena,&rdquo; &ldquo;Onward&rdquo; and
&ldquo;Thornton,&rdquo; were captured by an American revenue cutter
60 m. from land. They were condemned by the district
judge on the express ground that they had been sealing within
the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations
followed, and an order for release was issued, but in 1887 further
captures were made and were judicially supported upon the same
grounds. The respective positions taken up by the two
governments in the controversy which ensued may be thus indicated.
The United States claimed as a matter of right an exclusive
jurisdiction over the sealing industry in Bering Sea; they also
contended that the protection of the fur seal was, upon grounds
both of morality and interest, an international duty, and should
be secured by international arrangement. The British government
repudiated the claim of right, but were willing to negotiate
upon the question of international regulation. Between 1887
and 1890 negotiations were carried on between Russia, Great
Britain and the United States with a view to a joint convention.
Unfortunately the parties were unable to agree as to the principles
upon which regulation should be based. The negotiations
were wrecked upon the question of pelagic sealing. The only
seal nurseries were upon the Pribiloff Islands, which belonged
to the United States, and the Komandorski group, which belonged
to Russia. Consequently to prohibit pelagic sealing
would have been to exclude Canada from the industry. The
United States, nevertheless, insisted that such prohibition was
indispensable on the grounds&mdash;(1) that pelagic sealing involved
the destruction of breeding stock, because it was practically impossible
to distinguish between the male and female seal when
in the water; (2) that it was unnecessarily wasteful, inasmuch
as a large proportion of the seals so killed were lost. On the other
hand, it was contended by Great Britain that in all known cases
the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon
land, and had never been caused by sealing exclusively pelagic.
The negotiations came to nothing, and the United States fell
back upon their claim of right. In June 1890 it was reported
that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to
proceed to Bering Sea. Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British
ambassador at Washington, having failed to obtain an assurance
that British vessels would not be interfered with, laid a formal
protest before the United States government.</p>

<p>Thereupon followed a diplomatic controversy, in the course
of which the United States developed the contentions which
were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The
claim that Bering Sea was <i>mare clausum</i> was abandoned, but it
was asserted that Russia had formerly exercised therein rights
of exclusive jurisdiction which had passed to the United States,
and they relied <i>inter alia</i> upon the ukase of 1821, by which foreign
vessels had been forbidden to approach within 100 Italian miles
of the coasts of Russian America. It was pointed out by Great
Britain that this ukase had been the subject of protest both by
Great Britain and the United States, and that by treaties similar
in their terms, made between Russia and each of the protesting
powers, Russia had agreed that their subjects should not be
troubled or molested in navigating or fishing in any part of the
Pacific Ocean. The American answer was that the Pacific Ocean
did not include Bering Sea. They also claimed an interest in
the fur seals, involving the right to protect them outside the
three-mile limit. In August 1890 Lord Salisbury proposed that
the question at issue should be submitted to arbitration. This
was ultimately assented to by the secretary of state, James
Gillespie Blaine, on the understanding that certain specific
points, which he indicated, should be laid before the arbitrators.
On the 29th of February 1892 a definitive treaty was signed at
Washington. Each power was to name two arbitrators, and
the president of the French Republic, the king of Italy, the king
of Norway and Sweden were each to name one. The points
submitted were as follows:&mdash;(1) What exclusive jurisdiction
in the sea now known as Bering Sea, and what exclusive rights
in the seal fisheries therein, did Russia assert and exercise prior to
and up to the time of the cession of Alaska to the United States?
(2) How far were her claims of jurisdiction as to the seal fisheries
recognized and conceded by Great Britain? (3) Was the body
of water now known as Bering Sea included in the phrase
&ldquo;Pacific Ocean,&rdquo; as used in the treaty of 1825 between Great
Britain and Russia, and what rights, if any, in Bering Sea were
held exclusively exercised by Russia after the said treaty?
(4) Did not all the rights of Russia as to jurisdiction and as to
the seal fisheries in Bering Sea east of the water boundary, in the
treaty between the United States and Russia of the 30th of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
March 1867, pass unimpaired to the United States under that
treaty? (5) Had the United States any and what right of protection
over, or property in, the fur seals frequenting the islands
of Bering Sea when such seals are found outside the three-mile
limit? In the event of a determination in favour of Great
Britain the arbitrators were to determine what concurrent
regulations were necessary for the preservation of the seals,
and a joint commission was to be appointed by the two powers
to assist them in the investigation of the facts of seal life. The
question of damages was reserved for further discussion, but
either party was to be at liberty to submit any question of fact
to the arbitrators, and to ask for a finding thereon. The tribunal
was to sit at Paris. The treaty was approved by the Senate
on the 29th of March 1892, and ratified by the president on the
22nd of April.</p>

<p>The United States appointed as arbitrator Mr John M. Harlan,
a justice of the Supreme Court, and Mr John T. Morgan, a
member of the Senate. The British arbitrators were Lord
Hannen and Sir John Thompson. The neutral arbitrators were
the baron de Courcel, the marquis Visconti Venosta, and Mr
Gregers Gram, appointed respectively by the president of the
French Republic, the king of Italy, and the king of Norway and
Sweden. The sittings of the tribunal began in February and
ended in August 1893. The main interest of the proceedings
lies in the second of the two claims put forward on behalf of the
United States. This claim cannot easily be stated in language
of precision; it is indicated rather than formulated in the last
of the five points specially submitted by the treaty. But its
general character may be gathered from the arguments addressed
to the tribunal. It was suggested that the seals had some of the
characteristics of the domestic animals, and could therefore be
the subject of something in the nature of a right of property.
They were so far amenable to human control that it was possible
to take their increase without destroying the stock. Sealing
upon land was legitimate sealing; the United States being the
owners of the land, the industry was a trust vested in them for
the benefit of mankind. On the other hand, pelagic sealing,
being a method of promiscuous slaughter, was illegitimate; it
was <i>contra bonos mores</i> and analogous to piracy. Consequently
the United States claimed a right to restrain such practices,
both as proprietors of the seals and as proprietors and trustees
of the legitimate industry. It is obvious that such a right was
a novelty hitherto unrecognized by any system of law. Mr J.C.
Carter, therefore, as counsel for the United States, submitted
a theory of international jurisprudence which was equally novel.
He argued that the determination of the tribunal must be
grounded upon &ldquo;the principles of right,&rdquo; that &ldquo;by the rule or
principle of right was meant a moral rule dictated by the general
standard of justice upon which civilized nations are agreed, that
this international standard of justice is but another name for
international law, that the particular recognized rules were but
cases of the application of a more general rule, and that where
the particular rules were silent the general rule applied.&rdquo; The
practical result of giving effect to this contention would be that
an international tribunal could make new law and apply it
retrospectively. Mr Carter&rsquo;s contention was successfully combated
by Sir Charles Russell, the leading counsel for Great
Britain.</p>

<p>The award, which was signed and published on the 15th of
August 1893, was in favour of Great Britain on all points. The
question of damages, which had been reserved, was ultimately
settled by a mixed commission appointed by the two powers in
February 1896, the total amount awarded to the British sealers
being $473,151.26.</p>
<div class="author">(M. H. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1802-1870), Belgian
violinist and composer. Although not definitely a pupil of
Viotti or Baillot he was much influenced by both. He was very
successful in his concert tours, and held appointments at the
courts of Belgium and France. From 1843 to 1852 he was violin
professor at the Brussels conservatoire. Then his eyesight began
to fail, and in 1858 he became blind. His compositions are still
often played, and are good, clean displays of technique.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERJA,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Almeria;
on the south-eastern slope of the Sierra de Gádor, 10 m. N.E. of
Adra by road. Pop. (1900) 13,224. Despite the lack of a railway
Berja has a considerable trade. Lead is obtained among
the mountains, and the more sheltered valleys produce grain,
wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass. These, with the paper, linen
and cotton goods manufactured locally in small quantities, are
exported from Adra.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKA,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a town and watering-place of Germany, in the grand-duchy
of Saxe-Weimar, on the Ilm and the Weimar-Kranichfeld
railway, 8 m. S. of Weimar. Pop. 2300. It has sulphur baths,
which are largely frequented in the summer. Berka was once
celebrated for its Cistercian nunnery, founded in 1251. Two
m. down the Ilm is the curious castle of Burgfarth, partly
hewn out of the solid rock.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> the name of an ancient English family remarkable
for its long tenure of the feudal castle built by the water
of Severn upon the lands from which the family takes its name.
It traces an undoubted descent from Robert (d. 1170) son of
Harding. Old pedigree-makers from the 14th century onward
have made of Harding a younger son of a king of Denmark and
a companion of the Conqueror, while modern historians assert
his identity with one Harding who, although an English thane,
is recorded by Domesday Book in 1086 as a great landowner in
Somerset. This Harding the thane was son of Elnod or Alnod,
who is recognized as Eadnoth the Staller, slain in beating off
the sons of Harold when they attacked his county. But if Harding
the Berkeley ancestor be the Harding who, as the queen&rsquo;s
butler, witnesses King Edward&rsquo;s Waltham charter of 1062, his
dates seem strangely apart from those of Robert his son, dead
a hundred and eight years later. Of Robert fitz Harding we
know that he was a Bristol man whose wealth and importance
were probably increased by the trade of the port. A partisan
of Henry, son of the empress, that prince before his accession
to the throne granted him, by his charter at Bristol in the earlier
half of 1153, the Gloucestershire manor of Bitton, and a hundred
librates of land in the manor of Berkeley, Henry agreeing to
strengthen the castle of Berkeley, which was evidently already
in Robert&rsquo;s hands. In his rhymed chronicle Robert of Gloucester
tells how&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;A bourgois at Bristowe&mdash;Robert Harding</p>
<p class="i05">Vor gret tresour and richesse&mdash;so wel was mid the king</p>
<p class="i05">That he gat him and is eirs&mdash;the noble baronie</p>
<p class="i05">That so riche is of Berkele&mdash;mid al the seignorie.&rdquo;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">Later in the same year the duke of Normandy granted to Robert
fitz Harding Berkeley manor and the appurtenant district called
&ldquo;Berkelaihernesse,&rdquo; to hold in fee by the service of one knight
or at a rent of 100 s. Being at Berkeley, the duke confirmed
to Robert a grant of Bedminster made by Robert, earl of
Gloucester, and in the first year of his reign as king of England
he confirmed his own earlier grant of the Berkeley manor. About
this time Robert, who had founded St Augustine&rsquo;s Priory in
Bristol, gave to the Black Canons there the five churches in
Berkeley and Berkeley Herness. In their priory church he was
buried in 1170, Berkeley descending to his son and heir Maurice.</p>

<p>Berkeley had already given a surname to an earlier family
sprung from Roger, its Domesday tenant, whose descendants
seem to have been ousted by the partisan of the Angevin. But
if there had been a feud between the families it was ended by a
double alliance, a covenant having been made at Bristol about
November 1153 in the presence of Henry, duke of Normandy,
whereby Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, was to marry the
daughter of Roger of Berkeley, Roger&rsquo;s own son Roger marrying
the daughter of Robert. In his certificate of 1166 Robert tells
the king that, although he owes the service of five knights for
Berkeley, Roger of Berkeley still holds certain lands of the
honour for which he does no service to Robert. This elder line
of Berkeley survived for more than two centuries on their lands
of Dursley and Cubberley, but after his father&rsquo;s death Maurice,
son of Robert, is styled Maurice of Berkeley. Robert of Berkeley,
the eldest son of Maurice, paid in 1190 the vast sum of £1000
for livery of his great inheritance, but, rising with the rebellious
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
barons against King John, his castle was taken into the king&rsquo;s
hands. Seizin, however, was granted in 1220 to Thomas his
brother and heir, but the estate was again forfeit in the next
generation for a new defection, although the wind of the royal
displeasure was tempered by the fact that Isabel de Creoun,
wife of Maurice, lord of Berkeley, was the king&rsquo;s near kinswoman.
Thomas, son of Maurice, was allowed to succeed his
father in the lands, and, having a writ of summons to parliament
in 1295, he is reckoned the first hereditary baron of the
line.</p>

<p>Even in the age of chivalry the lords of Berkeley were notable
warriors. Thomas, who as a lad had ridden on the barons&rsquo;
side at Evesham, followed the king&rsquo;s wars for half a century of
his long life, flying his banner at Falkirk and at Bannockburn,
in which fight he was taken by the Scots. His seal of arms is
among those attached to the famous letter of remonstrance
addressed by the barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII.
Maurice, his son, joined the confederation against the two
Despensers, and lay in prison at Wallingford until his death in
1326, the queen&rsquo;s party gaining the upper hand too late to release
him. But as the queen passed by Berkeley on her way to seize
Bristol, she gave back the castle, which had been kept by the
younger Despenser, to Thomas, the prisoner&rsquo;s heir, who, with
Sir John Mautravers, soon received in his hold the deposed king
brought thither secretly. The chroniclers agree that Thomas
of Berkeley had no part in the murder of the king, whom he
treated kindly. It was when Thomas was away from the castle that
Mautravers and Gournay made an end of their charge. Through
the providence of this Thomas the Berkeley estates were saved
to the male line of his house, a fine levied in the twenty-third
year of Edward III. so settling them. Thomas of Berkeley
fought at Creçy and Calais, bringing six knights and thirty-two
squires to the siege in his train, with thirty mounted archers
and two hundred men on foot. His son and heir-apparent,
Maurice of Berkeley, was the hero of a misadventure recorded
by Froissart, who tells how a young English knight, displaying
his banner for the first time on the day of Poitiers, rode after
a flying Picard squire, by whom he was grievously wounded
and held to ransom. Froissart errs in describing this knight
as Thomas lord of Berkeley, for the covenant made in 1360
for the release of Maurice is still among the Berkeley muniments,
the ransom being stated at £1080.</p>

<p>Being by his mother a nephew of Roger Mortimer, earl of
March, the paramour of Queen Isabel, Maurice Berkeley married
Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Despenser, the younger of
Edward II.&rsquo;s favourites and the intruder in Berkeley Castle.
With his son and heir Thomas of Berkeley, one of the
commissioners of parliament for the deposing of Richard II. and
a warden of the Welsh marches who harried Owen of Glendower,
the direct male line of Robert fitz Harding failed, and but for
the settlement of the estates Berkeley would have passed from
the family. On this Thomas&rsquo;s death in 1417 Elizabeth, his
daughter and heir, and her husband, Richard Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick, the famous traveller, statesman and jouster,
seized Berkeley Castle. Earl and countess only withdrew after
James Berkeley, the nephew and heir male, had livery of his
lands by the purchased aid of Humphrey of Gloucester. But
the Beauchamps returned more than once to vain attacks on
the stout walls of Berkeley, and a quarrel of two generations
ended with the pitched battle of Nibley Green. Fought between
the retainers of William, Lord Berkeley, son of James, and
those who followed Thomas Talbot, Viscount Lisle, grandson
of the illustrious Talbot and great-grandson of the countess of
Warwick, this was the last private battle on English ground
between two feudal lords. Young Lisle was shot under the
beaver by an arrow, and the feud ended with his death, all
claims of his widow being settled with an annuity of £100. Bitter
as was the long quarrel, it kept the Berkeleys from casting their
interest into the Wars of the Roses, in which most of their
fellows of the ancient baronage sank and disappeared.</p>

<p>The victorious Lord Berkeley, whose children died young, was
on ill terms with his next brother, and made havoc of the great
Berkeley estates by grants to the Crown and the royal house,
for which he was rewarded with certain empty titles. Edward
IV. gave him a viscount&rsquo;s patent in 1481, and Richard III.
created him earl of Nottingham in 1483. His complacence
extending to the new dynasty, Henry VII. made him earl marshal
in 1485 and marquess of Berkeley in 1487. For this last patent
he, by a settlement following a recovery suffered, gave the king
and his heirs male Berkeley Castle and all that remained to him
of his ancestors&rsquo; lands, enjoying for his two remaining years a
bare life interest. At his death in 1491 the king took possession,
bringing his queen with him on a visit to Berkeley.</p>

<p>Here follows a curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley
peerage. When Thomas, Lord Berkeley, died in 1417, it might
have been presumed that his dignity would descend to his heir,
the countess of Warwick. Nevertheless, his nephew and heir
male was summoned as a baron from 1421, apparently by reason
of his tenure of the castle and its lands. When the marquess of
Berkeley was dead without surviving issue, the castle having
passed to the crown, Maurice, the brother and heir, had no
summons. Yet this Maurice&rsquo;s son, another Maurice, had a
summons as a baron, although not &ldquo;with the room in the
parliament chamber that the lords of Berkeley had of old time.&rdquo;
The old precedence was restored when Thomas, brother and heir
of this baron, was summoned. This Thomas, who had a command
at Flodden, held his ancestors&rsquo; castle as constable for
the king. A final remainder under the marquess&rsquo;s settlement
brought back castle and lands on the failure in 1553 of the heirs
male of the body of Henry VII., and Henry, Lord Berkeley, had
special livery of them in his minority. Yet although seized of
the castle he took a lower seat in the parliament house than did
his grandfather who was not so seized, being given place after
Abergavenny, Audley and Strange.</p>

<p>By these things we may see that peerage law in old time
rested upon the pleasure of the sovereign and upon no ascertained
and unvarying custom. Of the power behind that pleasure this
Henry, Lord Berkeley, had one sharp reminder. He was, like
most of his line, a keen sportsman, and, returning to Berkeley
to find that a royal visit had made great slaughter among his
deer, he showed his resentment by disparking Berkeley Park.
Thereat Queen Elizabeth sent him a warning in round Tudor
fashion. Let him beware, she wrote, for the earl of Leicester
coveted the castle by the Severn.</p>

<p>At the Restoration, George, Lord Berkeley, who had been one
of the commissioners to invite Charles II.&rsquo;s return from the
Hague, petitioned for a higher place in parliament, claiming a
barony by right of tenure before 1295, but his claim was silenced
by his advancement on September 11, 1679, to be viscount of
Dursley and earl of Berkeley. James, the 3rd earl, an active
sea captain who was all but lost in company with Sir Cloudesley
Shovel, became knight of the Garter and lord high admiral and
commander-in-chief in the Channel, he and his house being loyal
supporters of the Hanoverian dynasty.</p>

<p>The last and most curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley
honours was opened by Frederick Augustus, the 5th earl of
Berkeley (1745-1810). This peer married at Lambeth, on the
16th of May 1796, one Mary Cole, the daughter of a small
tradesman at Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he had already
lived for several years, several children having been born to them.
In order to legitimatize the issue born before the marriage, the
earl in 1801 made declaration of an earlier marriage contracted
privately at Berkeley in 1785. On his death in 1811 the validity
of this alleged marriage was tested by the committee of privileges
of the House of Lords, and it was shown without doubt that the
evidence for it, a parish register entry, was a forgery.</p>

<p>Under the will of his father, Colonel William Berkeley, the
eldest illegitimate son, had the castle and estates, and on the
failure of his claim to the earldom he demanded a writ of summons
as a baron by reason of his tenure of the castle. No judgment
was given in the matter, the king in council having declared in
1669 that baronies by tenure were &ldquo;not in being and so not fit
to be revived.&rdquo; But Colonel Berkeley&rsquo;s political influence
afterwards procured him (1831) a peerage as Lord Segrave of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span>
Berkeley, and ten years later an earldom with the title of
Fitzhardinge. He died without issue in 1857. His brother, Sir
Maurice Fitzhardinge Berkeley, who succeeded to Berkeley
under the terms of the 5th earl&rsquo;s will, revived the claims, and
was likewise given a new barony (1861) as Lord Fitzhardinge,
a title in which he was succeeded by two of his sons, the 3rd
baron (b. 1830) being in 1909 owner of the Berkeley and Cranford
estates. The earldom of Berkeley was never assumed by the
eldest legitimate son of the 5th earl, and was in 1909 enjoyed by
Randal Thomas Mowbray Berkeley, 8th earl, grandson of admiral
Sir George Cranfield Berkeley, second son of the 4th earl. In
1893 Mrs Milman (d. 1899), daughter and heir of Thomas Moreton
Fitzhardinge Berkeley, 6th earl <i>de jure</i>, was declared by letters
patent under the great seal to have succeeded to the ancient
barony of Berkeley created by the writ of 1421; and she was
succeeded by her daughter.</p>

<p>Many branches have been thrown out by this family during
its many centuries of existence. Of these the most important
descended from Maurice of Berkeley, the baron who died in
Wallingford hold in 1326. His second son Maurice was ancestor
of the Berkeleys of Stoke Giffard, whose descendant, Norborne
Berkeley, claimed the barony of Botetourt and had a summons
in 1764, dying without issue in 1770. Sir Maurice Berkeley of
Bruton, a cadet of Stoke Giffard, was forefather of the Viscounts
Fitzhardinge, the Lords Berkeley of Stratton (1658-1773) and
the earls of Falmouth, all extinct, the Berkeleys of Stratton
bequeathing their great London estate, including Berkeley
Square and Stratton Street, to the main line. Edward Berkeley
of Pylle in Somerset, head of a cadet line of the Bruton family,
married Philippa Speke, whose mother was Joan, daughter of
Sir John Portman of Orchard Portman, baronet. His grandson
William, on succeeding to the Orchard Portman and Bryanston
estates, took the additional name of Portman, and from him
come the Viscounts Portman of Bryanston (1873). From James,
Lord Berkeley, who died in 1463, descended Rowland Berkeley,
a clothier of Worcester, who bought the estates of Spetchley.
Rowland&rsquo;s second son, Sir Robert Berkeley, the king&rsquo;s bench
justice who supported the imposition of ship-money, was ancestor
of the Berkeleys of Spetchley, now the only branch of the house
among untitled squires.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See John Smyth&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Berkeleys</i>, compiled <i>c.</i> 1618, edited
by Sir John Maclean (1883-1885); J.H. Round&rsquo;s introduction
to the Somerset Domesday, V.C.H. series; G.E. C(okayne)&rsquo;s
<i>Complete Peerage</i>; Jeayes&rsquo;s <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters
and Muniments at Berkeley Castle</i> (1892); <i>Dictionary of National
Biography</i>; <i>Transactions of Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
Society</i>, 3 vols., viii., xlv., <i>et passim</i>; <i>The Red Book of the Exchequer</i>,
Chronicles of Roger of Wendover, Matthew Paris, Adam of Murimuth,
Robert of Gloucester, Henry of Huntingdon, &amp;c. (Rolls
Series); British Museum Charters, &amp;c.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, GEORGE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1685-1753), Irish bishop and philosopher,
the eldest son of William Berkeley (an officer of customs
who had, it seems, come to Ireland in the suite of Lord Berkeley
of Stratton, lord lieutenant, 1670-1672, to whom he was related),
was born on the 12th of March 1685, in a cottage near Dysert
Castle, Thomastown, Ireland. He passed from the school at
Kilkenny to Trinity College, Dublin (1700), where, owing to the
peculiar subtlety of his mind and his determination to accept no
doctrine on the evidence of authority or convention, he left the
beaten track of study and was regarded by some as a dunce, by
others as a genius. During his career at Dublin the works of
Descartes and Newton were superseding the older text-books,
and the doctrines of Locke&rsquo;s <i>Essay</i> were eagerly discussed. Thus
he &ldquo;entered on an atmosphere which was beginning to be
charged with the elements of reaction against traditional
scholasticism in physics and in metaphysics&rdquo; (A.C. Fraser).
He became a fellow in 1707. His interest in philosophy led him
to take a prominent share in the foundation of a society for
discussing the new doctrines, and is further shown by his <i>Common
Place Book</i>, one of the most valuable autobiographical records
in existence, which throws much light on the growth of his ideas,
and enables us to understand the significance of his early writings.
We find here the consciousness of creative thought focused in a
new principle which is to revolutionize speculative science.
There is no sign of any intimate knowledge of ancient or scholastic
thought; to the doctrines of Spinoza, Leibnitz, Malebranche,
Norris, the attitude is one of indifference or lack of appreciation,
but the influence of Descartes and specially of Locke is evident
throughout. The new principle (nowhere in the <i>Common Place
Book</i> explicitly stated) may be expressed in the proposition that
no existence is conceivable&mdash;and therefore possible&mdash;which is
not either conscious spirit or the ideas (<i>i.e.</i> objects) of which such
spirit is conscious. In the language of a later period this principle
may be expressed as the absolute synthesis of subject and object;
no object exists apart from Mind. Mind is, therefore, prior both
in thought and in existence, if for the moment we assume the
popular distinction. Berkeley thus diverted philosophy from its
beaten track of discussion as to the meaning of matter, substance,
cause, and preferred to ask first whether these have any significance
apart from the conscious spirit. In the pursuit of this
inquiry he rashly invaded other departments of science, and
much of the <i>Common Place Book</i> is occupied with a polemic, as
vigorous as it is ignorant, against the fundamental conceptions
of the infinitesimal calculus.</p>

<p>In 1707 Berkeley published two short mathematical tracts;
in 1709, in his <i>New Theory of Vision</i>, he applied his new principle
for the first time, and in the following year stated it fully
in the <i>Principles of Human Knowledge</i>. In these works he
attacked the existing theories of externality which to the
unphilosophical mind is proved by visual evidence. He maintained
that visual consciousness is merely a system of arbitrary signs
which symbolize for us certain actual or possible tactual
experience&mdash;in other words a purely conventional language.</p>

<p>The contents of the visual and the tactual consciousness
have no element in common. The visible and visual signs are
definitely connected with tactual experiences, and the association
between them, which has grown up in our minds through
custom or habit, rests upon, or is guaranteed by, the constant
conjunction of the two by the will of the Universal Mind. But
this synthesis is not brought forward prominently by Berkeley.
It was evident that a similar analysis might have been applied
to tactual consciousness which does not give externality in its
deepest significance any more than the visual; but with deliberate
purpose Berkeley at first drew out only one side of his
argument. In the <i>Principles of Human Knowledge</i>, externality
in its ultimate sense as independence of all mind is considered.
Matter, as an abstract, unperceived substance or cause, is shown
to be impossible, an unreal conception; true substance is
affirmed to be conscious spirit, true causality the free activity of
such a spirit, while physical substantiality and causality are
held to be merely arbitrary, though constant, relations among
phenomena connected subjectively by suggestion or association,
objectively in the Universal Mind. In ultimate analysis, then,
nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol
of a divine, universal intelligence and will.</p>

<p>In 1711 Berkeley delivered his <i>Discourse on Passive Obedience</i>,
in which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to
promote the general happiness, thus working out a theological
utilitarianism, which may be compared with the later expositions
of Austin and J.S. Mill. From 1707 he had been engaged
as college tutor; in 1712 he paid a short visit to England, and
in April 1713 he was presented by Swift at court. His abilities,
his courtesy and his upright character made him a universal
favourite. While in London he published his <i>Dialogues</i> (1713),
a more popular exposition of his new theory; for exquisite
facility of style these are among the finest philosophical writings
in the English language. In November he became chaplain to
Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied on the continent,
returning in August 1714. He travelled again in 1715-1720 as
tutor to the only son of Dr St George Ashe (?1658-1718, bishop
successively of Cloyne, Clogher and Derry). In 1721, during the
disturbed state of social relations consequent on the bursting of
the South Sea bubble he published an <i>Essay towards preventing
the Ruin of Great Britain</i>, which shows the intense interest he
took in practical affairs. In the same year he returned to
Ireland as chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and was made
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span>
divinity lecturer and university preacher. In 1722 he was
appointed to the deanery of Dromore, a post which seems to
have entailed no duties, as we find him holding the offices of
Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The
following year Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift&rsquo;s Vanessa, left him half
her property. It would appear that he had only met her once
at dinner. In 1724 he was nominated to the rich deanery of
Derry, but had hardly been appointed before he was using every
effort to resign it in order to devote himself to his scheme of
founding a college in the Bermudas, and extending its benefits
to the Americans. With infinite exertion he succeeded in obtaining
from government a promise of £20,000, and after four years
spent in preparation, sailed in September 1728, accompanied
by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom
he had married in the preceding month. Three years of quiet
retirement and study were spent in Rhode Island, but it gradually
became apparent that government would never hand over
the promised grant, and Berkeley was compelled to give up his
cherished plan. Soon after his return he published the fruits of
his studies in <i>Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher</i> (1733), a finely
written work in the form of dialogue, critically examining the
various forms of free-thinking in the age, and bringing forward
in antithesis to them his own theory, which shows all nature to
be the language of God. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric
of Cloyne. The same year, in his <i>Analyst</i>, he attacked the higher
mathematics as leading to freethinking; this involved him in
a hot controversy. The <i>Querist</i>, a practical work in the form
of questions on what would now be called social or economical
philosophy, appeared in three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737. In 1744
was published the <i>Siris</i>, partly occasioned by the controversy
as to the efficacy of tar-water in cases of small-pox, but rising
far above the circumstance from which it took its rise, and
revealing hidden depths in the Berkeleian metaphysics. In
1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family
to Oxford for the sake of his son George, who was studying
there. He died suddenly in the midst of his family on the
14th of January 1753, and was buried in Christ Church, Oxford.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>In the philosophies of Descartes and Locke a large share of attention
had been directed to the idea of matter, which was held to be
the abstract, unperceived background of real experience, and was
supposed to give rise to our ideas of external things through its
action on the sentient mind. Knowledge being limited to the ideas
produced could never extend to the unperceived matter, or substance,
or cause which produced them, and it became a problem for speculative
science to determine the grounds for the very belief in its
existence. Philosophy seemed about to end in scepticism or in
materialism. Now Berkeley put this whole problem in a new light
by pointing out a preliminary question. Before we deduce results
from such abstract ideas as cause, substance, matter, we must ask
what in reality do these mean&mdash;what is the actual content of consciousness which corresponds to these words? Do not all these
ideas, when held to represent something which exists absolutely
apart from all knowledge of it, involve a contradiction? In putting
this question, not less than in answering it, consists Berkeley&rsquo;s
originality as a philosopher. The essence of the answer is that the
universe is inconceivable apart from mind&mdash;that existence, as such,
denotes conscious spirits and the objects of consciousness. Matter
and external things, in so far as they are thought to have an existence
beyond the circle of consciousness, are impossible, inconceivable.
External things are things known to us in immediate perception. To
this conclusion Berkeley seems, in the first place, to
have been led by the train of reflection that naturally conducts to
subjective or egoistic idealism. It is impossible to overstep the
limits of self-consciousness; whatever words I use, whatever
notions I have, must refer to and find their meaning in facts of
consciousness.  But this is by no means the whole or even the
principal part of Berkeley&rsquo;s philosophy; it is essentially a theory
of causality, and this is brought out gradually under the pressure
of difficulties in the first solution of the early problem. To merely
subjective idealism, sense percepts differ from ideas of imagination
in degree, not in kind; both belong to the individual mind. To
Berkeley, however, the difference is fundamental; sense ideas are
not due to our own activity; they must therefore be produced by some other
will-by the divine intelligence. Sense experience is thus the constant
action upon our minds of supreme active intellect, and is not
the consequence of dead inert matter. It might appear, therefore,
that sensible things had an objective existence in the mind of God;
that an idea so soon as it passes out of our consciousness passes into
that of God. This is an interpretation, frequently and not without
some justice, put upon Berkeley&rsquo;s own expression. But it is not a
satisfactory account of his theory. Berkeley is compelled to see that
an immediate perception is not a <i>thing</i>, and that what we consider
permanent or substantial is not a sensation but a group of qualities,
which in ultimate analysis means sensations either immediately felt
or such as our experience has taught us would be felt in conjunction
with these. Our belief in the reality of a thing may therefore be said
to mean assurance that this association in our minds between actual
and possible sensations is somehow guaranteed. Further, Berkeley&rsquo;s
own theory would never permit him to speak of possible sensations,
meaning by that the ideas of sensations called up to our minds by
present experience. He could never have held that these afforded
any explanation of the permanent existence of real objects. His
theory is quite distinct from this, which really amounts to nothing
more than subjective idealism. External things are produced by
the will of the divine intelligence; they are caused, and caused in a
regular order; there exists in the divine mind archetypes, of which
sense experience may be said to be the realization in our finite minds.
Our belief in the permanence of something which corresponds to the
association in our minds of actual and possible sensations means
belief in the orderliness of nature; and <i>that</i> is merely assurance that
the universe is pervaded and regulated by mind. Physical science
is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the divine ideas which find
realization in our limited experience, in trying to interpret the
divine language of which natural things are the words and letters,
and in striving to bring human conceptions into harmony with the
divine thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fate or necessity, or matter,
or the unknown, a living, active mind is looked upon as the centre and
spring of the universe, and this is the essence of the Berkeleian
metaphysics.</p>

<p>The deeper aspects of Berkeley&rsquo;s new thought have been almost
universally neglected or misunderstood. Of his spiritual empiricism
one side only has been accepted by later thinkers, and looked
upon as the whole. The subjective mechanism of association which
with Berkeley is but part of the true explanation, and is dependent
on the objective realization in the divine mind, has been received
as in itself a satisfactory theory. <i>Suni Cogitationes</i> has been
regarded by thinkers who profess themselves Berkeleians as the one
proposition warranted by consciousness; the empiricism of his philosophy
has been eagerly welcomed, while the spiritual intuition,
without which the whole is to Berkeley meaningless, has been cast
aside. For this he is himself in no small measure to blame. The
deeper spiritual intuition, present from the first, was only brought
into clear relief in order to meet difficulties in the earlier statements,
and the extension of the intuition itself beyond the limits of our own
consciousness, which completely removes his position from mere
subjectivism, rests on foundations uncritically assumed, and at first
sight irreconcilable with certain positions of his system. The necessity
and universality of the judgments of causality and substantiality are
taken for granted; and there is no investigation of the place held by
these notions in the mental constitution. The relation between the
divine mind and finite intelligence, at first thought as that of agent
and recipient, is complicated and obscure when the necessity for
explaining the permanence of real things comes forward. The divine
archetypes, according to which sensible experience is regulated and
in which it finds its real objectivity, are different in kind from
mere sense ideas, and the question then arises whether in these we
have not again the &ldquo;things as they are,&rdquo; which Berkeley at first so
contemptuously dismissed. He leaves it undetermined whether or not
our knowledge of sense things, which is never entirely presentative,
involves some reference to this objective course of nature or thought
of the divine mind. And if so, what is the nature of the notions
necessarily implied in the simplest knowledge of a <i>thing</i>, as
distinct from mere sense feeling? That in knowing objects certain
thoughts are implied which are not presentations or their copies is
at times dimly seen by Berkeley himself; but he was content to propound
a question with regard to those notions, and to look upon them as
merely Locke&rsquo;s ideas of relation. Such ideas of relation are in truth
the stumbling-block in Locke&rsquo;s philosophy, and Berkeley&rsquo;s empiricism
is equally far from accounting for them.</p>

<p>With all these defects, however, Berkeley&rsquo;s new conception marks
a distinct stage of progress in human thought. His true place in
the history of speculation may be seen from the simple observation
that the difficulties or obscurities in his scheme are really the points on which later philosophy has turned. He once for all lifted the problem of metaphysics to a higher level, and, in conjunction with
his successor, Hume, determined the form into which later metaphysical
questions have been thrown.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The standard edition of Berkeley&rsquo;s works is that
of A. Campbell Eraser in 4 vols. (i.-iii. <i>Works</i>; iv. <i>Life</i>, <i>Letters and
Dissertation</i>) published by the Clarendon Press (1871); this edition,
revised throughout and largely re-written, was re-published by the
same author (1901). Another complete edition edited by G. Sampson,
with a biographical sketch by A.J. Balfour, and a useful bibliographical
summary, appeared in 1897-1898. Prof. Fraser also published an excellent
volume of selections (5th ed., 1899), and a
short general account in a volume on Berkeley in the <i>Blackwood
Philos. Class.</i> For Berkeley&rsquo;s theory of vision see manuals of
psychology (<i>e.g.</i> G.F. Stout, Wm. James); for his ethical views
H. Sidgwick, <i>Hist, of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902); A. Bain, <i>Mental and Moral Science</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
(1872). See also Sir L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in
the 18th Century</i> (3rd ed., 1902); J.S. Mill&rsquo;s <i>Dissertations</i>,
vols. ii. and iv.; T. Huxley, <i>Critiques and Addresses</i>, pp. 320 seq.;
G.S. Fullerton, <i>System of Metaphysics</i> (New York, 1904); John
Watson, <i>Outline of Philos.</i> (New York, 1898); J. McCosh, <i>Locke&rsquo;s
Theory of Knowledge</i> (1884); T. Lorenz, <i>Ein Beitrag zur Lebensgeschichte
G. Berkeleys</i> (1900) and <i>Weitere Beiträge z. Leb. G.B.&rsquo;s</i>
(1901); histories of modern philosophy generally.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. Ad.; J. M. M.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1803-1889), English botanist,
was born on the 1st of April 1803, at Biggin Hall, Northamptonshire,
and educated at Rugby and Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
of which he became an honorary fellow. Taking holy orders, he
became incumbent of Apethorpe in 1837, and vicar of Sibbertoft,
near Market Harborough, in 1868. He acquired an
enthusiastic love of cryptogamic botany in his early years, and
soon was recognized as the leading British authority on fungi
and plant pathology. He was especially famous as a systematist
in mycology, some 6000 species of fungi being credited to him,
but his <i>Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany</i>, published in 1857,
and his papers on &ldquo;Vegetable Pathology&rdquo; in the <i>Gardener&rsquo;s
Chronicle</i> in 1854 and onwards, show that he had a very broad
grasp of the whole domain of physiology and morphology as
understood in those days. Moreover, it should be pointed out
that Berkeley began his work as a field naturalist and collector,
his earliest objects of study having been the mollusca and other
branches of zoology, as testified by his papers in the <i>Zoological
Journal</i> and the <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, between 1828
and 1836. As a microscopist he was an assiduous and accurate
worker, as is shown by his numerous drawings of the smaller
algae and fungi, and his admirable dissections of mosses and
hepaticae. His investigations on the potato murrain, caused by
<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>, on the grape mildew, to which he gave
the name <i>Oidium Tuckeri</i>, and on the pathogenic fungi of wheat
rust, hop mildew, and various diseases of cabbage, pears, coffee,
onions, tomatoes, &amp;c., were important in results bearing on the
life-history of these pests, at a time when very little was known
of such matters, and must always be considered in any historical
account of the remarkable advances in the biology of
these organisms which were made between 1850 and 1880;
and when it is remembered that this work was done without
any of the modern appliances or training of a properly equipped
laboratory, the real significance of Berkeley&rsquo;s pioneer work
becomes apparent. It is as the founder of British mycology,
however, that his name will live in the history of botany, and
his most important work is contained in the account of native
British fungi in Sir W. Hooker&rsquo;s <i>British Flora</i> (1836), in his
<i>Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany</i> (1857), and in his <i>Outlines
of British Fungology</i> (1860). His magnificent herbarium at
Kew, which contains over 9000 specimens, and is enriched by
numerous notes and sketches, forms one of the most important
type series in the world. Berkeley died at Sibbertoft on the
30th of July 1889. He was a man of refined and courteous
bearing, an accomplished classical student, with the simple
and modest habits that befit a man of true learning.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A list of his publications will be found in the <i>Catalogue of Scientific
Papers</i> of the Royal Society, and sketches of his life in <i>Proc.
Roy. Soc.</i>, 1890, 47, 9, by Sir Joseph Hooker, and <i>Annals of Botany</i>,
1897, 11, by Sir W.T. Thiselton-Dyer.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(H. M. W.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1608-1677), British colonial
governor in America, was born in or near London, England,
about 1608, the youngest son of Sir Maurice Berkeley, an original
member of the London Company of 1606, and brother of John,
first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, one of the proprietors of the
Carolinas. He graduated at Oxford in 1629, and in 1632 was
appointed one of the royal commissioners for Canada, in which
office he won the personal favour of Charles I., who appointed
him a gentleman of the privy chamber. During this period he
tried his hand at literary work, producing among other things
a tragi-comedy entitled <i>The Lost Lady</i> (1638). In August 1641
he was appointed governor of Virginia, but did not take up his
duties until the following year. His first term as governor,
during which he seems to have been extremely popular with
the majority of the colonists, was notable principally for his
religious intolerance and his <span class="correction" title="amended from expulson">expulsion</span> of the Puritans, who
were in a great minority. During the Civil War in England
he remained loyal to the king, and offered an asylum in Virginia
to Charles II. and the loyalists. On the arrival of a parliamentary
fleet in 1652, however, he retired from office and spent the
following years quietly on his plantation. On the death, in
1660, of Samuel Matthews, the last parliamentary governor,
he was chosen governor by the Virginia assembly, and was
soon recommissioned by Charles II. His natural arrogance
and tyranny seems to have increased with years, and the second
period of his governorship was a stormy one. Serious frontier
warfare with the Indians was followed (1676) by Bacon&rsquo;s Rebellion
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virginia</a></span>), brought on by Berkeley&rsquo;s misrule, and
during its course all his worst traits became evident. His cruelty
and barbarity in punishing the rebels did not meet with the
approval of Charles II., who is said to have remarked that &ldquo;the
old fool has put to death more people in that naked country
than I did here for the murder of my father.&rdquo; Berkeley was
called to England in 1677 ostensibly to report on the condition
of affairs in the colony, and a lieutenant-governor (Herbert
Jeffreys) was put in his place. Berkeley sailed in May, but died
soon after his arrival, at Twickenham, and was buried there on
the 13th of July 1677. In addition to the play mentioned
he wrote <i>A Discourse and View of Virginia</i> (London,
1663).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city of Alameda county, California, U.S.A.,
on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay, named after Bishop
Berkeley on account of his line &ldquo;Westward the course of empire
takes its way.&rdquo; Pop. (1890) 5101; (1900) 13,214, of whom
3216 were foreign-born; (1910) 40,434. It is served by
the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fé railway systems, both
transcontinental; and is connected by electric lines (and ferry)
with San Francisco, and by five electric lines with Oakland. Its
attractive situation and pleasant outlooks have made it a
favourite residential suburb of San Francisco, which lies at a
distance of 7 m. across the bay. Berkeley is the seat of the
California state university (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">California, University of</a></span>),
opened in 1873; the inter-related Berkeley Bible Seminary
(1896, Disciples of Christ); Pacific Theological Seminary
(established in 1866 at Oakland, in 1901 at Berkeley,
Congregational); Seminary of the Pacific Coast Baptist Theological
Union, and Unitarian Theological School&mdash;all associated
with the University of California; and the state institution for
the deaf, dumb and blind. The site of Berkeley was a farming
region until its selection for the home of the university. Berkeley
was incorporated as a town in 1878.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a market town of Gloucestershire, England, near
the river Severn, in that portion of its valley known as the Vale
of Berkeley, on a branch from the Midland railway. Pop. (1901)
774. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich
pastoral vale to which it gives name, celebrated for its dairies,
producing the famous cheese known as &ldquo;double Gloucester.&rdquo;
The town has a handsome church (Early English and Decorated),
a grammar school, and some trade in coal, timber, malt and
cheese. Berkeley was the birthplace of Dr Edward Jenner (1749),
who is buried in the church. Berkeley Castle, on an eminence
south-east of the town, is one of the noblest baronial castles
existing in England, and one of the few inhabited. The Berkeley
Ship Canal connects Gloucester with docks at Sharpness, avoiding
the difficult navigation of the upper part of the Severn estuary.</p>

<p>The manor of Berkeley gives its name to the noble family of
Berkeley (<i>q.v.</i>). According to tradition, a nunnery to which the
manor belonged existed here before the Conquest, and Earl
Godwin, by bringing about its dissolution, obtained the manor.
All that is certainly known, however, is that in Domesday the
manor is assigned to one Roger, who took his surname from it.
His descendants seem to have been ousted from their possessions
during the 12th century by Robert fitz Harding, an Angevin
partisan, who already held the castle when, in 1153, Henry, duke
of Normandy (who became King Henry II. in the following year),
granted him the manor. Under an agreement made in the same
year, Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, married a daughter
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
of Roger of Berkeley. Their descendants styled themselves of
Berkeley, and in 1200 the town was confirmed to Robert of
Berkeley with toll, soc, sac, &amp;c., and a market on whatever
day of the week he chose to hold it. This charter was confirmed
to Thomas, Lord Berkeley, in 1330, and in 1395-1396
Lord Berkeley received a grant of another fair on the vigil and
day of Holyrood. The descendants of the Berkeley family still
hold the manor and town. Berkeley Castle was the scene of the
death of Edward II. The king was at first entrusted to the care
of Lord Berkeley, who, being considered too lenient, was obliged
to give up his prisoner and castle to Sir John Mautravers and
Thomas Gournay. The town has no charter, but is mentioned
as a borough in 1284-1285. It was governed by a mayor and
twelve aldermen, but by 1864 their privileges had become merely
nominal, and the corporation was dissolved in 1885 under the
Municipal Corporations Act. Berkeley was formerly noted for
the manufacture of clothing, but the trade had decreased by
the 16th century, for Leland, writing about 1520, says &ldquo;the
town of Berkeley is no great thing.... It hath very much
occupied and yet somewhat doth clothing.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See John Fisher, <i>History of Berkeley</i> (1864).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKHAMPSTEAD<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Great Berkhampstead</span>), a market
town in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire,
England, 28 m. N.W. from London by the London &amp; North-Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5140. It lies
pleasantly in the narrow well-wooded valley of the Bulbourne,
and is close to the Grand Junction canal. The church of St
Peter, a large cruciform structure, exhibits all the Gothic styles,
and earlier fragments are traceable. There are several brasses
of interest. The poet William Cowper was born in the rectory
in 1731. The large grammar school is a foundation of 1541.
Straw-plaiting and the manufacture of small wooden wares are
the principal industries, and there are large chemical works. Of the
castle earthworks and fragments of walls remain. The name of
the town is Great Berkhampstead (or Berkhamsted), in distinction
from Little Berkhampstead near Hatfield in this county.</p>

<p>Berkhampstead (Beorhhamstede, Berchehamstede) was undoubtedly
of some importance in Saxon times since there were
fifty-two burgesses there at the time of the Conquest. In 1156
Henry II. granted the men and merchants of the town the same
laws and customs as they had in the time of Edward the Confessor,
and that they should be quit of toll throughout England,
Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou. Berkhampstead rose to
importance with its castle, which is said to have been built by
Robert, count of Mortain, and when the castle fell into ruin after
1496 the town also began to decay. In 1618, however, the
burgesses received an incorporation charter; but after the civil
wars the corporate body began to fail through poverty, and in the
18th century had ceased to exist. The burgesses returned two
members to parliament in 1320 and again in 1338 and 1341, but
were never represented again. Before the 13th century the
burgesses held a weekly market on Sunday and a yearly fair on
St James&rsquo;s day, but in 1218 Henry III. altered the market day
to Monday. Roofing tiles were manufactured in Berkhampstead
as early as the 13th century, and in Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign the making
of malt was the chief industry.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1587-1669),
2nd son of Thomas Howard, 1st earl of Suffolk and of Catherine,
daughter of Sir Henry Knevet, Kt., widow of Richard Rich,
was baptized on the 8th of October 1587. He succeeded to his
mother&rsquo;s estate of Charlton in Wiltshire, was created K.B. in
1605, became master of the horse to Prince Charles, and was
created Lord Howard of Charlton and Viscount Andover in 1622,
K.G. in 1625, and earl of Berkshire in 1626. In 1634 he was
chosen high steward of the university of Oxford. He was a
commissioner for negotiating the treaty of Ripon in 1640, and
accompanied the king to York in 1642. While attempting to
execute the king&rsquo;s commission of array in Oxfordshire in August
he was taken prisoner by Hampden at Watlington and imprisoned
in the Tower, but after being censured by the Lords was liberated
in September. In 1643 he was made governor of the prince of
Wales, a post for which he was in no way fitted, and in which
he showed himself factious and obstructive. He accompanied
the prince to Scilly and to Jersey, but on the latter&rsquo;s departure
for France went to Holland. At the Restoration he was made a
privy councillor and received rewards. He died on the 16th of
July 1669, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. According
to Clarendon &ldquo;his affection for the crown was good; his interest
and reputation less than anything but his understanding.&rdquo; He
married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of
Exeter, by whom he had nine sons and four daughters. Of these
Charles succeeded him as 2nd earl of Berkshire; Thomas succeeded
the latter; and Philip was ancestor of John, 15th earl
of Suffolk and 8th earl of Berkshire, and so of the later earls of
Suffolk and Berkshire.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERKSHIRE<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> [abbreviated <i>Berks</i>, pronounced <i>Barkshire</i>], a
southern county of England, bounded N. by Oxfordshire and
Buckinghamshire, E. by Surrey, S. by Hampshire, W. by Wiltshire,
and N.W. for a short distance by Gloucestershire. Its area
is 721.9 sq. m. Its entire northern boundary is formed by the
river Thames, in the basin of which practically the whole county
is included. In the north-west a narrow and broken line of hills,
pierced in the west by the Cole stream, which here forms the
county boundary, extends past Faringdon and culminates in a
height over 500 ft. at Cumnor Hurst, which, with Wytham Hill,
fills a deep northward bend of the Thames, and overlooks the
city of Oxford from the west. The range separates the Thames
valley from the Vale of White Horse which is traversed by the
small river Ock, and bounded on the south by a line of hills
known as the White Horse Hills or Berkshire Downs, richly
wooded along their base, and rising sharply to bare rounded
summits. In White Horse Hill on the western confines of the
county a height of 856 ft. is reached. The line of these hills is
continued north-eastward by the Chiltern Hills in Oxfordshire,
but a division between the two is made by the Thames in a
narrow valley or gap at Goring. Southward the Downs are
scored with deep narrow valleys, the chief of which are those of
the Lambourn and the Pang. The last stream runs eastward
directly to the Thames; but the Lambourn and others join the
Kennet, which drains a beautiful sylvan valley to the Thames at
Reading. Another line of downs closely confines the vale of
Kennet on the south from Newbury upwards, and although the
greater part of these does not fall within the county, their highest
point, Inkpen Beacon (1011 ft.), does so. The Enborne stream,
rising here, and flowing parallel to the Kennet until turning
north to join it, is for a considerable distance the county
boundary. Between Reading and Windsor the Thames makes
a northward bend, past Henley and Marlow, in the form of three
sides of a square. Within the bend slight hills border the river,
but south of these, and in the Loddon valley south of Reading,
the county is low and flat. In the south-east of the county,
however, there is a high sandy plateau, forming part of Bagshot
Heath, over 400 ft. in elevation, and extending into Surrey.
Fir-woods are characteristic of this district, and northward
towards the Thames extends the royal park of Windsor, which
is magnificently timbered. The proportion to the total area of
the county which is under woods is, however, by no means so
great as in the adjacent counties of Surrey and Hampshire.
There is fine trout-fishing in the Kennet and some of its feeders.</p>

<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The dominant feature of the county, the Chiltern
and White Horse Hills, owes its form to the Chalk, which spreads
from Ashbury and Hungerford on the west to Henley and
Maidenhead on the east. In the northern face of the escarpment
we find the Lower Chalk with a hard bed, the Totternhoe Stone;
on the southern slope lies the Chalk-with-Flints. At Kintbury
it is quarried for the manufacture of whiting. At the foot of the
Chalk escarpment is the Upper Greensand with a narrow crop
towards the west which is broken up into patches eastwards.
Looking northward from the Chalk hills, the low-lying ground
is occupied successively by the Gault Clay, the Kimmeridge Clay,
and finally by the Oxford Clay, which extends beyond the
Thames into Oxfordshire. This low-lying tract is relieved by an
elevated ridge of Corallian beds, between the Kimmeridge Clay
and the Gault. It extends from near Faringdon past Abingdon
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
to Cumnor and Wytham Hill. At Faringdon there are some
interesting gravels of Lower Greensand age, full of the fossil
remains of sponges. South of the Chalk, the county is occupied
by Eocene rocks, mottled clays, well exposed in the brickfields
about Reading, and hence called the Reading beds. At Finchampstead,
Sunninghill and Ascot, these deposits are overlaid
by the more sandy beds of the Bagshot series. Between the two
last named formations is a broad outcrop of London Clay.
Numerous outliers of Eocene rest on the Chalk beyond the main
line of boundary. The Chalk of Inkpen Beacon is brought up
to the south side of the Tertiary rocks by a synclinal fold;
similarly, an anticline has brought up the small patch of Chalk
in Windsor Park. Clay-with-Flints lies in patches and holes on
the chalk, and flint gravels occur high up on either side of the
Thames. Fairly thick beds of peat are found in the alluvium of
the Kennet at Newbury.</p>

<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;About seven-ninths of the total area is under
cultivation; a large proportion of this being in permanent
pasture, as much attention is paid to dairy-farming. Butter and
cheese are largely produced, and the making of condensed milk
is a branch of the industry. Many sheep are pastured on the
Downs, important sheep-markets being held at the small town
of East or Market Ilsley; and an excellent breed of pigs is
named after the county. The parts about Faringdon are specially
noted for them. Oats are the principal grain crop; although a
considerable acreage is under wheat. Turnips and swedes are
largely cultivated, and apples and cherries are grown. Besides
the royal castle of Windsor, fine county seats are especially
numerous.</p>

<p>The only manufacturing centre of first importance is Reading,
which is principally famous for its biscuit factories. The manufacture
of clothing and carpets is carried on at Abingdon; but
a woollen industry introduced into the county as early as the
Tudor period is long extinct. Engineering works and paper mills
are established at various places; and boat-building is carried
on at Reading and other riverside stations. There are extensive
seed warehouses and testing grounds near Reading; and the
Kennet and Windsor ales are in high repute. Whiting is manufactured
from chalk at Kintbury on the Kennet.</p>

<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Communications are provided principally
by the Great Western railway, the main line of which crosses the
county from east to west by Maidenhead, Reading and Didcot.
A branch line serves the Kennet valley from Reading; and
the northern line of the company leaves the main line at Didcot,
a branch from it serving Abingdon. The Basingstoke branch
runs south from Reading, and lines serve Wallingford from
Cholsey, and Faringdon from Uffington. Communication with
the south of England is maintained by a joint line of the South
Western and South Eastern &amp; Chatham companies terminating
at Reading, and there are branches of the Great Western and
South Western systems to Windsor. The Lambourn valley
light railway runs north-west to Lambourn from Newbury.
Wide water-communications are afforded by the Thames, and
the Kennet is in part canalized, to form the eastern portion of
the Kennet and Avon canal system, connecting with the Bristol
Avon above Bath.</p>

<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient
county is 462,208 acres; with a population in 1891 of 239,138,
and in 1901 of 256,509. The area of the administrative county
is 462,367 acres. The county contains twenty hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are Abingdon (pop. 6480), Maidenhead
(12,980), Newbury (11,061), Reading, the county town and a
county borough (72,217), Wallingford (2808), Windsor or New
Windsor (14,130), Wokingham (3551). Wantage (3766) is an
urban district. Among lesser towns may be mentioned Faringdon
in the north-west (2900), Hungerford on the Kennet (2906),
and Lambourn in the valley of that name (2071), the villages
of Bray (2978), Cookham (3874) and Tilehurst (2545), which,
like others on the banks of the Thames, have grown into residential
towns; and Sandhurst (2386). The county is in the
Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at Reading. It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twelve petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Abingdon, Newbury,
Maidenhead, Reading, Wallingford and Windsor have separate
commissions of the peace, and Abingdon, Newbury, Reading
and Windsor have separate courts of quarter sessions. There
are 198 civil parishes. Berkshire forms an archdeaconry in
the diocese of Oxford; a small portion, however, falls within
the diocese of Salisbury. There are 202 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part within the county. There are
three parliamentary divisions, Northern or Abingdon, Southern
or Newbury, and Eastern or Wokingham, each returning one
member; while the parliamentary borough of Reading returns
one member, and parts of the borough of Oxford and Windsor
are included in the county. There are several important educational
establishments in the county. Radley College near
Abingdon, Wellington College near Sandhurst, and Bradfield
College, at the village of that name, 8 m. west of Reading, are
among the more important modern public schools for boys.
Bradfield College was founded in 1850, and is well known for
the realistic performances of classical Greek plays presented
by the scholars in an open theatre designed for the purpose.
Abingdon and Reading schools rank among the lesser public
schools. At Reading is a university extension college, and in
the south-east of the county is the Sandhurst Royal Military
College.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;During the Heptarchy Berkshire formed part of
the kingdom of Wessex, and interesting relics of Saxon occupation
have been discovered in various parts of the county. Of
these the most remarkable are the burial grounds at Long
Wittenham and Frilford, and there is evidence that the Lambourn
valley was occupied in early Saxon times. The cinerary
urns found in Berkshire undoubtedly contain the ashes of the
Anglians who came south under Penda in the 7th century.
The fortification called Cherbury Castle, not far from Denchworth,
is said to have been first made up by Canute.</p>

<p>At the time of the Norman invasion Berkshire formed part
of the earldom of Harold, and supported him stanchly at the
battle of Hastings. This loyalty was punished by very sweeping
confiscations, and at the time of the Domesday survey no
estates of any importance were in the hands of Englishmen.
When Alfred divided the country into shires, this county received
the name of Berrocscir, as Asser says, &ldquo;from the wood
of Berroc, where the box-tree grows most plentifully.&rdquo;<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
At the time of the survey it comprised twenty-two hundreds; at
the present day there are only twenty, of which eleven retain
their ancient names. Many parishes have been transferred
from one hundred to another, but the actual boundary of the
county is practically unchanged. Part of the parishes of Shilton
and Langford formed detached portions of the shire, until
included in Oxfordshire in the reign of William IV. Portions
of Combe and Shalbourne parishes have also been restored
to Hampshire and Wiltshire respectively, while the Wiltshire
portion of Hungerford has been transferred to Berkshire. The
county was originally included in the see of Winchester, but in
<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909 it was removed to the newly-formed see of &ldquo;Wiltshire,&rdquo;
afterwards united with Sherborne. In 1075 the seat of the
bishopric was removed to Salisbury, and in 1836 by an order
in council Berkshire was transferred to the diocese of Oxford.
The archdeaconry is of very early origin and is co-extensive with
the county. Formerly it comprised four rural deaneries, but
the number has lately been increased to nine. Much of the early
history of the county is recorded in the <i>Chronicles</i> of the abbey
of Abingdon, which at the time of the survey was second only
to the crown in the extent and number of its possessions. The
abbot also exercised considerable judicial and administrative
powers, and his court was endowed with the privileges of the
hundred court and was freed from liability to interference by
the sheriff. Berkshire and Oxfordshire had a common sheriff
until the reign of Elizabeth, and the shire court was held at
Grauntpont. The assizes were formerly held at Reading,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
Abingdon and Newbury, but are now held entirely at
Reading.</p>

<p>At the time of the Domesday survey the chief lay-proprietor
was Henry de Ferrers, ancestor of the earls of Derby, but it is remarkable
that none of the great Berkshire estates has remained
with the same family long. Thomas Fuller quaintly observes
that &ldquo;the lands of Berkshire are very skittish and apt to cast
their owners.&rdquo; The De la Poles succeeded to large estates by
a marriage with the heiress of Thomas Chaucer, son of the poet,
but the family became extinct in the male line, and the estates
were alienated. The same fate befell the estates of the Achards,
the Fitzwarrens and later the families of Norris and Befils.</p>

<p>The natural advantages of this county have always encouraged
agricultural rather than commercial pursuits. The soil is
especially adapted for sheep-farming, and numerous documents
testify to the importance and prosperity of the wool-trade in
the 12th century. At first this trade was confined to the export
of the raw material, but the reign of Edward III. saw the introduction
of the clothing industry, for which the county afterwards
became famous. This trade began to decline in the 17th century,
and in 1641 the Berkshire clothiers complained of the deadness
of their trade and the difficulty of getting ready money, attributing
the same to delay in the execution of justice. The malting
industry and the timber trade also flourished in the county
until the 19th century. Agriculturally considered, the Vale of
the White Horse is especially productive, and Camden speaks
of the great crops of barley grown in the district.</p>

<p>Owing to its proximity to London, Berkshire has from early
times been the scene of frequent military operations. The
earliest recorded historical fact relating to the county is the
occupation of the district between Wallingford and Ashbury
by Offa in 758. In the 9th and 10th centuries the county was
greatly impoverished by the ravages of the Danes, and in 871
the invaders were defeated by Æthelwulf at Englefield and again
at Reading. During the disorders of Stephen&rsquo;s reign Wallingford
was garrisoned for Matilda and was the scene of the final
treaty in 1153. Meetings took place between John and his
barons in 1213 at Wallingford and at Reading, and in 1216
Windsor was besieged by the barons. At the opening of the
civil war of the 17th century, the sheriff, on behalf of the inhabitants
of Berkshire, petitioned that the county might be put
in a posture of defence, and here the royalists had some of their
strongest garrisons. Reading endured a ten days&rsquo; siege by the
parliamentary forces in 1643, and Wallingford did not surrender
until 1646. Newbury was the site of two battles in 1643 and
1644.</p>

<p>In 1295, Berkshire returned two members to parliament for
the county and two for the borough of Reading. Later the
boroughs of Newbury, Wallingford, Windsor and Abingdon
secured representation, and from 1557 until the Reform Act of
1832 the county was represented by a total of ten members. By
this act Abingdon and Wallingford were each deprived of a
member, but the county returned three members instead of
two. Since the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the county
has returned three members for three divisions, and Windsor
and Reading return one member each, the remaining boroughs
having lost representation.</p>

<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;The remains of two great Benedictine monasteries
at Abingdon and Reading are scanty. The ecclesiastical
architecture of the county is not remarkable, excepting a few
individual churches. Thus for Norman work the churches of
Shellingford and Cholsey may be noted, together with the very
small chapel, of early date, at Upton near Didcot. The church
of Blewbury in the same locality is in the main transitional
Norman, and retains some of its original vaulting. Of Early
English churches there are several good examples, notably at
Uffington, with its unusual angular-headed windows, Buckland
near Faringdon, and Wantage. The tower of St Helen&rsquo;s,
Abingdon, well illustrates this period. The cruciform church
of Shottesbrooke, with its central spire, is a beautiful and almost
unaltered Decorated building; and St George&rsquo;s chapel in
Windsor Castle is a superb specimen of Perpendicular work.
Apart from Windsor, Berkshire retains no remarkable medieval
castles or mansions.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Chief of the older works are: Elias Ashmole.
<i>Antiquities of Berkshire</i> (3 vols., 1719, 2nd ed., London, 1723; 3rd
ed., Reading, 1736); D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i>, vol. i.
Other works are: Marshall, <i>Topographical and Statistical Details
of the County of Berkshire</i> (London, 1830); Earl of Carnarvon,
<i>Archaeology of Berkshire</i> (London, 1859); C. King, <i>History of Berkshire</i>
(London, 1887); Lowsley, <i>Glossary of Berkshire Words</i> (London,
1888), and <i>Index to Wills in the Court of the Archdeacon of Berkshire,
1508-1652</i> (Oxford, 1893); <i>Victoria County History, Berkshire</i>.
See also <i>The Berks Archaeological Society&rsquo;s Quarterly Journal</i>, and
<i>Berkshire Notes and Queries</i>.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The derivation from Bibroci, a British tribe in the time of Caesar,
which probably inhabited Surrey or Middlesex, seems philologically
impossible.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÊRLAD,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the capital of the department of Tutova, Rumania,
on the river Bêrlad, which waters the high plains of Eastern
Moldavia. Pop. (1900) 24,484, about one-fourth of whom are
Jews. At Bêrlad the railway from Jassy diverges, one branch
skirting the river Sereth, the other skirting the Pruth; both
reunite at Galatz. Among a maze of narrow and winding streets
Bêrlad possesses a few good modern buildings, including a fine
hospital, administered by the St Spiridion Foundation of Jassy.
Bêrlad has manufactures of soap and candles, and some trade
in timber and farm-produce, while the annual horse-fairs are
visited by dealers from all parts of the country. In the vicinity
are traces of a Roman camp.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gottfried</span> <b>VON</b> (1480-1562),
German knight, was born at the castle of Jagsthausen now in
Württemberg. In 1497 he entered the service of Frederick IV.,
margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and in 1498 fought for the
emperor Maximilian I. in Burgundy, Lorraine and Brabant, and
next year in Switzerland. About 1500 he raised a company of
freelances, and at their head took part in various private wars.
In 1505, whilst assisting Albert IV., duke of Bavaria, at the siege
of Landshut, his right hand was shot away, and an iron one was
substituted which is still shown at Jagsthausen. In spite of this
&ldquo;Goetz with the iron hand&rdquo; continued his feuds, their motive
being mainly booty and ransom. In 1512 an attack near
Forchheim on some merchants returning from the great fair at
Leipzig, caused him to be put under the ban of the empire by
Maximilian, and he was only released from this in 1514 upon a
promise to pay 14,000 gulden. In 1516 he made a raid into
Hesse and captured Philip IV., count of Waldeck, whom he
compelled to pay a ransom of 8400 gold gulden, and in 1518 was
again placed under the ban. He fought for Ulrich I., duke of
Württemberg, when he was attacked by the Swabian League in
1519, and after a spirited resistance was compelled, through
want of ammunition and provisions, to surrender the town of
Möckmuhl. In violation of the terms of the capitulation he was
held prisoner, and handed over to the citizens of Heilbronn, but
owing to the efforts of Sickingen and Georg von Frundsberg was
released in 1522, upon paying 2000 gulden, and swearing not to
take vengeance on the League. When the Peasants&rsquo; War broke
out in 1525 Goetz was compelled by the rebels of the Odenwald
district to act as their leader. He accepted the position, according
to his own account, partly because he had no choice, partly
in the hope of curbing the excesses of the insurgents; but,
finding himself in this respect powerless, after a month of nominal
leadership, he took the first opportunity of escaping to his castle.
For his part in the rebellion he was called to account before the
diet of Speier, and on the 17th of October 1526 was acquitted by
the imperial chamber. In spite of this the Swabian League
seized the opportunity of paying off old scores against him.
Lured to Augsburg, under promise of safe conduct, to clear
himself of the charges made against him on behalf of the League,
he was there treacherously seized on the 28th of November 1528,
and kept a close prisoner for two years. In 1530 he was liberated
on repeating his oath of 1522, and undertaking not to leave the
neighbourhood of his castle of Hornberg on the Neckar. He
appears to have remained there quietly until 1540 when the
emperor Charles V. released him from his oath. In 1542 he
fought against the Turks in Hungary, and in 1544 accompanied
Charles when he invaded France. He returned to Hornberg,
where he passed his time until his death on the 23rd of July
1562. He was twice married and left three daughters and seven
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
sons. The counts von Berlichingen-Rossach, of Helmstadt
near Heidelberg, one of the two surviving branches of the family,
are his descendants. The other branch, that of the Freiherrn von
Berlichingen-Jagsthausen, is descended from Goetz&rsquo;s brother
Hans. &ldquo;Goetz von Berlichingen&rdquo; is the title of Goethe&rsquo;s play,
which, published in 1773, marked an epoch in the history of
German drama (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goethe</a></span>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See R. Pallmann, <i>Der historische Goetz von Berlichingen</i> (Berlin,
1894); F.W.G. Graf von Berlichingen-Rossach, <i>Geschichte des
Ritters Goetz von Berlichingen und seiner Familie</i> (Leipzig, 1861).
Goetz&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i>, valuable as a record of his times, was first
published by Pistorius at Nuremberg (1731), and again at Halle (1886).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIN, ISAIAH<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1725-1799), an eminent rabbi of Breslau;
he was the author of acute notes on the Talmud which had their
influence in advancing the critical study of that work.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> the largest city of the German empire, the capital
of the kingdom of Prussia. It is the principal residence of the
German emperor and king of Prussia, the seat of the imperial
parliament (<i>Reichstag</i>) and the Prussian diet (<i>Landtag</i>) and of
the state offices of the empire, except of the supreme court of
justice (<i>Reichsgericht</i>), which is fixed at Leipzig. It lies in a flat,
sandy plain, 110 ft. above sea-level, on both banks of the navigable
Spree, which intersects it from S.E. to N.W. The highest
elevation in the immediate neighbourhood is the Kreuzberg
(200 ft.), a hill in the southern suburb of Schöneberg, which
commands a fine view of the city. The situation of Berlin,
midway between the Elbe and the Oder, with which rivers it
is connected by a web of waterways, at the crossing of the main
roads from Silesia and Poland to the North Sea ports and from
Saxony, Bohemia and Thuringia to the Baltic, made it in
medieval days a place of considerable commercial importance.
In modern times the great network of railways, of which it is
the centre and which mainly follow the lines of the old roads,
further established its position. Almost equidistant from the
remotest frontiers of Prussia, from north to south, and from
east to west, 180 m. from Hamburg and 84 from Stettin, its
situation, so far from being prejudicial to its growth and
prosperity, as was formerly often asserted, has been, in fact, the
principal determining factor in its rapid rise to the position
of the greatest industrial and commercial city on the continent
of Europe. In point of wealth and population it ranks immediately
after London and Paris.</p>

<p>The boundaries of the city have not been essentially extended
since 1860, and though large and important suburbs have crept
up and practically merged with it, its administrative area
remains unchanged. It occupies about 29 sq. m., and has a
length from E. to W. of 6 and a breadth from N. to S. of 5½ m.,
contains nearly 1000 streets, has 87 squares and open spaces,
73 bridges and a population (1905) of 2,033,900 (including a
garrison of about 22,000). If, however, the outer police district,
known as &ldquo;Greater Berlin,&rdquo; embracing an area of about 10 m.
radius from the centre, be included, the population amounts to
about 3¼ millions.</p>

<p>Berlin is essentially a modern city, the quaint two-storied
houses, which formerly characterized it, having given place to
palatial business blocks, which somewhat dwarf the streets
and squares, which once had an air of stately spaciousness.
The bustle of the modern commercial city has superseded the
austere dignity of the old Prussian capital. Thus the stranger
entering it for the first time will find little to remind him of its
past history. The oldest part of Berlin, the city and Alt-Kölln,
built along the arms of the Spree, is, together with that portion
of the town lying immediately west, the centre of business
activity. The west end and the south-west are the residential
quarters, the north-west is largely occupied by academic,
scientific and military institutions, the north is the seat of
machinery works, the north-east of the woollen manufactures,
the east and south-east of the dyeing, furniture and metal
industries, while in the south are great barracks and railway works.</p>

<p>In 1870 Berlin was practically bounded on the south by the
Landwehr Canal, but it has since extended far beyond, and
the Tempelhofer Feld, where military reviews are held, then
practically in the country, is now surrounded by a dense
belt of houses. The Landwehr Canal, leaving the Spree
near the Schlesische Tor (gate), and rejoining it at Charlottenburg,
after a course of 6 m., adds not a little to the charm of
the southern and western districts, being flanked by fine boulevards
and crossed by many handsome bridges. The object of
this canal was to relieve the congestion of the water traffic in
the heart of Berlin. It was superseded, however, in its turn by
a new broad and deep canal opened in 1906, lying from 3 to 4 m.
farther south. This, the Teltow Canal, leaves the Spree above
Berlin at Köpenick, and running south of Rixdorf, Südende
and Gross-Lichterfelde, enters the Havel at Teltow. This
important engineering work was planned not only to afford a
more convenient waterway between the upper Spree and the
Havel (and thus to the Elbe), but was to remove from the city
to its banks and vicinity those factories of which the noxious
gases and other poisonous emanations were regarded as dangerous
to the health of the community. A dislocation of the
manufacturing factors has therefore been in progress, which
with the creation of a &ldquo;trans Tiberim&rdquo; (as in ancient Rome)
is, in many respects, altering the character and aspect of the
metropolis.</p>

<p>The effect upon Berlin of the successful issue of the
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 was electrical. The old Prussian
capital girded itself at once to fulfil its new rôle. The
concentration upon the city of a large garrison flushed with victory,
and eager to emulate the vanquished foe in works of peace,
and vie with them in luxury, was an incentive to Berliners to
put forth all their energy. Besides the military, a tremendous
immigration of civilian officials took place as the result of the
new conditions, and, as accommodation was not readily available,
rents rose to an enormous figure. Doubts were often
expressed whether the capital would be able to bear the burden
of empire, so enormous was the influx of new citizens. It is due
to the magnificent services of the municipal council that the city
was enabled to assimilate the hosts of newcomers, and it is to
its indefatigable exertions that Berlin has in point of organization
become the model city of Europe. In no other has public
money been expended with such enlightened discretion, and
in no other has the municipal system kept pace with such rapid
growth and displayed greater resource in emergencies. In
1870 the sanitary conditions of Berlin were the worst of any
city of Europe. It needed a Virchow to open the eyes of the
municipality to the terrible waste of life such a state of things
entailed. But open sewers, public pumps, cobble-paved roads,
open market-places and overcrowded subterranean dwellings
are now abolished. The city is excellently drained, well-paved,
well-lighted and furnished with an abundant supply of filtered
water, while the cellar dwellings have given place to light and
airy tenements, and Berlin justly claims to rank among the
cleanest and healthiest capitals in Europe. The year 1878
marks a fresh starting-point in the development of the city.
In that year Berlin was the meeting-place of the congress which
bears its name. The recognition of Germany as a leading factor
in the world&rsquo;s counsels had been given, and the people of Berlin
could indulge in the task of embellishing the capital in a manner
befitting its position. From this time forward, state, municipal
and private enterprise have worked hand in hand to make the
capital cosmopolitan. The position it has at length attained
is due not alone to the enterprise of its citizens and the municipality.
The brilliancy of the court and the triumph of the
sense of unity in the German nation over the particularism of
the smaller German states have conduced more than all else
to bring about this result. It has become the chief pleasure town
of Germany; and though the standard of morality, owing
to the enormous influx of people bent on amusement, has become
lower, yet there is so much healthy, strenuous activity in
intellectual life and commercial rivalry as to entitle it, despite
many moral deficiencies, to be regarded as the centre of life
and learning in Germany. Dr A. Shadwell (<i>Industrial Efficiency</i>,
London, 1906) describes it as representing &ldquo;the most complete
application of science, order and method of public life,&rdquo; adding
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
&ldquo;it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and
most perfectly organized city that there is.&rdquo;</p>

<p><i>Streets.</i>&mdash;The social and official life of the capital centres
round Unter den Linden, which runs from the royal palace to
the Brandenburger Tor. This street, one of the finest and
most spacious in Europe, nearly a mile in length, its double
avenue divided by a favourite promenade, planted with lime
trees, presents Berlin life in all its varying aspects. Many
historical events have taken place in this famous boulevard,
notably the entry of the troops in 1871, and the funeral pageant
of the emperor Willaim I. South of Unter den Linden lies the
Friedrichstadt, with its parallel lines of straight streets, including
the Behren-strasse&mdash;(the seat of finance)&mdash;the Wilhelm-strasse,
with the palace of the imperial chancellor, the British
embassy, and many government offices&mdash;the official quarter of
the capital&mdash;and the busy Leipziger-strasse, running from the
Potsdamer-platz to the Dönhoff-platz. This great artery and
Unter den Linden are crossed at right angles by the Friedrich-strasse,
2 m. long, flanked by attractive shops and restaurants,
among them the beer palaces of the great breweries. In
the city proper, the König-strasse and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse,
the latter a continuation of Unter den Linden, are the
chief streets; while in the fashionable south-west quarter
Viktoria-strasse, Bellevue-strasse, Potsdamer-strasse and
Kurfürsten-strasse and the Kurfürstendamm are the most
imposing. Among the most important public squares are the
Opern-platz, around or near which stand the opera house, the
royal library, the university and the armoury; the Gendarmen-markt,
with the royal theatre in its centre, the Schloss-platz;
the Lustgarten, between the north side of the royal palace, the
cathedral and the old and new museums; the Pariser-platz
with the French embassy, at the Brandenburg Gate; the
Königs-platz, with the column of Victory, the Reichstagsgebäude
and the Bismarck and Moltke monuments; the Wilhelms-platz;
the circular Belle-Alliance-platz, with a column commemorating
the battle of Waterloo; and, in the western district, the spacious
Lützow-platz.</p>

<p><i>Bridges.</i>&mdash;Of the numerous bridges, the most remarkable are
the Schloss-brücke, built after designs by Schinkel in 1822-1824,
with eight colossal figures of white marble, representing ideal
stages in a warrior&rsquo;s life, the work of Drake, Albert Wolff and
other eminent sculptors; the Kurfürsten&mdash;or Lange-brücke,
built 1692-1695, and restored in 1895, with an equestrian statue
of the great elector, and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-brücke (1886-1889)
connecting the Lustgarten with the Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse in
the inner town. In the modern residential quarter are the
Potsdamer-Viktoria-brücke, which carries the traffic from two
converging streets into the outer Potsdamer-strasse, and the
Herkules-brucke connecting the Lützow-platz with the Tiergarten.
The first three cross the Spree and the last two the
Landwehr Canal.</p>

<p><i>Churches.</i>&mdash;Berlin, until the last half of the 10th century, was
in respect of its churches probably the poorest of the capitals
of Christendom, and the number of worshippers on an average
Sunday was then less than 2% of the population. The city now
contains over a hundred places of worship, of which ten are
Roman Catholic, and nine Jewish synagogues. Of the older
Evangelical churches but four date from medieval days, and of
them only the Marien-kirche, with a tomb of Field marshal
O.C. von Sparr (1605-1665), and the Nikolai-kirche are particularly
noteworthy. Of a later date, though of no great pretensions
to architectural merit, are the Petri-kirche with a lofty spire,
the Französische-kirche and the Neue-kirche with dome-capped
towers, on the Gendarmen-markt, and the round, Roman Catholic
St Hedwigs&mdash;kirche behind the Opera-house. The Garrison
church in the centre of the city, which was erected in 1722 and
contained numerous historical trophies, was destroyed by fire
in 1908. Of modern erections the new cathedral (<i>Dom</i>), on the
Spree, which replaces the old building pulled down in 1853,
stands first. It is a clumsy, though somewhat imposing edifice
of sandstone in Italian Renaissance style, and has a dome rising,
with the lantern, to a height of 380 ft. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtnis-kirche
(in the suburb Charlottenburg) with a lofty
spire, the Dankes-kirche (in commemoration of the emperor
William I.&rsquo;s escape from the hand of the assassin, Nobiling, in
1878) in Wedding, and the Kaiser-Friedrich-Gedächtnis-kirche
on a grassy knoll in the north of the Tiergarten are also worthy
of notice. In the Monbijou Park, on the north bank of the Spree,
is the pretty English church of St George. The main Jewish
synagogue, a fine building in oriental style, erected in 1866,
stands in a commanding position in the Oranienburger-strasse
and is remarkable for its stained glass. Berlin was a walled city
until 1867-1868. Of the former nineteen city gates only one
remains, the Brandenburg Gate (1789-1793), an imitation of the
Propylaea at Athens. It is 201 ft. broad and nearly 65 ft. high,
and is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44 ft. in height,
and surmounted by a car of victory (Auriga), which, taken by
Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by the Prussians
in 1814. The gate has been enlarged by two lateral colonnades,
each supported by sixteen columns.</p>

<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>&mdash;In secular buildings Berlin is very rich.
Entering the city at the Potsdam Gate, traversing a few hundred
yards of the Leipziger-strasse, turning into Wilhelm-strasse, and
following it to Unter den Linden, then beginning at the Brandenburg
Gate and proceeding down Unter den Linden to its end, one
passes, among other buildings, the following, many of them of
great architectural merit&mdash;the admiralty, the ministry of
commerce, the ministry of war, the ministry of public works,
the palace of Prince Frederick Leopold, the palace of the imperial
chancellor, the foreign office, the ministry of justice, the
residences of the ministers of the interior and of public worship,
the French and the Russian embassies, the arcade, the palace
of the emperor William I., the university, the royal library, the
opera, the armoury, the palace of the emperor Frederick III.,
the Schloss-brücke, the royal palace, the old and new museums
and the national gallery. At a short distance from this line are the
new town-hall, the mint, the imperial bank and the royal theatre.
Berlin differs from all other great capitals in this respect that
with the exception of the royal palace, which dates from the
16th century, all its public buildings are modern. This palace,
standing in the very heart of the city, is a huge quadrangular
building, with four courts, and is surmounted by a dome 220 ft.
high. It contains more than 600 rooms and halls; among the
latter the Weisse-saal used for great court pageants, the halls
of the chapters of the Black and the Red Eagle orders, a picture
gallery and a chapel. The first floor overlooking the Schloss-platz
is the Berlin residence of the emperor, and that square is
embellished by a huge fountain (Neptuns-brunnen) by R. Begas.
Facing the west portal is the monument to the emperor William I.,
and before the north gate, opening upon the Lustgarten, are
the famous bronze groups, the &ldquo;horse-tamers&rdquo; by Clodt, the
gift of the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. The establishment
of the imperial government in Berlin naturally brought with it
the erection of a large number of public buildings, and
the great prosperity of the country, as well as the enhanced
national feeling, has enabled them to be built on a scale of
splendour befitting the capital of an empire. First in importance
is the Reichstagsgebäude (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, plate ix. fig. 47),
in which the federal council (<i>Bundesrat</i>) and the imperial
parliament (<i>Reichstag</i>) hold their sittings. A special feature
is the library, which is exceedingly rich in works on constitutional
law. A new house has also been built for the Prussian parliament (<i>Landtag</i>) in the Albrecht-strasse. Other
new official buildings are the patent office on the site of
the old ministry of the interior; the new ministry of posts
(with post museum) at the corner of the Mauer-strasse and
Leipziger-strasse; the central criminal court in Moabit; the
courts of first instance on the Alexander-platz; the ministry
of police, and the <i>Reichsversicherungsamt</i>, the centre for the
great system of state insurance. In addition to these, many
buildings have been restored and enlarged, chief among them
being the armoury (<i>Zeughaus</i>), the war office and the ministry
of public works, while the royal mews (<i>Marstall</i>) has been
entirely rebuilt with an imposing façade.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span></p>

<p>Among the public monuments comes first, in excellence,
Ranch&rsquo;s celebrated statue of Frederick the Great, which stands
in Unter den Linden opposite the palace of the emperor
William I.; and in size the monument to the emperor William
I. (by R. Begas), erected opposite the west portal of the royal
palace. The space for the site was gained by pulling down the
old houses composing the Schlossfreiheit and damming the
Spree. The monument, which cost £200,000, is surmounted by
an equestrian statue of the emperor in a martial cloak, his right
hand resting on a field marshal&rsquo;s baton, reining in his charger,
which is led by a female genius of peace. The high pedestal on
which these figures stand is surrounded by an Ionic colonnade.
The equestrian statue of the great elector on the Lange-brücke
has been already mentioned. In the Lustgarten is a statue of
Frederick William III., by Wolff; in the Tiergarten, Drake&rsquo;s
marble monument to the same ruler; and in the mausoleum
in the park in Charlottenburg he and his queen, Louisa, are
sculptured in marble by Rauch. Here also lie the emperor
William I. and the empress Augusta under marble effigies by
Encke. A second group of monuments on the Wilhelms-platz
commemorates the generals of the Seven Years&rsquo; War; and a
third in the neighbourhood of the opera-house the generals who
fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg a Gothic monument
in bronze was erected by Frederick William III. to commemorate
the victories of 1813-1815; and in the centre of the
Königs-platz stands a lofty column in honour of the triumphs
of 1864, 1866 and 1870-1871, surmounted by a gilded figure of
Victory. Literature, science and art are represented in different
parts of the city by statues and busts of Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer,
Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel and Jahn.
On the Königs-platz between the column of Victory and the
Reichstagsgebäude, and immediately facing the western façade
of the latter, is the bronze statue of Bismarck, unveiled in 1901,
a figure 20 ft. in height standing on a granite base. From the
south side of the Königs-platz crossing the Tiergarten and
intersecting the avenue from the Brandenburg Gate to Charlottenburg
runs the broad Sieges-allee adorned by thirty-two
groups of marble statuary representing famous rulers of the
house of Hohenzollern, the gift of the emperor William II. to
the city. The Tiergarten, the beautiful west-end park with its
thickets of dense undergrowth and winding lanes and lakes has
lost somewhat of its sylvan character owing to building encroachments
on the north side and the laying out of new rides and
drives. It has, in addition to those above enumerated, statues
of Queen Louisa, Goethe and Lessing.</p>

<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Berlin is the centre of the North German
network of railways. No fewer than twelve main lines concentrate
upon it. Internal communication is provided for by the
Ringbahn, or outer circle, which was opened in 1871, and by a
well-devised system connects the termini of the various main
lines. The through traffic coming from east and west is carried
by the Stadtbahn, or city railway, which also connects with and
forms an integral part of the outer circle. This line runs through
the heart of the city, and was originally a private enterprise.
Owing, however, to the failure of the company, the work was
taken in hand by the state, and the line opened in 1878. It has
four tracks&mdash;two for the main-line through traffic, and two for
local and suburban service, and is carried at a height of about
20 ft. above the streets. Its length is 12 m., the total cost
3¾ millions sterling. The chief stations are Zoologischer Garten,
Friedrich-strasse, Alexander-platz and Schlesischer Bahnhof.
Lying apart from the system are the Lehrter Bahnhof for
Hamburg and Bremen, the Stettiner for Baltic ports, and the
Görlitzer, Anhalter and Potsdamer termini for traffic to the
south, of which the last two are fine specimens of railway architecture.
Internal communication is also provided for by an
excellent system of electric tram-lines, by an overhead electric
railway running from the Zoologischer Garten to the Schlesische
Tor with a branch to the Potsdam railway station, and by an
underground railway laid at a shallow depth under the Leipziger-strasse.
Most of the cabs (victorias and broughams) have fare-indicators.
Steamboats ply above and below the city.</p>

<p><i>Industry, Trade and Commerce.</i>&mdash;It is in respect of its manufacture
and trade that Berlin has attained its present high pitch
of economic prosperity. More than 50% of its working population
are engaged in industry, which embraces almost all
branches, of which new ones have lately sprung into existence,
whilst most of the older have taken a new lease of life. The old
wool industry, for example, has become much extended, and
now embraces products such as shawls, carpets, hosiery, &amp;c.
Its silk manufactures, formerly so important, have, however,
gradually gone back. It is particularly in the working of iron,
steel and cloth, and in the by-products of these, that Berlin
excels. The manufacture of machinery and steam-engines
shows an enormous development. No fewer than 100 large
firms, many of them of world-wide reputation, are engaged in
this branch alone. Among the chief articles of manufacture
and production are railway plant, sewing machines, bicycles,
steel pens, chronometers, electric and electric-telegraph plant,
bronze, chemicals, soap, lamps, linoleum, china, pianofortes,
furniture, gloves, buttons, artificial flowers and ladies&rsquo; mantles,
the last of an annual value exceeding £5,000,000. It has extensive
breweries and vies in the amount of the output of this production
with Munich. Berlin is also the great centre and the
chief market for speculation in corn and other cereals which reach
it by water from Poland, Austria and South Russia, while in commerce
in spirits it rivals Hamburg. It is also a large publishing
centre, and has become a serious rival to Leipzig in this regard.</p>

<p>The Börse, where 4000 persons daily do business, is the chief
market in Germany for stocks and shares, and its dealings are
of great influence upon the gold market of the world. Numerous
banks of world-wide reputation, doing an extensive international
business, have their seats in Berlin, chief among them, in addition
to the Reichs-bank, being the Berliner Kassen-Verein, the Diskonto-Gesellschaft,
the Deutsche Bank, and the Boden-Kredit Bank.</p>

<p><i>Learning and Art.</i>&mdash;Berlin is becoming the centre of the intellectual
life of the nation. The Friedrich Wilhelm University,
although young in point of foundation, has long outstripped its
great rival Leipzig in numbers, and can point with pride to the
fact that its teaching staff has yielded to none in the number
of illustrious names. It was founded in 1810, when Prussia had
lost her celebrated university of Halle, which Napoleon had
included in his newly created kingdom of Westphalia. It was
as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that
Frederick William III. and the great men who are associated
with its origin, called it into existence. Wilhelm von Humboldt
was at that time at the head of the educational department
of the kingdom, and men like Fichte and Schleiermacher worked
on the popular mind. Within the first ten years of its existence
it counted among its professors such names as Neander, Savigny,
Eichhorn, Böckh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Niebuhr and Buttmann.
Later followed men like Hengstenberg, Homeyer,
Bethmann-Hollweg, Puchta, Stahl and Heffter; Schelling,
Trendelenburg, Bopp, the brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Richter;
later still, Twesten and Dorner, Gneist and Hinschius; Langenbeck,
Bardeleben, Virchow, Du-Bois Reymond; von Ranke,
Curtius, Lipsius, Hofmann the chemist, Kiepert the geographer;
Helmholtz, van&rsquo;t Hoff, Koch, E. Fischer, Waldeyer and von
Bergmann among scientists and surgeons; Mommsen, Treitschke
and Sybel among historians, Harnack among theologians,
Brunner among jurists. Taking ordinary, honorary, extraordinary
professors and licensed lecturers (<i>Privat-docenten</i>)
together, its professorial strength consisted, in 1904-1905, of
23 teachers in the faculty of theology, 32 in that of law, 175 in
that of medicine and 227 in that of philosophy&mdash;altogether 457.
The number of matriculated students during the same period
was 7154, as against 5488 in the preceding summer term. The
number of matriculated students is usually greater in winter
than in summer; the reason of the disproportion being that in
the summer university towns having pleasant surroundings,
such as Bonn, Heidelberg, Kiel and Jena, are more frequented.
Berlin is essentially a Prussian university&mdash;of students from
non-German states, Russia sends most, then the United States
of America, while Great Britain is credited with comparatively
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
few. It is, however, in the ugly palace of Prince Henry of
Prussia, which was given for the purpose in the days of Prussian
poverty and distress, that the university is still housed, and
although some internal rearrangement has been effected, no
substantial alterations have been made to meet the
ever-increasing demand for lecture-room accommodation. The garden
towards Unter den Linden is adorned by a bronze statue of
Helmholtz; the marble statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von
Humboldt, which were formerly placed on either side of the gate,
have been removed to the adjacent garden. Technical education
is provided in the magnificent buildings erected at a cost of
£100,000 in Charlottenburg, which are equipped with all the
apparatus for the teaching of science. Among other institutions
of university rank and affiliated to it are the school of mines,
the agricultural college, the veterinary college, the new seminary
for oriental languages, and the high school for music. The
geodetic institute has been removed to Potsdam. The university
is, moreover, rich in institutions for the promotion of
medical and chemical science, for the most part housed in
buildings belonging to the governing body. There should also be
mentioned the Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1700.
The name of Leibnitz is associated with its foundation, and it
was raised to the rank of a royal academy by Frederick the
Great in 1743. The Royal Academy of Arts is under the immediate
protection of the king, and is governed by a director and
senate. There is also an academy of vocal music.</p>

<p><i>Schools.</i>&mdash;Berlin possesses fifteen <i>Gymnasia</i> (classical schools,
for the highest branches of the learned professions), of which
four are under the direct supervision of the provincial authorities
and have the prefix <i>königlich</i> (royal), while the remaining
eleven are municipal and under the control of the civic
authorities. They are attended by about 7000 scholars, of
whom a fourth are Jews. There are also eight <i>Real-gymnasia</i>
(or &ldquo;modern&rdquo; schools), numerous <i>Real-schulen</i> (commercial
schools), public high schools for girls, and commodious and
excellently organized elementary schools.</p>

<p><i>Museums.</i>&mdash;The buildings of the royal museum are divided into
the old and new museums. The former is an imposing edifice
situated on the north-east side of the Lustgarten, facing the
royal palace. It was built in the reign of Frederick William III.
from designs by Schinkel. Its portico supported by eighteen
colossal Ionic columns is reached by a wide flight of steps.
The back and side walls of the portico are covered with frescoes,
from designs by Schinkel, representing the world&rsquo;s progress from
chaos to organic and developed life. The sides of the flight of
steps support equestrian bronze groups of the Amazon by Kiss,
and the Lion-slayer by Albert Wolff. Under the portico are
monuments of the sculptors Rauch and Schadow, the architect
Schinkel, and the art critic Winckelmann. The interior consists
of a souterrain, and of a first floor, entered from the portico
through bronze doors, after designs by Stiller, weighing 7½ tons,
and executed at a cost of £3600. This floor consists of a rotunda,
and of halls and cabinets of sculpture. The second floor, which
formerly contained the national gallery of paintings, is occupied
by a collection of northern antiquities and by the Schliemann
treasures.</p>

<p>The new museum, connected with the old museum by a
covered corridor, is, in its internal arrangements and decorations,
one of the finest structures in the capital. The lowest of its
three floors contains the Egyptian museum; on the first floor
plaster casts of ancient, medieval and modern sculpture are
found, while the second contains a cabinet of engravings. On
the walls of the grand marble staircase, which rises to the full
height of the building, Kaulbach&rsquo;s cyclus of stereochromic
pictures is painted, representing the six great epochs of human
progress, from the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel
and the dispersion of the nations to the Reformation.</p>

<p>The national gallery, a fine building surrounded by a
Corinthian colonnade and lying between the royal museums and
the Spree, contains a number of modern German paintings.
Behind these buildings, again, is the Pergamum museum, which
houses a unique collection, the result of the excavations at
Pergamum. Still farther away, on a triangular plot of land
enclosed by the two arms of the Spree and the metropolitan
railway, stands the Kaiser Friedrich museum (1904). This
edifice, in the Italian baroque style, surmounted by a dome,
possesses but little architectural merit, and its position is so
confined that great ingenuity had to be employed in its internal
arrangements to meet the demands of space, but its collection
of pictures is one of the finest in Europe. Hither were removed,
from the old and new museums, the national gallery of pictures,
the statuary of the Christian epoch and the numismatic collection.
The gallery of paintings, on the first floor, is distributed
into the separate schools of Germany, Italy, Flanders and
Holland, while another of the central rooms embraces those of
Spain, France and England. The collection, which in 1874
contained 1300 paintings, was then enriched by the purchase
by the Prussian government for £51,000 of the Suermondt collection
which, rich in pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools,
contained also a few by Spanish, Italian and French masters.
The gallery as a whole has been happily arranged, and there are
few great painters of whom it does not contain one or more
examples. The Kunst-gewerbe museum, at the corner of the
Königgrätzer-strasse and Albrecht-strasse, contains valuable
specimens of applied art.</p>

<p><i>Theatres.</i>&mdash;In nothing has the importance of Berlin become
more conspicuous than in theatrical affairs. In addition to the
old-established Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, which are
supported by the state, numerous private playhouses have been
erected, notably the Lessing and the Deutsches theatres, and it
is in these that the modern works by Wildenbruch, Sudermann,
and Hauptmann have been produced, and it may be said that
it is in Berlin that the modern school of German drama has its
home. In music Berlin is not able to vie with Leipzig, Dresden
or Munich, yet it is well represented by the Conservatorium,
with which the name of Joachim is connected, while the more
modern school is represented by Xaver Scharwenka.</p>

<p><i>Government, Administration and Politics.</i>&mdash;On the 1st of April
1881 Berlin was divided off from the province of Brandenburg
and since forms a separate administrative district. But the chief
presidency (<i>Oberpräsidium</i>), the Consistory, the provincial
school-board, and the board of health of the province of Brandenburg
remain tribunals of last instance to which appeals lie from Berlin.
The government is partly semi-military (police) and partly
municipal. The ministry of police (a branch of the home office)
consists of six departments: (1) general; (2) trade; (3) building;
(4) criminal; (5) passports; (6) markets. It controls the fire
brigade, has the general inspection over all strangers, and is
responsible for public order. The civil authority (<i>Magistrat</i>)
consists of a chief mayor (<i>Oberbürgermeister</i>), a mayor (<i>Bürgermeister</i>),
and a city council (<i>Stadtrat</i>). The <i>Oberbürgermeister</i>,
who is <i>ex officio</i> a member of the Prussian Upper House, and
the <i>Bürgermeister</i> are elected by the common council
(<i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i>) of 144 members, <i>i.e.</i> three delegates
chosen by manhood suffrage for each ward of the city; but
the election is subject to the veto of the king without reason
given. The <i>Stadtrat</i> consists of 32 members, of whom 15 are
paid officials (including 2 syndics, 2 councillors for building,
and 2 for education), while 17 serve gratuitously. For general
work the <i>Magistrat</i> and the <i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i>
coalesce, and committees are appointed for various purposes
out of the whole body, these being usually presided over by
members of the <i>Magistrat</i>. Their jurisdiction extends to
water-supply, the drainage, lighting and cleaning of the streets, the
care of the poor, hospitals and schools. Politically the city is
divided into six Reichstag and four Landtag constituencies,
returning six and nine members respectively, and it must be
noted that in the case of the Landtag the allocation of seats
dated from 1860, so that the city, in proportion to its population,
was in 1908 much under-represented. It should have had
twenty-five members instead of nine.</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:668px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img788.jpg" alt="" /></div>
<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img788a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>

<p class="pt2"><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The stupendous growth of the population of
Berlin during the last century is best illustrated by the following
figures. In 1816 it contained 197,717 inhabitants; in 1849,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
431,566; in 1871, 826,341; in 1880, 1,122,330; 1890, 1,578,794,
and in 1905, 2,033,900. The birth-rate is about 30, and the
death-rate 20 per 1000 inhabitants a year. Illegitimate births
amount to about 15% of the whole. According to religion,
about 84% are Protestants, 10% Roman Catholics and 5%
Jews, but owing to the great number of Jews who for social and
other reasons ostensibly embrace the Christian faith, these last
figures do not actually represent the number of Jews by descent
living in the city.</p>

<p><i>Environs.</i>&mdash;Marvellous as has been the transformation in the
city itself, no less surprising results have been effected since
1875 in the surroundings of Berlin. On the east, north and west,
the city is surrounded at a distance of some 5 m. from its centre
by a thick belt of pine woods, the Jungfernheide, the Spandauer
Forst, and the Grunewald, the last named stretching away in
a south-westerly direction as far as Potsdam, and fringing the
beautiful chain of Havel lakes. These forests enjoyed until
quite recent times an unenviable notoriety as the camping-ground
and lurking-place of footpads and other disorderly
characters. After the opening of the circular railway in 1871,
private enterprise set to work to develop these districts, and a
&ldquo;villa colony&rdquo; was built at the edge of the Grunewald between
the station West-end and the Spandauer Bock. From these
beginnings, owing mainly to the expansion of the important
suburb of Charlottenburg, has resulted a complete transformation
of the eastern part of the Grunewald into a picturesque and
delightful villa suburb, which is connected by railway, steam-tramway
and a magnificent boulevard&mdash;the Kurfürstendamm&mdash;with
the city. Nowadays the little fishing villages on the shores
of the lakes, notably the Wannsee, cater for the recreation of the
Berliners, while palatial summer residences of wealthy merchants
occupy the most prominent sites. Suburban Berlin may be said
to extend practically to Potsdam.</p>

<p><i>Traffic.</i>&mdash;The public streets have a total length of about 350 m.,
and a large staff of workmen is regularly employed in maintaining
and cleaning the public roads and parks. The force is well
controlled, and the work of cleaning and removing snow after a
heavy fall is thoroughly and efficiently carried out. The less
important thoroughfares are mostly paved with the so-called
Vienna paving, granite bricks of medium size, while the principal
streets, and especially those upon which the traffic is heavy,
have either asphalt or wood paving.</p>

<p><i>Water-Supply and Drainage.</i>&mdash;The water-supply is mainly
derived from works on the Müggel and Tegeler lakes, the river
water being carefully filtered through sand. The drainage
system is elaborate, and has stood the test of time. The city is
divided into twelve radial systems, each with a pumping station,
and the drainage is forced through five mains to eighteen sewage
farms, each of which is under careful sanitary supervision, in
respect both of the persons employed thereon, and the products,
mainly milk, passing thence to the city for human consumption.
Only in a few isolated cases has any contamination been traced
to fever or other zymotic germs. In this connexion it is worth
noting that the infectious diseases hospital has a separate system
of drainage which is carefully disinfected, and not allowed to be
employed for the purposes of manure.</p>

<p><i>Hospitals.</i>&mdash;In no other city of the world is the hospital
organization so well appointed as in Berlin, or are the sick poor
tended with greater solicitude. State, municipal and private
charity here again join hands in the prompt relief of sickness
and cases of urgency. The municipal hospitals are six in number,
the largest of which is the Virchow hospital, situate in Moabit
and opened in 1906. It is arranged on the pavilion system,
contains 2000 beds, and is one of the most splendidly equipped
hospitals in the world. The cost amounted to £900,000. Next
comes that of Friedrichshain, also built on the pavilion system,
while the state controls six (not including the prison infirmaries)
of which the world-renowned Charité in the Luisen-strasse is
the principal. The hospitals of the nursing sisters (Diakonissen
Anstalten) number 8, while there are 60 registered private
hospitals under the superintendence of responsible doctors and
under the inspection of government.</p>

<p><i>Charities.</i>&mdash;Berlin is also very richly endowed with charitable
institutions for the relief of pauperism and distress. In addition
to the municipal support of the poor-houses there are large funds
derived from bequests for the relief of the necessitous and deserving
poor; while night shelters and people&rsquo;s kitchens have been
organized on an extensive scale for the temporary relief of the
indigent unemployed. For the former several of the arches of
the city railway have been utilized, and correspond in internal
arrangement to like shelters instituted by the Salvation Army
in London and various other cities.</p>

<p><i>Markets.</i>&mdash;Open market-places in Berlin are things of the past,
and their place has been taken by airy and commodious market
halls. Of these, 14 in number, the central market, close to
the Alexander-platz station of the city railway with which it is
connected by an admirable service of lifts for the rapid unloading
of goods, is the finest. It has a ground area of about 17,000
sq. yds., and is fitted with more than 2000 stalls. The other
markets are conveniently situated at various accessible places
within the city, and the careful police supervision to which they
are subjected, both in the matter of general cleanliness, and in
the careful examination of all articles of food exposed for sale,
has tended to the general health and comfort of the population.</p>

<p>The central cattle market and slaughter-houses for the inspection
and supply of the fresh meat consumed in the metropolis
occupy an extensive area in the north-east of the city on the
Ringbahn, upon which a station has been erected for the accommodation
of meat trains and passengers attending the market.
The inspection is rigorously carried out, and only carcases which
have been stamped as having been certified good are permitted
to be taken away for human consumption.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The etymology of the word &ldquo;Berlin&rdquo; is doubtful.
Some derive it from Celtic roots&mdash;<i>ber</i>, small, short, and <i>lyn</i>, a
lake; others regard it as a Wend word, meaning a free, open
place; others, again, refer it to the word <i>werl</i>, a river island.
Another authority derives it from the German word <i>Brühl</i>, a
marshy district, and the Slavonic termination <i>in</i>; thus Brühl,
by the regular transmutation Bührl (compare Ger. <i>bren</i>-nen
and Eng. burn), Bürhlin. More recent research, however, seems
to have established the derivation from <i>Wehr</i>, dam.</p>

<p>Similar obscurity rests on the origin of the city. The hypotheses
which carried it back to the early years of the Christian
era have been wholly abandoned. Even the margrave Albert
the Bear (d. 1170) is no longer unquestionably regarded as its
founder, and the tendency of opinion now is to date its origin
from the time of his great-grandsons, Otto III. and John I.
When first alluded to, what is now Berlin was spoken of as two
towns, Kölln and Berlin. The first authentic document concerning
the former is from the year 1237, concerning the latter
from the year 1244, and it is with these dates that the trustworthy
history of the city begins. In 1307 the first attempt was made
to combine the councils of Kölln and Berlin, but the experiment
was abandoned four years later, and the two towns continued
their separate existence till 1432, when the establishment of a
common council for both led to disturbances of which the outcome
was that Frederick II. the Iron in 1442 abolished this
arrangement, seriously curtailed the privileges of both towns,
and began the building of a castle at Kölln. A feud between the
elector and the Berliners ended in the defeat of the latter, who
in 1448 were forced to accept the constitution of 1442. From
this time Berlin became and continued to be the residence of the
Hohenzollerns, the elector John Cicero (1486-1499) being the
first to establish a permanent court inside the walls. It was not,
however, until the time of King Frederick William I. that the
sovereigns ceased to date their official acts from Kölln. In 1539,
under the elector Joachim II., Berlin embraced the Lutheran
religion. Henceforth the history of Berlin was intimately bound
up with the house of Hohenzollern. The conversion of the
elector John Sigismund in 1613 to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith
was hotly resented by the Berliners and led to bloody riots in
the city. The Thirty Years&rsquo; War all but ruined the city, the
population of which sank from some 14,000 in 1600 to less than
8000 in 1650. It was restored and the foundations of its modern
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
splendour were laid by the Great Elector, by the time of whose
death (1688) the population had risen to some 20,000. During
this period several suburbs had begun to grow up, Friedrichswerder
in 1667 and the Dorotheenstadt, so named in 1676 after
the electress Dorothea its founder. In 1688 Frederick III.
(afterwards King Frederick I.) began the Friedrichstadt, completed
by Frederick William I. Under Frederick I., who did
much to embellish the city as the royal <i>Residenzsiadt</i>, the
separate administrations of the quarters of Berlin, Kölln,
Friedrichstadt, Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt were combined,
and the separate names were absorbed in that of Berlin.
The fortifications begun in 1658 were finally demolished under
Frederick the Great in 1745, and the Neue Friedrich-strasse, the
Alexander-strasse and the Wall-strasse were laid out on their
site.</p>

<p>Twice during the Seven Years&rsquo; War Berlin was attacked by
the enemy: in 1757 by the Austrians, who penetrated into the
suburbs and levied a heavy contribution, and in 1760 by the
Russians, who bombarded the city, penetrated into it, and only
retired on payment of a ransom of 1,500,000 thalers (£225,000).
After the disastrous campaign of Jena, Berlin suffered much
during the French occupation (24th October 1806 to 1st December
1808). In spite of these misfortunes, however, the progress of
the city was steady. In 1809 the present municipal government
was instituted. In 1810 the university was founded. After
the alliance of Prussia and Russia in 1812 Berlin was again
occupied by the French, but in March 1813 they were finally
driven out. The period following the close of the war saw great
activity in building, especially in the erection of many noble
monuments and public buildings, <i>e.g.</i> those by the architect
Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The most notable event in the history
of Berlin during the 19th century, prior to the Franco-German
War, was the March revolution of 1848 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: <i>History</i>,
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick William IV.</a></span>, king of Prussia). The effect of
the war of 1870-71 on the growth of Berlin has been sufficiently
indicated already.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For the history of Berlin see the publications of
the &ldquo;Verein für die Geschichte Berlins&rdquo;; the <i>Berlinische Chronik nebst
Urkundenbuch</i>, and the periodicals <i>Der Bar</i> (1875, &amp;c.) and <i>Mitteilungen</i>
(1884, &amp;c.). Of histories may be mentioned A. Streckfuss,
<i>500 Jahre Berliner Geschichte</i> (new ed. by Fernbach, 1900);
<i>Berlin im 19ten Jahrhundert</i> (4 vols., 1867-1869), and <i>Statistisches
Jahrbuch der Stadt Berlin</i> (1904-1905); Fidiein, <i>Historisch-diplomatische
Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Berlin</i> (5 vols., 1837-1842);
Brockhaus, <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i> (1904); Meyer, <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i>
(1904); Baedeker, <i>Fuhrer durch Berlin</i>; Woeri, <i>Fuhrer
durch Berlin</i>;  J. Pollard, <i>The Corporation of Berlin</i> (Edinburgh,
1893); A. Shaclwell, <i>Industrial Efficiency</i> (London, 1906); <i>Berliner
Jahrbuch für Handel und Industrie</i> (1905); and O. Schwebel, <i>Geschichte
der Stadt Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1888).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div>

<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Berlin, Congress and Treaty of</span>. The events that led
up to the assembling of the congress of Berlin, the outcome of
which was the treaty of the 13th of July 1878, are described elsewhere
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Turkish
War</a></span>). Here it must suffice to say that the terms of the treaty
of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), by which the Russo-Turkish War
had been brought to a conclusion, seemed to those of the other
powers who were most interested scarcely less fatal to the Ottoman
dominion than that Russian occupation of Constantinople which
Great Britain had risked a war to prevent. By this instrument
Bulgaria was to become a practically independent state, under
the nominal suzerainty of the sultan, bounded by the Danube,
the Black Sea, the Aegean and Albania, and cutting off the latter
from the remnant of Rumelia which, with Constantinople, was
to be left to the Turks. At the same time the other Christian
principalities, Servia and Montenegro, were largely increased
in size and their independence definitively recognized; and the
proposals of the powers with regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina,
communicated to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries at the first
sitting of the conference of Constantinople (23rd December 1876),
were to be immediately executed. These provisions seemed to
make Russia permanently arbiter of the fate of the Balkan
peninsula, the more so since the vast war indemnity of
1,400,000,000 roubles exacted in the treaty promised to cripple
the resources of the Ottoman government for years to
come.</p>

<p>The two powers whose interests were most immediately
threatened by the terms of the peace were Austria and Great
Britain. The former especially, refusing to be bribed by the
Russian offer of Bosnia and Herzegovina, saw herself cut off
from all chance of expansion in the Balkan peninsula and
threatened with the establishment there of the paramount power
of Russia, a peril it had been her traditional policy to avert.
On the 5th of February, accordingly, Count Andrássy issued a
circular note, addressed to the signatory powers of the treaty of
Paris of 1856 and the London protocol of 1871, suggesting a
congress for the purpose of establishing &ldquo;the agreement of
Europe on the modifications which it may become necessary to
introduce into the above-mentioned treaties&rdquo; in view of the
preliminaries of peace signed by Russia and Turkey. This
appeal to the sanctity of international engagements, traditional
in the diplomatic armoury of Austria, and strengthened by so
recent a precedent as that of 1871, met with an immediate
response. On the 1st of April Lord Salisbury had already
addressed a circular note to the British embassies refusing on
behalf of the British government to recognize any arrangements
made in the peace preliminaries, calculated to modify European
treaties, &ldquo;unless they were made the subject of a formal agreement
among the parties to the treaty of Paris,&rdquo; and quoting the
&ldquo;essential principle of the law of nations&rdquo; promulgated in the
London protocol. By Great Britain therefore the Austrian
proposal was at once accepted. Germany was very willing to
fall in with the views of her Austrian ally and share in a council
in which, having no immediate interests of her own, Bismarck
could win new laurels in his rôle of &ldquo;honest broker.&rdquo; In these
circumstances Russia could not but accept the principle of a
congress. She tried, however, to limit the scope of its powers
by suggesting the exclusion of certain clauses of the treaty from
its reference, and pointed out (circular of Prince Gorchakov,
April 9th) that Russia had not been the first nor the only Power
to violate the treaties in question. The answer of Lord Beaconsfield
was to mobilize the militia and bring Indian troops to the
Mediterranean; and finally Russia, finding that the diplomatic
support which she had expected from Bismarck failed her,
consented to submit the whole treaty without reserve to the
congress.</p>

<p>On the 3rd of June Count Münster, in the name of the German
government, issued the formal invitation to the congress.
The congress met, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, at
Berlin on the 13th of June. Great Britain was represented by
Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Lord Odo Russell, ambassador
at Berlin; Germany by Prince Bismarck, Baron Ernst
von Bülow and Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst,
ambassador at Paris; Austria by Count Andrássy, Count Louis
Károlyi and Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle, ambassador
at Rome; France by William H. Waddington, the Comte de
Saint-Vallier, ambassador at Berlin, and Félix Hippolyte
Desprez, director of political affairs in the department for foreign
affairs; Russia by the chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, Count
Peter Shuvalov, ambassador to the court of St James&rsquo;s, and
Paul d&rsquo;Oubril, ambassador at Berlin; Turkey by Alexander
Catheodory Pasha, minister of public works, All Pasha, <i>mushir</i>
of the Ottoman armies, and Sadullah Bey, ambassador at Berlin.
The bases of the conferences had, of course, been settled beforehand,
and the final act of the congress was signed by the plenipotentiaries
mentioned above exactly a month after the opening
of the congress, on the 13th of July.</p>

<p>The treaty of Berlin consists in all of sixty-four articles, of
which it will be sufficient to note those which have had a special
bearing on subsequent international developments. So far as
they affect the territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of
Paris and San Stefano it will be sufficient to refer to the sketch
map in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>. By Art. I. Bulgaria was
&ldquo;constituted an autonomous and tributary principality under
the suzerainty of H.I.M. the Sultan&rdquo;; it was to have &ldquo;a
Christian government and a national militia,&rdquo; Art. II. fixed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
the boundaries of the new state and provided for their delimitation
by a European commission, which was &ldquo;to take into consideration
the necessity for H.I.M. the Sultan to be able to defend
the Balkan frontiers of Eastern Rumelia.&rdquo; Arts. III. to XII.
provide for the election of a prince for Bulgaria, the machinery
for settling the new constitution, the adjustment of the relations
of the new Bulgarian government to the Ottoman empire and
its subjects (including the question of tribute, the amount of
which was, according to Art. XII., to be settled by agreement
of the signatory powers &ldquo;at the close of the first year of the
working of the new organization&rdquo;). By Art. X. Bulgaria, so
far as it was concerned, was to take the place of the Sublime
Porte in the engagements which the latter had contracted, as
well towards Austria-Hungary as towards the Rustchuck-Varna
Railway Company, for working the railway of European
Turkey in respect to the completion and connexion, as well as
the working of the railways situated in its territory.</p>

<p>By Art. XIII. a province was formed south of the Balkans
which was to take the name of &ldquo;Eastern Rumelia,&rdquo; and was
to remain &ldquo;under the direct military and political control of
H.I.M. the Sultan, under conditions of administrative autonomy.&rdquo;
It was to have a Christian governor-general. Arts. XIV. to
XXIII. define the frontiers and organization of the new province,
questions arising out of the Russian occupation, and the
rights of the sultan. Of the latter it is to be noted that the sultan
retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes
(Art. XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways
(Art. XXI.).</p>

<p>Art. XXV., which the events of 1908 afterwards brought into
special prominence, runs as follows: &ldquo;The provinces of Bosnia
and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary.
The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring
to undertake the administration of the sanjak of Novi-Bazar,
... the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its
functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance
of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and
security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the
right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial
roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia.&rdquo;</p>

<p>By Art. XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was definitively
recognized, and by Art. XVIII. she received certain
accessions of territory, including a strip of coast on the Adriatic,
but under conditions which tended to place her under the tutelage
of Austria-Hungary. Thus, by Art. XXIX. she was to have
neither ships of war nor a war flag, the port of Antivari and all
Montenegrin waters were to be closed to the war-ships of all
nations; the fortifications between the lake and the coast were
to be razed; the administration of the maritime and sanitary
police at Antivari and along the Montenegrin littoral was to be
carried on by Austria-Hungary &ldquo;by means of light coast-guard
boats&rdquo;; Montenegro was to adopt the maritime code in force
in Dalmatia, while the Montenegrin merchant flag was to be under
Austro-Hungarian consular protection. Finally, Montenegro
was to &ldquo;come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary on
the right to construct and keep up across the new Montenegrin
territory a road and a railway.&rdquo;</p>

<p>By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Servia was recognized,
subject to conditions (as to religious liberty, &amp;c.) set forth in
Art. XXXV. Art. XXXVI. defined the new boundaries.</p>

<p>By Art. XLIII. the independence of Rumania, already proclaimed
by the prince (May 22/June 3 1877), was recognized. Subsequent
articles define the conditions and the boundaries.</p>

<p>Arts. LII. to LVII. deal with the question of the free navigation
of the Danube. All fortifications between the mouths
and the Iron Gates were to be razed, and no vessels of war, save
those of light tonnage in the service of the river police and the
customs, were to navigate the river below the Iron Gates (Art.
LII.). The Danube commission, on which Rumania was to be
represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. LIII.) and
provision made for the further prolongation of its powers
(Art. LIV.).</p>

<p>Art. LVIII. cedes to Russia the territories of Ardahan, Kars
and Batoum, in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. &ldquo;H.M. the
emperor of Russia declares that it is his intention to constitute
Batoum a free port, essentially commercial.&rdquo;</p>

<p>By Art. LXI. &ldquo;the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out,
without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded
by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the
Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians
and Kurds.&rdquo; It was to keep the powers informed
periodically of &ldquo;the steps taken to this effect.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Art. LXII. made provision for the securing religious liberty
in the Ottoman dominions.</p>

<p>Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that &ldquo;the treaty of Paris of
30th March 1856, as well as the treaty of London of 13th March
1871, are maintained in all such of their provisions as are not
abrogated or modified by the preceding stipulations.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For the full text of the treaty in the English translation see
E. Hertslet, <i>Map of Europe by Treaty</i>, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530); for
the French original see <i>State Papers</i>, vol. lxix. p. 749.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A.,
on the Androscoggin river, in the N. part of the state, about
98 m. N.W. of Portland, Maine. Pop. (1890) 3729; (1900)
8886, of whom 4643 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,780.
The area of the city in 1906 was 57.81 sq. m. Berlin is served
by the Grand Trunk and Boston &amp; Maine railways. It is situated
in the heart of the White Mountains and 16 m. from the base of
Mt. Washington. Berlin Falls, on the picturesque Androscoggin
river, furnishes an immense water-power, the development of
which for manufacturing purposes accounts for the rapid growth
of the city. The forests of northern New England and of the
province of Quebec supply the raw material for the extensive
saw-mills and planing-mills, the pulp- and paper-mills, and the
sulphite fibre mills, said to be the largest in existence. In 1905
the city&rsquo;s factory products were valued at $5,989,119, of which
78.5% was the value of the paper and wood pulp manufactured.
Berlin was first settled in 1821, was incorporated as a township
in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1897.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a city and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, and capital
of Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk
railway. It is the centre of a prosperous farming and manufacturing
district, inhabited chiefly by German immigrants and
their descendants. An electric railway connects it with the
town of Waterloo (pop. 4100) 2 m. to the north, which has
important flour and woollen mills and distilleries. Berlin is
a flourishing manufacturing town, and contains a beet sugar
refinery, automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt,
glove, button and rubber factories. Pop. (1881) 4054; (1901)
9747.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat
behind, detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from
having been first used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670,
by a Piedmontese architect in the service of the elector of
Brandenburg. It was used as a travelling carriage, and Swift
refers to it in his advice to authors &ldquo;who scribble in a berlin.&rdquo;
As an adjective, the word is used to indicate a special kind of
goods, originally made in Berlin, of which the best known is
Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale of wools
and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling &ldquo;berlin&rdquo;
is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the &ldquo;birlinn,&rdquo; a large Gaelic
rowing-boat.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERLIOZ, HECTOR<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1803-1869), French musical composer,
was born on the 11th of December 1803 at Côte-Saint-André,
a small town near Grenoble, in the department of Isère. His
father, Louis Berlioz, was a physician of repute, and by his desire
Hector for some time devoted himself to the study of medicine.
At the same time he had music lessons, and, in secret, perused
numerous theoretical works on counterpoint and harmony, with
little profit it seems, till the hearing and subsequent careful
analysis of one of Haydn&rsquo;s quartets opened a new vista to his
unguided aspirations. A similar work written by Berlioz in
imitation of Haydn&rsquo;s masterpiece was favorably received by his
friends. From Paris, where he had been sent to complete his
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
medical studies, he at last made known to his father the unalterable
decision of devoting himself entirely to art, the answer to
which confession was the withdrawal of all further pecuniary
assistance. In order to support life Berlioz had to accept the
humble engagement of a singer in the chorus of the Gymnase
theatre. Soon, however, he became reconciled to his father and
entered the Conservatoire, where he studied composition under
Reicha and Lesueur. His first important composition was an
opera called <i>Les Francs-Juges</i>, of which, however, only the
overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the Conservatoire,
and began a course of self-education, founded chiefly on the
works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other German masters.
About this period Berlioz saw for the first time the talented Irish
actress Henrietta Smithson, who was then charming Paris by
her impersonations of Ophelia, Juliet and other Shakespearean
characters. The enthusiastic young composer became deeply
enamoured of her at first sight, and tried, for a long time in vain,
to gain the love or even the attention of his idol. To an incident
of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz&rsquo;s first symphonic
work, <i>Épisode de la vie d&rsquo;un artiste</i>, owes its origin. By the
advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the Conservatoire,
where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata <i>Sardanapalus</i>
gained him the first prize for foreign travel (1830), in spite
of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During
a stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to <i>King Lear</i>, and
<i>Le Retour à la vie</i>&mdash;a sort of symphony, with intervening
poetical declamation between the single movements, called by
the composer a melologue, and written in continuation of the
<i>Épisode de la vie d&rsquo;un artiste</i>, along with which work it was
performed at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that
occasion spoke to Berlioz the memorable words: &ldquo;Vous commencez
par où les autres ont fini.&rdquo; Miss Smithson, who also was
present on the occasion, consented to become the wife of her
ardent lover in 1833. The marriage was a tempestuous mistake.
In 1840 he separated from his wife, who died in 1854. Six
months later Berlioz married Mademoiselle Récio. His second
wife did not live very long, nor was there much that was edifying
in this marriage. Between the date of his first marriage and
1840 came out his dramatic symphonies <i>Harold en Italie</i>, <i>Funèbre
et triomphale</i>, and <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>; his opera <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>
(1837); his <i>Requiem</i>, and other works. In the course of time
Berlioz won his due share of the distinctions generally awarded
to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of the Legion of Honour
and the membership of the Institute. But these distinctions
he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his compositions
than to his successes abroad and his influential position as the
musical critic of the <i>Journal des Débats</i> (a position which he held
from 1838 to 1864, and which he never used or abused to push his
own works). In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany,
where he was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of
the younger generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst
them. The latter paved the way for the French composer&rsquo;s
success by a comprehensive analysis of the <i>Épisode</i> in his
musical journal, the <i>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</i>. In 1846 he
produced his magnificent cantata <i>La Damnation de Faust</i>.
Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipzig and other German
cities, and repeated his visit on various later occasions&mdash;in 1852
by invitation of Liszt, to conduct his opera, <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>
(hissed off the stage in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to
produce his oratorio-trilogy, <i>L&rsquo;Enfance du Christ</i>, in the same
city. This latter work had been previously performed at Paris,
where Berlioz mystified the critics by pretending to have found
the last chorus amongst the manuscript scores of a composer of
the 17th century, Pierre Ducré by name. In 1855 his <i>Te Deum</i>
was written for the opening of the Paris exhibition. Berlioz also
made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St Petersburg (1867),
where his works were received with great enthusiasm. In 1861
he produced his work <i>Béatrice et Bénédict</i>, and in 1863 <i>Les
Troyens</i>. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1869.</p>

<p>It is not only as a composer that the life of Berlioz is full of
interest, although in this respect his achievement is singularly
significant for the comprehension of the modern spirit in music.
But it is as the symbol of French romanticism in the whole
domain of aesthetic perception that his pre-eminence has come
to be recognized. His <i>Mémoires</i> (begun in London in 1848 and
finished in 1865) illustrate this romantic spirit at its highest
elevation as well as at its lowest depths. Victor Hugo was a
romantic, Musset was a romantic, but Berlioz was romanticism
itself. As a boy he is in despair over the despair of Dido, and
his breath is taken away at Virgil&rsquo;s &ldquo;Quaesivit coelo lucem
ingemuitque reperta.&rdquo; At the age of twelve he is in love with
&ldquo;Estelle,&rdquo; whom he meets fifty years afterwards. The scene
is described by himself (1865) with minute fidelity&mdash;a scene
which Flaubert must have known by heart when he wrote its
parallel in the novel <i>L&rsquo;Éducation sentimentale</i>. The romance of
this meeting between the man&mdash;old, isolated, unspeakably sad,
with the halo of public fame burning round him&mdash;and the
woman&mdash;old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had
worshipped when she was eighteen&mdash;is striking. In a frame of
chastened melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle, Berlioz
goes to dine with Patti and her family. Patti, on the threshold
of her career, pets Berlioz with such uncontrollable affection,
that as the composer wrote a description of his feelings he was
overwhelmed at the bitterness of fate. What would he not
have given for Estelle to show him such affection! Patti seemed
to him like a marvellous bird with diamond wings flitting round
his head, resting on his shoulder, plucking his hair and singing
her most joyous songs to the accompaniment of beating wings.
&ldquo;I was enchanted but not moved. The fact is that the young,
beautiful, dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of twenty-two
has already seen musical Europe and America at her feet, does
not win the power of love in me; and the aged woman, sad,
obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my soul as she did in the days
gone by, as she will do until my last day.&rdquo; If this episode
touches the sublime, it may be urged with almost equal truth
that his description of the exhumation of his two wives and their
reburial in a single tomb touches the ridiculous. And yet the
scene is described with a perception of all the detail which would
call for the highest praise in a novelist. Perhaps some parallel
between the splendid and the ridiculous in this singular figure
may be seen in the comparison of Nadar&rsquo;s caricature with
Charpentier&rsquo;s portrait of the composer.</p>

<p>The profound admiration of Berlioz for Shakespeare, which rose
at moments to such a pitch of folly that he set Shakespeare in the
place of God and worshipped him, cannot be explained simply
on the ground that Henrietta Smithson was a great Shakespearean
actress. Unquestionably the great figures in English literature
had a profound attraction for him, and while the romantic spirit
is obvious in his selections from Byron and Scott, it can also be
traced in the quality of his enthusiasm for Shakespeare. It is in
his music more than in his literary attitude, however, that is
disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of
Schumann&mdash;something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner, who
recognized in him a composer from whose works he might learn
something useful for the cultivation of his own ideals. As a
youth the power of Beethoven&rsquo;s symphonies made a deep
impression on Berlioz, and what has been described as the
&ldquo;poetical idea&rdquo; in Beethoven&rsquo;s creations ran riot in the young
medical student&rsquo;s mind. He thus became one of the most
ardent and enlightened originators of what is now known as
&ldquo;programme music.&rdquo; Technically he was a brilliant musical
colourist, often extravagant, but with the extravagant emotionalism
of genius. He was a master of the orchestra; indeed, his
treatment of the orchestra and his invention of unprecedented
effects of <i>timbre</i> give him a solitary position in musical history;
he had an extraordinary gift for the use of the various instruments,
and himself propounded a new ideal for the force to be
employed, on an enormous scale.</p>

<p>His literary works include the <i>Traité d&rsquo;instrumentation</i>
(1844); <i>Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie</i> (1845); <i>Les
Soirées d&rsquo;orchestre</i> (1853); <i>Les Grotesques de la musique</i> (1859);
<i>À travers chant</i> (1862); <i>Mémoires</i> (1870); <i>Lettres intimes</i> (1882).
For a full list of his musical works, Grove&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i> should be
consulted.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The new critical edition of the complete musical works (published
by Breitkopf and Hartel) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: <i>Fantastique</i>,
Op. 14; <i>Funébre et triomphale</i>, Op. 15, for military band and
chorus; <i>Harold en Italie</i>, Op. 16, with viola solo; <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>,
with chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belonging
to larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works, of which
only the Funeral March for <i>Hamlet</i> is important. IV. Sacred
music: the <i>Grande Messe des morts</i>, Op. 5; the <i>Te Deum</i>, Op. 22;
<i>L&rsquo;Enfance du Christ</i>, Op. 25, and four smaller pieces, V. Secular
cantatas, including <i>Hunt scênes de Faust</i>, Op. I; <i>Lélio, ou le retour
à la vie</i>, Op. 146 (sequel to <i>Symphonie fantastique</i>), and <i>La Damnation
de Faust</i>, Op. 24. VI. Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, two
vols. VII. Songs and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols. including
arrangements of the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas:
<i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>; <i>Les Troyens</i> (five acts in two parts, <i>La Prise de
Troie</i> and <i>Les Troyens à Carthage</i>); Recitatives for the dialogue in
Weber&rsquo;s <i>Freischutz</i>. IX. Arrangements, including the well-known
orchestral version of Weber&rsquo;s <i>Invitation à la danse</i>. X. Fragments
and new discoveries.</p>

<p>Adolphe Julien&rsquo;s biography of Berlioz (1888) first gave a careful
account of the details of his life. See also the books by R. Pohl
(1884), P. Galibert (1890), E. Hippeau (1890), G. Noufflard (1885),
L. Mesnard (1888), Louise Pohl (1900), and D. Bernard (trans. by
H.M. Dunstan, 1882). An illuminating essay on Berlioz is in
Filson Young&rsquo;s <i>Mastersingers</i> (1902). See also the essay in W.H.
Hadow&rsquo;s <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (1st series, 1908). Berlioz&rsquo;s
<i>Traité d&rsquo;instrumentation</i> has been translated into German and brought
up to date by Richard Strauss (Peters&rsquo; edition [1906]).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERM<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (probably a variant of &ldquo;brim&rdquo;), a narrow ledge of
ground, generally the level banks of a river. In parts of Egypt
the whole area reached by the Nile is included in the berm.
Thus of the lands near Berber, Mr C. Dupuis writes (in Sir
William Garstin&rsquo;s <i>Report on the Upper Nile</i>, 1904), &ldquo;In most
places there is a well-defined alluvial berm of recent formation
and varying width, up to perhaps a couple of kilometres.&rdquo; In
military phraseology the berm is the space of ground between
the base of a rampart and the ditch.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERMONDSEY,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. and E. by the Thames, S.E. by
Deptford, S.W. by Camberwell, and W. by Southwark. Pop.
(1901) 130,760. It is a district of poor streets, inhabited by a
labouring population employed in leather and other factories,
and in the Surrey Commercial Docks and the wharves bordering
the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been
associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting
it with the opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908.
The neighbouring Thames Tunnel was opened in 1843, but, as
the tolls were insufficient to maintain it, was sold to the East
London Railway Company in 1865. The Herold Institute, a
branch of the Borough Polytechnic, Southwark, is devoted to
instruction in connexion with the leather trade. Southwark
Park in the centre of the borough is 63 acres in extent.
Bermondsey is in the parliamentary borough of Southwark, including
the whole of Rotherhithe and part of the Bermondsey division.
The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 54
councillors. Area 1499.6 acres.</p>

<p>The name appears in Domesday, the suffix designating the
former insular, marshy character of the district; while the
prefix is generally taken to indicate the name of a Saxon overlord,
Beormund. Bermondsey was in favour with the Norman
kings as a place of residence, and there was a palace here, perhaps
from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was founded in
1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of pilgrimage.
The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and
Abbey Road recalls its site. Similarly, Spa Road points to the
existence of a popular spring and pleasure grounds, maintained
for some years at the close of the 18th century. Jacob Street
marks Jacob&rsquo;s Island, the scene of the death of Bill Sikes in
Dickens&rsquo;s <i>Oliver Twist</i>. Tooley Street, leading east from Southwark
by London Bridge railway station, is well known in connexion
with the story of three tailors of Tooley Street, who
addressed a petition to parliament opening with the comprehensive
expression &ldquo;We, the people of England.&rdquo; The name
is a corruption of St Olave, or Olaf, the Christian king of Norway,
who in 994 attacked London by way of the river, and broke down
London Bridge.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E.T. Clarke, <i>Bermondsey, its Historic Memories</i> (1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERMUDAS,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
a British colony, in 32° 15&prime; N. and 64° 50&prime; W., about 580 m.
E. by S. from Cape Hatteras on the American coast. The group,
consisting of small islands and reefs (which mark the extreme
northern range of the coral-building polyps), is of oval form,
measuring 22 m. from N.E. to S.W., the area being 20 sq. m.
The largest of the islands is Great Bermuda, or the Main Island,
14 m. long and about a mile in average width, enclosing on the
east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west the Great
Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on
the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset.
The remaining members of the group, St George, Paget, Smith,
St David, Cooper, Nonsuch, &amp;c., lie N.E. of the Main Island, and
form a semicircle round Castle Harbour. The fringing islands
which encircle the islands, especially on the north and west, leave
a few deep passages wide enough to admit the largest vessels.</p>

<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The Bermudas consist of aeolian limestones (cf.
<span class="sc">Bahamas</span>) which in some of the larger islands form irregular
hills attaining a height of some 200-250 ft. These limestones
are composed chiefly of comminuted shells drifted and deposited
by the wind, and they are very irregularly stratified, as is usually
the case with wind-blown deposits. Where fresh the rock is
soft, but where it has been exposed to the action of the sea it is
covered by a hard crust and often loses all trace of stratification.
The surface is frequently irregularly honeycombed. Even the reefs
are not wholly formed of coral. They are ridges of aeolian limestone
plastered over by a thin layer of corals and other calcareous
organisms. The very remarkable &ldquo;serpuline atolls&rdquo; are covered
by a solid crust made of the convoluted tubes of serpulae and
<i>Vermetus</i>, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines
and some true incrusting corals. They probably rest upon a
foundation of aeolian rock. The Bermudas were formerly much
more extensive than at present, and they may possibly stand
upon the summit of a hidden volcano. There are evidences of
small oscillations of levels, but no proofs of great elevation or
depression.</p>

<p><i>Soil, Climate, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The surface soil is a curious kind of red
earth, which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the
limestone. It is generally mixed with vegetable matter and
coral sand. There is a total want of streams and wells of fresh
water, and the inhabitants are dependent on the rain, which
they collect and preserve in tanks. The climate is mild and
healthy, although serious epidemics of yellow fever and typhus
have occurred. The maximum reading of the thermometer is
about 87° F. and its minimum 49°, the mean annual temperature
being 70°. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually
from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a
mantle of almost perpetual green. The principal kind of tree is
the so-called &ldquo;Bermudas cedar,&rdquo; really a species of juniper,
which furnishes timber for small vessels. The shores are fringed
with the mangrove; the prickly pear grows luxuriantly in the
most barren districts; and wherever the ground is left to itself
the sage bush springs up profusely. The citron, sour orange,
lemon and lime grow wild; but the apple and peach do not
come to perfection. The loquat, an introduction from China,
thrives admirably. The mild climate assists the growth of
esculent plants and roots; and a considerable trade is carried on
with New York, principally in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes,
and beetroot, together with lily bulbs, cut flowers and some
arrowroot. Medicinal plants, as the castor-oil plant and aloe,
come to perfection without culture; and coffee, indigo, cotton
and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. Few oxen or sheep
are reared in the colony, meat, as well as bread and most
vegetables, being imported from America. The indigenous mammals
are very few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green
turtle. Birds, however, especially aquatic species, are very
numerous. Insects are comparatively few, but ants swarm
destructively in the heat of the year. Fish are plentiful round
the coasts, and the whale-fishery was once an important industry,
but the fisheries as a whole have not been developed.</p>

<p><i>Towns, and Administration.</i>&mdash;There are two towns in the
Bermudas: St George, on the island of that name, founded in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
1794 and incorporated in 1797; and Hamilton, on the Main Island,
founded in 1790 and incorporated in 1793. St George was the
capital till the senate and courts of justice were removed by
Sir James Cockburn to Hamilton, which being centrally situated,
is more convenient. Hamilton, which is situated on the inner
part of the Great Sound, had a population in 1901 of 2246, that
of St George being 985. In Ireland Island is situated the royal
dockyard and naval establishment. The harbour of St George&rsquo;s
has space enough to accommodate a vast fleet; yet, till deepened
by blasting, the entrance was so narrow as to render it almost
useless. The Bermudas became an important naval and coaling
station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock was towed across the
Atlantic and placed in a secure position in St George, while,
owing to their important strategic position in mid-Atlantic, the
British government maintains a strong garrison. The Bermudas
are a British crown colony, with a governor resident at Hamilton,
who is assisted by an executive council of 6 members appointed
by the crown, a legislative council of 9 similarly appointed,
and a representative assembly of 36 members, of whom four
are returned by each of nine parishes. The currency of the
colony, which had formerly twelve shillings to the pound sterling,
was assimilated to that of England in 1842. The English
language is universal. The colony is ecclesiastically attached
to the bishopric of Newfoundland. In 1847 an educational
board was established, and there are numerous schools; attendance
is compulsory, but none of the schools is free. Government
scholarships enable youths to be educated for competition in the
Rhodes scholarships to Oxford University. The revenue of the
islands shows a fairly regular increase during the last years of the
19th century and the first of the 20th, as from £37,830 in 1895
to £63,457 in 1904; expenditure is normally rather less than
revenue. In the year last named imports were valued at
£589,979 and exports at £130,305, the annual averages since
1895 being about £426,300 and £112,500 respectively. The
population shows a steady increase, as from 13,948 in 1881 to
17,535 in 1901; 6383 were whites and 11,152 coloured in the
latter year.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The discovery of the Bermudas resulted from the
shipwreck of Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard (whose name they now
bear), when on a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs,
early in the 16th century. Henry May, an Englishman, suffered
the same fate in 1593; and lastly, Sir George Somers shared the
destiny of the two preceding navigators in 1609. Sir George,
from whom the islands took the alternative name of Somers,
was the first who established a settlement upon them, but he
died before he had fully accomplished his design. In 1612 the
Bermudas were granted to an offshoot of the Virginia Company,
which consisted of 120 persons, 60 of whom, under the command
of Henry More, proceeded to the islands. The first source of
colonial wealth was the growing of tobacco, but the curing
industry ceased early in the 18th century. In 1726 Bishop
George Berkeley chose the Bermudas as the seat of his projected
missionary establishment. The first newspaper, the <i>Bermuda
Gazette</i>, was published in 1784.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Godet, <i>Bermuda, its History, Geology, Climate, &amp;c</i>. (London,
1860); Lefroy, <i>Discovery and Settlement of the Bermudas</i> (London,
1877-1879); A. Heilprin, <i>Bermuda Islands</i> (Philadelphia, 1889);
Stark, <i>Bermuda Guide</i> (London, 1898); Cole, <i>Bermuda ... Bibliography</i>
(Boston, 1907); and for geology see also A. Agassíz, &ldquo;Visit
to the Bermudas in March 1894,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard</i>,
vol. xxvi. No. 2, 1895; A.E. Verrill, &ldquo;Notes on the Geology of the
Bermudas,&rdquo; <i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i> ser. 4, vol. ix. (1900), pp. 313-340;
&ldquo;The Bermuda Islands; Their Scenery, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Conn. Acad.
Arts and Sci.</i> vol. xi. pt. 2 (1901-1902).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERMUDEZ,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a N.E. state of Venezuela, between the Caribbean
Sea and the Orinoco river, bounded E. by the gulf of Paria
and the Delta-Amacuro territory, and W. by the states of
Guarico and Miranda. Pop. (est. 1905) 364,158. It was created
in 1881 by the union of the states of Barcelona, Cumaná and
Maturín, dissolved in 1901 into its three original states, and
reorganized in 1904 with a slight modification of territory. The
state includes the oldest settlements in Venezuela, and was once
very prosperous, producing cattle and exporting hides, but wars
and political disorders have partly destroyed its industries and
impeded their development. Its principal productions are
coffee, sugar, and cacáo, and&mdash;less important&mdash;cotton, tobacco,
cocoanuts, timber, indigo and dyewoods. Its more important
towns are the capital, Barcelona, Maturín (pop. 14,473), capital
of a district of the same name, and Cumaná (10,000), on the gulf
of Cariaco, founded in 1520 and one of the oldest towns of the
continent.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERN<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Berne</i>), after the Grisons, the largest of the Swiss
cantons, but by far the most populous, though politically Bern
ranks after that of Zürich. It extends right across Switzerland
from beyond the Jura to the snow-clad ranges that separate
Bern from the Valais. Its total area is 2641.9 sq. m., of which
2081 sq. m. are classed as &ldquo;productive&rdquo; (including 591 sq. m.
of forests, and 2.1 m. of vineyards), while of the remainder
111.3 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers (the Valais and the Grisons
alone surpass it in this respect). It is mainly watered by the
river Aar (<i>q.v.</i>), with its affluents, the Kander (left), the Saane
or Sarine (left) and the Emme (right); the Aar forms the two
lakes of Brienz and Thun (<i>q.v.</i>). The great extent of this canton
accounts for the different character of the regions therein comprised.
Three are usually distinguished:&mdash;(1) The <i>Oberland</i> or
Highlands, which is that best known to travellers, for it includes
the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland (culminating in the
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Jungfrau, 13,669 ft.), as well
as the famous summer resorts of Grindelwald, Mürren, Lauterbrunnen,
Interlaken, Meiringen, Kandersteg, Adelboden, Thun
and the fine pastoral valley of the Simme. (2) The <i>Mittelland</i>
or Midlands, comprising the valley of the Aar below Thun, and
that of the Emme, thus taking in the outliers of the high Alps
and the open country on every side of the town of Bern. (3)
The <i>Seeland</i> (Lakeland) and the Jura, extending from Bienne
and its lake across the Jura to Porrentruy in the plains and to
the upper course of the Birs. The Oberland and Mittelland form
the &ldquo;old&rdquo; canton, the Jura having only been acquired in 1815,
and differing from the rest of the canton by reason of its French-speaking
and Romanist inhabitants.</p>

<p>In 1900 the total population of the canton was 589,433, of
whom 483,388 were German-speaking, 97,789 French-speaking,
and 7167 Italian-speaking; while there were 506,699 Protestants,
80,489 Romanists (including the Old Catholics), and 1543 Jews.
The capital is Bern (<i>q.v.</i>), while the other important towns are
Bienne (<i>q.v.</i>), Burgdorf (<i>q.v.</i>), Delémont or Delsberg (5053
inhabitants), Porrentruy or Pruntrut (6959 inhabitants), Thun
(<i>q.v.</i>), and Langenthal (4799 inhabitants). There is a university
(founded in 1834) in the town of Bern, as well as institutions
for higher education in the principal towns. The canton is
divided into 30 administrative districts, and contains 507
communes (the highest number in Switzerland). From 1803 to
1814 the canton was one of the six &ldquo;Directorial&rdquo; cantons of the
Confederation. The existing cantonal constitution dates from
1893, but in 1906 the direct popular election of the executive
of 9 members (hitherto named by the legislature) was introduced.
The legislature or <i>Grossrath</i> is elected for four years (like the
executive), in the proportion of 1 member to every 2500 (or
fraction over 1250) of the resident population. The <i>obligatory
Referendum</i> obtains in the case of all laws, and of decrees relating
to an expenditure of over half a million francs, while 12,000
citizens have the right of <i>initiative</i> in the case of legislative
projects, and 15,000 may demand the revision of the cantonal
constitution. The 2 members sent by the canton to the federal
<i>Ständerath</i> are elected by the <i>Grossrath</i>, while the 29 members
sent to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i> are chosen by a popular vote.
In the Alpine portions of the canton the breeding of cattle (those
of the Simme valley are particularly famous) is the chief industry;
next come the elaborate arrangements for summer travellers
(the <i>Fremdenindustrie</i>). It is reckoned that there are 2430
&ldquo;Alps&rdquo; or mountain pastures in the canton, of which 1474 are
in the Oberland, 627 in the Jura, and 280 in the Emme valley;
they can maintain 95,478 cows and are of the estimated value
of 46½ million francs. The cheese of the Emme valley is locally
much esteemed. Other industries in the Alpine region are
wood-carving (at Brienz) and wine manufacture (on the shores
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
of the lakes of Bienne and of Thun). The Mittelland is the
agricultural portion of the canton. Watchmaking is the principal
industry of the Jura, Bienne and St Imier being the chief centres
of this industry. Iron mines are also worked in the Jura, while
the Heimberg potteries, near Thun, produce a locally famous
ware, and there are both quarries of building stone and tile
factories. The canton is well supplied with railway lines, the
broad gauge lines being 228 m. in length, and the narrow gauge
lines 157½ m.&mdash;in all 385½ m. Among these are many funicular
cog-wheel lines, climbing up to considerable heights, so up to
Mürren (5368 ft.), over the Wengern Alp (6772 ft.), up to the
Schynige Platte (6463 ft.), and many others still in the state of
projects. All these are in the Oberland where, too, is the
so-called Jungfrau railway, which in 1906 attained a point (the
Eismeer station) in the south wall of the Eiger (13,042 ft.)
that was 10,371 ft. in height, the loftiest railway station in
Switzerland.</p>

<p>The canton of Bern is composed of the various districts which
the town of Bern acquired by conquest or by purchase in the
course of time. The more important, with dates of acquisition,
are the following:&mdash;Laupen (1324), Hasli and Meiringen (1334),
Thun and Burgdorf (1384), Unterseen and the Upper Simme
valley (1386), Frutigen, &amp;c. (1400), Lower Simme valley (1439-1449),
Interlaken, with Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen and Brienz
(1528, on the suppression of the Austin Canons of Interlaken),
Saanen or Gessenay (1555), Köniz (1729), and the Bernese Jura
with Bienne (1815, from the bishopric of Basel). But certain
regions previously won were lost in 1798&mdash;Aargau (1415), Aigle
and Grandson (1475), Vaud (1536), and the Pays d&rsquo;En-Haut
or Château d&rsquo;Oex (1555). From 1798 to 1802 the Oberland
formed a separate canton (capital, Thun) of the Helvetic
Republic.</p>
<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Berne</i>), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same
name, and, by a Federal law of 1848, the political capital of the
Swiss confederation. It is most picturesquely situated on a high
bluff or peninsula, round the base of which flows the river Aar,
thus completely cutting off the old town, save to the west. Five
lofty bridges have been thrown over the Aar, the two most
modern being the Kirchfeld and Kornhaus bridges which have
greatly contributed to create new residential quarters near the
old town. Within the town the arcades (or <i>Lauben</i>) on either
side of the main street, and the numerous elaborately ornamented
fountains attract the eye, as well as the two remaining towers
that formerly stood on the old walls but are now in the centre of
the town; the <i>Zeilglockenthurm</i> (famous for its singular 16th-century
clock, with its mechanical contrivances, set in motion
when the hour strikes) and the <i>Käficthurm</i>. The principal
medieval building in Bern is the (now Protestant) Münster, begun
in 1421 though not completed till 1573. The tower, rising
conspicuously above the town, has recently been well restored,
but the church was never a cathedral church (as is often stated),
for there has never yet been a bishop of Bern. The federal
Houses of Parliament (<i>Bundeshaus</i>) were much enlarged in
1888-1892, the older portions dating from 1852-1857, and also
contain the offices of the federal executive and administration.
The town-hall dates from 1406, while some of the houses belonging
to the old gilds contain much of interest. The town library
(with which that of the university was incorporated in 1905)
contains a vast store of MSS. and rare printed books, but should
be carefully distinguished from the national Swiss library,
which, with the building for the federal archives, is built in the
new Kirchfeld quarter. There are a number of museums; the
historical (archaeological and medieval), the natural history (in
which the skin of Barry, the famous St Bernard dog, is preserved),
the art (mainly modern Swiss pictures), and the Alpine (in which
are collections of all kinds relating to the Swiss Alps). Bern
possesses a university (founded in 1834) and two admirably
organized hospitals. The old fortifications (<i>Schanzen</i>) have been
converted into promenades, which command wonderful views
of the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland. Just across the
Nydeck bridge is the famous bear pit in which live bears are kept,
as they are supposed to have given the name to the town;
certainly a bear is shown on the earliest known town seal (1224),
while live bears have been maintained at the charges of the
town since 1513. There is comparatively little industrial activity
in the town, the importance of which is mainly political, though
of late years it has been selected as the seat of various international
associations (postal, telegraph, railway, copyright, &amp;c.).
The climate is severe, as the town is much exposed to cold winds
blowing from the snowy Alps. In point of population it is
exceeded in Switzerland by Zürich, Basel and Geneva, though
the number of inhabitants has risen from 27,558 in 1850 and
43,197 in 1880 to 64,227 in 1900. In 1900, 59,698 inhabitants
were German-speaking; while 57,144 were Protestants, 6087
Romanists (including Old Catholics) and 655 Jews. The height
of the town above the sea-level is 1788 ft.</p>

<p>The ancient castle of Nydeck, at the eastern end of the peninsula,
guarded the passage over the Aar, and it was probably
its existence that induced Berchtold V., duke of Zäringen, to
found Bern in 1191 as a military post on the frontier between
the Alamannians (German-speaking) and the Burgundians
(French-speaking). Thrice the walls which protected the town
were moved westwards, about 1250, in 1346 and in 1622, though
even at the last-named date the town only stretched a little way
to the west of (or beyond) the present railway station. After
the extinction of the Zäringen dynasty (1218) Bern became a
free imperial city, but it had to fight hard for its independence,
which was finally secured by the victories of Dornbühl (1298)
over Fribourg and the Habsburgs, and of Laupen (1339) over
the neighbouring Burgundian nobles. In the second battle Bern
received help from the three forest cantons with which it had
become allied in 1323, while in 1353 it entered the Swiss confederation
as its eighth member. It soon took the lead in the confederation,
though always aiming at enlarging its own borders, even at
great risks (see the article on the canton). In 1528 Bern accepted
the religious reformation, and henceforth became one of its
chief champions in Switzerland. In the 17th century the number
of families by which high offices of state could be held was
diminished, so that in 1605 there were 152 thus qualified, but in
1691 only 104, while towards the end of the 18th century there
were only 69 such families. Meanwhile the rule of the town was
extending over more and more territory, so that finally it
governed 52 bailiwicks (acquired between 1324 and 1729), the
Bernese patricians being thus extremely powerful and forming
an oligarchy that administered affairs like a benevolent and
well-ordered despotism. In 1723 Major Davel, at Lausanne, and
in 1749 Henzi, in Bern itself, tried to break down this monopoly,
but in each case paid the penalty of failure on the scaffold.
The whole system was swept away by the French in 1798, and
though partially revived in 1815, came to an end in 1831, since
which time Bern has been in the van of political progress. From
1815 to 1848 it shared with Zürich and Lucerne the supreme
rule (which shifted from one to the other every two years) in
the Swiss confederation, while in 1848 a federal law made Bern
the sole political capital, where the federal government is
permanently fixed and where the ministers of foreign powers
reside.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;<i>Die Alp- und Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Bern</i>
(Bern, 1903); <i>Archiv d. hist. Vereins d. Kant. Bern</i>, from 1848,
and <i>Blätter für bernische Geschichte</i>, from 1905; <i>Bernische Biographien</i>
(Bern, 1898-1906); E. Friedli, <i>Bärndutsch als Spiegel bernischen
Volkstums</i>. vol. i. (<i>Lützelflüh</i>, Bern, 1905), and vol. ii. (Grindelwald,
Bern, 1908); <i>Festschrift zur 7ten Säkularfeier d. Gründung Berns</i>,
1191 (Bern, 1891); <i>Fontes Rerum Bernensium</i> (to 1378), (9 vols.,
Bern, 1883-1908); K. Geiser, <i>Geschichte d. bernischen Verfassung</i>,
1191-1471 (Bern, 1888); B. Haller, <i>Bern in seinen Rathsmanualen</i>,
1465-1565 (3 vols., Bern, 1900-1902); E.F. and W.F. von Mülinen,
<i>Beiträge zur Heimathskunde d. Kantons Bern, deulschen Theils</i>
(3 vols., Bern, 1879-1894); W.F. von Mülinen, <i>Berns Geschichte</i>,
1191-1891 (Bern, 1891); E. von Rodt, <i>Bernische Stadtgeschichte</i>
(Bern, 1888), and 6 finely illustrated vols. on Bern in the 13th to
19th centuries (Bern, 1898-1907); L.S. von Tscharner, <i>Rechtsgeschichte
des Obersimmenthales bis zum Jahre 1798</i> (Bern, 1908);
E. von Wattenwyl, <i>Geschichte d. Stadt u. Landschaft Bern</i> (to 1400),
(2 vols.); Schaffhausen and Bern (1867-1872); F.E. Welti, <i>Die Rechtsquellen
d. Kant. Bern</i>, vol. i. (Aarau, 1902); Gertrud Züricher, <i>Kinderspiel
u. Kinderlied im Kant. Bern</i>  (Zürich, 1902).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SAINT<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the
most illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was
born at Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight
named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a
daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished
for her piety, died while Bernard was yet a boy. The
lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of arms, and his
own disposition, as well as his mother&rsquo;s early influence, directed
him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed
by his relations, who sent him to study at Châlons in order to
qualify for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard&rsquo;s resolution
to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at
last definitely decided to join the community which Robert of
Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in 1198, he carried with him
his brothers and many of his relations and friends. The little
community of reformed Benedictines, which was to produce so
profound an influence on Western monachism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cistercians</a></span>
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>) and had seemed on the point of extinction
for lack of novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession
of some thirty young men of the best families of the neighbourhood.
Others followed their example; and the community grew
so rapidly that it was soon able to send off offshoots. One of
these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was founded in 1115,
in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on land given by
Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed abbot.</p>

<p>By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became
the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order
was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux.
Though nominally subject to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon
became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame
and influence of Bernard.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His saintly character, his self-mortification&mdash;of
so severe a character that his friend, William
of Champeaux, bishop of Châlons, thought it right to remonstrate
with him&mdash;and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher,
soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux.
His miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought
from near and far to be healed by his touch. Before long the
abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his
monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the great world. When
in 1124 Pope Honorius II. mounted the chair of St Peter, Bernard
was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen;
he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions,
and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was
invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes,
where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the
new order of Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to
have drawn up; and in the following year, at the synod of Châlons-sur-Marne,
he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges
brought against Henry, bishop of Verdun, by persuading the
bishop to resign. The European importance of Bernard, however,
began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and the
disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by
Louis the Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully
asserted the claims of Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II.,
and from this moment became the most influential supporter
of his cause. He threw himself into the contest with characteristic
ardour. While Rome itself was held by Anacletus, France,
England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who,
though banished from Rome, was&mdash;in Bernard&rsquo;s phrase&mdash;&ldquo;accepted
by the world.&rdquo; The pope travelled from place to
place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he
stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings
were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with the
emperor Lothair III. at Liége.</p>

<p>In 1133, the year of the emperor&rsquo;s first expedition to Rome,
Bernard was in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with
the men of Pisa, since the pope had need of both. He accompanied
Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to
reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant&rsquo;
Angelo and, with the support of Roger of Sicily, was too strong
to be subdued by force. Lothair, though crowned by Innocent
in St Peter&rsquo;s, could do nothing to establish him in the Holy See
so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the
house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue;
in the spring of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading
Frederick of Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June
he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa,
by which Anacletus was excommunicated. In northern Italy the
effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense;
Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial
claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothair and
to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the
vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair&rsquo;s last
journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte
Cassino, setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno,
trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against
Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the
antipope. Anacletus died on the 25th of January 1138; on the
13th of March the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor,
assuming the name of Victor. Bernard&rsquo;s crowning triumph in
the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the
result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was
healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the
peace of his monastery.</p>

<p>Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed
outwardly&mdash;in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred
the rough simplicity of the original buildings&mdash;into a more
suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome
itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome
of Bernard&rsquo;s contest with Abelard (<i>q.v.</i>). In intellectual and
dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman;
yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard feared to face him, and when he
appealed to Rome Bernard&rsquo;s word was enough to secure his
condemnation.</p>

<p>One result of Bernard&rsquo;s fame was the marvellous growth of the
Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninety-three
monasteries in connexion with Clairvaux were either
founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in
England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once
a member of the community of Clairvaux&mdash;another Bernard,
abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenius
III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a
triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to
press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had mounted
the chair of St Peter (<i>Ep</i>. 239).</p>

<p>Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was
next called upon to attack the enemy without. Languedoc
especially had become a hotbed of heresy, and at this time the
preaching of Henry of Lausanne (<i>q.v.</i>) was drawing thousands
from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of
Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south, and by
his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a
while. Far more important, however, was his activity in the
following year, when, in obedience to the pope&rsquo;s command, he
preached a crusade. The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary.
At the great meeting at Vezelay, on the 21st of March,
as the result of his sermon, King Louis VII. of France and his
queen, Eleanor of Guienne, took the cross, together with a host
of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon
exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern France,
Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the
wildest enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded
in persuading Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade.</p>

<p>The lamentable outcome of the movement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>)
was a hard blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand
this manifestation of the hidden counsels of God, but ascribed
it to the sins of the crusaders (<i>Ep</i>. 288; <i>de Consid</i>. ii. 1). The
news of the disasters to the crusading host first reached Bernard
at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius, driven from Rome by the
revolution associated with the name of Arnold of Brescia, was
his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied
the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
certain propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la
Porrée (<i>q.v.</i>). From whatever cause&mdash;whether the growing
jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to the
rumoured failure of the crusade, the success of which he had so
confidently predicted&mdash;Bernard&rsquo;s influence, hitherto so ruinous
to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion failed of its
full effect. On the news of the full extent of the disaster that
had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it
by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of Suger,
abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard
attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose,
where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the
choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this
task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by
the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to
undertake it.</p>

<p>Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by
ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early
friends. But his intellectual energy remained undimmed.
He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs,
and his last work, the <i>De Consideratione</i>, shows no sign of failing
power. He died on the 20th of August 1153.</p>

<p>The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his
intellect, but of his character. Intellectually he was the child
of his age, inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired
by his contagious zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their
superior; and in this moral superiority lay the secret of his
power. The age recognized in him the embodiment of its ideal:
that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The
world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and
trial, in which men are but &ldquo;strangers and pilgrims&rdquo; (Serm.
i., Epiph. n. 1; Serm. vii., Lent. n. 1); the way of grace, back
to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the
function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited
from the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no
sympathy, and the dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into
silence before his terrible invective. Yet, within the limits of
his mental horizon, Bernard&rsquo;s vision was clear enough. His very
life proves with what merciless logic he followed out the principles
of the Christian faith as he conceived it; and it is impossible to
say that he conceived it amiss. For all his overmastering zeal
he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when
he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop the
persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for
heretics, &ldquo;the little foxes that spoil the vines,&rdquo; these &ldquo;should be
taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument,&rdquo; though,
if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered &ldquo;that he
should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty,
rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines&rdquo; (Serm.
lxiv.). He was evidently troubled by the mob violence which
made the heretics &ldquo;martyrs to their unbelief.&rdquo; He approved
the zeal of the people, but could not advise the imitation of their
action, &ldquo;because faith is to be produced by persuasion, not
imposed by force&rdquo;; adding, however, in the true spirit of his
age and of his church, &ldquo;it would without doubt be better that
they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be
allowed to draw away many other persons into their error.&rdquo;
Finally, oblivious of the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes
the steadfastness of these &ldquo;dogs&rdquo; in facing death to the power
of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on Canticles ii. 15).</p>

<p>This is Bernard at his worst. At his best&mdash;and, fortunately,
this is what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writings&mdash;he
displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness
in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, with no
touch of servility, that make him one of the most complete
exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character
is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence.
The author of the <i>Imitatio</i> drew inspiration from his writings;
the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their favourite
doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down
to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions.
This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own
inspiration was the Bible. He was saturated in its language
and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected,
uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegorically&mdash;as
the fashion of the day was&mdash;it saved him from the grosser
aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching
of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints,
and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due meed in
his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at
other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed completely
in his mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral
splendour of Christ; &ldquo;from Him do the Saints derive the
odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights&rdquo;
(<i>Ep.</i> 464).</p>

<p>The cause of Bernard&rsquo;s extraordinary popular success as a
preacher can only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that
survive. These were all delivered in Latin, evidently to congregations
more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters,
they are full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and
they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at
all times. &ldquo;Bernard,&rdquo; wrote Erasmus in his <i>Art of Preaching</i>,
&ldquo;is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art;
he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and
move the affections.&rdquo; The same is true of the letters and to an
even more striking degree. They are written on a large variety
of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations
and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature
of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the
unlearned as to the learned.</p>

<p>Bernard&rsquo;s works fall into three categories:&mdash;(1) <i>Letters</i>, of
which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest
and value for the history of the period. (2) <i>Treatises</i>: (<i>a</i>)
dogmatic and polemical, <i>De gratia el libero arbitrio</i>, written about
1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St Augustine;
<i>De baptismo aliisque quaestionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Victore;
Contra quaedam capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II.</i>
(in justification of the action of the synod of Sens); (<i>b</i>) ascetic
and mystical, <i>De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae</i>, his first work,
written perhaps about 1121; <i>De diligendo Deo</i> (about 1126); <i>De
conversione ad clericos</i>, an address to candidates for the priesthood;
<i>De Consideratione</i>, Bernard&rsquo;s last work, written about
1148 at the pope&rsquo;s request for the edification and guidance of
Eugenius III.; (<i>c</i>) about monasticism, <i>Apologia ad Guilelmum</i>,
written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; <i>De laude
novae militiae ad milites templi</i> (<i>c.</i> 1132-1136); <i>De precepto et
dispensatione</i>, an answer to various questions on monastic
conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St
Peter at Chartres (some time before 1143); (<i>d</i>) on ecclesiastical
government, <i>De moribus et officio episcoporum</i>, written about
1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the <i>De Consideratione</i> mentioned
above; (<i>e</i>) a biography, <i>De vita et rebus gestis S. Malachiae,
Hiberniae episcopi</i>, written at the request of the Irish abbot
Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of
importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the 12th
century; (<i>f</i>) sermons&mdash;divided into <i>Sermones de tempore; de
sanctis; de diversis</i>; and eighty-six sermons, <i>in Cantica Canticorum</i>,
an allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of
Solomon; (<i>g</i>) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard
survive, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus rex admirabilis. Jesu
decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum</i>. Of these the three first
are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated
and are used in Protestant churches.</p>

<p>St Bernard&rsquo;s works were first published in anything like a
complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title <i>Seraphica
melliflui devotique doctoris S. Bernardi scripta</i>, edited by André
Bocard; the first really critical and complete edition is that of
Dom J. Mabillon <i>Sancti Bernardi opp. &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1667, improved
and enlarged in 1690, and again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719),
reprinted by J.P. Migne, <i>Patrolog. lat.</i> (Paris, 1859). There is an English translation of Mabillon&rsquo;s edition, including, however,
only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs,
with the biographical and other prefaces, by Samuel J. Eales
(4 vols., London, 1889-1895). See further Leopold Janauschek,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
<i>Bibliographia Bernardina</i> (Vienna, 1891), which includes 2761
entries, including 120 works wrongly ascribed to Bernard.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The principal source for the life of St Bernard is
the <i>Vita Prima</i>, compiled, in six books, by various contemporary
writers: book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims;
book ii. by Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and
v. by Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard&rsquo;s secretary;
book vi., on Bernard&rsquo;s miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another
monk of Clairvaux, &amp;c. A MS. is preserved, <i>int. al.</i>, in the library
of Lambeth Palace (§ xiv. No. 163). The <i>Vita</i> was first published
in <i>Bernardi op. omn.</i> by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff.; it
was included in Migne, <i>Patrolog. lat.</i> clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which also
contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of the <i>Vita Prima</i>, known as the <i>Vita Secunda</i>, <i>Tertia</i> and <i>Quarta</i>. For
a critical study of these sources see G. Hüffer, <i>Der heilige Bernhard
von Clairvaux</i> (2 vols., Münster, 1886), and E. Vacandard, <i>Vie de
Saint Bernard</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1895).</p>

<p>Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be mentioned,
besides the above, J.C. Morison, <i>The Life and Times of
St Bernard</i> (London, 1863); G. Chevallier, <i>Histoire de Saint Bernard</i>
(2 vols., Lille, 1888); S.J. Eales, <i>St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux</i>
(London, 1890, &ldquo;Fathers for English Readers&rdquo; series); ib. <i>Life
and Works of St Bernard</i> (London, 1889); R.S. Storrs, <i>Bernard of
Clairvaux: the Times, the Man and His Work</i> (New York, 1893);
Comte d&rsquo;Haussonville, <i>Saint Bernard</i> (Paris, 1906). See also the
article by Vacandart in A. Vacant&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire de théologie</i> (with
full bibliography), and that by S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck,
<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works,
monographs, &amp;c., are given <i>s.</i> &ldquo;Vita S. Bernardi&rdquo; in Potthast.
<i>Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi</i> (Berlin, 1896).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commonly known
as Bernardines.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD OF CHARTRES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1080?-1167), surnamed
<span class="sc">Sylvestris</span>, scholastic philosopher, described by John of
Salisbury as <i>perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi</i>. He
and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the
school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the
11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This
school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed
to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely
come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract
logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose
doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction.
Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a
&ldquo;return to Nature&rdquo; which curiously anticipates the humanism
of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (<i>Metalogicus</i>, iv. 35)
attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity
of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an
attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant
fragments of Bernard&rsquo;s writings are from a treatise <i>Megacosmus
and Microcosmus</i> (edited by C.S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876).
The source of Bernard&rsquo;s inspiration was Plato&rsquo;s <i>Timaeus</i>. He
maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever
in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a symbolism
of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of
the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and
likeness.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>; also V. Cousin, <i>&OElig;uvres inédites</i> of Abelard
(Paris, 1836); Hauréau, <i>Philosophie scolastique</i>, i. 396 foll.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, CHARLES DE,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> whose full name was <span class="sc">Pierre
Marie Charles de Bernard du Grail de la Villette</span> (1804-1850),
French writer, was born at Besançon on the 25th of
February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking
to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose <i>Peau de
chagrin</i> he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself
to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction,
remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian
<i>bourgeoisie</i>. The best of these are <i>Le N&oelig;ud gordien</i> (1838),
containing among other short stories <i>Une Aventure de magistrat</i>,
from which Sardou drew his comedy of the <i>Pommes du voisin;
Gerfaut</i> (1838), considered his masterpiece; <i>Les Ailes d&rsquo;Icare</i>
(1840), <i>La Peau du lion</i> (1841) and <i>Le Gentilhomme campagnard</i>
(1847).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> (12 vols.), which appeared after his death
on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies
written in collaboration with &ldquo;Léonce&rdquo; (C.H.L. Laurençot, 1805-1862).
A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is
prefixed to <i>Un Beau-père</i> in this collection. In W.M. Thackeray&rsquo;s
<i>Paris Sketch-book</i> (&ldquo;On some fashionable French novels&rdquo;) there
is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry
James in <i>French Poets and Novelists</i> (1884).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, CLAUDE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1813-1878), French physiologist, was
born on the 12th of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near
Villefranche. He received his early education in the Jesuit
school of that town, and then proceeded to the college at Lyons,
which, however, he soon left to become assistant in a druggist&rsquo;s
shop. His leisure hours were devoted to the composition of a
vaudeville comedy, <i>La Rose du Rhône</i>, and the success it achieved
moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, <i>Arthur de
Bretagne</i>. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed
with this play and an introduction to Saint-Marc Girardin, but
the critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession,
and urged him rather to take up the study of medicine. This
advice he followed, and in due course became interne at the
Hôtel Dieu. In this way he was brought into contact with the
great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was physician to the
hospital, and whose official <i>préparateur</i> at the Collège de France
he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was appointed his
deputy-professor at the collège, and in 1855 he succeeded him
as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the
first occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the
Sorbonne. There no laboratory was provided for his use, but
Louis Napoleon, after an interview with him in 1864, supplied
the deficiency, at the same time building a laboratory at the
natural history museum in the Jardin des Plantes, and establishing
a professorship, which Bernard left the Sorbonne to accept
in 1868&mdash;the year in which he was admitted a member of the
Institute. He died in Paris on the 10th of February 1878 and
was accorded a public funeral&mdash;an honour which had never
before been bestowed by France on a man of science.</p>

<p>Claude Bernard&rsquo;s first important work was on the functions of
the pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great
significance in the process of digestion; this achievement won
him the prize for experimental physiology from the Academy of
Sciences. A second investigation&mdash;perhaps his most famous&mdash;was
on the glycogenic function of the liver; in the course of this
he was led to the conclusion, which throws light on the causation
of diabetes, that the liver, in addition to secreting bile, is the
seat of an &ldquo;internal secretion,&rdquo; by which it prepares sugar at
the expense of the elements of the blood passing through it. A
third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor system.
While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced
in the temperature of various parts of the body by section of
the nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division
of the cervical sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation
and more forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of
the head, and a few months afterwards he observed that electrical
excitation of the upper portion of the divided nerve had the
contrary effect. In this way he established the existence of
vaso-motor nerves&mdash;both vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor.
The study of the physiological action of poisons was also a
favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular
to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements
of his results, the most striking of which were obtained in the
ten years from about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the
recognized scientific publications; but the full exposition of his
views, and even the statement of some of the original facts,
can only be found in his published lectures. The various series
of these <i>Leçons</i> fill seventeen octavo volumes. He also published
<i>Introduction à la médecine expérimentale</i> (1865), and <i>Physiologie
générale</i> (1872).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>An English <i>Life of Bernard</i>, by Sir Michael Foster, was published
in London in 1899.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, JACQUES<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1658-1718), French theologian and
publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphiné on the 1st of September
1658. Having studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679,
and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphiné, whence he
afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued
to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal
ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to
Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the
pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced
his <i>Histoire abrégée de l&rsquo;Europe</i>, which he continued monthly till
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
December 1688. In 1692 he began his <i>Lettres historiques</i>, containing
an account of the most important transactions in Europe;
he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was
continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his <i>Bibliothèque
universelle</i> in 1691. Bernard wrote the greater part of the
twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he
collected and published <i>Actes et négotiations de la paix de Ryswic</i>,
in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began a continuation of
Bayle&rsquo;s <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, which continued till
December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the
ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same
time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and
mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement
to Moreri&rsquo;s dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he
resumed his <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, and continued
it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works
above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises,
one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of
religion (1714).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1820-1882), English international
lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant
of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court,
Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January 1820. He was educated
at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. Graduating
B.A. in 1842, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian scholar
and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer
(afterwards Lord Selborne), was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
in 1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in
church questions, and was one of the founders of the <i>Guardian</i>.
In 1852 he was elected to the new professorship of international
law and diplomacy at Oxford, attached to All Souls&rsquo; College,
of which he afterwards was made a fellow. But besides his
duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of non-collegiate
work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in 1871
he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States,
and signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted
Sir Roundell Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva.
In 1874 he resigned his professorship at Oxford, but as member
of the university of Oxford commission of 1876 he was mainly
responsible for bringing about the compromise ultimately
adopted between the university and the colleges. Bernard&rsquo;s
reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he
was an original member of the Institut de Droit International
(1873). His published works include <i>An Historical Account of
the Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i>
(London, 1870), and many lectures on international law and
diplomacy.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SIMON<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1779-1839), French general of engineers,
was born at Dôle, educated at the École Polytechnique, and
entered the army in the corps of engineers. He rose rapidly,
and served (1805-1812) as aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was
wounded in the retreat after Leipzig, and distinguished himself
the same year (1813) in the gallant defence of Torgau against
the allies. After the emperor&rsquo;s fall he emigrated to the United
States, where, being made a brigadier-general of engineers,
he executed a number of extensive military works for the government,
notably at Fortress Monroe, Va., and around New York,
and did a large amount of the civil engineering connected with
the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Delaware Breakwater.
He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, was made
a lieu tenant-general by Louis Philippe, and in 1836 served as
minister of war.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SIR THOMAS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart</span>. (1750-1818), English social
reformer, was born at Lincoln on the 27th of April 1750, the
younger son of Sir Francis Bernard, 1st bart. (1711-1779), who
as governor of Massachusetts Bay (1760-1770) played a responsible
part in directing the British policy which led to the
revolt of the American colonies. On the death of his elder
brother in 1810, Bernard succeeded to the baronetcy conferred
on his father in 1769. His early education was obtained in
America, partly at Harvard, in which college his father took
a great interest. He then acted as confidential secretary to his
father during the troubles which led (1769) to the governor&rsquo;s
recall, and accompanied Sir Francis to England, where he was
called to the bar, and practised as a conveyancer. He married
a rich wife, and acquired a considerable fortune, and then
devoted most of his time to social work for the benefit of the
poor. He was treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, in the concerns
of which he took an important part. He helped to establish
in 1796 the &ldquo;Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing
the Comforts of the Poor,&rdquo; in 1800 a school for indigent blind,
and in 1801 a fever institution. He was active in promoting
vaccination, improving the conditions of child labour, advocating
rural allotments, and agitating against the salt duties. He took
great interest in education, and with Count Rumford he was an
originator of the Royal Institution in London. He died without
issue on the 1st of July 1818.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1380-1444), Franciscan friar
and preacher, was born of a noble family in 1380. His parents
died in his childhood, and on the completion of his education
he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals,
and thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1402
he entered the Franciscan order in the strict branch called
Observant, of which he became one of the chief promoters (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franciscans</a></span>). Shortly after his profession the work of preaching
was laid upon him, and for more than thirty years he preached
with wonderful effect all over Italy, and played a great part
in the religious revival of the beginning of the 15th century.
In 1437 he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the
Franciscans. He refused three bishoprics. He died in 1444
at Aquila in the Abruzzi, and was canonized in 1450.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons,
was printed at Lyons in 1501; later ones in 1636, 1650 and 1745.
His Life will be found in the Bollandists and in <i>Lives of the Saints</i>
on the 20th of May: a good modern biography has been written
by Paul Thureau-Dangin (1896), and translated into English by
Gertrude von Hügel (1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNAUER, AGNES<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (d. 1435), daughter of an Augsburg
baker, was secretly married about 1432 to Albert (1401-1460),
son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria-Munich. Ignorant of the fact
that this union was a lawful one, Ernest urged his son to marry,
and reproached him with his connexion with Agnes. Albert
then declared she was his lawful wife; and subsequently, during
his absence, she was seized by order of Duke Ernest and condemned
to death for witchcraft. On the 12th of October 1435
she was drowned in the Danube near Straubing, in which town
her remains were afterwards buried by Albert. This story lived
long in the memory of the people, and its chief interest lies in
its literary associations. It has afforded material for several
dramas, and Adolf Böttger, Friedrich Hebbel and Otto Ludwig
have each written one entitled <i>Agnes Bernauer</i>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNAY,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure, on the left bank of
the Charentonne, 31 m. W.N.W. of Evreux, on the Western
railway between that town and Lisieux. Pop. (1906) 5973.
It is beautifully situated in the midst of green wooded hills, and
still justifies Madame de Stael&rsquo;s description of it as &ldquo;a basket
of flowers.&rdquo; Of great antiquity, it possesses numerous quaint
wooden houses and ancient ecclesiastical buildings of considerable
interest. The abbey church is now used as a market, and the
abbey, which was founded by Judith of Brittany early in the
11th century, and underwent a restoration in the 17th century,
serves for municipal and legal purposes. The church of Ste
Croix, which has a remarkable marble figure of the infant Jesus,
dates from the 14th and 15th centuries, that of Notre-Dame de
la Couture, which preserves some good stained glass, from the
14th, 15th and 16th centuries, Bernay has a sub-prefecture,
a communal college, tribunals of commerce and of first instance,
and a board of trade-arbitrators. Among the industrial establishments
of the place are manufactories of cotton and woollen
goods, bleacheries and dye-works. Large numbers of Norman
horses are sold in Lent, at the fair known as the <i>Foire fleurie</i>,
and there is also a trade in grain. Bernay grew up round
the Benedictine abbey mentioned above, and early in the 13th
century was the seat of a viscount. The town, formerly fortified
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span>
was besieged by Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, in
1378; it was taken several times by the English during the first
half of the 15th century, and by Admiral de Coligny in 1563.
The fortress was razed in 1589.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNAYS, JAKOB<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1824-1881), German philologist and
philosophical writer, was born at Hamburg of Jewish parents
on the 11th of September 1824. His father, Isaac Bernays
(1792-1849), a man of wide culture, was the first orthodox
German rabbi to preach in the vernacular. Jakob studied from
1844 to 1848 at the university of Bonn, the philological school
of which, under Welcker and Ritschl (whose favourite pupil
Bernays became), was the best in Germany. In 1853 he accepted
the chair of classical philology at the newly founded Jewish
theological college (the Fränkel seminary) at Breslau, where he
formed a close friendship with Mommsen. In 1866, when
Ritschl left Bonn for Leipzig, Bernays returned to his old university
as extraordinary professor and chief librarian. He
remained at Bonn until his death on the 28th of May 1881. His
chief works, which deal mainly with the Greek philosophers,
are:&mdash;<i>Die Lebensbeschreibung des J.J. Scaliger</i> (1855); <i>Über
das Phokylidische Gedicht</i> (1856); <i>Die Chronik des Sulpicius
Severus</i> (1861); <i>Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im Verhältniss zu
seinen übrigen Werken</i> (1863); <i>Theophrastos&rsquo; Schrift über
Frömmigkeit</i> (1866); <i>Die Heraklitischen Briefe</i> (1869); <i>Lucian
und die Cyniker</i> (1879); <i>Zwei Abhandlungen über die Aristolelische
Theorie des Dramas</i> (1880). The last of these was a
republication of his <i>Grundzüge der verlorenen Abhandlungen des
Aristoteles über die Wirkung der Tragödie</i> (1857), which aroused
considerable controversy.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See notices in <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Alterthumskunde</i> (1881),
and <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xlvi. (1902); art. in <i>Jewish
Encyclopaedia</i>; also Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> iii. 176 (1908).</p>
</div>

<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Michael Bernays</span> (1834-1897), was born in
Hamburg on the 27th of November 1834. He studied first law
and then literature at Bonn and Heidelberg, and obtained a
considerable reputation by his lectures on Shakespeare at
Leipzig and an explanatory text to Beethoven&rsquo;s music to
<i>Egmont</i>. Having refused an invitation to take part in the editorship
of the <i>Preussiche Jahrbücher</i>, in the same year (1866) he
published his celebrated <i>Zur Kritik und Geschichte des Goetheschen-Textes.</i>
He confirmed his reputation by his lectures at the
university of Leipzig, and in 1873 accepted the post of extraordinary
professor of German literature at Munich specially created
for him by Louis II. of Bavaria. In 1874 he became an ordinary
professor, a position which he only resigned in 1889 when he
settled at Carlsruhe. He died at Carlsruhe on the 25th of
February 1897. At an early age he had embraced Christianity,
whereas his brother Jakob remained a Jew. Among his other
publications were: <i>Briefe Goethes an F.A. Wolf</i> (1868); <i>Zur
Enstehungsgeschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare</i> (1872); an
introduction to Hirzel&rsquo;s collection entitled <i>Der junge Goethe</i>
(1875); and he edited a revised edition of Voss&rsquo;s translation
of the <i>Odyssey</i>. From his literary remains were
published <i>Schriften zur Kritik und Litteraturgeschichte</i> (1895-1899).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNBURG,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a town in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany, on
the Saale, 29 m. N. by W. from Halle by rail, formerly the
capital of the new incorporated duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg.
Pop. (1900) 34,427; (1905) 34,929. It consists of four parts,
the Altstadt or old town, the Bergstadt or hill town, the Neustadt
or new town, and the suburb of Waldau&mdash;the Bergstadt on the
right and the other three on the left of the river Saale, which is
crossed by a massive stone bridge. It is a well-built city, the
principal public buildings being the government house, the church
of St Mary, the gymnasium and the house of correction. The
castle, formerly the ducal residence, is in the Bergstadt, defended
by moats, and surrounded by beautiful gardens. Bernburg is
the seat of considerable industry, manufacturing machinery
and boilers, sugar, pottery and chemicals, and has lead and
zinc smelting. Market-gardening is also extensively carried
on, and there is a large river traffic in grain and agricultural
produce.</p>

<p>Bernburg is of great antiquity. The Bergstadt was fortified
by Otto III. in the 10th century, and the new town was founded
in the 13th. For a long period the different parts were under
separate municipalities, the new town uniting with the old in
1560, and the Bergstadt with both in 1824. Prince Frederick
removed the ducal residence to Ballenstedt in 1765.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Baron</span> (1469-1533),
English translator, was born probably at Tharfield, Hertfordshire,
about 1469. His father was killed at Barnet in 1471,
and he inherited his title in 1474 from his grandfather, John
Bourchier, who was a descendant of Edward III. It is supposed
that he was educated at Oxford, perhaps at Balliol. His political
life began early, for in 1484 he was implicated in a premature
attempt to place Henry, duke of Richmond (afterwards
Henry VII.), on the throne, and fled in consequence to Brittany.
In 1497 he helped to put down an insurrection in Cornwall
and Devonshire, raised by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and
from this time was in high favour at court. He accompanied
Henry VIII. to Calais in 1513, and was a captain of pioneers
at the siege of Therouanne. In the next year he was again sent
to France as chamberlain to the king&rsquo;s sister Mary on her marriage
with Louis XII., but he soon returned to England. He had
been given the reversion of the office of lord chancellor,
and in 1516 he received the actual appointment. In 1518 he
was sent to Madrid to negotiate an alliance with Charles of
Spain. He sent letters to Henry chronicling the bull-fights and
other doings of the Spanish court, and to Wolsey complaining
of the expense to which he was put in his position as ambassador.
In the next year he returned to England, and with his wife
Catherine Howard, daughter of the duke of Norfolk, was present
in 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. But his affairs were
greatly embarrassed. He was harassed by lawsuits about his
Hertfordshire property and owed the king sums he was unable
to repay. Perhaps in the hope of repairing his fortune, he
accepted the office of deputy of Calais, where he spent the rest
of his life in comparative leisure, though still harassed by his
debts, and died on the 16th of March 1533.</p>

<p>His translation of <i>Syr Johan Froyssart of the Cronycles of
England, France, Spayne, Portyngale, Scotland, Bretayne,
Flaunders: and other places adjoynynge</i>, was undertaken at the
request of Henry VIII., and was printed by Richard Pynson in
two volumes dated 1523 and 1525. It was the most considerable
historical work that had yet appeared in English, and exercised
great influence on 16th-century chroniclers. Berners tells us in
his prefaces of his own love of histories of all kinds, and in the
introduction to his story of Arthur of Little Britain he excuses
its &ldquo;fayned mater&rdquo; and &ldquo;many unpossybylytees&rdquo; on the
ground that other well reputed histories are equally incredible.
He goes on to excuse his deficiencies by saying that he knew
himself to be unskilled in the &ldquo;facundyous arte of retoryke,&rdquo;
and that he was but a &ldquo;lerner of the language of Frensshe.&rdquo;
The want of rhetoric is not to be deplored. The style of his
translation is clear and simple, and he rarely introduces French
words or idioms. Two romances from the French followed:
<i>The Boke of Duke Huon of Burdeux</i> (printed 1534? by Wynkyn
de Worde), and <i>The Hystory of the Moost noble and valyaunt
knight Arthur of lytell brytayne</i>. His other two translations,
<i>The Castell of Love</i> (printed 1540), from the <i>Carcel de Amor</i> of
Diego de San Pedro, and <i>The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius</i>
(completed six days before his death, printed 1534), from a
French version of Antonio Guevara&rsquo;s book, are in a different
manner. The <i>Golden Boke</i> gives Berners a claim to be a pioneer
of Euphuism, although Lyly was probably acquainted with
Guevara not through his version, but through Sir Thomas
North&rsquo;s <i>Dial of Princes</i>. Berners is also credited with a book
on the duties of the inhabitants of Calais, which Mr Sidney Lee
thinks may be identical with the ordinance for watch and ward
of Calais preserved in the Cotton MSS. and with a lost comedy,
<i>Ite in vineam meam</i>, which used to be acted at Calais after
vespers.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A biographical account of Berners is to be found in Mr Sidney
Lee&rsquo;s introduction to <i>Huon of Bourdeaux</i> (Early English Text Society
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
1882-1883). Among the many editions of his translation of Froissart
may be mentioned that in the &ldquo;Tudor Translations&rdquo; (1901), with
an introductory critical note by Professor W.P. Ker.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNERS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Barnes</span> or <span class="sc">Bernes</span>, <b>JULIANA</b> (b. 1388?),
English writer on hawking and hunting, is said to have been
prioress of Sopwell nunnery near St Albans, and daughter of
Sir James Berners, who was beheaded in 1388. She was probably
brought up at court, and when she adopted the religious life,
she still retained her love of hawking, hunting and fishing, and
her passion for field sports. The only documentary evidence
regarding her, however, is the statement at the end of her
treatise on hunting in the <i>Boke of St Albans</i>, &ldquo;Explicit Dam
Julyans Barnes in her boke of huntyng&rdquo; (edition of 1486), and
the name is changed by Wynkyn de Worde to &ldquo;dame Julyans
Bernes.&rdquo; There is no such person to be found in the pedigree
of the Berners family, and there is a gap in the records of the
priory of Sopwell between 1430 and 1480. Juliana Berners is
the supposed author of the work generally known as the <i>Boke
of St Albans</i>. The first and rarest edition was printed in 1486 by
an unknown schoolmaster at St Albans. It has no title-page.
Wynkyn de Worde&rsquo;s edition (fol. 1496), also without a title-page,
begins:&mdash;&ldquo;This present boke shewyth the manere of hawkynge
and huntynge: and also of diuysynge of Cote armours. It
shewyth also a good matere belongynge to horses: wyth other
comendable treatyses. And ferdermore of the blasynge of
armys: as hereafter it maye appere.&rdquo; This edition was adorned
by three woodcuts, and included a &ldquo;Treatyse of fysshynge wyth
an Angle,&rdquo; not contained in the St Albans edition. J. Haslewood,
who published a facsimile of that of Wynkyn de Worde (London,
1811, folio), with a biographical and bibliographical notice,
examined with the greatest care the author&rsquo;s claims to figure
as the earliest woman author in the English language. He
assigned to her little else in the <i>Boke</i> except part of the treatise
on hawking and the section on hunting. It is expressly stated
at the end of the &ldquo;Blasynge of Armys&rdquo; that the section was
&ldquo;translatyd and compylyt,&rdquo; and it is likely that the other
treatises are translations, probably from the French. An older
form of the treatise on fishing was edited in 1883 by Mr T.
Satchell from a MS. in possession of Mr A. Denison. This treatise
probably dates from about 1450, and formed the foundation of
that section in the book of 1496. Only three perfect copies of
the first edition are known to exist. A facsimile, entitled <i>The
Book of St Albans</i>, with an introduction by William Blades,
appeared in 1881. During the 16th century the work was very
popular, and was many times reprinted. It was edited by
Gervase Markham in 1595 as <i>The Gentleman&rsquo;s Academie</i>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke</span> (1604-1639), a
celebrated general in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, was the eleventh
son of John, duke of Saxe-Weimar. He received an unusually
good education, and studied at Jena, but soon went to the court
of the Saxon elector to engage in knightly exercises. At the
outbreak of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War he took the field on the
Protestant side, and served under Mansfeld at Wiesloch (1622),
under the margrave of Baden at Wimpfen (1622), and with his
brother William at Stadtlohn (1623). Undismayed by these
defeats, he took part in the campaigns of the king of Denmark;
and when Christian withdrew from the struggle Bernhard went
to Holland and was present at the famous siege of Hertogenbosch
(Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. When Gustavus Adolphus landed in
Germany Bernhard quickly joined him, and for a short time he
was colonel of the Swedish life guards. After the battle of
Breitenfeld he accompanied Gustavus in his march to the Rhine
and, between this event and the battle of the Alte Veste, Bernhard
commanded numerous expeditions in almost every district
from the Moselle to Tirol. At the Alte Veste he displayed the
greatest courage, and at Lützen, when Gustavus was killed,
Bernhard immediately assumed the command, killed a colonel
who refused to lead his men to the charge, and finally by his
furious energy won the victory at sundown. At first as a subordinate
to his brother William, who as a Swedish lieutenant-general
succeeded to the command, but later as an independent
commander, Bernhard continued to push his forays over southern
Germany; and with the Swedish General Horn he made in 1633
a successful invasion into Bavaria, which was defended by the
imperialist general Arldinger. In this year he acquired the duchy
of Würzburg, installing one of his brothers as <i>Stadthalter</i>, and
returning to the wars. A stern Protestant, he exacted heavy
contributions from the Catholic cities which he took, and his
repeated victories caused him to be regarded by German Protestants
as the saviour of their religion. But in 1634 Bernhard
suffered the great defeat of Nördlingen, in which the flower of
the Swedish army perished. In 1635 he entered the service of
France, which had now intervened in the war. He was now at
the same time general-in-chief of the forces maintained by the
Heilbronn union of Protestant princes, and a general officer in
the pay of France. This double position was very difficult; in
the following campaigns, ably and resolutely conducted as they
were, Bernhard sometimes pursued a purely French policy,
whilst at other times he used the French mercenaries to forward
the cause of the princes. From a military point of view his most
notable achievements were on the common ground of the upper
Rhine, in the Breisgau. In his great campaign of 1638 he won
the battles of Rheinfelden, Wittenweiher and Thann, and
captured successively Rheinfelden, Fieiburg and Breisach, the
last reputed one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. Bernhard
had in the first instance received definite assurances from France
that he should be given Alsace and Hagenau, Würzburg having
been lost in the <i>débâcle</i> of 1634; he now hoped to make Breisach
the capital of his new duchy. But his health was now broken.
He died on the 8/18th of July 1639 at the beginning of the
campaign, and the governor of Breisach was bribed to transfer the
fortress to France. The duke was buried at Breisach, his remains
being subsequently removed to Weimar.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J.A.C. Hellfeld, <i>Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs
v. Saxe-Weimar</i> (Jena, 1747); B. Rose, <i>Herzog Bernhard d. Grosse
von Saxe-Weimar</i> (Weimar, 1828-1829); Droysen, <i>Bernhard v.
Weimar</i> (Leipzig, 1885).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNHARDT, SARAH<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Rosine Bernard</span>) (1845-&emsp;&emsp;),
French actress, was born in Paris on the 22nd of October 1845,
of mixed French and Dutch parentage, and of Jewish descent.
She was, however, baptized at the age of twelve and brought up
in a convent. At thirteen she entered the Conservatoire, where
she gained the second prize for tragedy in 1861 and for comedy
in 1862. Her <i>début</i> was made at the Comédie Française on the
11th of August 1862, in a minor part in Racine&rsquo;s <i>Iphigénie en
Aulide</i>, without any marked success, nor did she do much better
in burlesque at the Porte St-Martin and Gymnase. In 1867 she
became a member of the company at the Odéon, where she made
her first definite successes as Cordelia in a French translation
of <i>King Lear</i>, as the queen in Victor Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Ruy Blas</i>, and,
above all, as Zanetto in François Coppée&rsquo;s <i>Le Passant</i> (1869).
When peace was restored after the Franco-German War she left
the Odéon for the Comédie Française, thereby incurring a
considerable monetary forfeit. From that time she steadily
increased her reputation, two of the most definite steps in her
progress being her performances of Phèdre in Racine&rsquo;s play
(1874) and of Dona Sol in Victor Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Hernani</i> (1877). In 1879
she had a famous season at the Gaiety in London. By this time
her position as the greatest actress of her day was securely
established. Her amazing power of emotional acting, the
extraordinary realism and pathos of her death-scenes, the
magnetism of her personality, and the beauty of her &ldquo;<i>voix d&rsquo;or</i>,&rdquo;
made the public tolerant of her occasional caprices. She had
developed some skill as a sculptor, and exhibited at the Salon at
various times between 1876 (honourable mention) and 1881.
She also exhibited a painting there in 1880. In 1878 she published
a prose sketch, <i>Dans les nuages; les impressions d&rsquo;une
chaise</i>. Her comedy <i>L&rsquo;Aveu</i> was produced in 1888 at the Odéon
without much success. Her relations with the other <i>sociétaires</i>
of the Comédie Française having become somewhat strained, a
crisis arrived in 1880, when, enraged by an unfavourable criticism
of her acting, she threw up her position on the day following
the first performance of Emile Augier&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Aventurière</i>. This
obliged her to pay a forfeit of £4000 for breach of contract.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
Immediately after the rupture she gave a series of performances
in London, relying chiefly upon Scribe and Legouvé&rsquo;s <i>Adrienne
Lecouvreur</i> and Meilhac and Halévy&rsquo;s <i>Frou Frou</i>. These were
followed by tours in Denmark, America and Russia, during 1880
and 1881, with <i>La Dame aux camélias</i> as the principal attraction.
In 1882 she married Jacques Damala, a Greek, in London, but
separated from him at the end of the following year. After a
fresh triumph in Paris with Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Fédora</i> at the Vaudeville
she became proprietress of the Porte St-Martin. Jean Richepin&rsquo;s <i>Nana
Sahib</i> (1883), Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Théodora</i> (1884) and <i>La Tosca</i>
(1887), Jules Barbier&rsquo;s <i>Jeanne d&rsquo;Arc</i> (1890) and Sardou and
Moreau&rsquo;s <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1890) were among her most conspicuous
successes here, where she remained till she became proprietress
of the Renaissance theatre in 1893. During those ten years she
made several extended tours, including visits to America in
1886-1887 and 1888-1889. Between 1891 and 1893 she again
visited America (North and South), Australia, and the chief
European capitals. In November 1893 she opened the Renaissance
with <i>Les Rois</i> by Jules Lemaitre, which was followed by
<i>Sylvestre</i> and Morand&rsquo;s <i>Izeyl</i> (1894), Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Gismonda</i>
(1894) and Edmond Rostand&rsquo;s <i>La Princesse lointaine</i> (1895). In 1895
she also appeared with conspicuous success as Magda in a French
translation of Sudermann&rsquo;s <i>Heimat</i>. For the next few years
she visited London almost annually, and America in 1896. In
that year she made a success with an adaptation of Alfred de
Musset&rsquo;s <i>Lorenzaccio</i>. In Easter week of 1897 she played in a
religious drama, <i>La Samaritaine</i>, by Rostand. In December 1896
an elaborate fête was organized in Paris in her honour; and the
value of this public recognition of her position at the head of her
profession was enhanced by cordial greetings from all parts of
the world. By this time she had played one hundred and twelve
parts, thirty-eight of which she had created. Early in 1899 she
removed from the Renaissance to the Théâtre des Nations, a
larger house, which she opened with a revival of <i>La Tosca</i>. In the
same year she made the bold experiment of a French production
of <i>Hamlet</i>, in which she played the title part. She repeated
the impersonation in London not long afterwards, where she
also appeared (1901) as the fate-ridden son of Napoleon I., in
Rostand&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Aiglon</i>, which had been produced in Paris the year
before. Of the successful productions of her later years perhaps
none was more remarkable than her impersonation of La Tisbé
in Victor Hugo&rsquo;s romantic drama <i>Angelo</i> (1905).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Jules Huret, <i>Sarah Bernhardt</i> (1889); and her own volume of
autobiography (1907).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1800-1875), German philologist
and literary historian, was born on the 20th of March 1800, at
Landsberg on the Wartia, in Brandenburg. He was the son of
Jewish parents in reduced circumstances. Two well-to-do
uncles provided the means for his education, and in 1811 he
entered the Joachimsthal gymnasium at Berlin. In 1817 he
went to Berlin University to study philology, where he had the
advantage of hearing F.A. Wolf (then advanced in years),
August Böckh and P. Buttmann. In 1822 he took the degree
of doctor of philosophy at Berlin, and in 1825 became extraordinary
professor. In 1829 he succeeded C. Reisig as ordinary
professor and director of the philological seminary at Halle, and
in 1844 was appointed chief librarian of the university. He died
suddenly on the 14th of May 1875. The most important of
Bernhardy&rsquo;s works were his histories (or sketches) of Greek and
Roman literature; <i>Grundriss der römischen Litteratur</i> (5th ed., 1872);
<i>Grundriss der griechischcn Litteratur</i> (pt. i., Introduction
and General View, 1836; pt. ii, Greek Poetry, 1845; pt. iii.,
Greek Prose Literature, was never published). A fifth edition of
pts. i. and ii., by R. Volkmann, began in 1892. Other works
by Bernhardy are: <i>Eratosthenica</i> (1822); <i>Wissenschaftliche
Syntax der griechischen Sprache</i> (1829, suppts. 1854, 1862);
<i>Grundlinien zur Encyclopädie der Philologie</i> (1832); the monumental
edition of the Lexicon of Suidas (1834-1853); and an
edition of F.A. Wolf&rsquo;s <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1869).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Volkmann, <i>G. Bernhardy</i> (1887).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1497-1536), Italian poet, was born
about 1497 at Lamporecchio, in Bibbiena, a district lying along
the Upper Arno. His family was of good descent, but excessively
poor. At an early age he was sent to Florence, where he remained
till his 19th year. He then set out for Rome, trusting to obtain
some assistance from his uncle, the Cardinal Bibbiena. The
cardinal, however, did nothing for him, and he was obliged to
accept a situation as clerk or secretary to Ghiberti, datary to
Clement VII. The duties of his office, for which Berni was in
every way unfit, were exceedingly irksome to the poet, who,
however, made himself celebrated at Rome as the most witty and
inventive of a certain club of literary men, who devoted themselves
to light and sparkling effusions. So strong was the
admiration for Berni&rsquo;s verses, that mocking or burlesque poems
have since been called <i>poesie bernesca</i>. About the year 1530 he
was relieved from his servitude by obtaining a canonry in the
cathedral of Florence. In that city he died in 1536, according
to tradition poisoned by Duke Alessandro de&rsquo; Medici, for having
refused to poison the duke&rsquo;s cousin, Ippolito de&rsquo; Medici; but
considerable obscurity rests over this story. Berni stands at the
head of Italian comic or burlesque poets. For lightness, sparkling
wit, variety of form and fluent diction, his verses are
unsurpassed. Perhaps, however, he owes his greatest fame to the
recasting (<i>Rifacimento</i>) of Boiardo&rsquo;s <i>Orlando Innamorato</i>. The
enormous success of Ariosto&rsquo;s <i>Orlando Furioso</i> had directed fresh
attention to the older poem, from which it took its characters,
and of which it is the continuation. But Boiardo&rsquo;s work, though
good in plan, could never have achieved wide popularity on
account of the extreme ruggedness of its style. Berni undertook
the revision of the whole poem, avowedly altering no sentiment,
removing or adding no incident, but simply giving to each line
and stanza due gracefulness and polish. His task he completed
with marvellous success; scarcely a line remains as it was, and
the general opinion has pronounced decisively in favour of the
revision over the original. To each canto he prefixed a few
stanzas of reflective verse in the manner of Ariosto, and in one
of these introductions he gives us the only certain information we
have concerning his own life. Berni appears to have been favourably
disposed towards the Reformation principles at that time
introduced into Italy, and this may explain the bitterness of some
remarks of his upon the church. The first edition of the <i>Rifacimento</i>
was printed posthumously in 1541, and it has been supposed
that a few passages either did not receive the author&rsquo;s final
revision, or have been retouched by another hand.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A partial translation of Berni&rsquo;s <i>Orlando</i> was published
by W.S. Rose (1823).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNICIA,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the northern of the two English kingdoms which
were eventually united in the kingdom of Northumbria. Its
territory is said to have stretched from the Tyne northwards,
ultimately reaching the Forth, while its western frontier was
gradually extended at the expense of the Welsh. The chief
royal residence was Bamburgh, and near it was the island of
Lindisfarne, afterwards the see of a bishop. The first king of
whom we have any record is Ida, who is said to have obtained
the throne about 547. Æthelfrith, king of Bernicia, united
Deira to his own kingdom, probably about 605, and the union
continued under his successor Edwin, son of Ella or Ælle, king
of Deira. Bernicia was again separate from Deira under Eanfrith,
son of Æthelfrith (633-634), after which date the kings of
Bernicia were supreme in Northumbria, though for a short time
under Oswio Deira had a king of its own.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> ii. 14, iii. 1, 14; Nennius, § 63; Simeon
of Durham, i. 339.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNICIAN SERIES,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> in geology, a term proposed by S.P. Woodward
in 1856 (<i>Manual of Mollusca</i>, p. 409) for the lower
portion of the Carboniferous System, below the Millstone Grit. The
name was suggested by that of the ancient province of Bernicia
on the Anglo-Scottish borderland. It is practically equivalent
to the &ldquo;Dinantien&rdquo; of A. de Lapparent and Munier-Chalmas
(1893). In 1875 G. Tate&rsquo;s &ldquo;Calcareous and Carbonaceous&rdquo;
groups of the Carboniferous Limestone series of Northumberland
were united by Professor Lebour into a single series, to which he
applied the name &ldquo;Bernician&rdquo;; but later he speaks of the
whole of the Carboniferous rocks of Northumberland and its
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
borders as of the &ldquo;Bernician type,&rdquo; which is the most satisfactory
way in which the term may now be used (<i>Report of the Brit.
Sub-committee on Classification and Nomenclature</i>, 2nd ed.,
Cambridge, 1888). &ldquo;Demetian&rdquo; was the corresponding designation
proposed by Woodward for the Upper Carboniferous rocks.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1598-1680), Italian artist,
was born at Naples. He was more celebrated as an architect and
a sculptor than as a painter. At a very early age his great skill
in modelling introduced him to court favour at Rome, and he
was specially patronized by Maffeo Barberini, afterwards Pope
Urban VIII., whose palace he designed. None of his sculptured
groups at all come up to the promised excellence of his first effort,
the Apollo and Daphne, nor are any of his paintings of particular
merit. His busts were in so much request that Charles I. of
England, being unable to have a personal interview with Bernini,
sent him three portraits by Vandyck, from which the artist was
enabled to complete his model. His architectural designs,
including the great colonnade of St Peter&rsquo;s, brought him perhaps
his greatest celebrity. Louis XIV., when he contemplated the
restoration of the Louvre, sent for Bernini, but did not adopt his
designs. The artist&rsquo;s progress through France was a triumphal
procession, and he was most liberally rewarded by the great
monarch. He left a fortune of over £100,000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNIS, FRANÇOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1715-1794),
French cardinal and statesman, was born at St Marcel-d&rsquo;Ardèche
on the 22nd of May 1715. He was of a noble but impoverished
family, and, being a younger son, was intended for the church.
He was educated at the Louis-le-Grand college and the seminary
of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, but did not take orders till 1755. He
became known as one of the most expert epigrammatists in the
gay society of Louis XV.&rsquo;s court, and by his verses won the
friendship of Madame de Pompadour, the royal mistress, who
obtained for him an apartment, furnished at her expense, in the
Tuileries, and a yearly pension of 1500 livres (about £60). In
1751 he was appointed to the French embassy at Venice, where
he acted, to the satisfaction of both parties, as mediator between
the republic and Pope Benedict XIV. During his stay in Venice
he received subdeacon&rsquo;s orders, and on his return to France in
1755 was made a papal councillor of state. He took an important
part in the delicate negotiations between France and Austria
which preceded the Seven Years&rsquo; War. He regarded the alliance
purely as a temporary expedient, and did not propose to employ
the whole forces of France in a general war. But he was overruled
by his colleagues. He became secretary for foreign affairs
on the 27th of June 1757, but owing to his attempts to counteract
the spendthrift policy of the marquise de Pompadour and her
creatures, he fell into disgrace and was in December 1758 banished
to Soissons by Louis XV., where he remained in retirement for
six years. In the previous November he had been created
cardinal by Clement XIII. On the death of the royal mistress
in 1764, Bernis was recalled and once more offered the seals of
office, but declined them, and was appointed archbishop of Albi.
His occupancy of the see was not of long duration. In 1769 he
went to Rome to assist at the conclave which resulted in the
election of Clement XIV., and the talent which he displayed on
that occasion procured him the appointment of ambassador in
Rome, where he spent the remainder of his life. He was partly
instrumental in bringing about the suppression of the Jesuits,
and acted with greater moderation than is generally allowed.
He lost his influence under Pius VI., who was friendly to the
Jesuits, and the French Revolution, to which he was hostile,
reduced him almost to penury; the court of Spain, however,
mindful of the support he had given to their ambassador in
obtaining the condemnation of the Jesuits, came to his relief
with a handsome pension. He died at Rome on the 3rd of
November 1794, and was buried in the church of S. Luigi
de&rsquo; Francesi. In 1803 his remains were transferred to the cathedral
at Nîmes. His poems, the longest of which is <i>La Religion vengée</i>
(Parma, 1794), have no merit; they were collected and published
after his death (Paris, 1797, &amp;c.); his <i>Mémoires et lettres 1715-58</i>
(2 vols., Paris, 1878) are still interesting to the historian.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Frédéric Masson&rsquo;s prefaces to the <i>Mémoires et lettres</i>, and
<i>Le Cardinal de Bernis depuis son ministère;</i> (Paris, 1884); E. et J. de
Goncourt, <i>Mme de Pompadour</i> (Paris, 1888), and Sainte-Beuve,
<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. viii.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNKASTEL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the Mosel, in a deep and romantic valley, connected
by a branch to Wengerohr with the main Trier-Coblenz railway.
Pop. 2300. It has some unimportant manufactures; the chief
industry is in wine, of which Berncastler Doctor enjoys great
repute. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle Landshut.
Bernkastel originally belonged to the chapter of Trier, and
received its name from one of the provosts of the cathedral,
Adalbero of Luxemburg (hence <i>Adalberonis castellum</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNOULLI,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bernouilli</span>, the name of an illustrious
family in the annals of science, who came originally from
Antwerp. Driven from their country during the oppressive
government of Spain for their attachment to the Reformed
religion, the Bernoullis sought first an asylum at Frankfort
(1583), and afterwards at Basel, where they ultimately obtained
the highest distinctions. In the course of a century eight of its
members successfully cultivated various branches of mathematics,
and contributed powerfully to the advance of science.
The most celebrated were Jacques (James), Jean (John) and
Daniel, the first, second and fourth as dealt with below; but,
for the sake of perspicuity they may be considered as nearly as
possible in the order of family succession. A complete summary
of the great developments of mathematical learning, which the
members of this family effected, lies outside the scope of this
notice. More detailed accounts are to be found in the various
mathematical articles.</p>

<p>I. <span class="sc">Jacques Bernoulli</span> (1654-1705), mathematician, was born
at Basel on the 27th of December 1654. He was educated at
the public school of Basel, and also received private instruction
from the learned Hoffmann, then professor of Greek. At the
conclusion of his philosophical studies at the university, some
geometrical figures, which fell in his way, excited in him a passion
for mathematical pursuits, and in spite of the opposition of his
father, who wished him to be a clergyman, he applied himself
in secret to his favourite science. In 1676 he visited Geneva on
his way to France, and subsequently travelled to England and
Holland. While at Geneva he taught a blind girl several branches
of science, and also how to write; and this led him to publish
<i>A Method of Teaching Mathematics to the Blind</i>. At Bordeaux
his <i>Universal Tables on Dialling</i> were constructed; and in
London he was admitted to the meetings of Robert Boyle,
Robert Hooke and other learned and scientific men. On his
final return to Basel in 1682, he devoted himself to physical and
mathematical investigations, and opened a public seminary for
experimental physics. In the same year he published his essay
on comets, <i>Conamen Novi Systematis Cometarum</i>, which was
occasioned by the appearance of the comet of 1680. This essay,
and his next publication, entitled <i>De Gravitate Aetheris</i>, were
deeply tinged with the philosophy of René Descartes, but they
contain truths not unworthy of the philosophy of Sir Isaac
Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i>.</p>

<p>Jacques Bernoulli cannot be strictly called an independent
discoverer; but, from his extensive and successful application
of the calculus and other mathematical methods, he is deserving
of a place by the side of Newton and Leibnitz. As an additional
claim to remembrance, he was the first to solve Leibnitz&rsquo;s
problem of the isochronous curve (<i>Acta Eruditorum</i>, 1690). He
proposed the problem of the catenary (<i>q.v.</i>) or curve formed by
a chain suspended by its two extremities, accepted Leibnitz&rsquo;s
construction of the curve and solved more complicated problems
relating to it. He determined the &ldquo;elastic curve,&rdquo; which is
formed by an elastic plate or rod fixed at one end and bent by a
weight applied to the other, and which he showed to be the same
as the curvature of an impervious sail filled with a liquid
(<i>lintearia</i>).  In his investigations respecting cycloidal lines and
various spiral curves, his attention was directed to the loxodromic
and logarithmic spirals, in the last of which he took
particular interest from its remarkable property of reproducing
itself under a variety of conditions.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span></p>

<p>In 1696 he proposed the famous problem of isoperimetrical
figures, and offered a reward for its solution. This problem
engaged the attention of British as well as continental mathematicians;
and its proposal gave rise to a painful quarrel
with his brother Jean. Jean offered a solution of the problem;
his brother pronounced it to be wrong. Jean then amended his
solution, and again offered it, and claimed the reward. Jacques
still declared it to be no solution, and soon after published his
own. In 1701 he published also the demonstration of his solution,
which was accepted by the marquis de l&rsquo;Hôpital and
Leibnitz. Jean, however, held his peace for several years, and
then dishonestly published, after the death of Jacques, another
incorrect solution; and not until 1718 did he admit that he had
been in error. Even then he set forth as his own his brother&rsquo;s
solution purposely disguised.</p>

<p>In 1687 the mathematical chair of the university of Basel was
conferred upon Jacques. He was once made rector of his
university, and had other distinctions bestowed on him. He
and his brother Jean were the first two foreign associates of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris; and, at the request of Leibnitz,
they were both received as members of the academy of Berlin.
In 1684 he had been offered a professorship at Heidelberg; but
his marriage with a lady of his native city led him to decline the
invitation. Intense application brought on infirmities and a
slow fever, of which he died on the 16th of August 1705. Like
another Archimedes, he requested that the logarithmic spiral
should be engraven on his tombstone, with these words, <i>Eadem
mutata resurgo</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Jacques Bernoulli wrote elegant verses in Latin, German and
French; but although these were held in high estimation in his own
time, it is on his mathematical works that his fame now rests. These
are:&mdash;<i>Jacobi Bernoulli Basiliensis Opera</i> (Genevae, 1744), 2 tom.
4to; <i>Ars Conjectandi, opus posthumum: accedunt tractatus de Seriebus
Infinitis, et epistola</i> (<i>Gallice scripta</i>) <i>de Ludo Pilae Reticularis</i>
(Basiliae, 1713), 1 tom. 4to.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="sc">II. Jean Bernoulli</span> (1667-1748), brother of the preceding,
was born at Basel on the 27th of July 1667. After finishing his
literary studies he was sent to Neuchâtel to learn commerce and
acquire the French language. But at the end of a year he
renounced the pursuits of commerce, returned to the university
of Basel, and was admitted to the degree of bachelor in philosophy,
and a year later, at the age of 18, to that of master of arts. In
his studies he was aided by his elder brother Jacques. Chemistry,
as well as mathematics, seems to have been the object of his early
attention; and in the year 1690 he published a dissertation on
effervescence and fermentation. The same year he went to
Geneva, where he gave instruction in the differential calculus to
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and afterwards proceeded to Paris,
where he enjoyed the society of N. Malebranche, J.D. Cassini,
Philip de Lahire and Pierre Varignon. With the marquis de
l&rsquo;Hôpital he spent four months studying higher geometry and
the resources of the new calculus. His independent discoveries
in mathematics are numerous and important. Among these
were the exponential calculus, and the curve called by him the
<i>linea brachistochrona</i>, or line of swiftest descent, which he was
the first to determine, pointing out at the same time the relation
which this curve bears to the path described by a ray of light
passing through strata of variable density. On his return to his
native city he studied medicine, and in 1694 took the degree of
M.D. Although he had declined a professorship in Germany, he
now accepted an invitation to the chair of mathematics at
Groningen (<i>Commercium Philosophicum</i>, epist. xi. and xii.).
There, in addition to the learned lectures by which he endeavoured
to revive mathematical science in the university, he gave a public
course of experimental physics. During a residence of ten years
in Groningen, his controversies were almost as numerous as his
discoveries. His dissertation on the &ldquo;barometric light,&rdquo; first
observed by Jean Picard, and discussed by Jean Bernoulli under
the name of mercurial phosphorus, or mercury shining in vacuo
(<i>Diss. physica de mercurio lucente in vacuo</i>), procured him the
notice of royalty, and engaged him in controversy. Through the
influence of Leibnitz he received from the king of Prussia a gold
medal for his supposed discoveries; but Nicolaus Hartsoeker
and some of the French academicians disputed the fact. The
family quarrel about the problem of isoperimetrical figures above
mentioned began about this time. In his dispute with his
brother, in his controversies with the English and Scottish mathematicians,
and in his harsh and jealous bearing to his son Daniel,
he showed a mean, unfair and violent temper. He had declined,
during his residence at Groningen, an invitation to Utrecht, but
accepted in 1705 the mathematical chair in the university of his
native city, vacant by the death of his brother Jacques; and
here he remained till his death. His inaugural discourse was
on the &ldquo;new analysis,&rdquo; which he so successfully applied in
investigating various problems both in pure and applied
mathematics.</p>

<p>He was several times a successful competitor for the prizes
given by the Academy of Sciences of Paris; the subjects of
his essays being:&mdash;the laws of motion (<i>Discours sur les lois de la
communication du mouvement</i>, 1727), the elliptical orbits of the
planets, and the inclinations of the planetary orbits (<i>Essai d&rsquo;une
nouvelle physique céleste</i>, 1735). In the last case his son Daniel
divided the prize with him. Some years after his return to Basel
he published an essay, entitled <i>Nouvelle Théorie de la man&oelig;uvre
des vaisseaux</i>. It is, however, his works in pure mathematics that
are the permanent monuments of his fame. Jean le Rond
d&rsquo;Alembert acknowledges with gratitude, that &ldquo;whatever he
knew of mathematics he owed to the works of Jean Bernoulli.&rdquo;
He was a member of almost every learned society in Europe, and
one of the first mathematicians of a mathematical age. He was
as keen in his resentments as he was ardent in his friendships;
fondly attached to his family, he yet disliked a deserving son;
he gave full praise to Leibnitz and Leonhard Euler, yet was blind
to the excellence of Sir Isaac Newton. Such was the vigour of his
constitution that he continued to pursue his usual mathematical
studies till the age of eighty. He was then attacked by a complaint
at first apparently trifling; but his strength daily and
rapidly declined till the 1st of January 1748, when he died
peacefully in his sleep.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His writings were collected under his own eye by Gabriel Cramer,
professor of mathematics at Geneva, and published under the title
of <i>Johannis Bernoulli Operi Omnia</i> (Lausan. et Genev.), 4 tom.
4to; his interesting correspondence with Leibnitz appeared under
the title of <i>Gul. Leibnitii et Johannis Bernoulli Commercium Philosophicum
et Mathematicum</i> (Lausan. et Genev. 1745), 2 tom. 4to.</p>
</div>

<p><span class="sc">III. Nicolas Bernoulli</span> (1695-1726), the eldest of the three
sons of Jean Bernoulli, was born on the 27th of January 1695.
At the age of eight he could speak German, Dutch, French and
Latin. When his father returned to Basel he went to the university
of that city, where, at the age of sixteen, he took the degree
of doctor in philosophy, and four years later the highest degree
in law. Meanwhile the study of mathematics was not neglected,
as appears not only from his giving instruction in geometry to
his younger brother Daniel, but from his writings on the differential,
integral, and exponential calculus, and from his father
considering him, at the age of twenty-one, worthy of receiving
the torch of science from his own hands. (&ldquo;Lampada nunc
tradam filio meo natu maximo, juveni xxi. annorum, ingenio
mathematico aliisque dotibus satis instructo,&rdquo; <i>Com. Phil.</i> ep.
223.) With his father&rsquo;s permission he visited Italy and France,
and during his travels formed friendship with Pierre Varignon
and Count Riccati. The invitation of a Venetian nobleman
induced him again to visit Italy, where he resided two years, till
his return to be a candidate for the chair of jurisprudence at
Basel. He was unsuccessful, but was soon afterwards appointed
to a similar office in the university of Bern. Here he resided
three years, his happiness only marred by regret on account of
his separation from his brother Daniel. Both were appointed at
the same time professors of mathematics in the academy of
St Petersburg; but this office Nicolas enjoyed for little more
then eight months. He died on the 26th of July 1726 of a
lingering fever. Sensible of the loss which the nation had
sustained by his death, the empress Catherine ordered him a
funeral at the public expense.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Some of his papers are published in his father&rsquo;s works, and others
in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> and the <i>Comment. Acad. Petropol.</i></p>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span></p>

<p><span class="sc">IV. Daniel Bernoulli</span> (1700-1782), the second son of Jean
Bernoulli, was born on the 29th of January 1700, at Groningen.
He studied medicine and became a physician, but his attention
was early directed also to geometrical studies. The severity of
his father&rsquo;s manner was ill-calculated to encourage the first
efforts of one so sensitive; but fortunately, at the age of eleven,
he became the pupil of his brother Nicolas. He afterwards
studied in Italy under Francesco Domenico Michelotti and
Giambattista Morgagni. After his return, though only twenty-four
years of age, he was invited to become president of an academy
then projected at Genoa; but, declining this honour, he was, in
the following year, appointed professor of mathematics at St
Petersburg. In consequence of the state of his health, however,
he returned to Basel in 1733, where he was appointed professor
of anatomy and botany, and afterwards of experimental and
speculative philosophy. In the labours of this office he spent
the remaining years of his life. He had previously published
some medical and botanical dissertations, besides his <i>Exercitationes
quaedam Mathematicae</i>, containing a solution of the differential
equation proposed by Riccati and now known by his name.
In 1738 appeared his <i>Hydrodynamica</i>, in which the equilibrium,
the pressure, the reaction and varied velocities of fluids are
considered both theoretically and practically. One of these
problems, illustrated by experiment, deals with an ingenious
mode of propelling vessels by the reaction of water ejected from
the stern. Some of his experiments on this subject were performed
before Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis and Alexis Claude
Clairaut, whom the fame of the Bernoullis had attracted to
Basel. With a success equalled only by Leonhard Euler, Daniel
Bernoulli gained or shared no less than ten prizes of the Academy
of Sciences of Paris. The first, for a memoir on the construction
of a clepsydra for measuring time exactly at sea, he gained at
the age of twenty-four; the second, for one on the physical
cause of the inclination of the planetary orbits, he divided with
his father; and the third, for a communication on the tides, he
shared with Euler, Colin Maclaurin and another competitor.
The problem of vibrating cords, which had been some time before
resolved by Brook Taylor (1685-1731) and d&rsquo;Alembert, became
the subject of a long discussion conducted in a generous spirit
between Bernoulli and his friend Euler. In one of his early
investigations he gave an ingenious though indirect demonstration
of the problem of the parallelogram of forces. His labours
in the decline of life were chiefly directed to the doctrine of
probabilities in reference to practical purposes, and in particular
to economical subjects, as, for example, to inoculation, and to
the duration of married life in the two sexes, as well as to the
relative proportion of male and female births. He retained his
usual vigour of understanding till near the age of eighty, when
his nephew Jacques relieved him of his public duties. He was
afflicted with asthma, and his retirement was relieved only by
the society of a few chosen friends. He died on the 17th of March
1782 at Basel. Excluded by his professional character from the
councils of the republic, he nevertheless received all the deference
and honour due to a first magistrate. He was wont to mention
the following as the two incidents in his life which had afforded
him the greatest pleasure,&mdash;that a stranger, whom he had met as
a travelling companion in his youth, made to his declaration
&ldquo;I am Daniel Bernoulli&rdquo; the incredulous and mocking reply,
&ldquo;And I am Isaac Newton&rdquo;; and that, while entertaining
König and other guests, he solved without rising from table a
problem which that mathematician had submitted as difficult
and lengthy. Like his father, he was a member of almost every
learned society of Europe, and he succeeded him as foreign
associate of the Academy of Paris.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Several of his investigations are contained in the earlier volumes
of the <i>Comment. Acad. Petropol.</i>; and his separately published works
are:&mdash;<i>Dissertatio Inaugur. Phys. Med. de Respiratione</i> (Basil. 1721),
4to; <i>Positiones Anatomico-Botanicae</i> (Basil. 1721), 4to; <i>Exercitationes
quaedam Mathematicae</i> (Venetiis, 1724), 4to; <i>Hydrodynamica</i>
(Argentorati, 1738), 4to.</p>
</div>

<p>V. <span class="sc">Jean Bernoulli</span> (1710-1790), the youngest of the three
sons of Jean Bernoulli, was born at Basel on the 18th of May
1710. He studied law and mathematics, and, after travelling in
France, was for five years professor of eloquence in the university
of his native city. On the death of his father he succeeded him
as professor of mathematics. He was thrice a successful competitor
for the prizes of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. His
prize subjects were, the capstan, the propagation of light, and the
magnet. He enjoyed the friendship of P.L.M. de Maupertuis,
who died under his roof while on his way to Berlin. He himself
died in 1790. His two sons, Jean and Jacques, are the last
noted mathematicians of the family.</p>

<p><span class="sc">VI. Nicolas Bernoulli</span> (1687-1759), cousin of the three
preceding, and son of Nicolas Bernoulli, one of the senators of
Basel, was born in that city on the 10th of October 1687. He
visited England, where he was kindly received by Sir Isaac
Newton and Edmund Halley (<i>Com. Phil.</i> ep. 199), held for a
time the mathematical chair at Padua, and was successively
professor of logic and of law at Basel, where he died on the 29th
of November 1759. He was editor of the <i>Ars Conjectandi</i>
of his uncle Jacques. His own works are contained in the <i>Acta
Eruditorum</i>, the <i>Giornale de&rsquo; letterati d&rsquo; Italia</i>, and the <i>Commercium Philosophicum</i>.</p>

<p><span class="sc">VII. Jean Bernoulli</span> (1744-1807), grandson of the first
Jean Bernoulli, and son of the second of that name, was born
at Basel on the 4th of November 1744. He studied at Basel
and at Neuchâtel, and when thirteen years of age took the
degree of doctor in philosophy. At nineteen he was appointed
astronomer royal of Berlin. Some years after, he visited
Germany, France and England, and subsequently Italy,
Russia and Poland. On his return to Berlin he was appointed
director of the mathematical department of the academy.
Here he died on the 13th of July 1807. His writings consist of
travels and astronomical, geographical and mathematical
works. In 1774 he published a French translation of Leonhard
Euler&rsquo;s <i>Elements of Algebra</i>. He contributed several papers to
the Academy of Berlin.</p>

<p><span class="sc">VIII. Jacques Bernoulli</span> (1759-1789), younger brother of
the preceding, and the second of this name, was born at Basel
on the 17th of October 1759. Having finished his literary
studies, he was, according to custom, sent to Neuchâtel to learn
French. On his return he graduated in law. This study,
however, did not check his hereditary taste for geometry. The
early lessons which he had received from his father were continued
by his uncle Daniel, and such was his progress that at
the age of twenty-one he was called to undertake the duties
of the chair of experimental physics, which his uncle&rsquo;s advanced
years rendered him unable to discharge. He afterwards accepted
the situation of secretary to count de Brenner, which afforded
him an opportunity of seeing Germany and Italy. In Italy
he formed a friendship with Lorgna, professor of mathematics
at Verona, and one of the founders of the <i>Società Italiana</i> for the
encouragement of the sciences. He was also made corresponding
member of the royal society of Turin; and, while residing
at Venice, he was, through the friendly representation of Nicolaus
von Fuss, admitted into the academy of St Petersburg. In
1788 he was named one of its mathematical professors.</p>

<p>He was tragically drowned while bathing in the Neva in
July 1789, a few months after his marriage with a daughter
of Albert Euler, son of Leonhard Euler.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Several of his papers are contained in the first six volumes of
<i>Nova Acta Acad. Scien. Imper. Petropol.</i>, in the <i>Acta Helvetica</i>, in the
<i>Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin and Turin</i>, and in his brother
John&rsquo;s publications. He also published separately some juridical
and physical theses, and a German translation of <i>Mémoires du
philosophe de Merian</i>. See generally M. Cantor, <i>Geschichte der
Mathematik</i>; J.C. Poggendorff, <i>Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch</i> (1863-1904).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNSTEIN, AARON<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1812-1884), Jewish scientist, author
and reformer. In the middle of the 19th century Bernstein took
an active share in the movement for synagogue reform in Germany.
He was the author of two delightful Ghetto stories,
<i>Vögele der Maggid</i> and <i>Mendel Gibbor</i>, being one of the originators
of this <i>genre</i> of modern fiction. He was also a publicist, and his
<i>History of Revolution and Reaction in Germany</i> (3 vols., 1883-1884)
was a collection of important political essays.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span></p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1735-1797),
Danish statesman, was born at Hanover on the 28th of August
1735. His career was determined by his uncle, Johann Hartwig
Ernst Bernstorff, who early discerned the talents of his nephew
and induced him to study in the German and Swiss universities
and travel for some years in Italy, France, England and Holland,
to prepare himself for a statesman&rsquo;s career. During these
<i>Wanderjahre</i> he made the acquaintance of the poets Gellert and
Jacobi, the learned Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, the duc de
Choiseul, and Gottfried Achenwall, the statistician. At his
uncle&rsquo;s desire he rejected the Hanoverian for the Danish service,
and in 1759 took his seat in the German chancery at Copenhagen.
In 1767, at the same time as his uncle, he was created a count,
and in 1769 was made a privy-councillor. He is described at
this period as intellectual, upright and absolutely trustworthy,
but obstinate and self-opinionated to the highest degree, arguing
with antiquaries about coins, with equerries about horses, and
with foreigners about their own countries, always certain that
he was right and they wrong, whatever the discussion might
be. He shared the disgrace of his uncle when Struensee came
into power, but re-entered the Danish service after Struensee&rsquo;s
fall at the end of 1772, working at first in the financial and
economical departments, and taking an especial interest in
agriculture. The improvements he introduced in the tenures
of his peasantry anticipated in some respects the agricultural
reforms of the next generation.</p>

<p>In April 1773 Bernstorff was transferred to the position for
which he was especially fitted, the ministry of foreign affairs,
with which he combined the presidency of the German chancery
(for Schleswig-Holstein). His predecessor, Adolf Siegfried Osten,
had been dismissed because he was not <i>persona grata</i> at St
Petersburg, and Bernstorff&rsquo;s first official act was to conclude the
negotiations which had long been pending with the grand-duke
Paul as duke of Holstein-Gottorp. The result was the exchange-treaty
of the 1st of June (May 21 O.S.) 1773, confirming the
previous treaty of 1767 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bernstorff, J.H.E.</a></span>). This was
followed by the treaty of alliance between Denmark and Russia
of the 12th of August 1773, which was partly a mutually defensive
league, and partly an engagement between the two states to
upset the new constitution recently established in Sweden by
Gustavus III., when the right moment for doing so should arrive.
For this mischievous and immoral alliance, which bound
Denmark to the wheels of the Russian empress&rsquo;s chariot and
sought to interfere in the internal affairs of a neighbouring state,
Bernstorff was scarcely responsible, for the preliminaries had
been definitely settled in his uncle&rsquo;s time and he merely concluded
them. But there can be no doubt that he regarded this anti-Swedish
policy as the correct one for Denmark, especially with
a monarch like Gustavus III. on the Swedish throne. It is
also pretty certain that the anti-Swedish alliance was Russia&rsquo;s
price for compounding the Gottorp difficulty.</p>

<p>Starting from the hypothesis that Sweden was &ldquo;Denmark-Norway&rsquo;s
most active and irreconcilable enemy,&rdquo; Bernstorff
logically included France, the secular ally of Sweden, among the
hostile powers with whom an alliance was to be avoided, and
drew near to Great Britain as the natural foe of France, especially
during the American War of Independence, and this too despite
the irritation occasioned in Denmark-Norway by Great Britain&rsquo;s
masterful interpretation of the expression &ldquo;contraband.&rdquo;
Bernstorff&rsquo;s sympathy with England grew stronger still when in
1779 Spain joined her enemies; and he was much inclined, the
same winter, to join a triple alliance between Great Britain,
Russia and Denmark-Norway, proposed by England for the
purpose of compelling the Bourbon powers to accept reasonable
terms of peace. But he was overruled by the crown prince
Frederick, who thought such a policy too hazardous, when
Russia declined to have anything to do with it. Instead of this
the Russian chancellor Nikita Panin proposed an armed league
to embrace all the neutral powers, for the purpose of protecting
neutral shipping in time of war. This league was very similar
to one proposed by Bernstorff himself in September 1778 for
enforcing the principle &ldquo;a free ship makes the cargo free&rdquo;;
but as now presented by Russia, he rightly regarded it as directed
exclusively against England. He acceded to it indeed (9th of
July 1780) because he could not help doing so; but he had
previously, by a separate treaty with England, on the 4th of July,
come to an understanding with that power as to the meaning of
the expression &ldquo;contraband of war.&rdquo; This independence
caused great wrath at St Petersburg, where Bernstorff was
accused of disloyalty, and ultimately sacrificed to the resentment
of the Russian government (13th of November 1780), the more
readily as he already disagreed on many important points of
domestic administration with the prime minister Höegh Guldberg.
He retired to his Mecklenburg estates, but on the fall of Guldberg
four years later, was recalled to office (April 1784). The ensuing
thirteen years were perhaps the best days of the old Danish
absolutism. The government, under the direction of such
enlightened ministers as Bernstorff, Reventlow and others, held
the mean between Struensee&rsquo;s extravagant cosmopolitanism and
Guldberg&rsquo;s stiff conservatism. In such noble projects of reform
as the emancipation of the serfs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reventlow</a></span>) Bernstorff
took a leading part, and so closely did he associate himself with
everything Danish, so popular did he become in the Danish
capital, that a Swedish diplomatist expressed the opinion that
henceforth Bernstorff could not be removed without danger.
Liberal-minded as he was, he held that &ldquo;the will of the nation
should be a law to the king,&rdquo; and he boldly upheld the freedom
of the press as the surest of safety-valves.</p>

<p>Meanwhile foreign complications were again endangering the
position of Denmark-Norway. As Bernstorff had predicted,
Panin&rsquo;s neutrality project had resulted in a breach between
Great Britain and Russia. Then came Gustavus III.&rsquo;s sudden
war with Russia in 1788. Bernstorff was bound by treaty to
assist Russia in such a contingency, but he took care that the
assistance so rendered should be as trifling as possible, to avoid
offending Great Britain and Prussia. Still more menacing
became the political situation on the outbreak of the French
Revolution. Ill-disposed as Bernstorff was towards the Jacobins,
he now condemned on principle any interference in the domestic
affairs of France, and he was persuaded that Denmark&rsquo;s safest
policy was to keep clear of every anti-French coalition. From
this unassailable standpoint he never swerved, despite the
promises and even the menaces both of the eastern and the
western powers. He was rewarded with complete success and
the respect of all the diplomatists in Europe. His neutrality
treaty with Sweden (17th of March 1794), for protecting their
merchantmen by combined squadrons, was also extremely
beneficial to the Scandinavian powers, both commercially and
politically. Taught by the lesson of Poland, he had, in fact,
long since abandoned his former policy of weakening Sweden.
Bernstorff&rsquo;s great faculties appeared, indeed, to mature and
increase with age, and his death, on the 21st of June 1797, was
regarded in Denmark as a national calamity.</p>

<p>Count Bernstorff was twice married, his wives being the two
sisters of the writers Counts Christian and Friedrich Leopold
zu Stolberg. He left seven sons and three daughters. Of his
sons the best known is Christian Günther, count von Bernstorff.
Another, Count Joachim, was attached to his brother&rsquo;s fortunes
so long as he remained in the Danish service, was associated
with him in representing Denmark at the congress of Vienna,
and in 1815 was appointed ambassador at that court.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Rasmus Nyerup, <i>Bernstorffs Eftermaele</i> (Kjobenhavn, 1799);
Peter Edward Holm, <i>Danmark-Norges udenrigske Historie</i> (Copenhagen,
1875); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie V.</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905);
Christian Ulrich Detlev von Eggers, <i>Denkwurdigskeiten aus
dem Leben des Grafen A.P. Bernstorff</i> (Copenhagen, 1800); Aage
Frus, <i>A.P. Bernstorff og O. Hoegh-Guldberg</i> (Copenhagen, 1899);
and <i>Bernstorfferne og Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1769-1835),
Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomatist, son of
Count Andreas Peter von Bernstorff, was born at Copenhagen
on the 3rd of April 1769. Educated for the diplomatic service
under his father&rsquo;s direction, he began his career in 1787, as
attaché to the representative of Denmark at the opening of the
Swedish diet. In 1789 he went as secretary of legation to Berlin,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
where his maternal uncle, Count Leopold Friedrich zu Stolberg,
was Danish ambassador. His uncle&rsquo;s influence, as well as his
own social qualities, obtained him rapid promotion; he was
soon chargé d&rsquo;affaires, and in 1791 minister plenipotentiary.
In 1794 he exchanged this post for the important one of ambassador
at Stockholm, where he remained until May 1797, when
he was summoned to Copenhagen to act as substitute for his
father during his illness. On the death of the latter (21st June),
he succeeded him as secretary of state for foreign affairs and
privy councillor. In 1800 he became head of the ministry.
He remained responsible for the foreign policy of Denmark
until May 1810, a fateful period which saw the battle of Copenhagen
(2nd of April 1801), the bombardment of Copenhagen
and capture of the Danish fleet in 1807. After his retirement
he remained without office until his appointment in 1811 as
Danish ambassador at Vienna. He remained here, in spite of
the fact that for a while Denmark was nominally at war with
Austria, until, in January 1814, on the accession of Denmark
to the coalition against Napoleon, he publicly resumed his
functions as ambassador. He accompanied the emperor Francis
to Paris, and was present at the signature of the first peace of
Paris. With his brother Joachim, he represented Denmark at
the congress of Vienna and, as a member for the commission
for the regulation of the affairs of Germany, was responsible
for some of that confusion of Danish and German interests which
was to bear bitter fruit later in the Schleswig-Holstein question
(<i>q.v.</i>). He again accompanied the allied sovereigns to Paris in
1815, returning to Copenhagen the same year. In 1817 he
was appointed Danish ambassador at Berlin, his brother Joachim
going at the same time to Vienna. In the following year Prince
Hardenberg made him the formal proposition that he should
transfer his services to Prussia, which, with the consent of his
sovereign, he did.</p>

<p>It was, therefore, as a Prussian diplomat that Bernstorff
attended the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1818), at
the close of which he returned to Berlin as minister of state and
head of the department for foreign affairs. Bernstorff&rsquo;s management
of Prussian policy during the many years that he remained
in office has been variously judged. He was by training and
temperament opposed to the Revolution, and he was initiated
into his new duties as a Prussian minister by the reactionary
Ancillon. He is accused of having subordinated the particular
interests of Prussia to the European policy of Metternich and
the &ldquo;Holy Alliance.&rdquo; Whether any other policy would in the
long run have served Prussia better is a matter for speculation.
It is true that Bernstorff supported the Carlsbad decrees, and
the Vienna Final Act; he was also the faithful henchman of
Metternich at the congresses of Laibach, Troppau and Verona.
On the other hand, he took a considerable share in laying the
foundations of the customs union (<i>Zollverein</i>), which was destined
to be the foundation of the Prussian hegemony in Germany.
In his support of Russia&rsquo;s action against Turkey in 1828 also
he showed that he was no blind follower of Metternich&rsquo;s views.
In the crisis of 1830 his moderation in face of the warlike clamour
of the military party at Berlin did much to prevent the troubles
in Belgium and Poland from ending in a universal European
conflagration.</p>

<p>From 1824 onward Bernstorff had been a constant sufferer
from hereditary gout, intensified and complicated by the results
of overwork. In the spring of 1832 the state of his health
compelled him to resign the ministry of foreign affairs to Ancillon,
who had already acted as his deputy for a year. He died on the
18th of March 1835.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. Caro in <i>Allgem. Deutsch. Biog.</i> s.v.; also H. von Treitschke,
<i>Deutsche Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1894).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span>
(1712-1772), Danish statesman, who came of a very ancient
Mecklenburg family, was the son of Joachim Engelke, Freiherr
von Bernstorff, chamberlain to the elector of Hanover, and
was born on the 13th of May 1712. His maternal grandfather,
Andreas Gottlieb Bernstorff (1640-1726), had been one of the
ablest ministers of George I., and under his guidance Johann
was very carefully educated, acquiring amongst other things
that intimate knowledge of the leading European languages,
especially French, which ever afterwards distinguished him.
He was introduced into the Danish service by his relations, the
brothers Plessen, who were ministers of state under Christian
VI. In 1732 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the court
of Dresden; and from 1738 he represented Holstein at the diet
of Regensburg, from 1744 to 1750 he represented Denmark at
Paris, whence he returned in 1754 to Denmark as minister of
foreign affairs. Supported by the powerful favourite A.G.
Moltke, and highly respected by Frederick V., he occupied for
twenty-one years the highest position in the government, and in the
council of state his opinion was decisive. But his chief concern
was with foreign affairs. Ever since the conclusion of the
Great Northern War, Danish statesmen had been occupied
in harvesting its fruits, namely, the Gottorp portions of Schleswig
definitely annexed to Denmark in 1721 by the treaty of Nystad,
and endeavouring to bring about a definitive general understanding
with the house of Gottorp as to their remaining possessions
in Holstein. With the head of the Swedish branch of
the Gottorps, the crown prince Adolphus Frederick, things had
been arranged by the exchange of 1750; but an attempt to
make a similar arrangement with the chief of the elder Gottorp
line, the cesarevitch Peter Feodorovich, had failed. In intimate
connexion with the Gottorp affair stood the question of the political
equilibrium of the north. Ever since Russia had become
the dominant Baltic power, as well as the state to which the
Gottorpers looked primarily for help, the necessity for a better
understanding between the two Scandinavian kingdoms had
clearly been recognized by the best statesmen of both, especially
in Denmark from Christian VI.&rsquo;s time; but unfortunately
this sound and sensible policy was seriously impeded by the
survival of the old national hatred on both sides of the Sound,
still further complicated by Gottorp&rsquo;s hatred of Denmark.
Moreover, it was a diplomatic axiom in Denmark, founded on
experience, that an absolute monarchy in Sweden was incomparably
more dangerous to her neighbour than a limited monarchy,
and after the collapse of Swedish absolutism with Charles XII.,
the upholding of the comparatively feeble, and ultimately
anarchical, parliamentary government of Sweden became
a question of principle with Danish statesmen throughout
the 18th century. A friendly alliance with a relatively weak
Sweden was the cardinal point of Bernstorff&rsquo;s policy. But his
plans were traversed again and again by unforeseen complications,
the failure of the most promising presumptions, the perpetual
shifting of apparently stable alliances; and again and
again he had to modify his means to attain his ends. Amidst
all these perplexities Bernstorff approved himself a consummate
statesman. It seemed almost as if his wits were sharpened
into a keener edge by his very difficulties; but since he condemned
on principle every war which was not strictly defensive,
and it had fallen to his lot to guide a comparatively small power,
he always preferred the way of negotiation, even sometimes
where the diplomatic tangle would perhaps best have been
severed boldly by the sword. The first difficult problem he had to
face was the Seven Years&rsquo; War. He was determined to preserve
the neutrality of Denmark at any cost, and this he succeeded
in doing, despite the existence of a subsidy-treaty with the
king of Prussia, and the suspicions of England and Sweden.
It was through his initiative, too, that the convention of Kloster-Seven
was signed (10th of September 1757), and on the 4th of
May 1758 he concluded a still more promising treaty with France,
whereby, in consideration of Denmark&rsquo;s holding an army-corps
of 24,000 men in Holstein till the end of the war, to secure
Hamburg, Lübeck and the Gottorp part of Holstein from
invasion, France, and ultimately Austria also, engaged to bring
about an exchange between the king of Denmark and the
cesarevitch, as regards Holstein. But the course of the war
made this compact inoperative. Austria hastened to repudiate
her guarantee to Denmark in order not to offend the new emperor
of Russia, Peter III., and one of Peter&rsquo;s first acts on ascending
the throne was to declare war against Denmark. The coolness
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
and firmness of Bernstorff saved the situation. He protested
that the king of Denmark was bound to defend Schleswig
&ldquo;so long as there was a sword in Denmark and a drop of blood
in the veins of the Danish people.&rdquo; He rejected the insulting
ultimatum of the Russian emperor. He placed the best French
general of the day at the head of the well-equipped Danish
army. But just as the Russian and Danish armies had come
within striking distance, the tidings reached Copenhagen that
Peter III. had been overthrown by his consort. Bernstorff
was one of the first to recognize the impotence of the French
monarchy after the Seven Years&rsquo; War, and in 1763 he considered
it expedient to exchange the French for the Russian alliance,
which was cemented by the treaty of the 28th of April (March
11) 1765. This compact engaged Denmark to join with
Russia in upholding the existing Swedish constitution, in return
for which Catherine II. undertook to adjust the Gottorp difficulty
by the cession of the Gottorp portion of Holstein in exchange
for the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. For
his part in this treaty Bernstorff was created count. On the
accession of Christian VII., in 1766, Bernstorff&rsquo;s position
became very precarious, and he was exposed to all manner of
attacks, being accused, without a shadow of truth, of exploiting
Denmark, and of unduly promoting foreigners. It is remarkable,
however, that though Bernstorff ruled Denmark for twenty years
he never learnt Danish. His last political achievement was to
draw still closer to Russia by the treaty of the 13th of December
1769, the most important paragraph of which stipulated that
any change in the Swedish constitution should be regarded
by Denmark and Russia as a <i>casus belli</i> against Sweden, and
that in the event of such a war Denmark should retain all
the territory conquered from Sweden. This treaty proved to
be a great mistake on Denmark&rsquo;s part, but circumstances
seemed at the time to warrant it. Nine months later, on the
13th of September 1770, Bernstorff was dismissed as the result
of Struensee&rsquo;s intrigues, and, rejecting the brilliant offers of
Catherine II. if he would enter the Russian service, retired to his
German estates, where he died on the 18th of February 1772.
Bernstorff was not only one of the ablest but one of the noblest
and most conscientious statesmen of his day. The motto he
chose on receiving the order of the Daneborg was &ldquo;Integritas
et rectum custodiunt me,&rdquo; and throughout a long life he was
never false to it.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Poul Vedel, <i>Den aeldre Grev Bernstorffs ministerium</i> (Copenhagen,
1882); <i>Correspondance ministérielle du Comte J.H.E.
Bernstorff</i>, ed. Vedel (Copenhagen, 1882); Aage Friis, <i>Bernslorfferne og
Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1899).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEROSSUS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a priest of Bel at Babylon, who translated into
Greek the standard Babylonian work on astrology and astronomy,
and compiled (in three books) the history of his country from
native documents, which he published in Greek in the reign of
Antiochus II. (250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His works have perished, but extracts
from the history have been preserved by Josephus and Eusebius,
the latter of whom probably derived them not directly
from Berossus, but through the medium of Alexander Polyhistor
and Apollodorus. The extracts containing the Babylonian
cosmology, the list of the antediluvian kings of Babylonia,
and the Chaldaean story of the Deluge, have been shown by
the decipherment of the cuneiform texts to have faithfully
reproduced the native legends; we may, therefore, conclude
that the rest of the History was equally trustworthy. On the
other hand, a list of post-diluvian dynasties, which is quoted
by Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus as having been given by
Berossus, cannot, in its present form, be reconciled with the
monumental facts, though a substratum of historical truth
is discoverable in it. As it stands, it is as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">1. 86 Chaldaean</td> <td class="tcc">kings</td> <td class="tcl">34,080 or 33,091</td> <td class="tcc">years</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">2. &ensp;8 Median</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">224</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">3. 11 other kings</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">no number.</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">4. 49 Chaldaean</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">458</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">5. &ensp;9 Arabian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">245</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">6. 45 Assyrian</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">526</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">After these, according to Eusebius, came the reign of Pul.
By means of an ingenious chronological combination, the several
items of which, however, are very questionable, J.A. Brandis
assigned 258 years to the 3rd dynasty; other summations
have been proposed with equally little assurance of certainty.
If Eusebius can be trusted, the 6th dynasty ended in 729 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
the year in which Pul or Tiglath-pileser III. was crowned king of
Babylonia. But all attempts to harmonize the scheme of
dynasties thus ascribed to Berossus with the list given us in
the so-called dynastic Tablets discovered by Dr Pinches have
been failures. The numbers, whether of kings or of years,
cannot have been handed down to us correctly by the Greek
writers. All that seems certain is that Berossus arranged his
history so that it should fill the astronomical period of 36,000
years, beginning with the first man and ending with the conquest
of Babylon by Alexander the Great.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J.P. Cory, <i>Ancient Fragments</i> (1826, ed. by E.R. Hodges,
1876); Fr. Lenormant, <i>Essai de commentaire des fragments cosmogoniques
de Bérose</i> (1872); A. von Gutschmid in the <i>Rheinisches
Museum</i> (1853); George Smith in <i>T.S.B.A.</i> iii., 1874, pp. 361-379;
Th.G. Pinches in <i>P.S.B.A.</i>, 1880-1881.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1852-1899), English non-conformist
divine, was born on the 14th of December 1852 at
Bradshawgate, Leigh, Lancashire. At the age of seventeen
he entered Airedale College, Bradford, to train for the Congregational
ministry, and in 1875 became pastor of St George&rsquo;s Road
Congregational church, Bolton. He became widely known
as a man of administrative ability, a vigorous platform speaker
and an eloquent preacher. In July 1883 he undertook the
pastorate of the church at Queen Street, Wolverhampton,
with the supervision of nine dependent churches in the neighbourhood.
Here again he exercised a wide influence, due in
part to his evangelical conviction, eloquence, broad views and
powers of organization, but also to the magnetic force of his
personality. In 1887 he went to America in fulfilment of a
promise to Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, and received
a unanimous invitation to succeed Beecher in what was then
the best-known pulpit in the United States. Berry, however,
felt that his work lay in England and declined the invitation.
In 1892 he took part in a conference at Grindelwald on the
question of Christian Reunion, and subsequently, with Hugh
Price Hughes and Alexander Mackennal of Bowdon, conducted
a campaign throughout England, introducing the ideas and
principles of Free Church federation. He was the first president
of the Free Church congress. He played an effective part in
expressing the popular desire for peace between England and
America in reply to President Cleveland&rsquo;s message on the
Venezuelan boundary dispute, and was invited to Washington
to preach in connexion with the endeavour to establish an
international arbitration treaty. In 1896 he was elected chairman
of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. In
1898 his health began to fail, and he died suddenly on the
31st of January 1899. His published works consist chiefly of
addresses, and two volumes of sermons, <i>Vision and Duty</i>, and
<i>Mischievous Goodness</i>.</p>
<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1778-1820),
younger son of Charles X. of France, was born at Versailles.
At the Revolution he left France with his father, then comte
d&rsquo;Artois, and served in the army of Condé; from 1792 to 1797.
He afterwards joined the Russian army, and in 1801 took up his
residence in England, where he remained for thirteen years.
During that time he married an Englishwoman, Anna Brown,
by whom he had two daughters, afterwards the baronne de
Charette and the comtesse de Lucinge-Faucigny. The marriage
was cancelled for political reasons in 1814, when the duke set
out for France. His frank, open manners gained him some
favour with his countrymen, and Louis XVIII. named him commander-in-chief
of the army at Paris on the return of Napoleon
from Elba. He was, however, unable to retain the loyalty of
his troops, and retired to Ghent during the Hundred Days. In
1816 he married the princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise (1798-1870),
eldest daughter of King Francis I. of Naples. On the
13th of February 1820 he was mortally wounded, when leaving
the opera-house at Paris with his wife, by a saddler named
Louis Pierre Louvel. Seven months after his death the duchess
gave birth to a son, who received the title of duke of Bordeaux,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
but who is known in history as the comte de Chambord.
A daughter, afterwards duchess of Parma, was born in 1819.</p>

<p>The duchess of Berry was compelled to follow Charles X.
to Holyrood after July 1830, but it was with the resolution of
returning speedily and making an attempt to secure the throne
for her son. From England she went to Italy, and in April 1832
she landed near Marseilles, but, receiving no support, was compelled
to make her way towards the loyal districts of Vendée
and Brittany. Her followers, however, were defeated, and,
after remaining concealed for five months in a house in Nantes,
she was betrayed to the government and imprisoned in the
castle of Blaye. Here she gave birth to a daughter, the fruit of
a secret marriage contracted with an Italian nobleman, Count
Ettore Lucchesi-Palli (1805-1864). The announcement of this
marriage at once deprived the duchess of the sympathies of her
supporters. She was no longer an object of fear to the French
government, who released her in June 1833. She set sail for
Sicily, and, joining her husband, lived in retirement from that
time till her death, at Brunnensee in Switzerland, in April 1870.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERRY, JOHN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1340-1416), third son of John II.,
king of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born on the 30th
of November 1340 at Vincennes. He was created count of
Poitiers in 1356, and was made the king&rsquo;s lieutenant in southern
France, though the real power rested chiefly with John of
Armagnac, whose daughter Jeanne he married in 1360. The
loss of his southern possessions by the treaty of Bretigny was
compensated by the fiefs of Auvergne and Berry, with the rank
of peer of France. The duke went to England in 1360 as a
hostage for the fulfilment of the treaty of Bretigny, returning
to France in 1367 on the pretext of collecting his ransom. He
took no leading part in the war against the English, his energies
being largely occupied with the satisfaction of his artistic and
luxurious tastes. For this reason perhaps his brother Charles V.
assigned him no share in the government during the minority of
Charles VI. He received, however, the province of Languedoc.
The peasant revolt of the <i>Tuchins</i> and <i>Coquins</i>, as the insurgents
were called, was suppressed with great harshness, and the duke
exacted from the states of Languedoc assembled at Lyons a fine
of £15,000. He fought at Rosebeke in 1382 against the Flemings
and helped to suppress the Parisian revolts. By a series of
delays he caused the failure of the naval expedition prepared at
Sluys against England in 1386, and a second accusation of
military negligence led to disgrace of the royal princes and the
temporary triumph of the <i>marmousels</i>, as the advisers of the late
king were nicknamed. Charles VI. visited Languedoc in 1389-1390,
and enquired into his uncle&rsquo;s government. The duke was
deprived of the government of Languedoc, and his agent, Bétizac,
was burnt. When in 1401 he was restored, he delegated his
authority in the province, where he was still hated, to Bérnard
d&rsquo;Armagnac. In 1396 he negotiated a truce with Richard II.
of England, and his marriage with the princess Isabella of France.
He tried to mediate between his brother Philip the Bold of
Burgundy and his nephew Louis, duke of Orleans, and later
between John &ldquo;sans Peur&rdquo; of Burgundy and Orleans. He
broke with John after the murder of Orleans, though he tried
to prevent civil war, and only finally joined the Armagnac party
in 1410. In 1413 he resumed his rôle of mediator, and was for
a short time tutor to the dauphin. He died in Paris on the 15th
of June 1416, leaving vast treasures of jewelry, objects of art,
and especially of illuminated MSS., many of which have been
preserved. He decorated the Sainte Chapelle at Bourges; he
built the Hôtel de Nesle in Paris, and palaces at Poitiers, Bourges,
Mehun-sur-Yèvre and elsewhere.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also L. Raynal, <i>Histoire du Berry</i> (Bourges, 1845); &ldquo;Jean,
duc de Berry,&rdquo; in S Luce, <i>La France pendant la guerre de Cent Ans</i>
(1890), vol. i.; Toulgoet-Tréanna, in <i>Mém. de la Soc. des antiquaires
du centre</i>, vol. xvii. (1890). His beautiful illuminated <i>Livre d&rsquo;heures</i>
was reproduced (Paris, fol. 1904) by P. Durrieu.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERRY,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Berri</span>, a former province of France, absorbed
in 1790 in the departments of Cher, corresponding roughly with
Haut-Berry, and Indre, representing Bas-Berry. George Sand,
the most famous of &ldquo;berrichon&rdquo; writers, has described the quiet
scenery and rural life of the province in the rustic novels of her
later life. Berry is the <i>civitas</i> or <i>pagus</i> Bituricensis of Gregory
of Tours. The Bituriges were said by Livy (v. 34) to have been
the dominating tribe in Gaul in the 7th century, one of their
kings, Ambigat, having ruled over all Gaul. In Caesar&rsquo;s time
they were dependent on the Aedui. The tribes inhabiting
the districts of Berry and Bourbonnais were distinguished
as Bituriges Cubi. The numerous menhirs and dolmens to be
found in the district, to which local superstitions still cling, are
probably monuments of still earlier inhabitants. In 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
the Bituriges, at the order of Vercingetorix, set fire to their
towns, but spared Bourges (Avaricum) their capital, which was
taken and sacked by the Romans. The province was amalgamated
under Augustus with Aquitaine, and Bourges became
the capital of Aquitania Prima. In 475 Berry came into the
possession of the west Goths, from whom it was taken (<i>c.</i> 507)
by Clovis. The first count of Berry, Chunibert (d. 763), was
created by Waifer, duke of Aquitaine, from whom the county
was wrested by Pippin the Short, who made it his residence and
left it to his son Carloman, on whose death it fell to his brother
Charlemagne. The countship of Berry was suppressed (926) by
Rudolph, king of the Franks (fl. 923-936). Berry was for some
time a group of lordships dependent directly on the crown, but
the chief authority eventually passed to the viscounts of Bourges,
who, while owning the royal suzerainty, preserved a certain
independence until 1101, when the viscount Odo Arpin de Dun
sold his fief to the crown. Berry was part of the dowry of Eleanor,
wife of Louis VII., and on her divorce and remarriage with
Henry II. of England it passed to the English king. Its possession
remained, however, a matter of dispute until 1200, when
Berry reverted by treaty with John of England to Philip Augustus,
and the various fiefs of Berry were given as a dowry to John&rsquo;s
niece, Blanche of Castile, on her marriage with Philip&rsquo;s son
Louis (afterwards Louis VIII.). Philip Augustus established
an effective control over the administration of the province by
the appointment of a royal <i>bailli</i>. Berry suffered during the
Hundred Years&rsquo; War, and more severely during the wars of
religion in the 16th century. It had been made a duchy in 1360,
and its first duke, John [Jean] (1340-1416), son of the French
king John II., encouraged the arts and beautified the province
with money wrung from his government of Languedoc. Thenceforward
it was held as an apanage of the French crown, usually
by a member of the royal family closely related to the king.
Charles of France (1447-1472), brother of Louis XI, was duke
of Berry, but was deprived of this province, as subsequently of
the duchies of Normandy and Guienne, for intrigues against
his brother. The duchy was also governed by Jeanne de Valois
(d. 1505), the repudiated wife of Louis XII.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; by Marguerite
d&rsquo;Angoulême, afterwards queen of Navarre; by Marguerite de
Valois, afterwards duchess of Savoy; and by Louise of Lorraine,
widow of Henry III., after whose death (1601) the province was
finally reabsorbed in the royal domain. The title of duke of
Berry, divested of territorial significance, was held by princes
of the royal house. Charles (1686-1714), duke of Berry, grandson
of Louis XIV., and third son of the dauphin Louis (d. 1711),
married Marie Louise Elisabeth (1686-1714), eldest daughter
of the duke of Orleans, whose intrigues made her notorious.
The last to bear the title of duke of Berry was the ill-fated
Charles Ferdinand, grandson and heir of Charles X.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See R. le Maulde, <i>Jeanne de France, duchesse d&rsquo;Orléans et de
Berry</i> (Paris, 1883).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1790-1868), French advocate
and parliamentary orator, was the son of an eminent advocate
and counsellor to the <i>parlement</i>. He was educated at the Collège
de Juilly, on leaving which he adopted the profession of the law;
he was admitted advocate in 1811, and in the same year he
married. In the great conflict of the period between Napoleon I.
and the Bourbons, Berryer, like his father, was an ardent
Legitimist; and in the spring of 1815, at the opening of the
campaign of the Hundred Days, he followed Louis XVIII. to
Ghent as a volunteer. After the second restoration he distinguished
himself as a courageous advocate of moderation in
the treatment of the military adherents of the emperor. He
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
assisted his father and Dupin in the unsuccessful defence of
Marshal Ney before the chamber of peers; and he undertook
alone the defence of General Cambronne and General Debelle,
procuring the acquittal of the former and the pardon of the latter.
By this time he had a very large business as advocate, and was
engaged on behalf of journalists in many press prosecutions.
He stood forward with a noble resolution to maintain the freedom
of the press, and severely censured the rigorous measures of
the police department. In 1830, not long before the fall of
Charles X., Berryer was elected a member of the chamber of
deputies. He appeared there as the champion of the king and
encouraged him in his reactionary policy. After the revolution
of July, when the Legitimists withdrew in a body, Berryer alone
retained his seat as deputy. He resisted, but unsuccessfully,
the abolition of the hereditary peerage. He advocated trial
by jury in press prosecutions, the extension of municipal franchises
and other liberal measures. In May 1832 he hastened
from Paris to see the duchess of Berry on her landing in the south
of France for the purpose of organizing an insurrection in
favour of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, since known as the
Comte de Chambord. Berryer attempted to turn her from her
purpose; and failing in this he set out for Switzerland. He was,
however, arrested, imprisoned and brought to trial as one of
the insurgents. He was immediately acquitted. In the following
year he pleaded for the liberation of the duchess, made a
memorable speech in defence of Chateaubriand, who was prosecuted
for his violent attacks on the government of Louis
Philippe, and undertook the defence of several Legitimist
journalists. Among the more noteworthy events of his subsequent
career were his defence of Louis Napoleon after the
ridiculous affair of Boulogne, in 1840, and a visit to England
in December 1843, for the purpose of formally acknowledging
the pretender, the duke of Bordeaux, then living in London,
as Henry V. and lawful king of France. Berryer was an active
member of the National Assembly convoked after the revolution
of February 1848, again visited the pretender, then at Wiesbaden,
and still fought in the old cause. This long parliamentary
career was closed by a courageous protest against the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>
of December 2, 1851. After a lapse of twelve years, however,
he appeared once more in his forsaken field as a deputy to the
Corps Législatif. Berryer was elected member of the French
Academy in 1854. A visit paid by this famous orator to Lord
Brougham in 1865 was made the occasion of a banquet given in
his honour by the benchers of the Temple and of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn.
In November 1868 he was removed by his own desire from
Paris to his country seat at Augerville, and there he died on the
29th of the same month.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERSERKER<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (from the &ldquo;sark&rdquo; or shirt of the &ldquo;bear,&rdquo; or
other animal-skins worn by them), in Scandinavian mythology,
the name of the twelve sons of the hero Berserk, grandson of
the eight-handed Starkadder and Alfhilde. Berserk was famed
for the reckless fury with which he fought, always going into
battle without armour. By the daughter of King Swafurlam,
whom he had killed, he had the twelve sons who were his equals
in bravery. In Old Norse the term <i>berserker</i> thus became
synonymous with reckless courage, and was later applied to
the bodyguards of several of the Scandinavian heroes.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERT, PAUL<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1833-1886), French physiologist and politician,
was born at Auxerre (Yonne) on the 17th of October 1833.
He entered the École Polytechnique at Paris with the intention
of becoming an engineer; then changing his mind, he studied
law; and finally, under the influence of the zoologist, L.P.
Gratiolet (1815-1865), he took up physiology, becoming one of
Claude Bernard&rsquo;s most brilliant pupils. After graduating at
Paris as doctor of medicine in 1863, and doctor of science in
1866, he was appointed professor of physiology successively
at Bordeaux (1866) and the Sorbonne (1869). After the revolution
of 1870 he began to take part in politics as a supporter of
Gambetta. In 1874 he was elected to the Assembly, where
he sat on the extreme left, and in 1876 to the chamber of deputies.
He was one of the most determined enemies of clericalism, and
an ardent advocate of &ldquo;liberating national education from
religious sects, while rendering it accessible to every citizen.&rdquo;
In 1881 he was minister of education and worship in Gambetta&rsquo;s
short-lived cabinet, and in the same year he created a great
sensation by a lecture on modern Catholicism, delivered in a
Paris theatre, in which he poured ridicule on the fables and
follies of the chief religious tracts and handbooks that circulated
especially in the south of France. Early in 1886 he was appointed
resident-general in Annam and Tonkin, and died of dysentery
at Hanoi on the 11th of November of that year. But he was
more distinguished as a man of science than as a politician or
administrator. His classical work, <i>La Pression barométrique</i>
(1878), embodies researches that gained him the biennial prize
of 20,000 francs from the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and is
a comprehensive investigation on the physiological effects
of air-pressure, both above and below the normal. His earliest
researches, which provided him with material for his two doctoral
theses, were devoted to animal grafting and the vitality of
animal tissues, and they were followed by studies on the physiological
action of various poisons, on anaesthetics, on respiration
and asphyxia, on the causes of the change of colour in the
chameleon, &amp;c. He was also interested in vegetable physiology,
and in particular investigated the movements of the sensitive
plant, and the influence of light of different colours on the life
of vegetation. After about 1880 he produced several elementary
text-books of scientific instruction, and also various publications
on educational and allied subjects.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTANI, AGOSTINO<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1812-1886), Italian revolutionist,
was born at Milan on the 19th of October 1812. He took part
in the insurrection of 1848, though opposed to the fusion of
Lombardy with Piedmont. During the Roman republic of
1849, he, as medical officer, organized the ambulance service,
and, after the fall of Rome, withdrew to Genoa, where he worked
with Sir James Hudson for the liberation of the political prisoners
of Naples, but held aloof from the Mazzinian conspiracies. In
1859 he founded a revolutionary journal at Genoa, but, shortly
afterwards, joined as surgeon the Garibaldian corps in the
war of 1859. After Villafranca he became the organizer-in-chief
of the expeditions to Sicily, remaining at Genoa after
Garibaldi&rsquo;s departure for Marsala, and organizing four separate
volunteer corps, two of which were intended for Sicily and two
for the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged all to sail for
Sicily. Upon the arrival of Garibaldi at Naples, Bertani was
appointed secretary-general of the dictator, in which capacity
he reorganized the police, abolished the secret service fund,
founded twelve infant asylums, suppressed the duties upon
Sicilian products, prepared for the suppression of the religious
orders, and planned the sanitary reconstruction of the city.
Entering parliament in 1861, he opposed the Garibaldian
expedition, which ended at Aspromonte, but nevertheless
tended Garibaldi&rsquo;s wound with affectionate devotion. In 1866
he organized the medical service for the 40,000 Garibaldians,
and in 1867 fought at Mentana. His parliamentary career,
though marked by zeal, was less brilliant than his revolutionary
activity. Up to 1870 he remained an agitator, but, after the
liberation of Rome, seceded from the historic left, and
became leader of the extreme left, a position held until his
death on the 30th of April 1886. His chief work as deputy
was an inquiry into the sanitary conditions of the peasantry,
and the preparation of the sanitary code adopted by the Crispi
administration.</p>
<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTAT<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (Arab. <i>Jebalain</i>), negroes of the Shangalla group
of tribes, mainly agriculturists. They occupy the valleys of the
Yabus and Tumat, tributaries of the Blue Nile. They are shortish
and very black, with projecting jaws, broad noses and thick
lips. By both sexes the hair is worn short or the head shaved;
on cheeks and temple are tribal marks in the form of scars.
The huts of the Bertat are circular, the floor raised on short poles.
Their weapons are the spear, throwing-club, sword and dagger,
and also the <i>kulbeda</i> or throwing-knife. Blocks of salt are the
favourite form of currency. Gold washing is practised. Nature
worship still struggles against the spread of Mahommedanism.
The Bertat, estimated to number some 80,000, <i>c.</i> 1880, were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
nearly exterminated during the period of Dervish ascendancy
(1884-1898) in the eastern Sudan. Settled among them are
Arab communities governed by their own sheiks, while the
<i>meks</i> or rulers of the Bertat speak Arabic, and show traces of
foreign blood. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fazogli</a></span>.)</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Koeltlitz, &ldquo;The Bertat,&rdquo; <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>,
xxxiii. 51; <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTAUT, JEAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1552-1611), French poet, was born at
Caen in 1552. He figures with Desportes in the disdainful
couplet of Boileau on Ronsard:&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;Ce poète orgueilleux, trébuché de si haut,</p>
<p class="i05">Rendit plus retenus Desportes et Bertaut.&rdquo;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">He wrote light verse to celebrate the incidents of court life
in the manner of Desportes, but his verse is more fantastic and
fuller of conceits than his master&rsquo;s. He early entered the church,
and had a share in the conversion of Henry IV., a circumstance
which assured his career. He was successively councillor of
the parlement of Grenoble, secretary to the king, almoner to
Marie de&rsquo; Medici, abbot of Aulnay and finally, in 1606, bishop of
Sées. After his elevation to the bishopric he ceased to produce
the light verse in which he excelled, though his scruples did not
prevent him from preparing a new edition of his <i>Recueil de
quelques vers amoureux</i> (1602) in 1606. The serious poems in
which he celebrated the public events of his later years are dull
and lifeless. Bertaut died at Sées on the 8th of June 1611. His
works were edited by M.Ad. Chenevières in 1891.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> originally a nautical term, probably connected
with the verb &ldquo;to bear,&rdquo; first found in literature at the end of
the 16th century, with the alternative spelling &ldquo;birth.&rdquo; Its
primary meaning is &ldquo;sea-room,&rdquo; whether on the high seas or at
anchor. Hence the phrase &ldquo;to give a wide berth to,&rdquo; meaning
&ldquo;to keep at a safe distance from,&rdquo; both in its literal and its
metaphorical use. From meaning sea-room for a ship at anchor,
&ldquo;berth&rdquo; comes to mean also the position of a ship at her moorings
(&ldquo;to berth a ship&rdquo;). The word further means any place
on a ship allotted for a special purpose, where the men mess or
sleep, or an office or appointment on board, whence the word
has passed into colloquial use with the meaning of a situation
or employment. From the Icelandic <i>byrdi</i>, a board, is also
derived the ship-building term &ldquo;berth,&rdquo; meaning to board,
put up bulk-heads, etc.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGÈNE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1827-1907),
French chemist and politician, was born at Paris on the 29th
of October 1827, being the son of a doctor. After distinguishing
himself at school in history and philosophy, he turned to the
study of science. In 1851 he became a member of the staff
of the Collège de France as assistant to A.J. Balard, his former
master, and about the same time he began his life-long friendship
with Ernest Renan. In 1854 he made his reputation by his
doctoral thesis, <i>Sur les combinaisons de la glycérine avec les acides</i>,
which described a series of beautiful researches in continuation
and amplification of M.E. Chevreul&rsquo;s classical work. In 1859
he was appointed professor of organic chemistry at the École
Supérieure de Pharmacie, and in 1865 he accepted the new
chair of organic chemistry, which was specially created for his
benefit at the Collège de France. He became a member of the
Academy of Medicine in 1863, and ten years afterwards entered
the Academy of Sciences, of which he became perpetual secretary
in 1889 in succession to Louis Pasteur. He was appointed
inspector general of higher education in 1876, and after his
election as life senator in 1881 he continued to take an active
interest in educational questions, especially as affected by
compulsory military service. In the Goblet ministry of
1886-1887 he was minister of public instruction, and in the
Bourgeois cabinet of 1895-1896 he held the portfolio for foreign
affairs. His scientific jubilee was celebrated in Paris in 1901. He
died suddenly, immediately after the death of his wife, on the 18th
of March 1907, at Paris, and with her was buried in the Panthéon.</p>

<p>The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot&rsquo;s
chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the
action of physical forces which can be determined and measured.
When he began his active career it was generally believed
that, although some instances of the synthetical production of
organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic
chemistry must remain an analytical science and could not
become a constructive one, because the formation of the substances
with which it deals required the intervention of vital
activity in some shape. To this attitude he offered uncompromising
opposition, and by the synthetical production of numerous
hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved
that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods
of chemical manipulation and obey the same laws as inorganic
substances, thus exhibiting the &ldquo;creative character in virtue
of which chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of
its theories and classifications&mdash;a prerogative so far possessed
neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences.&rdquo; His
investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were
published in numerous papers and books, including <i>Chimie
organique fondée sur la synthèse</i> (1860) and <i>Les Carbures d&rsquo;hydrogéne</i>
(1901). Again he held that chemical phenomena are not
governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are
explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in
operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed,
with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his <i>Mécanique
chimique</i> (1878) and his <i>Thermochimie</i> (1897). This branch
of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives,
and on the theoretical side led to the results published in
his work <i>Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives</i> (1872),
while on the practical side it enabled him to render important
services to his country as president of the scientific defence
committee during the siege of Paris in 1870-71 and subsequently
as chief of the French explosives committee. In the
later years of his life he turned to the study of the earlier phases
of the science which he did so much to advance, and students
of chemical history are greatly indebted to him for his book on
<i>Les Origines de l&rsquo;alchimie</i> (1885) and his <i>Introduction à l&rsquo;étude
de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge</i> (1889), as well as for
publishing translations of various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic
treatises on alchemy and chemistry (<i>Collection des anciens
alchimistes grecs</i>, 1887-1888, and <i>La Chimie au moyen âge</i>,
1893). He was also the author of <i>Science et philosophie</i> (1886),
which contains a well-known letter to Renan on &ldquo;La Science
idéale et la science positive,&rdquo; of <i>La Révolution chimique, Lavoisier</i>
(1890), of <i>Science et morale</i> (1897), and of numerous articles
in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>, which he helped to establish.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> prince of Neuchâtel
(1753-1815), marshal of France and chief of the staff under
Napoleon I., was born at Versailles on the 20th of February
1753. As a boy he was instructed in the military art by his
father, an officer of the <i>Corps de génie</i>, and at the age of seventeen
he entered the army, serving successively in the staff, the
engineers and the prince de Lambesq&rsquo;s dragoons. In 1780 he
went to North America with Rochambeau, and on his return,
having attained the rank of colonel, he was employed in various
staff posts and in a military mission to Prussia. During the
Revolution, as chief of staff of the Versailles national guard, he
protected the aunts of Louis XVI. from popular violence, and
aided their escape (1791). In the war of 1792 he was at once
made chief of staff to Marshal Lückner, and he bore a
distinguished part in the Argonne campaign of Dumouriez and
Kellermann. He served with great credit in the Vendéan War of
1793-95, and was in the next year made a general of division
and chief of staff (<i>Major-Général</i>) to the army of Italy, which
Bonaparte had recently been appointed to command. His power
of work, accuracy and quick comprehension, combined with his
long and varied experience and his complete mastery of detail,
made him the ideal chief of staff to a great soldier; and in this
capacity he was Napoleon&rsquo;s most valued assistant for the rest
of his career. He accompanied Napoleon throughout the
brilliant campaign of 1796, and was left in charge of the army
after the peace of Campo Formio. In this post he organized the
Roman republic (1798), after which he joined his chief in Egypt,
serving there until Napoleon&rsquo;s return. He assisted in the <i>coup
d&rsquo;état</i> of 18th Brumaire, afterwards becoming minister of war for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
a time. In the campaign of Marengo he was the nominal head
of the Army of Reserve, but the first consul accompanied the
army and Berthier acted in reality, as always, as chief of staff to
Napoleon. At the close of the campaign he was employed in
civil and diplomatic business. When Napoleon became emperor,
Berthier was at once made a marshal of the empire. He took
part in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, and was
created duke of Valengin in 1806, sovereign prince of Neuchâtel
in the same year and vice-constable of the empire in 1807. In
1808 he served in the Peninsula, and in 1809 in the Austrian War,
after which he was given the title of prince of Wagram. Berthier
married a niece of the king of Bavaria. He was with Napoleon
in Russia in 1812, Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, fulfilling,
till the fall of the empire, the functions of &ldquo;major-general&rdquo; of
the <i>Grande Armée</i>. He abandoned Napoleon to make his peace
with Louis XVIII. in 1814, and accompanied the king in his
solemn entry into Paris. During Napoleon&rsquo;s captivity in Elba,
Berthier, whom he informed of his projects, was much perplexed
as to his future course, and, being unwilling to commit himself,
fell under the suspicion both of his old leader and of Louis XVIII.
On Napoleon&rsquo;s return he withdrew to Bamberg, where he died on
the 1st of June 1815. The manner of his death is uncertain;
according to some accounts he was assassinated by members of a
secret society, others say that, maddened by the sight of Russian
troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his
window and was killed. Berthier was not a great commander.
When he was in temporary command in 1809 the French army
in Bavaria underwent a series of reverses. Whatever merit as a
general he may have possessed was completely overshadowed
by the genius of his master. But his title to fame is that he
understood and carried out that master&rsquo;s directions to the
minutest detail.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1748-1822), French chemist,
was born at Talloire, near Annecy in Savoy, on the 9th of
December 1748. He studied first at Chambery and afterwards
at Turin, where he graduated in medicine. Settling in Paris in
1772, he became the private physician of Philip, duke of Orleans,
and by his chemical work soon gained so high a reputation that
in 1780 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In 1785
he declared himself an adherent of the Lavoisierian school,
though he did not accept Lavoisier&rsquo;s view of oxygen as the only
and universal acidifying principle, and he took part in the
reform in chemical nomenclature carried out by Lavoisier and
his associates in 1787. Among the substances of which he
investigated the composition were ammonia, sulphuretted
hydrogen and prussic acid, and his experiments on chlorine,
which he regarded, not as an element, but as oxygenated muriatic
(oxymuriatic) acid, led him to propose it as a bleaching agent
in 1785. He also prepared potassium chlorate and attempted
to use it in the manufacture of gunpowder as a substitute for
saltpetre. When, at the beginning of the French Revolution,
the deficiency in the supply of saltpetre became a serious matter,
he was placed at the head of the commission entrusted with the
development of its production in French territory, and another
commission on which he served had for its object the improvement
of the methods of iron manufacture. He was also a
member in 1794 of the committee on agriculture and the arts,
and technical science was further indebted to him for a systematic
exposition of the principles of dyeing&mdash;<i>Élémens de l&rsquo;art de la
teinture</i>, 1791, of which he published a second edition in 1809, in
association with his son, A.B. Berthollet (1783-1811). After
1794 he was teacher of chemistry in the polytechnic and normal
schools of Paris, and in 1795 he took an active part in remodelling
the Academy as the Institut National. In the following year he
and Gaspard Monge were chosen chiefs of a commission charged
with the task of selecting in Italy the choicest specimens of
ancient and modern art for the national galleries of Paris; and
in 1798 he was one of the band of scientific men who accompanied
Napoleon to Egypt, there forming themselves into the Institute
of Egypt on the plan of the Institut National. On the fall of the
Directory he was made a senator and grand officer of the Legion
of Honour; under the empire he became a count; and after the
restoration of the Bourbons he took his seat as a peer. In the
later years of his life he had at Arcueil, where he died on the 6th
of November 1822, a well-equipped laboratory, which became a
centre frequented by some of the most distinguished scientific
men of the time, their proceedings being published in three
volumes, between 1807 and 1817, as the <i>Mémoires de la société
d&rsquo;Arcueil</i>. Berthollet&rsquo;s most remarkable contribution to
chemistry was his <i>Essai de statique chimique</i> (1803), the first
systematic attempt to grapple with the problems of chemical
physics. His doctrines did not meet with general approval
among his contemporaries, partly perhaps because he pushed
them too far, as for instance in holding that two elements might
combine in constantly varying proportions, a view which gave
rise to a long dispute with L.J. Proust; but his speculations,
in particular his insistence on the influence of the relative masses
of the acting substances in chemical reactions, have exercised
a dominating influence on the modern developments of the
theory of chemical affinity, of which, far more than T.O. Bergman,
whom he controverted, he must be regarded as the founder.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTHON, EDWARD LYON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1813-1899), English inventor,
was born in London, on the 20th of February 1813, the son of an
army contractor and descendant of an old Huguenot family.
He studied for the medical profession in Liverpool and at Dublin,
but after his marriage in 1834 he gave up his intention of
becoming a doctor, and travelled for about six years on the continent.
Keenly interested from boyhood in mechanical science,
he made experiments in the application of the screw propeller
for boats. But his model, with a two-bladed propeller, was only
ridiculed when it was placed before the British admiralty.
Berthon therefore did not complete the patent and the idea was
left for Francis Smith to bring out more successfully in 1838.
In 1841 he entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in order to
study for the Church. There he produced what is usually known
as &ldquo;Berthon&rsquo;s log,&rdquo; in which the suction produced by the water
streaming past the end of a pipe projected below a ship is registered
on a mercury column above. In 1845 he was ordained, and after
holding a curacy at Lymington was given a living at Fareham.
Here he was able to carry on experiments with his log, which was
tested on the Southampton to Jersey steamboats; but the British
admiralty gave him no encouragement, and it remained uncompleted.
He next designed some instruments to indicate the trim
and rolling of boats at sea; but the idea for which he is chiefly
remembered was that of the &ldquo;Berthon Folding Boat&rdquo; in 1849.
This invention was again adversely reported on by the admiralty.
Berthon resigned his living at Fareham, and subsequently
accepted the living of Romsey. In 1873, encouraged by Samuel
Plimsoll, he again applied himself to perfecting his collapsible
boat. Success was at last achieved, and in less than a year he
had received orders from the admiralty for boats to the amount
of £15,000. Some were taken by Sir George Nares to the Arctic,
others were sent to General Gordon at Khartum, and others
again were taken to the Zambezi by F.C. Selous. Berthon died
on the 27th of October 1899.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTHOUD, FERDINAND<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1727-1807), Swiss chronometer-maker,
was born at Plancemont, Neuchâtel, in 1727, and settling
in Paris in 1745 gained a great reputation for the excellence
and accuracy of his chronometers. He was a member of the
Institute and a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and
among other works wrote <i>Essais sur l&rsquo;horlogerie</i> (1763). He
died in 1807 at Montmorency, Seine et Oise. He was succeeded
in business by his nephew, Louis Berthoud (1759-1813).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1821-1883), French statistician,
was born in Paris on the 1st of April 1821. Entering
the medical profession, he practised as a doctor for a number
of years. After the revolution of 1870, he was appointed inspector-general
of benevolent institutions. He was one of the
founders of the school of anthropology of Paris, and was appointed
a professor there in 1876. His <i>Démographie figurée de la France</i>
(1874) is an able statistical study of the population of France.
He died at Neuilly on the 28th of February 1883.</p>

<p>His son <span class="sc">Alphonse Bertillon</span>, the anthropometrist, was
born in Paris in 1853. He published in 1883 a work <i>Ethnographie moderne des races sauvages</i>,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
but his chief claim to distinction
lies in the system invented by him for the identification of
criminals, which is described by him in his <i>Photographie judiciaire</i>,
Paris, 1890 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthropometry</a></span>). He was officially appointed
in 1894 to report on the handwriting of the <i>bordereau</i> in the
Dreyfus case, and was a witness for the prosecution before the
cour de cassation on the 18th of January 1899.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTIN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a family of distinction in the history of French
journalism. The most important member of the family, generally
regarded as the father of modern French journalism, <span class="sc">Louis
François Bertin</span> (1766-1841), known as Bertin <i>aîné</i>, was born
in Paris on the 14th of December 1766. He began his journalistic
career by writing for the <i>Journal Français</i> and other papers
during the French Revolution. After the 18th Brumaire he
founded the paper, with which the name of his family has chiefly
been connected, the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. He was suspected of
royalist tendencies by the consulate and was exiled in 1801.
He returned to Paris in 1804 and resumed the management of
the paper, the title of which had been changed by order of
Napoleon to that of <i>Journal de l&rsquo;Empire</i>. Bertin had to submit
to a rigorous censorship, and in 1811 the conduct, together with
the profits, was taken over entirely by the government. In 1814
he regained possession and restored the old title and continued
his support of the royalist cause&mdash;during the Hundred Days;
he directed the <i>Moniteur de Gand</i>&mdash;till 1823, when the <i>Journal
des Débats</i> became the recognized organ of the constitutional
opposition. Bertin&rsquo;s support was, however, given to the July
monarchy after 1830. He died on the 13th of September 1841.
<span class="sc">Louis François Bertin de Vaux</span> (1771-1842), the younger
brother of Bertin <i>aîné</i>, took a leading part in the conduct of the
<i>Journal des Débats</i>, to the success of which his powers of writing
greatly contributed. He entered the chamber of deputies in
1815, was made councillor of state in 1827, and a peer of France
in 1830. The two sons of Bertin <i>aîné</i>, <span class="sc">Edouard François</span>
(1797-1871) and <span class="sc">Louis Marie François</span> (1801-1854), were
directors in succession of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. Edouard
Bertin was also a painter of some distinction.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTINORO, OBADIAH,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> Jewish commentator of the Mishnah,
died in Jerusalem about 1500. Bertinoro much improved the
status of the Jews in the Holy Land; before his migration
thither the Jews of Palestine were in a miserable condition
of poverty and persecution. His commentary on the Mishnah
is the most useful of all helps to the understanding of that
work. It is printed in most Hebrew editions of the Mishnah.
Surenhusius, in his Latin edition of the last-named code (Amsterdam
1698-1703), translated Bertinoro&rsquo;s commentary.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTINORO,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
the province of Forli, 8 m. S.E. direct of Forli and 5½ m. N. of
the station of Forlimpopoli, and 800 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) town, 3753; commune, 7786. The town commands a
fine view to the north over the plain of Emilia and the lower
course of the Po, itself lying on the foothills of the Apennines.
It appears to have been first fortified by Frederick Barbarossa,
and its castle stood frequent sieges in the middle ages. Polenta,
2½ m. to the south of it, was the birthplace of Francesca da
Rimini. The castle is almost entirely ruined, but the church of
S. Donato, of the Lombard period, with Byzantine capitals,
is interesting; Giosuè Carducci has written a fine ode on the
subject (<i>La Chiesa di Polenta</i>, Bologna, 1897).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See C. Ricci, &ldquo;Della Chiesa e castello di Polenta&rdquo; in <i>Atti e Memorie
della Deputazione di Storia patria per le prooniae di Romagna</i>, ser. iii.
vol. ix. (Bologna, 1891), 1 seq.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTOLD<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1442-1504), elector and archbishop of Mainz,
son of George, count of Henneberg, entered the ecclesiastical
profession, and after passing through its lower stages, was made
archbishop of Mainz in 1484. He appears to have been a firm
supporter of law and order, an enemy of clerical abuses and a
careful administrator of his diocese. Immediately after his election
as archbishop he began to take a leading part in the business
of the Empire, and in 1486 was very active in securing the election
of Maximilian as Roman king. His chief work, however, was
done as an advocate of administrative reform in Germany.
During the reign of the emperor Frederick III. he had brought
this question before the diet, and after Frederick&rsquo;s death, when
he had become imperial chancellor, he was the leader of the party
which pressed the necessity for reform upon Maximilian at the
diet of Worms in 1495. His proposals came to nothing, but he
continued the struggle at a series of diets, and urged the Germans
to emulate the courage and union of the Swiss cantons. He
gained a temporary victory when the diet of Augsburg in 1500
established a council of regency (<i>Reichsregiment</i>), and in 1502
persuaded the electors to form a union to uphold the reforms
of 1495 and 1500. The elector died on the 21st of December
1504. Bertold was a man of great ability and resourcefulness,
and as a statesman who strove for an ordered and united Germany
was far in advance of his age.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J. Weiss, <i>Berthold von Henneberg, Erzbischof von Mainz</i>
(Freiburg, 1889).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1220-1272), the greatest
German preacher of the later middle ages, was a native of
Regensburg, and entered the Franciscan monastery there. From
about 1250 onwards his fame as a preacher spread over all the
German-speaking parts of the continent of Europe. He wandered
from village to village and town to town, preaching to enormous
audiences, always in the open air; the earnestness and straightforward
eloquence with which he insisted that true repentance
came from the heart, that pious pilgrimages and the absolution
of the Church were mere outward symbols, appealed to all
classes. He died in Regensburg on the 13th of December 1272.
His German sermons, of which seventy-one have been preserved,
are among the most powerful in the language, and form the chief
monuments of Middle High German prose. His style is clear,
direct and remarkably free from cumbrous Latin constructions;
he employed, whenever he could, the pithy and homely sayings
of the peasants, and is not reluctant to point his moral with a
rough humour. As a thinker, he shows little sympathy with
that strain of medieval mysticism which is to be observed in
all the poetry of his contemporaries.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best edition of Bertold&rsquo;s German sermons is that by F. Pfeiffer
and J. Strobl (2 vols., 1862-1880; reprinted, 1906); there is also a
modern German version by F. Göbel (4th ed., 1906). The Latin sermons
were edited by G. Jakob (1880). See C.W. Stromberger, <i>Bertold
von Regensburg, der grosste Volksredner des deutschen Mittelalters</i>
(1877), K. Unkel, <i>Bertold von Regensburg</i> (1882), and E. Bernhardt,
<i>Bruder Bertold von Regensburg</i> (1905); A.E. Schönbach, <i>Studien zur
Geschichte der altdeutschen Predigt</i> (<i>Publications of the Vienna
Academy</i>, 1906).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTRAM, CHARLES<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1723-1765), English literary impostor,
was born in London, the son of a silk dyer. In 1747, being then
teacher of English at the school for Danish naval cadets at Copenhagen,
he wrote to Dr William Stukeley, the English antiquarian,
that he had discovered a manuscript written by a monk named
Richard of Westminster, which corrected and supplemented
the <i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus in Britain. He subsequently sent
to Stukeley a copy of various parts of the work and a facsimile
of a few lines of the manuscript. These were so cleverly executed
that they quite deceived the English palaeographers of the period.
Stukeley, finding that a chronicler of the fourteenth century,
Richard of Cirencester, had also been an inmate of Westminster
Abbey, identified him with Bertram&rsquo;s Richard of Westminster,
and, in 1756, read an analysis of the &ldquo;discovery&rdquo; before the
Society of Antiquaries, which was published with a copy of
Richard&rsquo;s map. In 1757 Bertram published at Copenhagen
a volume entitled <i>Britannicarum Gentium Historiae Antiquae
Scriptores Tres</i>. This contained the works of Gildas and Nennius
and the full text of Bertram&rsquo;s forgery, and though Bertram&rsquo;s
map did not correspond with that of Richard, Stukeley discarded
the latter and adopted Bertram&rsquo;s concoction in his <i>Itinerarium
Curiosum</i> published in 1776. Although Thomas Reynolds
in his <i>Iter Britanniarum</i> (1799), an edition of the British portion
of Antoninus&rsquo; <i>Itinerary</i>, was distinctly sceptical as to the value
of Bertram&rsquo;s manuscript, its authenticity was generally accepted
until the middle of the 19th century. No original of the manuscript
could then be found at Copenhagen, and B.B. Woodward,
librarian of Windsor Castle, proved conclusively, by a series
of articles in the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> in 1866 and 1867, that
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
the supposed facsimile of calligraphy produced by Bertram
was a blend of the style of various periods, while the greater
portion of the idiomatic Latin in the book was a mere translation
of 18th century English phraseology. Nevertheless, as late as
1872, a translation of Bertram&rsquo;s forgery was included in Bohn&rsquo;s
Antiquarian Library as one of the <i>Six English Chronicles</i>,
and there is no doubt that the work had a wide and misleading
influence upon many antiquarian writers. Bertram died
in 1765.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte</span> (1773-1844), French
general, was born at Châteauroux. At the outbreak of the
Revolution, he had just finished his studies, and he entered the
army as a volunteer. During the expedition to Egypt, Napoleon
named him colonel (1798), then brigadier-general, and after
Austerlitz his aide-de-camp. His life was henceforth closely
bound up with that of Napoleon, who had the fullest confidence
in him, honouring him in 1813 with the title of grand marshal
of the court. It was Bertrand who in 1809 directed the building
of the bridges by which the French army crossed the Danube
at Wagram. In 1813, after the battle of Leipzig, it was due to
his initiative that the French army was not totally destroyed.
He accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned with him
in 1815, held a command in the Waterloo campaign, and then,
after the defeat, accompanied Napoleon to St Helena. He
did not return to France until after Napoleon&rsquo;s death, and then
Louis XVIII. allowed him to retain his rank, and he was elected
deputy in 1830. In 1840 he was chosen to go to bring Napoleon&rsquo;s
remains to France. He died at Châteauroux on the 31st of
January 1844. His touching fidelity has made his name very
popular in France.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERTRICH,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a village and watering place of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, in a narrow valley running down to the
Mosel near Cochem. Its waters are efficacious in cases of gout,
rheumatism and biliary affections. Pop. 500.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉRULLE, PIERRE DE<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1575-1629), French cardinal and
statesman, was born at Sérilly, near Troyes, on the 4th of February
1575. He was educated by the Jesuits and at the university
of Paris. Soon after his ordination in 1599, he assisted Cardinal
Duperron in his controversy with the Protestant Philippe de
Mornay, and made numerous converts. He founded the
Congregation of the French Oratory in 1611 and introduced the
Carmelite nuns into France, notwithstanding the opposition
of the friars of that order, who were jealous of his ascendancy.
Bérulle also played an important part as a statesman. He
obtained the necessary dispensations from Rome for Henrietta
Maria&rsquo;s marriage to Charles I., and acted as her chaplain during
the first year of her stay in England. In 1626, as French
ambassador to Spain, he concluded the treaty of Monzon. After
the reconciliation of Louis XIII. with his mother, Marie de&rsquo;
Medici, through his agency, he was appointed a councillor
of state, but had to resign this office, owing to his Austrian
policy, which was opposed by Richelieu. Bérulle encouraged
Descartes&rsquo; philosophical studies, and it was through him that
the Samaritan Pentateuch, recently brought over from Constantinople,
was inserted in Lejay&rsquo;s <i>Polyglot Bible</i>. His treatise,
<i>Des Grandeurs de Jésus</i>, was a favourite book with the Jansenists.
He died on the 2nd of October 1629. His works, edited by P.
Bourgoing (2 vols., 1644) were reprinted, by Migne in 1857.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>M. de Bérulle et les Carmélites; Le Père de Bérulle et l&rsquo;oratoire
de Jésus; Le Cardinal de Bérulle et Richelieu</i> (3 vols., 1872-1876),
by the Abbé M. Houssaye; and H. Sidney Lear&rsquo;s <i>Priestly Life in
France in the Seventeenth Century</i> (London, 1873).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERVIE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Inverbervie</span>, a royal and police burgh of Kincardineshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1207. It is situated at
the mouth of Bervie Water and is the terminus of the North
British railway&rsquo;s branch line from Montrose, which lies 14 m.
S.W. The leading industries include manufactures of woollens,
flax and chemicals, and there is also a brisk trade in live-stock.
Bervie unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose
in returning one member (for the &ldquo;Montrose burghs&rdquo;) to parliament.
David II., driven by stress of weather, landed here with
his queen Joanna in 1341, and, out of gratitude for the hospitality
of the townsfolk, granted them a charter, which James VI. confirmed.
Hallgreen Castle, a stronghold of the 14th century, is
maintained in repair. About one m. south is the fishing village
of Gourdon (pop. 1197), where boat-building is carried on.
There is a small but steady export business from the harbour,
which has a pier and breakwater. St Ternan&rsquo;s, the Romanesque
parish church of Arbuthnott, 2½ m. north-west, stands on the
banks of the Bervie. In the chapel dedicated to St Mary, which
was afterwards added to it, is the burial-place of the Arbuthnotts,
who took their title from the estate in 1644. John Arbuthnot,
Queen Anne&rsquo;s physician and the friend of Swift and Pope, was a
native of the parish. Kinneff, 2 m. north, on the coast, is of
interest as the place where the Scottish regalia were concealed
during the siege of Dunottar Castle.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1670-1734),
marshal of France, was the natural son of James, duke of York,
afterwards James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill (1648-1730),
sister of the great duke of Marlborough. He was born
at Moulins (Bourbonnais) on the 21st of August 1670. He
received his education in France at the hands of the Jesuits,
and at the age of fifteen, his father having succeeded to the throne,
he was sent to learn the business of a soldier under the famous
general of the empire, Charles of Lorraine. He served his first
campaign in Hungary, and was present at the siege of Buda.
He then returned to England, was made a colonel of the 8th
Foot, and in 1687 created duke of Berwick, earl of Teignmouth
and Baron Bosworth. He then went out afresh to Hungary
and was present at the battle of Mohacz. On his return to
England he was made K.G., colonel of the 3rd troop of horse
guards (Royal Horse Guards Blue) and governor of Portsmouth,
but soon afterwards the revolution forced him to flee to France.
He served under James II. in the campaign in Ireland, and
was present at the battle of the Boyne. For a short time he
was left in Ireland as commander-in-chief, but his youth and
inexperience unfitted him for the post, and he was a mere puppet
in stronger hands. He then took service in the French army,
fought under Marshal Luxembourg in Flanders, and took part in
the battles of Steinkirk and Neerwinden, at the latter of which
he was taken prisoner. He was, however, immediately exchanged
for the duke of Ormond, and afterwards he served under Villeroi.
In 1695 he married the widow of Patrick Sarsfield, who died in
1698. His second marriage, with Anne Bulkeley, took place
in 1700. As a lieutenant-general he served in the campaign
of 1702, after which he became naturalized as a French subject
in order to be eligible for the marshalate. In 1704, he first took
command of the French army in Spain. So highly was he
now esteemed for his courage, abilities and integrity, that
all parties were anxious to have him on their side (<i>Éloge</i>, by
Montesquieu). His tenure of the command was, however,
very short, and after one campaign he was replaced by the
Marshal de Tessé. In 1705 he commanded against the Camisards
in Languedoc, and when on this expedition he is said to have
carried out his orders with remorseless rigour. His successful
expedition against Nice in 1706 caused him to be made marshal
of France, and in the same year he returned to Spain as commander-in-chief
of the Franco-Spanish armies. On the 25th
of April 1707, the duke won the great and decisive victory of
Almanza, where an Englishman at the head of a French army
defeated Ruvigny, earl of Galway, a Frenchman at the head
of an English army. The victory established Philip V. on the
throne of Spain. Berwick was made a peer of France by Louis
XIV., and duke of Liria and of Xereca and lieutenant of Aragon
by Philip. Thenceforward Berwick was recognized as one of the
greatest generals of his time, and successively commanded in
nearly all the theatres of war. From 1709 to 1712 he defended
the south-east frontier of France in a series of campaigns which,
unmarked by any decisive battle, were yet models of the art
of war as practised at the time. The last great event of the
War of the Spanish Succession was the storming of Barcelona
by Berwick, after a long siege, on the 11th of September 1714.
Three years later he was appointed military governor of the
province of Guienne, in which post he became intimate with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
Montesquieu. In 1718 he found himself under the necessity
of once more entering Spain with an army; and this time
he had to fight against Philip V., the king who owed chiefly
to Berwick&rsquo;s courage and skill the safety of his throne. One
of the marshal&rsquo;s sons, known as the duke of Liria, was settled
in Spain, and was counselled by his father not to shrink from
doing his duty and fighting for his sovereign. Many years
of peace followed this campaign, and Marshal Berwick was not
again called to serve in the field till 1733. He advised and conducted
the siege of Philipsburg, and while the siege was going on
was killed by a cannon-shot on the 12th of June 1734. Cool,
self-possessed and cautious as a general, Marshal Berwick was at
the same time not wanting in audacity and swiftness of action.
He was a true general of the 18th century, not less in his care for
the lives of his men than in his punctiliousness and rigidity in
matters of discipline.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of Marshal Berwick, revised, annotated and continued
by the Abbé Hooke, were published by the marshal&rsquo;s grandson
in 1778. Montesquieu made many contributions to this.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERWICKSHIRE,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a county of Scotland, forming its south-eastern
extremity, bounded N. by Haddingtonshire and the
North Sea; E. by the North Sea; S.E. by the county of the
borough and town of Berwick; S. by the Tweed and Roxburghshire,
and W. by Mid-Lothian. Its area is 292,577 acres or 457
sq. m., and it has a coast-line of 21 m. The county is naturally
divided into three districts: Lauderdale, or the valley of the
Leader, in the W.; Lammermuir, the upland district occupied
by the hills of that name in the N.; and the Merse (the March
or Borderland, giving a title to the earls of Wemyss), the largest
district, occupying the S.E. The Lammermuirs are a range of
round-backed hills, whose average height is about 1000 ft.,
while the highest summit, Says Law, reaches 1749 ft. From
these hills the Merse stretches to the S. and E., and is a comparatively
level tract of country. The coast is lofty, rocky and
precipitous, broken by ravines and not accessible, except at
Eyemouth Harbour, for small vessels, and at Coldingham and
Burnmouth for fishing boats. St Abb&rsquo;s Head, a promontory
with a lighthouse upon it, rises to 310 ft. The Eye is the only
river of any size which falls directly into the sea. The others&mdash;the
Leader, the Eden, the Leet and the Whiteadder with its
tributaries, the Blackadder and the Dye&mdash;all flow into the Tweed.
Of these the largest and most important is the Whiteadder, which
has its source in the parish of Whittingehame on the East Lothian
side of the Lammermuirs, and, following a sinuous course of
35 m., joins the Tweed within the bounds or liberties of Berwick.
There are small lochs at Coldingham, Legerwood, Spottiswoode,
the Hirsel, near Coldstream, Hule Moss on Greenlaw Moor, and
tiny sheets of water near Duns and Mersington.</p>

<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The north portion of the county embraces that part
of the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which stretches
from the Lammermuir Hills east to St Abb&rsquo;s Head. The strata
consist mainly of grits, greywackes, flags and shales, repeated
by innumerable folds, trending north-east and south-west, which
are laid bare in the great cliff section between Fast Castle and
St Abb&rsquo;s Head. This section of the tableland includes sediments,
chiefly of Tarannon age, which form a belt 10 m. across from the
crest of the Lammermuir Hills to a point near Westruther and
Longformacus. In the Earnscleuch Burn north-east of Lauder
representatives of Llandovery, Caradoc and Llandeilo rocks,
together with the Arenig cherts, appear along an anticlinal fold
in the midst of the younger strata. Again in the extreme north-west
of the county near Channelkirk and to the north of
the Tarannon belt radiolarian cherts and black shales with
graptolites of Upper Llandeilo and Caradoc age are met with.
The Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, which rest unconformably
on the folded and denuded Silurian strata, appear at Eyemouth
and Reston Junction, and at St Abb&rsquo;s Head are associated with
contemporaneous volcanic rocks which are evidently on the same
horizon as the interbedded lavas of Lower Old Red age in the
Cheviots. The intrusive igneous materials of this period are
represented by the granitic mass of Cockburn Law and the
porphyrites of the Dirrington Laws. The Upper Old Red Sandstone,
consisting of conglomerates and sandstones, rest unconformably
alike on the Silurian platform as at Siccar Point and
on the lower division of that system. The age of these beds has
been determined by the occurrence of remains of <i>Holoptychius
nobilissimus</i> in the sandstones at Earlston and in the Whiteadder
north of Duns. On the Black Hill of Earlston these strata are
traversed by a sheet of trachyte resembling the type of rock
capping the Eildon Hills (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roxburghshire</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>).
Overlying the strata just described there is a succession of
volcanic rocks extending from Greenlaw southwards by Stichil
and Kelso to Carham, which, at several localities, are followed
by a band of cornstone resembling that near the top of the Upper
Old Red Sandstone in the midland valley of Scotland. Next in
order comes a great development of the Cementstone group of
the Carboniferous system which spreads over nearly the whole of
the low ground of the Merse and attains a great thickness. At
Marshall Meadows north of Berwick-on-Tweed, thin bands of
marine limestone occur, which probably represent some of
the calcareous beds above the Fell sandstones south of
Spittal.</p>

<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Owing to the maritime position,
the winter is seldom severe in the lowland districts, but spring is
a trying season on account of the east winds, which often last
into summer. The mean annual rainfall is 30½ in. and the
average temperature for the year is 47° F., for January 37° F.,
and for July 58.5° F. The climate is excellent as regards both
the health of the inhabitants and the growth of vegetation. The
soils vary, sometimes even on the same farm. Along the rivers
is a deep rich loam, resting on gravel or clay, chiefly the former.
The less valuable clay soil of the Merse has been much improved
by drainage. The more sandy and gravelly soils are suitable for
turnips, of which great quantities are grown. Oats and barley are
the principal grain crops, but wheat also is raised. The flocks of
sheep are heavy, and cattle are pastured in considerable numbers.
Large holdings predominate&mdash;indeed, the average size is the
highest in Scotland&mdash;and scientific farming is the rule. The
labourers, who are physically well developed, are as a whole
frugal, industrious and intelligent, but somewhat migratory in
their habits. This feature in their character, which they may
have by inheritance as Borderers, has admirably fitted them for
colonial life, to which the scarcity of industrial occupation has
largely driven the surplus population.</p>

<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;Next to agriculture the fisheries are the
most important industry. The Tweed salmon fisheries are
famous, and the lesser rivers of the Merse are held in high esteem
by anglers. Eyemouth, Burnmouth, Coldingham and Cove are
engaged in the sea fisheries. Cod, haddock, herring, ling, lobsters
and crabs are principally taken. The season for herring is from
May to the middle of September and for white fish from October
to the end of May. Coal, copper ore and ironstone exist in too
small quantities to work, and the limestone is so far from a coal
district as to be of little economic value. Earlston sends out
ginghams and woollen cloths. At Cumledge on the Whiteadder,
blankets and plaids are manufactured, and paper is made at
Chirnside. The other manufactures are all connected with agriculture,
such as distilleries, breweries, tanneries, &amp;c. The trade
is also mainly agricultural. Fairs are held at Duns, Lauder,
Coldstream and Greenlaw; but the sales of cattle and sheep
mostly take place at the auction marts at Reston, Duns and
Earlston. There are grain markets at Duns and Earlston.
Berwick, from which the county derives its name, is still its chief
market. There is, however, no legal or fiscal connexion between
the county and the borough.</p>

<p>The North British railway monopolizes the communications
of the county. The system serves the coast districts from
Berwick to Cockburnspath, and there is a branch from Reston
to St Boswells.</p>

<p><i>Population and Government.</i>&mdash;The population of Berwickshire
was 32,290 in 1891 and 30,824 in 1901, in which year the number
of persons speaking Gaelic and English was 74, and one person
spoke Gaelic only. The only considerable towns are Eyemouth
(pop. in 1901, 2436) and Duns (2206). The county returns one
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
member to parliament. Lauder is the only royal burgh, and
Duns the county town, a status, however, which was held by
Greenlaw from 1696 to 1853, after which date it was shared by
both towns until conferred on Duns alone. Berwickshire forms
a sheriffdom with Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, and there is a
resident sheriff-substitute at Duns, who sits also at Greenlaw,
Coldstream, Ayton and Lauder. In addition to board and
voluntary schools throughout the county, there is a high school,
which is also a technical school, at Duns, and Coldstream and
Lauder public schools have secondary departments. Duns
school is subsidized by the county council, which pays the
expenses of students attending it from a distance.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Traces of Roman occupation and of ancient British
settlement exist in various parts of the Merse. Edin&rsquo;s or Etin&rsquo;s
Hall, on Cockburn Law, 4 m. north of Duns, is still called the
Pech&rsquo;s or Pict&rsquo;s House, and is one of the very few brochs found in
the Lowlands. After the Romans withdrew (409) the country
formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, and the
inhabitants were converted to Christianity through the missionary
efforts of Modan in the 6th, and Oswald, Aidan and Cuthbert
(traditionally believed to have been born in the vale of the
Leader) in the 7th centuries. The Northmen invaded the seaboard,
but the rugged coast proved an effectual barrier. The
Danes, however, landed in 886, and destroyed the nunnery at
Coldingham, founded about 650 by Ebba, daughter of Æthelfrith,
king of Northumbria, after whom the adjoining promontory
of St Abb&rsquo;s Head was named. After the battle of Carham (1018)
the district, which then constituted part of the division of
Lothian, was annexed to Scotland. Birgham (pron. Birjam),
3½ m. west of Coldstream, was the scene of the conference in 1188
between William the Lion and the bishop of Durham, which
discussed the attempt of the English church to assert supremacy
over the Scottish. Here also met in 1289 a convention of the Scots
estates to consider the projected marriage of Prince Edward of
England to the Maid of Norway; and here was signed in 1290
the treaty of Birgham, assuring the independence of Scotland.
During the long period of international strife the shire was
repeatedly overrun by armies of the English and Scots kings,
who were constantly fighting for the ancient frontier town of
Berwick. It was finally ceded to England in 1482, and the
people afterwards gradually settled down to peaceful pursuits.
The ford at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed near Coldstream
gave access to south-eastern Scotland. Edward I. crossed it
with his army in 1296, encamping at Hutton the day before the
siege of Berwick, and it was similarly employed as late as 1640,
when the marquess of Montrose led the Covenanters on their
march to Newcastle, although James VI. had already caused a
bridge to be constructed from Berwick to Tweedmouth. There
are several places of historic interest in the county. Upon the
site of the nunnery at Coldingham King Edgar in 1098 founded
a Benedictine priory, which was one of the oldest monastic
institutions in Scotland and grew so wealthy that James III.
annexed its revenues to defray his extravagance, a step that
precipitated the revolt of the nobles (1488). The priory was
seriously damaged in the earl of Hertford&rsquo;s inroad in 1545, and
Cromwell blew up part of the church in 1650. The chancel
(without aisles) was repaired and used as the parish church.
The remains contain some fine architectural features, such as,
on the outside, the Romanesque arcades surmounted by lancet
windows at the east end, and, in the interior, the Early Pointed
triforium. On the coast, about 4 m. north-west of Coldingham,
are the ruins of Fast Castle&mdash;the &ldquo;Wolf&rsquo;s Crag&rdquo; of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Bride
of Lammermoor</i>&mdash;situated on a precipitous headland. From Sir
Patrick Hume it passed to Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, who
is alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators, and to
have intended to imprison James VI. within its walls (1600).
Four miles west is the Pease or Peaths bridge, built by Thomas
Telford in 1786 across the deep pass which was of old one of the
strongest natural defences of Scotland. The bridge is 123 ft.
high, 300 ft. long and 16 ft. wide. Near it are the ruins of
Cockburnspath Tower, once a strong fortress and supposed to
be the &ldquo;Ravens wood&rdquo; of the <i>Bride of Lammermoor</i>. In the
south-west of the shire besides Dryburgh Abbey (<i>q.v.</i>) there are,
at Earlston, the remains of the castle that was traditionally the
residence of Thomas the Rhymer. Hume Castle, the ancient seat
of the Home family, a picturesque ruin about 3 m. south of Greenlaw,
is so conspicuously situated as to be visible from nearly every
part of the county. Coldstream and Lamberton, being close to
the Border, were both resorted to (like Gretna Green in the west)
by eloping couples for clandestine marriage. In Lamberton
church was signed in 1502 the contract for the marriage of
James IV. and Margaret Tudor, which led, a century later, to the
union of the crowns of Scotland and England.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See W.S. Crockett, <i>Minstrelsy of the Merse</i>, (Paisley, 1893); <i>In
Praise of Tweed</i> (Selkirk, 1889); <i>The Scott Country</i> (London, 1902);
J. Robson, <i>The Churches and Churchyards of Berwickshire</i> (Kelso,
1893); F.H. Groome, <i>A Short Border History</i> (Kelso, 1887); J.
Tait, <i>Two Centuries of Border Church Life</i> (Kelso, 1889); Margaret
Warrender, <i>Marchmont and the Humes of Polwarth</i> (Edinburgh,
1894); W.K. Hunter, <i>History of the Priory of Coldingham</i> (Edinburgh,
1858).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERWICK-UPON-TWEED,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> a market town, seaport, municipal
borough and county in itself, of England, at the mouth of the
Tweed on the north bank, 339 m. N. by W. from London. Pop.
(1901) 13,437. For parliamentary purposes it is in the Berwick-upon-Tweed
division of Northumberland. It is the junction on
the East Coast route from London to Scotland between the North
Eastern and North British railways, a branch of the company
first named running up the Tweed valley by Coldstream and
Kelso. The town lies in a bare district on the slope and flat
summit of an abrupt elevation, higher ground rising to the north
and south across the river. It has the rare feature of a complete
series of ramparts surrounding it. Those to the north and east
are formed of earth faced with stone, with bastions at intervals
and a ditch now dry. They are of Elizabethan date, but there
are also lines of much earlier date, the fortifications of Edward I.
Much of these last has been destroyed, and threatened encroachment
upon the remaining relics so far aroused public feeling that
in 1905 it was decided that the Board of Works should take over
these ruins, including the Bell Tower, from the town council, and
enclose them as national relics. The Bell Tower, from which
alarms were given when border raiders were observed, is in fair
preservation. There are slight remains of the castle, which fell
into disrepair after the union of the crowns of England and
Scotland. There are no traces of the churches, monasteries or
other principal buildings of the ancient town. The church of
Holy Trinity is a plain building without steeple, of the time of
Cromwell. Of modern places of worship, the most noteworthy is
Wallace Green United Presbyterian church (1859). The chief
public building is the town hall (1760), a stately classic building
surmounted by a lofty spire. Educational institutions include an
Elizabethan grammar school and a blue-coat school; and there
is a local museum. Two bridges connect the town with the south
side of the Tweed. The older, which is very substantial, was
finished in 1634, having taken twenty-four years in building.
It has fifteen arches, and is 924 ft. long, but only 17 ft. wide.
A unique provision for its upkeep out of Imperial funds dates
from the reign of Charles II. The other, the Royal Border Bridge,
situated a quarter of a mile up the river, is a magnificent
railway viaduct, 126 ft. high, with twenty-eight arches, which
extends from the railway station, a castellated building on part of
the site of the old castle, to a considerable distance beyond the
river. This bridge was designed by Robert Stephenson and
opened by Queen Victoria in 1850.</p>

<p>The reach of the river from the old bridge to the mouth forms
the harbour. The entrance to the harbour is protected by a
stone pier, which stretches half a mile south-east from the north
bank of the river mouth. The depth of water at the bar is 17 ft.
at ordinary tides, 22 ft. at spring tides, but the channel is narrow,
a large rocky portion of the harbour on the north side being dry at
low water. There is a wet dock of 3½ acres. Principal exports
are grain, coal and fish; imports are bones and bone-ash,
manure stuffs, linseed, salt, timber and iron. The herring and
other sea fisheries are of some value, and the salmon fishery, in
the hands of a company, has long been famous. A fair is held
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
annually at the end of May. There are iron-works and boat-building
yards.</p>

<p>The custom of specially mentioning Berwick-upon-Tweed after
Wales, though abandoned in acts of parliament, is retained in
certain proclamations. The title of &ldquo;county in itself&rdquo; also helps
to recall its ancient history. The liberties of the borough,
commonly called Berwick Bounds, include the towns of Spittal,
at the mouth, and Tweedmouth immediately above it, on the
south bank of the river. The first is a watering-place (pop.
2074), with pleasant sands and a chalybeate spa; the second
(pop. 3086) has iron foundries, engineering works and fish-curing
establishments. Berwick-upon-Tweed is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 6396 acres.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Very little is known of the history of Berwick before the Conquest.
It was not until the Tweed became the boundary between England
and Scotland in the 12th century that Berwick as the chief town
on that boundary became really important. Until the beginning of
the 14th century Berwick was one of the four royal boroughs of
Scotland, and although it possesses no charter granted before that
time, an inquisition taken in Edward III.&rsquo;s reign shows that it was
governed by a mayor and bailiffs in the reign of Alexander III.,
who granted the town to the said mayor and the commonalty for
an annual rent. After Edward I. had conquered Berwick in 1302
he gave the burgesses another charter, no longer existing but quoted
in several confirmations, by which the town was made a free borough
with a gild merchant. The burgesses were given the right to elect
annually their mayor, who with the commonalty should elect four
bailiffs. They were also to have freedom from toll, pontage, &amp;c.,
two markets every week on Monday and Friday, and a fair lasting
from the feast of Holyrood to that of the Nativity of St John the
Baptist. Five years later, in 1307, the mayor and burgesses received
another charter, granting them their town with all things that
belonged to it in the time of Alexander III., for a fee-farm rent of
500 marks, which was granted back to them in 1313 to help towards
enclosing their town with a wall. While the war with Scotland
dragged on through the early years of the reign of Edward II., the
fortification of Berwick was a matter of importance, and in 1317 the
mayor and bailiffs undertook to defend it for the yearly sum of 6000
marks; but in the following year, &ldquo;owing to their default,&rdquo; the
Scots entered and occupied it in spite of a truce between the two
kingdoms. After Edward III. had recovered Berwick the inhabitants
petitioned for the recovery of their prison called the Beffroi or
Bell-tower, the symbol of their independence, which their predecessors
had built before the time of Alexander III., and which had
been granted to William de Keythorpe when Edward I. took the
town. Edward III. in 1326 and 1356 confirmed the charter of
Edward I., and in 1357, evidently to encourage the growth of the
borough, granted that all who were willing to reside there and
desirous of becoming burgesses should be admitted as such on
payment of a fine. These early charters were confirmed by most of
the succeeding kings, until James I. granted the incorporation charter
in 1604; but on his accession to the English throne, Berwick of
course lost its importance as a frontier town. Berwick was at first
represented in the court of the four boroughs and in 1326 in Robert
Bruce&rsquo;s parliament. After being taken by the English it remained
unrepresented until it was re-taken by the Scots, when it sent two
members to the parliament at Edinburgh from 1476 to 1479. In 1482
the burgesses were allowed to send two members to the English
parliament, and were represented there until 1885, when the town
was included in the Berwick-upon-Tweed division of the county of
Northumberland. No manufactures are mentioned as having been
carried on in Berwick, but its trade, chiefly in the produce of the
surrounding country, was important in the 12th century. It has
been noted for salmon fishery in the Tweed from very early times.
There was a bridge over the Tweed at Berwick in the time of Alexander
and John, kings of Scotland, but it was broken down in the
time of the latter and not rebuilt until the end of the 14th century.</p>

<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Northumberland</i>; John Fuller,
<i>History of Berwick-upon-Tweed</i>, &amp;c. (1799); John Scott, <i>Berwick-upon-Tweed:
History of the Town and Guild</i> (1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERYL,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a mineral containing beryllium and aluminium in the
form of a silicate; its formula is Be<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">18</span>. The species includes
the emerald (<i>q.v.</i>), the aquamarine (<i>q.v.</i>) and other transparent
varieties known as &ldquo;precious beryl,&rdquo; with certain coarse
varieties unfit for use as gem-stones. The name comes from the
Gr. <span class="grk" title="baeryllos">&#946;&#942;&#961;&#965;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, a word of uncertain etymology applied to the
beryl and probably several other gems. It is notable that the
relation of the emerald to the beryl, though proved only by
chemical analysis, was conjectured at least as far back as the
time of Pliny.</p>

<p>Beryl crystallizes in the hexagonal system, usually taking the
form of long six-sided prisms, striated vertically and terminated
with the basal plane, sometimes associated with various pyramidal
faces (see fig.). It cleaves rather imperfectly parallel to
the base. The colour of beryl may be blue, green, yellow, brown
or rarely pink; while in some cases the mineral is colourless.
The specific gravity is about 2.7, and the hardness 7.5 to 8, so
that for a gem-stone beryl is comparatively soft. Whilst the
gem-varieties are transparent, the coarse beryl
may be opaque. The transparent crystals
are pleochroic&mdash;a character well marked in
emerald.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:152px; height:207px" src="images/img817.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption">Crystal of beryl.</td></tr></table>

<p>Beryl was much prized as a gem-stone
by the ancients, and Greek intaglios of
very fine workmanship are extant. The
Roman jewellers, taking advantage of the
columnar form of the natural crystal, worked
it into long cylinders for ear-pendants.
It was a favourite stone with the artists
of the Renaissance, but in modern times
has lost popularity, except in the form of
emerald, which remains one of the most valued gem-stones.
It is notable that English lapidaries of the 18th century often
included the sard under the term beryl&mdash;a practice which has led
to some confusion in the nomenclature of engraved gems.</p>

<p>Beryl occurs as an accessory constituent of many granitic
rocks, especially in veins of pegmatite, whilst it is found also in
gneiss and in mica-schist. Rolled pebbles of beryl occur, with
topaz, in Brazil, especially in the province of Minas Geraes.
Crystals are found in drusy cavities in granite in the Urals, notably
near Mursinka; in the Altai Mountains, which have yielded
very long prismatic crystals; and in the mining district of
Nerchinsk in Siberia, principally in the Adun-Chalon range,
where beryl occurs in veins of topaz-rock piercing granite.
Among European localities may be mentioned Elba, good
crystals being occasionally found in the tourmaline-granite of
San Piero. In Ireland excellent crystals of beryl occur in druses
of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Co. Down, and others
less fine are found in the highlands of Donegal, whilst the mineral
is also known from the Leinster granite. It occurs likewise in
the granite of the Grampians in Scotland, and is not unknown
in Cornwall, specimens having been found, with topaz, apatite,
&amp;c., in joints of the granite of St Michael&rsquo;s Mount.</p>

<p>Many localities in the United States yield beryl, sometimes
sufficiently fine to be cut as a gem. It is found, for example, at
Hiddenite and elsewhere in Alexander county, N.C.; at
Haddam and Monroe, Conn.; at Stoneham and at Albany, in
Oxford county, Maine; at Royalston, Mass.; and at Mt.
Antero, Colorado, where it occurs with phenacite. Beryl of
beautiful pink colour occurs in San Diego county, California.
Coarse beryl, much rifted, is found in crystals of very large size
at Grafton and Acworth, N.H.; a crystal from Grafton weighing
more than 2½ tons. A colourless beryl from Goshen, Mass.,
has been called Goshenite; whilst crystals of coarse yellow
beryl from Rubislaw quarry in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, have
been termed Davidsonite.</p>

<p>Beryl suffers alteration by weathering, and may thus pass into
kaolin and mica.</p>
<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERYLLIUM,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Glucinum</span> (symbol Be, atomic weight 9.1),
one of the metallic chemical elements, included in the same
sub-group of the periodic classification as magnesium. It was
prepared in the form of its oxide in 1798 by L.N. Vauquelin
(<i>Ann. de chimie</i>, 1798, xxvi. p. 155) from the mineral beryl, and
though somewhat rare, is found in many minerals. It was first
obtained, in an impure condition, in 1828 by A.A.B. Bussy
(1794-1882) and F. Wöhler by the reduction of the chloride with
potassium, and in 1855 H.J. Debray prepared it, in a compact
state, by reducing the volatilized chloride with melted sodium,
in an atmosphere of hydrogen. L.F. Nilson and O. Pettersson
(<i>Wied. Ann.</i> 1878, iv. p. 554) have also prepared the metal by
heating beryllium potassium fluoride with sodium; P.M.
Lebeau (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1895-1898, vols. 120-127) has obtained
it in lustrous hexagonal crystals by electrolysing the double
fluoride of beryllium and sodium or potassium with an excess of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
beryllium fluoride. It is a malleable metal, of specific gravity
1.64 (Nilson and Pettersson) and a specific heat of 0.4079. Its
melting-point is below that of silver. In a fine state of division
it takes fire on heating in air, but is permanent at ordinary
temperatures in oxygen or air; it is readily attacked by hydrochloric
and sulphuric acids, but scarcely acted on by nitric acid.
It is also soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, with evolution
of hydrogen a behaviour similar to that shown by aluminium.
It combines readily with fluorine, chlorine and bromine, and also
with sulphur, selenium, phosphorus, &amp;c.</p>

<p>Considerable discussion has taken place at different times as
to the position which beryllium should occupy in the periodic
classification of the elements, and as to whether its atomic weight
should be 9.1 or 13.65, but the weight of evidence undoubtedly
favours its position in Group II., with an atomic weight 9.1
(O = 16) (see Nilson and Pettersson, <i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1451;
1884, 17, p. 987; B. Brauner, <i>Berichte</i>, 1881, 14, p. 53; T. Carnelley,
<i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1879, xxxv. p. 563; 1880, xxxvii., p.
125, and W.N. Hartley, <i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1883, xliii. p. 316).
The specific heat of beryllium has been calculated by L. Meyer
(<i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1780) from the data of L.F. Nilson and
O. Pettersson, and appears to increase rapidly with increasing
temperature, the values obtained being 0.3973 at 20.2° C., 0.4481
at 73.2° C. and 0.5819 at 256.8° C.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Beryllium compounds are almost wholly prepared from beryl.
The mineral is fused with potassium carbonate, and, on cooling,
the product is treated with sulphuric acid, the excess of which is
removed by evaporation; water is then added and the silica is
filtered off. On concentration of the solution, the major portion
of the aluminium present separates as alum, and the mother liquor
remaining contains beryllium and iron sulphates together with a
little alum. This is now treated for some days with a hot concentrated
solution of ammonium carbonate, which precipitates the
iron and aluminium but keeps the beryllium in solution. The iron
and aluminium precipitates are filtered off, and the filtrate boiled,
when a basic beryllium hydroxide containing a little ferric oxide
is precipitated. To remove the iron, the precipitate is again dissolved
in ammonium carbonate and steam is blown through the
liquid, when beryllium oxide is precipitated. This process is repeated
several times, and the final precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric
acid and precipitated by ammonia, washed and dried. It
has also been obtained by J. Gibson (<i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1893,
lxiii. p. 909) from beryl by conversion of the beryllium into its fluoride.</p>

<p>Beryllium oxide, beryllia or glucina, BeO, is a very hard white
powder which can be melted and distilled in the electric furnace,
when it condenses in the form of minute hexagonal crystals. After
ignition it dissolves with difficulty in acids. The hydroxide Be(OH)<span class="su">2</span>
separates as a white bulky precipitate on adding a solution of an
alkaline hydroxide to a soluble beryllium salt; and like those of
aluminium and zinc, this hydroxide is soluble in excess of the
alkaline hydroxide, but is reprecipitated on prolonged boiling.
Beryllium chloride BeCl<span class="su">2</span>, like aluminium chloride, may be prepared
by heating a mixture of the oxide and sugar charcoal in a current
of dry chlorine. It is deliquescent, and readily soluble in water,
from which it separates on concentration in crystals of composition
BeCl<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O. Its vapour density has been determined by Nilson
and Pettersson, and corresponds to the molecular formula BeCl<span class="su">2</span>.
The sulphate is obtained by dissolving the oxide in sulphuric acid;
if the solution be not acid, it separates in pyramidal crystals of
composition BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, while from an acid solution of this salt,
crystals of composition BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. Double sulphates
of beryllium and the alkali metals are known, <i>e.g.</i> BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O
as are also many basic sulphates. The nitrate Be(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O is
prepared by adding barium nitrate to beryllium sulphate solution;
it crystallizes with difficulty and is very deliquescent. It readily
yields basic salts.</p>

<p>The carbide BeC<span class="su">2</span> is formed when beryllia and sugar charcoal are
heated together in the electric furnace. Like aluminium carbide
it is slowly decomposed by water with the production of methane.
Several basic carbonates are known, being formed by the addition
of beryllium salts to solutions of the alkaline carbonates; the
normal carbonate is prepared by passing a current of carbon dioxide
through water containing the basic carbonate in suspension, the
solution being filtered and concentrated over sulphuric acid in an
atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The crystals so obtained are very
unstable and decompose rapidly with evolution of carbon dioxide.</p>

<p>Beryllium salts are easily soluble and mostly have a sweetish
taste (hence the name Glucinum (<i>q.v.</i>), from <span class="grk" title="glukus">&#947;&#955;&#965;&#954;&#973;&#962;</span>, sweet); they are
readily precipitated by alkaline sulphides with formation of the white
hydroxide, and may be distinguished from salts of all other metals
by the solubility of the oxide in ammonium carbonate. Beryllium
is estimated quantitatively by precipitation with ammonia, and
ignition to oxide. Its atomic weight has been determined by L.F.
Nilson and O. Pettersson (<i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1451) by analysis
of the sulphate, from which they found the value 9.08, and by
G. Krüss and H. Moraht (<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 2556) from the conversion
of the sulphate BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O into the oxide, from which they
obtained the value 9.05. C.L. Parsons (<i>Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i>,
1904, xxvi. p. 721) obtained the values 9.113 from analyses of beryllium
acetonyl-acetate and beryllium basic acetate.</p>

<p>For a bibliography see C.L. Parsons, <i>The Chemistry and Literature
of Beryllium</i> (1909).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERYLLONITE,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a mineral phosphate of beryllium and
sodium, NaBePO<span class="su">4</span>, found as highly complex orthorhombic
crystals and as broken fragments in the disintegrated material
of a granitic vein at Stoneham, Maine, where it is associated
with felspar, smoky quartz, beryl and columbite. It was discovered
by Prof. E.S. Dana in 1888, and named beryllonite
because it contains beryllium in large amount. The crystals
vary from colourless to white or pale yellowish, and are transparent
with a vitreous lustre; there is a perfect cleavage in one
direction. Hardness 5½-6; specific gravity 2.845. A few crystals
have been cut and faceted, but, as the refractive index is no higher
than that of quartz, they do not make very brilliant gem-stones.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BERZELIUS, JÖNS JAKOB<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1779-1848), Swedish chemist,
was born at Väfversunda Sorgard, near Linköping, Sweden, on
the 20th (or 29th) of August 1779. After attending the gymnasium
school at Linköping he went to Upsala University, where
he studied chemistry and medicine, and graduated as M.D. in
1802. Appointed assistant professor of botany and pharmacy
at Stockholm in the same year, he became full professor in 1807,
and from 1815 to 1832 was professor of chemistry in the Caroline
medico-chirurgical institution of that city. The Stockholm
Academy of Sciences elected him a member in 1808, and in 1818
he became its perpetual secretary. The same year he was
ennobled by Charles XIV., who in 1835 further made him a baron.
His death occurred at Stockholm on the 7th of August 1848.
During the first few years of his scientific career Berzelius was
mainly engaged on questions of physiological chemistry, but
about 1807 he began to devote himself to what he made the chief
object of his life&mdash;the elucidation of the composition of chemical
compounds through study of the law of multiple proportions
and the atomic theory. Perceiving the exact determination of
atomic and molecular weights to be of fundamental importance,
he spent ten years in ascertaining that constant for some two
thousand simple and compound bodies, and the results he
published in 1818 attained a remarkable standard of accuracy,
which was still further improved in a second table that appeared
in 1826. He used oxygen&mdash;in his view the pivot round which
the whole of chemistry revolves&mdash;as the basis of reference for
the atomic weights of other substances, and the data on which
he chiefly relied were the proportions of oxygen in oxygen
compounds, the doctrines of isomorphism, and Gay Lussac&rsquo;s law
of volumes. When Volta&rsquo;s discovery of the electric cell became
known, Berzelius, with W. Hisinger (1766-1852), began experiments
on the electrolysis of salt solutions, ammonia, sulphuric
acid, &amp;c., and later this work led him to his electrochemical
theory, a full exposition of which he gave in his memoir on the
<i>Theory of Chemical Proportions and the Chemical Action of
Electricity</i> (1814). This theory was founded on the supposition
that the atoms of the elements are electrically polarized, the
positive charge predominating in some and the negative in others,
and from it followed his dualistic hypothesis, according to which
compounds are made up of two electrically different components.
At first this hypothesis was confined to inorganic chemistry,
but subsequently he extended it to organic compounds,
which he saw might similarly be regarded as containing a
group or groups of atoms&mdash;a compound radicle&mdash;in place of
simple elements. Although his conception of the nature of
compound radicles did not long retain general favour&mdash;indeed
he himself changed it more than once&mdash;he is entitled to rank as
one of the chief founders of the radicle theory. Another service
of the utmost importance which he rendered to the study of
chemistry was in continuing and extending the efforts of Lavoisier
and his associates to establish a convenient system of chemical
nomenclature. By using the initial letters of the Latin
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
(occasionally Greek) names of the elements as symbols for them,
and adding a small numeral subscript, to show the number of atoms
of each present in a compound, he introduced the present system
of chemical formulation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>). Mention should
also be made of the numerous improvements he effected in
analytical methods and the technique of the blowpipe (<i>Über
die Anwendung des Löthrohrs</i>, 1820), of his classification of
minerals on a chemical basis, and of many individual researches
such as those on tellurium, selenium, silicon, thorium, titanium,
zirconium and molybdenum, most of which he isolated for the first
time. Apart from his original memoirs, of which he published
over 250, mostly in Swedish in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Stockholm
Academy, his remarkable literary activity is attested by his
<i>Lehrbuch der Chemie</i>, which went through five editions (first
1803-1818, fifth 1843-1848) and by his <i>Jahresbericht</i> or annual
report on the progress of physics and chemistry, prepared at
the instance of the Stockholm Academy, of which he published
27 vols. (1821-1848).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BES,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> or B&#274;SAS (Egyp. <i>B&#275;s</i> or <i>B&#275;sa</i>), the Egyptian god of recreation,
represented as a dwarf with large head, goggle eyes,
protruding tongue, shaggy beard, a bushy tail seen between his
bow legs hanging down behind (sometimes clearly as part of a
skin girdle) and usually a large crown of feathers on his head.
A Bes-like mask was found by Petrie amongst remains of the
twelfth dynasty, but the earliest occurrence of the god is in the
temple of the queen Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri (<i>c.</i> 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
where he is figured along with the hippopotamus goddess as
present at the queen&rsquo;s birth. His figure is that of a grotesque
mountebank, intended to inspire joy or drive away pain and
sorrow, his hideousness being perhaps supposed actually to scare
away the evil spirits. In his joyous aspect Bes plays the harp
or flute, dances, &amp;c. He is figured on mirrors, ointment vases
and other articles of the toilet. Amulets and ornaments in the
form of the figure or mask of Bes are common after the New
Kingdom; he is often associated with children and with childbirth
and is figured in the &ldquo;birth-houses&rdquo; devoted to the cult
of the child-god. Perhaps the earliest known instance of his
prominent appearance of large size in the sculptures of the
temples is under Tahraka, at Jebel Barkal, Nubia, at the beginning
of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As the protector of children and
others he is the enemy of noxious beasts, such as lions, crocodiles,
serpents and scorpions. Large wooden figures of Bes are generally
found to contain the remains of a human foetus. In the
first centuries of our era an oracle of Besas was consulted at
Abydos, where A.H. Sayce has found graffiti concerning him,
and prescriptions exist for consulting Besas in dreams. It
has been held that Bes was of non-Egyptian origin, African, as
Wiedemann, or Arabian or even Babylonian, as W. Max Müller
contends; he is sometimes entitled &ldquo;coming from the Divine
Land&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the East or Arabia), or &ldquo;Lord of Puoni&rdquo; (Punt), <i>i.e.</i>
the African coast of the Red Sea; his effigy occurs also on Greek
coins of Arabia. It is remarkable also that, contrary to the usual
rule, he is commonly represented in Egyptian sculptures and
paintings full faced instead of in profile. But the connexion
of the god with Puoni may have grown out of the fact that
dwarf dancers were especially brought to Egypt from Ethiopia
and Puoni.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie, s.v.</i>; A.
Wiedemann, <i>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</i> (London, 1897),
p. 159; E.A.W. Budge, <i>Gods of the Egyptians</i>, ii. p. 284 (London);
W. Max Müller, <i>Asien u. Europa</i> (Leipzig, 1893), p. 310.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESANÇON,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a city of eastern France, capital of the department
of Doubs, 76 m. E. of Dijon by the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1906) town, 41,760; commune, 56,168. It is situated
on the left bank of the river Doubs, 820 ft. above sea-level at
the foot of the western Jura, and is enclosed by hills in every
direction. The Doubs almost surrounds the city proper forming
a peninsula, the neck of which is occupied by a height crowned
by the citadel; on the right bank lie populous industrial suburbs.
The river is bordered by fine quays, and in places by the shady
promenades which are a feature of Besançon. On the right
bank there is a fine bathing establishment in the Mouillère quarter,
supplied by the saline springs of Miserey. The cathedral of
St Jean, the chief of the numerous churches of the town, was
founded in the 4th century but has often undergone reconstruction
and restoration; it resembles the Rhenish churches of
Germany in the possession of apses at each of its extremities.
Several styles are represented in its architecture which for the
most part is the work of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries;
the eastern apse and the tower date from the reign of Louis XV.
In the interior there are a &ldquo;Madonna and Child&rdquo; of Fra Bartolommeo
and a number of other paintings and works of art. The
archiepiscopal palace adjoining the cathedral is a building of
the 18th century. The church of Ste. Madeleine belongs to the
18th and 19th centuries. The Palais de Granvelle, in the heart
of the town, was built from 1534 to 1540 by Nicolas Perrenot
de Granvella, chancellor of Charles V., and is the most interesting
of the secular buildings. It is built round a square interior court
surrounded by arcades, and is occupied by learned societies.
The hôtel de ville dates from the 16th century, to which period
many of the old mansions of Besançon also belong. The law-court,
rebuilt in recent times, preserves a Renaissance façade
and a fine audience-hall of the 18th century. Some relics of old
military architecture survive, among them a cylindrical tower
of the 15th century near the Porte Notre-Dame, the southern
gate of the city, and the Porte Rivotte, a gate of the 16th century,
flanked by two round towers. The Roman remains at Besançon
are of great archaeological value. Close to the cathedral there
is a triumphal arch decorated with bas-reliefs known as the
Porte Noire, which is generally considered to have been built
in commemoration of the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the
Germans in 167. It is in poor preservation and was partly rebuilt
in 1820. Remains of a Roman theatre, of an amphitheatre,
of an aqueduct which entered the town by the Porte Taillée, a
gate cut in the rock below the citadel, and an arch of a former
Roman bridge, forming part of the modern bridge, are also to
be seen. Besançon has statues of Victor Hugo and of the
Marquis de Jouffroy d&rsquo;Abbans (b. 1751), inventor of steam-navigation.</p>

<p>Besançon is important as the seat of an archbishopric, a court
of appeal and a court of assizes, as centre of an <i>académie</i> (educational
division), as seat of a prefect and as headquarters of the
VIIth army corps. It also has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
an exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
establishments include the university with its faculties
of science and letters and a preparatory school of medicine and
pharmacy, an artillery school, the lycée Victor Hugo for boys,
a lycée for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, training colleges for
teachers, and schools of watch-making, art, music and dairy-work.
The library contains over 130,000 volumes, and the city
has good collections of pictures, antiquities and natural history.
The chief industry of Besançon is watch- and clock-making,
introduced from the district of Neuchâtel at the end of the 18th
century. It employs about 12,000 workpeople, and produces
about three-fourths of the watches sold in France. Subsidiary
industries, such as enamelling, are also important. The metallurgical
works of the <i>Société de la Franche-Comté</i> are established
in the city and there are saw-mills, printing-works, paper-factories,
distilleries, and manufactories of boots and shoes,
machinery, hosiery, leather, elastic fabric, confectionery and artificial
silk. There is trade in agricultural produce, wine, metals,
&amp;c. The canal from the Rhône to the Rhine passes under the
citadel by way of a tunnel, and the port of Besançon has considerable
trade in coal, sand, &amp;c.</p>

<p>As a fortress Besançon forms one of a group which includes
Dijon, Langres and Belfort; these are designed to secure Franche
Comté and to cover a field army operating on the left flank of a
German army of invasion. The citadel occupies the neck of the
peninsula upon which the town stands; along the river bank
in a semicircle is the town <i>enceinte</i>, and the suburb of Battant
on the right bank of the Doubs is also &ldquo;regularly&rdquo; fortified as
a bridge-head. These works, and Forts Chaudanne and Brégille
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
overlooking the Doubs at the bend, were constructed prior to
1870. The newer works enclose an area more suited to the needs
of modern warfare: the chain of detached forts along the ridges
of the left bank has a total length of 7½ m., and the centre of this
chain is supported by numerous forts and batteries lying
between it and the citadel. On the other bank Fort Chaudanne
is now the innermost of several forts facing towards the south-west,
and the foremost of these works connects the fortifications
of the left bank with another chain of detached forts on the right
bank. The latter completely encloses a large area of ground in
a semicircle of which Besançon itself is the centre, and the whole
of the newer works taken together form an irregular ellipse of
which the major axis, lying north-east by south-west, is formed
by the Doubs.</p>

<p>Besançon is a place of great antiquity. Under the name of
Vesontio it was, in the time of Julius Caesar, the chief town
of the Sequani, and in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was occupied by that general. It
was a rich and prosperous place under the Roman emperors,
and Marcus Aurelius promoted it to the rank of a <i>colonia</i> as
<i>Colonia Victrix Sequanorum</i>. During the succeeding centuries
it was several times destroyed and rebuilt. The archbishopric
dates from the close of the 2nd century, and the archbishops
gradually acquired considerable temporal power. As the capital
of the free county of Burgundy, or Franche-Comté, it was united
with the German kingdom when Frederick I. married Beatrix,
daughter of Renaud III., count of Upper Burgundy. In 1184
Frederick made it a free imperial city, and about the same time
the archbishop obtained the dignity of a prince of the Empire.
It afterwards became detached from the German kingdom, and
during the 14th century came into the possession of the dukes
of Burgundy, from whom it passed to the emperor Maximilian I.,
and his grandson Charles V. Cardinal Granvella, who was a
native of the city, became archbishop in 1584, and founded a
university which existed until the French Revolution. After
the abdication of Charles V. it came into the possession of Spain,
although it remained formally a portion of the Empire until its
cession at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the 17th
century it was attacked several times by the French, to whom
it was definitely ceded by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. It
was then fortified by the engineer Vauban. Until 1789 it was
the seat of a <i>parlement</i>. In 1814 it was invested and bombarded
by the Austrians, and was an important position during
the Franco-German War of 1870-71.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. Castan, <i>Besançon et ses environs</i> (Besançon, 1887); A.
Guénard, <i>Besançon, description historique</i> (Besançon, 1860).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESANT, SIR WALTER<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1836-1901), English author, was
born at Portsmouth, on the 14th of August 1836, third son of
William Besant of that town. He was educated at King&rsquo;s
College, London, and Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, of which he
was a scholar. He graduated in 1859 as 18th wrangler,
and from 1861 to 1867 was senior professor of the Royal College,
Mauritius. From 1868 to 1885 he acted as secretary to the Palestine
Exploration Fund. In 1884 he was mainly instrumental in
establishing the Society of Authors, a trade-union of writers
designed for the protection of literary property, which has rendered
great assistance to inexperienced authors by explaining
the principles of literary profit. Of this society he was chairman
from its foundation in 1884 till 1892. He married Mary, daughter
of Mr Eustace Foster-Barham of Bridgwater, and was knighted
in 1895. He died at Hampstead, on the 9th of June 1901.
Sir Walter Besant practised many branches of literary art with
success, but he is most widely known for his long succession of
novels, many of which have enjoyed remarkable popularity.
His first stories were written in collaboration with James Rice
(<i>q.v.</i>). Two at least of these, <i>The Golden Butterfly</i> (1876) and
<i>Ready-Money Mortiboy</i> (1872), are among the most vigorous
and most characteristic of his works. Though not without
exaggeration and eccentricity, attributable to the influence
of Dickens, they are full of rich humour, shrewd observation
and sound common-sense, and contain characters which have
taken their place in the long gallery of British fiction. After
Rice&rsquo;s death, Sir Walter Besant wrote alone, and in <i>All Sorts
and Conditions of Men</i> (1882) produced a stirring story of East
End life in London, which set on foot the movement that culminated
in the establishment of the People&rsquo;s Palace in the Mile
End Road. Though not himself a pioneer in the effort made
by Canon Barnett and others to alleviate the social evils of the
East End by the personal contact of educated men and women
of a superior social class, his books rendered immense service to
the movement by popularizing it. His sympathy with the poor
was shown in another attempt to stir public opinion, this time
against the evils of the sweating system, in <i>The Children of
Gibeon</i> (1886).</p>

<p>Other popular novels by him were <i>Dorothy Forster</i> (1884),
<i>Armorel of Lyonesse</i> (1890), and <i>Beyond the Dreams of Avarice</i>
(1895). He also wrote critical and biographical works, including
<i>The French Humorists</i> (1873), <i>Rabelais</i> (1879), and lives of
Coligny, Whittington, Captain Cook and Richard Jefferies.
Besant undertook a series of important historical and archaeological
volumes, dealing with the associations and development
of the various districts of London&mdash;of which the most important
was <i>A Survey of London</i>, unfortunately left unfinished, which
was intended to do for modern London what Stow did for
the Elizabethan city. Other books on <i>London</i> (1892), <i>Westminster</i>
(1895) and <i>South London</i> (1899) showed that his mind
was full of his subject. No man of his time evinced a keener
interest in the professional side of literary work, and the improved
conditions of the literary career in England were largely due
to his energetic and capable exposition of the commercial
value of authorship and to the unselfish efforts which Sir
Walter constantly made on behalf of his fellow-workers in the
field of letters.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also <i>Autobiography of Sir Walter Besant</i> (1902), with a prefatory
note by S.S. Sprigge; the preface to the library edition
(1887) of <i>Ready-Money Mortiboy</i> contains a history of the literary
partnership of Besant and Rice.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron de</span>
(1722-1794), French soldier, was born at Soleure. He was the
son of Jean Victor Besenval, colonel of the regiment of Swiss
guards in the pay of France, who was charged in 1707 by Louis
XIV. with a mission to Sweden, to reconcile Charles XII. with
the tsar Peter the Great, and to unite them in alliance with
France against England. Pierre Victor served at first as aide-de-camp
to Marshal Broglie during the campaign of 1748 in
Bohemia, then as aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans during
the Seven Years&rsquo; War. He then became commander of the
Swiss Guards. When the Revolution began Besenval remained
firmly attached to the court, and he was given command of the
troops which the king had concentrated on Paris in July 1789&mdash;a
movement which led to the taking of the Bastille on the
14th of July. Besenval showed incompetence in the crisis, and
attempted to flee. He was arrested, tried by the tribunal
of the Châtelet, but acquitted. He then fell into obscurity
and died in Paris in 1794. Besenval de Bronstatt is principally
known as the author of <i>Mémoires</i>, which were published in
1805-1807 by the vicomte T.A. de Ségur, in which are reported
many scandalous tales, true or false, of the court of Louis XVI.
and Marie Antoinette. The authenticity of these memoirs is
not absolutely established.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESKOW, BERNHARD VON,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1796-1868), Swedish
dramatist and historian, son of a Stockholm merchant, was
born on the 19th of April 1796. His vocation for literature was
assisted by his tutor, the poet Johan Magnus Stjernstolpe
(1777-1831), whose works he edited. He entered the civil
service in 1814, was ennobled in 1826 and received the title of
baron in 1843. He held high appointments at court, and was,
from 1834 onwards, perpetual secretary of the Swedish academy,
using his great influence with tact and generosity. His poetry
is over-decorated, and his plays are grandiose historical poems
in dramatic form. Among them are &ldquo;Erik XIV.&rdquo; (2 parts,
1826); and four pieces collected (1836-1838) as <i>Dramatiska
Studier</i>, the most famous of which is the tragedy of &ldquo;Thorkel
Knutsson.&rdquo; His works include many academical memoirs,
volumes of poems, philosophy and a valuable historical study,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
<i>Om Gustav den Tredje såsom konung och menniska</i> (5 vols.
1860-1869, &ldquo;Gustavus III. as king and man&rdquo;), printed in the
transactions of the Swedish Academy (vols. 32, 34, 37, 42, 44).
He died on the 17th of October 1868.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also a notice by C. D. af Wirsen in his <i>Lefnadsteckningar</i>
(Stockholm, 1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), French painter,
was born in Paris and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts,
winning the <i>Prix de Rome</i> in 1874. Until about 1880 he followed
the academic tradition, but then broke away completely, and
devoted himself to the study of colour and light as conceived
by the impressionists. The realism of this group never appealed
to his bold imagination, but he applied their technical method
to ideological and decorative works on a large scale, such as
his frescoes at the Sorbonne, the École de Pharmacie, the Salle
des Sciences at the hôtel de ville, the mairie of the first arrondissement,
and the chapel of Berck hospital, for which he painted
twelve &ldquo;Stations of the Cross&rdquo; in an entirely modern spirit.
A great virtuoso, he achieved brilliant successes alike in water-colour,
pastel, oil and etching, both in portraiture, in landscape
and in decoration. A good example of his daring unconventionality
is his portrait of Madame Réjane; and his close analysis
of light can be studied in his picture &ldquo;Femme qui se chauffe&rdquo;
at the Luxembourg in Paris.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESOM<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (Old Eng. <i>besema</i>, a rod), originally a bundle of rods
or twigs, used for sweeping, &amp;c.; a stiff broom.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSARABIA,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a government of south-west Russia, separated
on the W. and S. from Moldavia and Walachia by the Pruth, and
on the E. and N. from the Russian governments of Podolia
and Kherson by the Dniester; on the S.E. it is washed by
the Black Sea. Area, 17,614 sq. m. The northern districts are
invaded by offshoots of the Carpathians, which reach altitudes
of 800 to 1150 ft., and are cut up by numerous ravines and river
valleys. Here, however, agriculture is the prevailing occupation,
the soil being the fertile black earth. The crops principally
raised are wheat and maize, though here, as well as in other parts
of the government, barley, flax, tobacco, water-melons, gourds,
fruit, wine, saffron and madder are grown. The middle of the
government is also hilly (850-1000 ft.), and is heavily timbered,
chiefly with beech, oak and mountain-ash, and, though to a
smaller extent, with birch. The districts south of the old Roman
earthworks which link the Dniester with the Pruth along the
line of the Botna, just south of Bender, consist of level pasture-land
known as the Budjak steppes. Here stock-breeding is the
predominant calling, the people owning large numbers of sheep,
cattle and horses, also goats, pigs and buffaloes. Lagoons
fringe the lower course of the Pruth and the coast of the Black
Sea, and marshy ground exists beside the Reuth and other
tributaries of the Dniester. The climate is rather subject to
extremes, the mean temperature for the year, at Kishinev,
being 50° Fahr., of January 27°, and of July 72°. The rainfall
amounts to over 25 in. annually. Salt, saltpetre and marble are
the principal mineral products. Manufacturing industry is only
just beginning, wine-making (17,000,000 gallons annually),
cloth-mills, iron-works, soap-works and tanneries being the
principal branches. Both the Dniester and the Pruth are
important waterways commercially, the former being navigable
up to Mogilev and the latter to Leovo (46° 30&prime; N. lat.). Down the
Dniester come timber and wooden wares from Galicia, and grain
and wool from Bessarabia itself. Three branches of the railway
from Odessa to Poland penetrate the government and proceed
towards the Carpathians. The population numbered 988,431
in 1860 and 1,938,326 in 1897, of whom only 302,852 were urban,
while 942,179 were women. In 1906 it was estimated at 2,262,400.
It consists of various races, nearly one-half (920,919 in 1897)
being Moldavians, the others Little Russians, Jews (37% in the
towns and 12% in the rural districts), Bulgarians (103,225),
Germans (60,206), with some Gypsies (Zigani), Greeks, Armenians,
Tatars and Albanians. The Germans, who form some thirty
prosperous colonies in the Budjak steppes west from Akkerman,
have been settled there since about 1814. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Akkerman
(pop. 32,470 in 1900), Bender (33,741 in 1900), Byeltsi
(18,526 in 1897), Izmail (33,607 in 1900), Khotin (18,126),
Kishinev (125,787 in 1900), Orgeyev (13,356), and Soroki (25,523
in 1900). The capital is Kishinev. Kagul, on the Pruth, and
Reni on the Danube (the place to which Alexander of Bulgaria
was carried when kidnapped by the Russians in 1886), are small,
but lively, river-ports.</p>

<p>The original inhabitants were Cimmerians, and after them
came Scythians. During the early centuries of the Christian era
Bessarabia, being the key to one of the approaches towards the
Byzantine empire, was invaded by many successive races. In
the 2nd century it was occupied by the Getae, a Thracian
tribe, whom the Roman emperor Trajan conquered in 106; he
then incorporated the region in the province of Dacia. In the
following century the Goths poured into this quarter of the
empire, and in the 5th century it was overrun one after the other
by the Huns, the Avars and the Bulgarians. Then followed in
the 7th century the Bessi, a Thracian tribe, who gave their name
to the region, and in the 9th the Ugrians, that is to say the
ancestors of the present Magyars of Hungary, the country being
then known as Atel-kuzu. The Ugrians were forced farther west
by the Turkish tribe of the Petchenegs in the 10th century, and
these were succeeded in the 11th century by the Kumans (Comani)
or Polovtsians, a kindred Turkish stock or federation. In the
13th century Bessarabia was overrun by the irresistible Mongols
under the leadership of Batu, grandson of Jenghiz Khan. In this
century also the Genoese founded trading factories on the banks
of the Dniester. In 1367 Bessarabia was subdued and annexed
by the ruling prince of Moldavia. During the 16th century it
was in the possession alternately of the Turks and the Nogais or
Crimean Tatars. From early in the 18th century it was a bone
of contention between the Ottoman Turks and the Russians, the
latter capturing it five times between 1711 and 1812. In the
latter year it was definitely annexed to Russia, and in 1829 its
frontier was pushed southwards so as to include the delta of the
Danube. After the Crimean War, however, Russia ceded to
Moldavia not only this later addition, but also certain districts
in the south of the existing government, amounting altogether
to an area of 4250 sq. m. and a population of 180,000. By the
treaty of Berlin (1878) Russia recovered of this 3580 sq. m., with
a population of 127,000.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Nakko, <i>History of Bessarabia</i>, in Russian (1873).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSARION, JOHANNES,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Basilius</span> (<i>c.</i> 1395-1472), titular
patriarch of Constantinople, and one of the illustrious Greek
scholars who contributed to the great revival of letters in the
15th century, was born at Trebizond, the year of his birth being
variously given as 1389, 1395 or 1403. He was educated at
Constantinople, and in 1423 went to the Peloponnese to hear
Gemistus Pletho expound the philosophy of Plato. On entering
the order of St Basil, he adopted the name of an old Egyptian
anchorite Bessarion, whose story he has related. In 1437 he was
made archbishop of Nicaea by John VII. Palacologus, whom
he accompanied to Italy in order to bring about a union between
the Greek and Latin churches with the object of obtaining help
from the West against the Turks. The Greeks had bitterly
resented his attachment to the party which saw no difficulty in
a reconciliation of the two churches. At the councils held in
Ferrara and Florence Bessarion supported the Roman church,
and gained the favour of Pope Eugenius IV., who invested him
with the rank of cardinal. From that time he resided permanently
in Italy, doing much, by his patronage of learned men, by his
collection of books and manuscripts, and by his own writings,
to spread abroad the new learning. He held in succession the
archbishopric of Siponto and the bishoprics of Sabina and
Frascati. In 1463 he received the title of Latin patriarch of
Constantinople; and it was only on account of his Greek birth
that he was not elevated to the papal chair. For five years
(1450-1455) he was legate at Bologna, and he was engaged on
embassies to many foreign princes, among others to Louis XI.
of France in 1471. Vexation at an insult offered him by Louis
is said to have hastened his death, which took place on the 19th
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
of November 1472, at Ravenna. Bessarion was one of the most
learned scholars of his time. Besides his translations of Aristotle&rsquo;s
<i>Metaphysics</i> and Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Memorabilia</i>, his most important
work is a treatise directed against George of Trebizond, a violent
Aristotelian, entitled <i>In Calumniatorem Platonis</i>. Bessarion,
though a Platonist, is not so thoroughgoing in his admiration as
Gemistus Pletho, and rather strives after a reconciliation of the
two philosophies. His work, by opening up the relations of
Platonism to the main questions of religion, contributed greatly
to the extension of speculative thought in the department of
theology. His library, which contained a very extensive collection
of Greek MSS., was presented by him to the senate
of Venice, and formed the nucleus of the famous library of
St Mark.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A.M. Bandini, <i>De Vita et Rebus Gestis Bessarionis</i> (1777);
H. Vast, <i>Le Cardinal Bessarion</i> (1878); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliographie
Hellénique</i> (1885); G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen
Altertums</i>, ii. (1893); on Bessarion at the councils of Ferrara and
Florence, A. Sadov, <i>Bessarion de Nicée</i> (1883); on his philosophy,
monograph by A. Kandelos (in Greek: Athens, 1888); most of his
works are in Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, clxi.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>. The Ponsonby family, who
have contributed many conspicuous men to Irish and English
public life, trace their descent to Sir John Ponsonby (d. 1678),
of Cumberland, a Commonwealth soldier who obtained land
grants in Ireland. His son William (1657-1724) was created
Baron Bessborough (1721) and Viscount Duncannon (1723),
and the latter&rsquo;s son Brabazon was raised to the earldom of
Bessborough in 1739. He was the father not only of the 2nd earl
(1704-1793), but of John Ponsonby (<i>q.v.</i>), speaker of the Irish
House of Commons. The 2nd earl was a well-known Whig
politician, who held various offices of state; and his son the 3rd
earl (1758-1844) was father of the 4th earl (1781-1847), first
commissioner of works in 1831-1834, lord privy seal from 1835 to
1839 and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1846. He was succeeded
by his three sons, the 5th earl (d. 1880), 6th earl (1815-1895),
a famous cricketer and chairman of the Bessborough commission
(1881) to inquire into the Irish land system, and 7th earl (d. 1906),
and the last named by his son the 8th earl.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSÈGES,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department
of Gard, on the Cèze, 20 m. north of Alais by rail. Pop.
(1906) 7662. The town is important for its coal-mines, blast-furnaces
and iron-works.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1784-1846), German
astronomer, was born at Minden on the 22nd of July 1784.
Placed at the age of fifteen in a counting-house at Bremen, he
was impelled by his desire to obtain a situation as supercargo
on a foreign voyage to study navigation, mathematics and
finally astronomy. In 1804 he calculated the orbit of Halley&rsquo;s
comet from observations made in 1607 by Thomas Harriot,
and communicated his results to H.W.M. Olbers, who procured
their publication (<i>Monatliche Correspondenz</i>, x. 425), and recommended
the young aspirant in 1805 for the post of assistant
in J.H. Schröter&rsquo;s observatory at Lilienthal. A masterly
investigation of the comet of 1807 (Königsberg, 1810) enhanced
his reputation, and the king of Prussia summoned him, in 1810,
to superintend the erection of a new observatory at Königsberg,
of which he acted as director from its completion in 1813 until
his death. In this capacity he inaugurated the modern era
of practical astronomy. For the purpose of improving knowledge
of star-places he reduced James Bradley&rsquo;s Greenwich observations,
and derived from them an invaluable catalogue of 3222
stars, published in the volume rightly named <i>Fundamenta
Astronomiae</i> (1818). In <i>Tabulae Regiomontanae</i> (1830), he
definitively established the uniform system of reduction still
in use. During the years 1821-1833, he observed all stars to
the ninth magnitude in zones extending from -15° to +45° dec.,
and thus raised the number of those accurately determined to
about 50,000. He corrected the length of the seconds&rsquo; pendulum
in 1826, in a discussion re-published by H. Bruns in 1889;
measured an arc of the meridian in East Prussia in 1831-1832;
and deduced for the earth in 1841 an ellipticity of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">299</span>. His
ascertainment in 1838 (<i>Astr. Nach.</i>, Nos. 365-366) of a parallax
of 0&Prime;.31 for 61 Cygni was the first authentic result of the kind
published. He announced in 1844 the binary character of Sirius
and Procyon from their disturbed proper motions; and was
preparing to attack the problem solved later by the discovery
of Neptune, when fatal illness intervened. He died at Königsberg
on the 17th of March 1846. Modern astronomy of precision is
essentially Bessel&rsquo;s creation. Apart from the large scope of his
activity, he introduced such important novelties as the effective
use of the heliometer, the correction for personal equation
(in 1823), and the systematic investigation of instrumental
errors. He issued 21 volumes of <i>Astronomische Beobachtungen
auf der Sternwarte zu Königsberg</i> (1815-1844), and a list of his
writings drawn up by A.L. Busch appeared in vol. 24 of the
same series. Especial attention should be directed to his
<i>Astronomische Untersuchungen</i> (2 vols. 1841-1842), <i>Populäre
Vorlesungen</i> (1848), edited by H.C. Schumacher, and to the
important collection entitled <i>Abhandlungen</i> (4 vols. 1875-1882),
issued by R. Engelmann at Leipzig. His minor treatises numbered
over 350. In pure mathematics he enlarged the resources
of analysis by the invention of Bessel&rsquo;s Functions. He made
some preliminary use of these expressions in 1817, in a paper
on Kepler&rsquo;s Problem (<i>Transactions Berlin Academy</i>, 1816-1817,
p. 49), and fully developed them seven years later, for the
purposes of a research into planetary perturbations (<i>Ibid.</i> 1824,
pp. 1-52).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also H. Durège, <i>Bessels Leben und Wirken</i> (Zürich, 1861);
J.F. Encke, <i>Gedächtnissrede auf Bessel</i> (Berlin, 1846); C.T. Anger,
<i>Erinnerung an Bessels Leben und Wirken</i> (Danzig, 1845); <i>Astronomische
Nachrichten</i>, xxiv. 49, 331 (1846); <i>Monthly Notices Roy.
Astr. Society</i>, vii. 199 (1847); <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, ii.
558-567.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSEL FUNCTION,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a certain mathematical relation between
two variables. The <i>Bessel function of order m</i> satisfies the
differential equation</p>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td>d²u</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td>du</td>
  <td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f200">(</span> 1 &minus; </td> <td>m²</td>
  <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span> u = 0,</td></tr>
<tr><td class="denom">d&rho;²</td> <td class="denom">&rho;</td>
  <td class="denom">d&rho;</td> <td class="denom">&rho;²</td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">and may be expressed as the series</p>

<table class="math0" summary="math">
<tr><td>&rho;<span class="sp">m</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">{</span> 1 &minus;</td>
  <td>&rho;²</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>
  <td>&rho;<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td rowspan="2">... <span class="f200">}</span>;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="denom">2<span class="sp">m</span>·m!</td> <td class="denom">2·2m + 2</td>
 <td class="denom">2·4·2m + 2·2m + 4</td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">the function of <i>zero order</i> is deduced by making m = 0, and is
equivalent to the series 1 &minus; &rho;²/2² + &rho;<span class="sp">4</span>/2²·4², &amp;c. O. Schlömilch
defines these functions as the coefficients of the power of t in
the expansion of exp ½&rho;(t &minus; t<span class="sp">&minus;1</span>). The symbol generally
adopted to represent these functions is J<span class="su">m</span>(&rho;) where m denotes
the order of the function. These functions are named after
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, who in 1817 introduced them in an
investigation on Kepler&rsquo;s Problem. He discussed their properties
and constructed tables for their evaluation. Although
Bessel was the first to systematically treat of these functions, it
is to be noted that in 1732 Daniel Bernoulli obtained the function
of zero order as a solution to the problem of the oscillations of
a chain suspended at one end. This problem has been more
fully discussed by Sir A.G. Greenhill. In 1764 Leonhard Euler
employed the functions of both zero and integral orders in an
analysis into the vibrations of a stretched membrane; an
investigation which has been considerably developed by Lord
Rayleigh, who has also shown (1878) that Bessel&rsquo;s functions are
particular cases of Laplace&rsquo;s functions. There is hardly a branch
of mathematical physics which is independent of these functions.
Of the many applications we may notice:&mdash;Joseph Fourier&rsquo;s (1824)
investigation of the motion of heat in a solid cylinder, a problem
which, with the related one of the flow of electricity, has been
developed by W.E. Weber, G.F. Riemann and S.D. Poisson;
the flow of electromagnetic waves along wires (Sir J.J. Thomson,
H. Hertz, O. Heaviside); the diffraction of light (E. Lömmel,
Lord Rayleigh, Georg Wilhelm Struve); the theory of elasticity
(A.E. Love, H. Lamb, C. Chree, Lord Rayleigh); and to
hydrodynamics (Lord Kelvin, Sir G. Stokes).</p>

<p>The remarkable connexion between Bessel&rsquo;s functions and
spherical harmonics was established in 1868 by F.G. Mehler,
who proved that a simple relation existed between the function
of zero order and the zonal harmonic of order <i>n</i>. Heinrich
Eduard Heine has shown that the functions of higher orders
may be considered as limiting values of the associated functions;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
this relation was discussed independently, in 1878, by Lord
Rayleigh.</p>

<p>For the mathematical investigation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spherical Harmonics</a></span>
and for tables see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Table, Mathematical</a></span>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. Gray and G.B. Matthews, <i>Treatise on Bessel&rsquo;s Functions</i>
(1895); <i>Encyclopädie der math. Wissenschaften</i>; F.W. Bessel, <i>Untersuchung
des Teils der planetarischen Störungen</i> (1824).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSEMER, SIR HENRY<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1813-1898), English engineer,
was born on the 19th of January 1813, at Charlton, in Hertfordshire.
Throughout his life he was a prolific inventor, but
his name is chiefly known in connexion with the Bessemer
process for the manufacture of steel, by which it has been rendered
famous throughout the civilized world. Though this process
is now largely supplemented, and even displaced, by various
rivals, at the time it was brought out it was of enormous industrial
importance, since it effected a great cheapening in the price of
steel, and led to that material being widely substituted for others
which were inferior in almost every respect but that of cost.
Bessemer&rsquo;s attention was drawn to the problem of steel manufacture
in the course of an attempt to improve the construction
of guns. Coming to the conclusion that if any advance was
to be made in artillery better metal must be available, he established
a small iron-works in St Pancras, and began a series of
experiments. These he carried on for two years before he
evolved the essential idea of his process, which is the decarbonization
of cast iron by forcing a blast of air through the mass
of metal when in the molten condition. The first public announcement
of the process was made at the Cheltenham meeting of
the British Association in 1856, and immediately attracted
considerable notice. Many metallurgists were sceptical on
theoretical grounds about his results, and only became convinced
when they saw that his process was really able to convert
melted cast iron into malleable iron in a perfectly fluid state.
But though five firms applied without delay for licences to work
under his patents, success did not at once attend his efforts;
indeed, after several ironmasters had put the process to practical
trial and failed to get good results, it was in danger of being
thrust aside and entirely forgotten. Its author, however, instead
of being discouraged by this lack of success, continued his experiments,
and in two years was able to turn out a product, the
quality of which was not inferior to that yielded by the older
methods. But when he now tried to induce makers to take
up his improved system, he met with general rebuffs, and finally
was driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself.
To this end he erected steelworks in Sheffield, on ground purchased
with the help of friends, and began to manufacture steel.
At first the output was insignificant, but gradually the magnitude
of the operations was enlarged until the competition
became effective, and steel traders generally became aware
that the firm of Henry Bessemer &amp; Co. was underselling them
to the extent of £20 a ton. This argument to the pocket quickly
had its effect, and licences were applied for in such numbers
that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received
a sum in all considerably exceeding a million sterling.</p>

<p>Of course, patents of such obvious value did not escape
criticism, and invalidity was freely urged against them on
various grounds. But Bessemer was fortunate enough to
maintain them intact without litigation, though he found
it advisable to buy up the rights of one patentee, while in another
case he was freed from anxiety by the patent being allowed to
lapse in 1859 through non-payment of fees. At the outset he
had found great difficulty in making steel by his process&mdash;in his
first licences to the trade iron alone was mentioned. Experiments
he made with South Wales iron were failures because the
product was devoid of malleability; Mr Göransson, a Swedish
ironmaster, using the purer charcoal pig iron of that country,
was the first to make good steel by the process, and even he was
successful only after many attempts. His results prompted
Bessemer to try the purer iron obtained from Cumberland
haematite, but even with this he did not meet with much success,
until Robert Mushet showed that the addition of a certain
quantity of spiegeleisen had the effect of removing the difficulties.
Whether or not Mushet&rsquo;s patents could have been sustained,
the value of his procedure was shown by its general adoption
in conjunction with the Bessemer method of conversion. At the
same time it is only fair to say that whatever may have been the
conveniences of Mushet&rsquo;s plan, it was not absolutely essential;
this Bessemer proved in 1865, by exhibiting a series of samples
of steel made by his own process alone. The pecuniary rewards
of Bessemer&rsquo;s great invention came to him with comparative
quickness; but it was not till 1879 that the Royal Society
admitted him as a fellow and the government honoured him
with a knighthood. Bessemer died at Denmark Hill, London,
on the 15th of March 1898.</p>

<p>Among Bessemer&rsquo;s numerous other inventions, not one of
which attained a tithe of the success or importance of the steel
process, were movable dies for embossed stamps, a gold paint,
sugar machinery, and a ship which was to save her passengers
from the miseries of <i>mal de mer</i>. This last had her saloon
mounted in such a way as to be free to swing relatively to the
boat herself, and the idea was that this saloon should always be
maintained steady and level, no matter how rough the sea.
For this purpose hydraulic mechanism of Bessemer&rsquo;s design was
arranged under the control of an attendant, whose duty it was
to keep watch on a spirit-level, and counteract by proper manipulation
of the apparatus any deviation from the horizontal that
might manifest itself on the floor of the saloon owing to the
rolling of the vessel. A boat, called the &ldquo;Bessemer,&rdquo; was built
on this plan in 1875 and put on the cross-Channel service to
Calais, but the mechanism of the swinging saloon was not found
effective in practice and was ultimately removed.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>An <i>Autobiography</i> was published in 1905.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSEMER,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a town of Jefferson county, Alabama, U.S.A.,
about 12 m. S.W. of Birmingham, a little N. of the centre of
the state. Pop. (1890) 4544; (1900) 6538, including 3695 negroes;
(1910) 10,864. The town is served by the Alabama Great
Southern (Queen &amp; Crescent route), the Louisville &amp; Nashville,
the Kansas City, Memphis &amp; Birmingham (St Louis
&amp; San Francisco system), the Birmingham Southern, and the
Atlanta, Birmingham &amp; Atlantic railways. Bessemer is
situated in the midst of the iron ore and limestone district of
Alabama, in the south part of Jones&rsquo; Valley (about 3 m. wide.);
to the east is the Red Ore mountain range, rich in red haematite;
to the north-west are the Warrior coalfields; to the south-west,
south and south-east are immense fossiliferous iron ore seams
and the Cahaba coalfields; in the immediate vicinity of the city
are limestone quarries, and about 18 m. north-east are the limestone
kilns of Gate City. Mining, iron smelting and the manufacture
of iron and coke are the chief industries of Bessemer;
truck farming is also an important industry. In 1900 Bessemer
was the eighth city of the state in population, second in amount
of capital invested in manufacturing, and fourth in the value
of its manufactured product for the year. Bessemer was laid
out in 1887, and was incorporated in 1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSIÈRES, JEAN BAPTISTE,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> duke of Istria (1768-1813),
French marshal, was born near Cahors in 1768. He served for
a short time in the &ldquo;Constitutional Guard&rdquo; of Louis XVI.
and as a non-commissioned officer took part in the war against
Spain. In the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and in the Army
of the Moselle he repeatedly distinguished himself for valour,
and in 1796, as captain, he served in Bonaparte&rsquo;s Italian campaign.
At Roveredo his conduct brought him to his chief&rsquo;s
notice, and after Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the
captured colours to the Directory. Hastening back to the front,
he accompanied Napoleon in the invasion of Styria in command
of the &ldquo;Guides,&rdquo; who formed the nucleus of the later Consular
and Imperial Guard. As <i>chef de brigade</i> he next served in the
Egyptian expedition, and won further distinction at Acre and
Aboukir. Returning to Europe with Napoleon, he was present
at Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard,
and led a brilliant and successful cavalry charge at the close of
the day, though its effect on the battle was not as decisive as
Napoleon pretended. Promoted general of division in 1802
and marshal of France in 1804, he made the most famous
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
campaigns of the Grande Armée as colonel-general of the Guard
Cavalry (1805, 1806, 1807). In 1805 he had received the Grand
Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1800 was created duke of
Istria. With the outbreak of the Peninsular War, Marshal
Bessières had his first opportunity of an independent command,
and his crushing victory over the Spaniards at Medina del Rio
Seco (1808) justified Napoleon&rsquo;s choice. When disaster in other
parts of the theatre of war called Napoleon himself to the
Peninsula, Bessières continued to give the emperor the very greatest
assistance in his campaign. In 1809 he was again with the
<i>Grande Armée</i> in the Danube valley. At Essling his repeated
and desperate charges checked the Austrians in the full tide of
their success. At Wagram he had a horse killed under him.
Replacing Bernadotte in the command of the Army of the North,
a little later in the same year, the newly-created duke of Istria
successfully opposed the British Walcheren expedition, and in
1811 he was back again, in a still more important command,
in Spain. As Masséna&rsquo;s second-in-command he was present
at the battle of Fuentes d&rsquo;Onoro, but Napoleon never detached
him for very long, and in 1812 he commanded the Guard Cavalry
at Borodino and in the retreat from Moscow. Wherever engaged
he won further distinction, and at the beginning of the 1813
campaign he was appointed to the command of the whole of
Napoleon&rsquo;s cavalry. Three days after the opening of the campaign,
while reconnoitring the defile of Poserna-Rippach,
Bessières was killed by a musket-ball. Napoleon, who deeply
felt the loss of one of his truest friends and ablest commanders,
protected his children, and his eldest son was made a member
of the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. As a commander,
especially of cavalry, Bessières left a reputation excelled by
very few of Napoleon&rsquo;s marshals, and his dauntless courage
and cool judgment made him a safe leader in independent
command. He was personally beloved to an extraordinary extent
amongst his soldiers, and (unlike most of the French generals
of the time) amongst his opponents. It is said that masses were
performed for his soul by the priests of insurgent Spain, and the
king of Saxony raised a monument to his memory.</p>

<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Bertrand, Baron Bessières</span> (1773-1855),
was a distinguished divisional leader under Napoleon.
After serving with a good record in Italy, in Egypt and at
Hohenlinden, he had a command in the <i>Grande Armée</i>, and in
1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded a division in Catalonia
and played a notable part at the action of Molins de Rey near
Barcelona. Disagreements with his superior, General Duhesme,
led to his resignation, but he subsequently served with Napoleon
in all the later campaigns of the empire. Placed on the
retired list by the Bourbons, his last public act was his defence
of the unfortunate Ney. The rest of his long life was spent in
retirement.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESSUS,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana under Darius III.
In the battle of Gaugamela (1st of October 331) he commanded
the troops of his satrapy. When Alexander pursued the Persian
king on his flight to the East (summer 330), Bessus with some
of the other conspirators deposed Darius and shortly afterwards
killed him. He then tried to organize a national resistance
against the Macedonian conqueror in the eastern provinces,
proclaimed himself king and adopted the name Artaxerxes.
But he was taken prisoner by treachery in the summer of 329.
Alexander sent him to Ecbatana, where he was condemned to
death. Before his execution his nose and ears were cut off,
according to the Persian custom; we learn from the Behistun
inscription that Darius I. punished the usurpers in the same way.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1826-1897), English organist, the
son of a solicitor, was born at Carlisle on the 13th of August
1826. Having decided upon a musical career, he received his
first instruction from the cathedral organist. He applied himself
especially to Bach&rsquo;s music, and became a player of great skill.
His successive appointments were to Pembroke chapel, Liverpool,
1840; to a church for the blind, 1847, and the Liverpool
Philharmonic Society, 1848. For a short time (1854-1855) he
was in London at the Panopticon in Leicester Square, the church
of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn chapel. In 1855
he returned to Liverpool as organist of St George&rsquo;s Hall, where
his performances rapidly became famous throughout England.
Ill-health compelled him at last to retire in 1894. He was
engaged as solo organist at all the Handel festivals at the Crystal
Palace, and also as organist at the Albert Hall, where he inaugurated
the great organ in 1871. He had been in the receipt
of a civil list pension of £100 a year since 1880, and in 1890 went
to Australia to give organ recitals in the town hall of Sydney.
Best died at Liverpool on the 10th of May 1897.</p>

<p>His command over all the resources of his own instrument
was masterly; his series of Saturday recitals at St George&rsquo;s Hall,
carried on for many years, included the whole field of organ
music, and of music that could be arranged for the organ,
ancient and modern; and his performances of Bach&rsquo;s organ
works were particularly fine. His own compositions for the
organ, chiefly comprised in the publication entitled <i>Organ
Pieces for Church Use</i>, have a strong and marked individuality.
Best, unlike many soloists, was an all-round musician, and fully
acquainted with every branch of the art. His bust, by Conrad
Dressler, has been placed on the platform in front of the Liverpool
organ, as a memorial of his long series of performances there.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESTIA,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> the name of a family in ancient Rome, of which the
following were the most distinguished.</p>

<p>1. <span class="sc">Lucius Calpurnius Bestia</span>, Roman tribune of the
people in 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, consul in 111. Having been appointed
to the command of the operations against Jugurtha, he at
first carried on the campaign energetically, but soon, having
been heavily bribed, concluded a disgraceful peace. On his
return to Rome he was brought to trial for his conduct and
condemned, in spite of the efforts of Marcus Scaurus who, though
formerly his legate and equally guilty, was one of the judges.
He is probably identical with the Bestia who encouraged the
Italians in their revolt, and went into exile (90) to avoid
punishment under the law of Q. Varius, whereby those who had secretly
or openly aided the Italian allies against Rome were to be brought
to trial (Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 37; Val. Max. viii. 6. 4). Both
Cicero and Sallust express a high opinion of Bestia&rsquo;s abilities, but
his love of money demoralized him. He is mentioned in a
Carthaginian inscription as one of a board of three, perhaps an
agricultural commission.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Sallust, <i>Jugurtha</i>; Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, xxxiv. 128; for the general
history, A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, vol. i. (1904), pp. 346 foll.</p>
</div>

<p>2. <span class="sc">Lucius Calpurnius Bestia</span>, one of the Catilinarian
conspirators, possibly a grandson of the above. He was tribune
elect in 63, and it had been arranged that, after entering upon his
office, he should publicly accuse Cicero of responsibility for the
impending war. This was to be the signal for the outbreak of
revolution. The conspiracy, however, was put down and Bestia
had to content himself with delivering a violent attack upon the
consul on the expiration of his office. This Bestia is probably not
the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, aedile, and a candidate for the
praetorship in 57. He was accused of bribery during his candidature,
and, in spite of Cicero&rsquo;s defence, was condemned. In 43
he attached himself to the party of Antony, apparently in the
hope of obtaining the consulship.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Sallust, <i>Catiline</i>, xvii. 43; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 3;
Cicero, <i>Ad Q. Fr.</i> ii. 3, 6.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1693-1768),
grand chancellor of Russia, the second son of Count
Peter Bestuzhev, the early favourite of the empress Anne, was
born at Moscow on the 1st of June 1693. Educated abroad, with
his elder brother Mikhail, at Copenhagen and Berlin, he especially
distinguished himself in languages and the applied sciences.
Peter the Great, in 1712, attached him to Prince Kurakin at the
Utrecht Congress that he might learn diplomacy, and for the
same reason permitted him in 1713 to enter the service of the
elector of Hanover. George I. took him to London in 1714, and
sent him to St Petersburg as his accredited minister with a
notification of his accession. Bestuzhev then returned to
England, where he remained four years. It was the necessary
apprenticeship to his brilliant diplomatic career. His passion for
intrigue is curiously illustrated by his letter to the tsarevich
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
Alexius at Vienna, assuring his &ldquo;future sovereign&rdquo; of his
devotion, and representing his sojourn in England as a deliberate
seclusion of a zealous but powerless well-wisher. This extraordinary
indiscretion might well have cost him his life, but the
tsarevich fortunately destroyed the letter.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On his return to
Russia he served for two years without any salary as chief
gentleman of the Bedchamber at the court of Anne of Courland,
and in 1721 succeeded Vasily Dolgoruki as Russian minister at
Copenhagen. Copenhagen was then a whirlpool of diplomatic
intrigue, for George I. was endeavouring to arm the northern
powers against Peter the Great, and this it was Bestuzhev&rsquo;s
mission to counteract. On the occasion of the peace of Nystad,
which terminated the 21 years war between Russia and Sweden,
Bestuzhev designed and struck a commemorative medal with a
panegyrical Latin inscription, which so delighted Peter (then at
Derbent) that he sent a letter of thanks written with his own
hand and his portrait set in brilliants. It was at this time too
that the many-sided Alexius invented his famous &ldquo;drops,&rdquo; or
<i>tinctura toniconervina Bestuscheffi</i>, the recipe of which was stolen
by the French brigadier Lamotte, who made his fortune by
introducing it at the French court, where it was known as
<i>Élixir d&rsquo;Or</i>.</p>

<p>The sudden death of Peter the Great seriously injured Bestuzhev&rsquo;s
prospects. For more than ten years he remained at Copenhagen,
looking vainly towards Russia as a sort of promised land
from which he was excluded by enemies or rivals. He rendered
some important services, however, to the empress Anne, for
which he was decorated and made a privy councillor. He also
won the favour of Biren, and on the tragic fall of Artemy Voluinsky
in 1739 was summoned home to take his place in the
council. He assisted Biren to obtain the regency in the last days
of the empress Anne, but when his patron fell three weeks later,
his own position became extremely precarious. His chance
came when the empress Elizabeth, immediately after her accession,
summoned him back to court, and appointed him vice-chancellor.
For the next twenty years, during a period of
exceptional difficulty, he practically controlled the foreign
policy of Russia. Bestuzhev rightly recognized that, at this
time, France was the natural enemy of Russia. The interests of
the two states in Turkey, Poland and Sweden were diametrically
opposed, and Russia could never hope to be safe from the
intrigues of France in these three borderlands. All the enemies of
France were thus necessarily the friends of Russia, and her
friends Russia&rsquo;s enemies. Consequently Great Britain, and still
more Austria, were Russia&rsquo;s natural allies, while the aggressive
and energetic king of Prussia was a danger to be guarded against.
It was, therefore, the policy of Bestuzhev to bring about a quadruple
alliance between Russia, Austria, Great Britain and Saxony,
to counterpoise the Franco-Prussian league. But he was on
dangerous ground. The empress herself was averse from an
alliance with Great Britain and Austria, whose representatives
had striven to prevent her accession; and many of her personal
friends, in the pay of France and Prussia, took part in innumerable
conspiracies to overthrow Bestuzhev. Nevertheless, step by
step, Bestuzhev, aided by his elder brother Mikhail, carried out
his policy. On the 11th of December 1742, a defensive alliance
was concluded between Great Britain and Russia. Bestuzhev
had previously rejected with scorn the proposals of the French
government to mediate between Russia and Sweden on the basis
of a territorial surrender on the part of the former; and he
conducted the war so vigorously that by the end of 1742 Sweden
lay at the mercy of the empress. At the peace congress of Åbo
(January-August 1743) he insisted that the whole of Finland
should be ceded to Russia, by way of completing the testament of
Peter the Great. But the French party contrived to get better
terms for Sweden, by artfully appealing to the empress&rsquo;s fondness
for the house of Holstein. The Swedes, at the desire of Elizabeth,
accepted Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein, as their future
king, and, in return, received back Finland, with the exception of
a small strip of land up to the river Kymmene. Nor could
Bestuzhev prevent the signing of a Russo-Prussian defensive
alliance (March 1743); but he deprived it of all political significance
by excluding from it the proposed guarantee of Frederick&rsquo;s
Silesian conquests. Moreover, through Bestuzhev&rsquo;s efforts, the
credit of the Prussian king (whom he rightly regarded as more
dangerous than France) at the Russian court fell steadily, and
the vice-chancellor prepared the way for an alliance with Austria
by acceding to the treaty of Breslau (1st of November 1743).
A bogus conspiracy, however, got up by the Holstein faction,
aided by France and Prussia, who persuaded Elizabeth that the
Austrian ambassador was intriguing to replace Ivan VI. on the
throne, alienated the empress from Austria for a time; and
Bestuzhev&rsquo;s ruin was regarded as certain when, in 1743, the
French agent, the marquis de La Chétardie, arrived to reinforce
his other enemies. But he found a friend in need in M.L.
Vorontsov, the empress&rsquo;s confidant, who shared his political
views. Still his position was most delicate, especially when the
betrothal between the grand-duke Peter and Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst
(afterwards Catharine II.) was carried through against his
will, and Elizabeth of Holstein, the mother of the bride, arrived
in the Prussian interests to spy upon him. Frederick II.,
conscious of the instability of his French ally, was now eager to
contract an offensive alliance with Russia; and the first step to
its realization was the overthrow of Bestuzhev, &ldquo;upon whom,&rdquo;
he wrote to his minister Axel von Mardefeld, &ldquo;the fate of Prussia
and my own house depends.&rdquo; But Bestuzhev succeeded, at last,
in convincing the empress that Chétardie was an impudent
intriguer, and on the 6th of June 1744, that diplomatist was
ordered to quit Russia within twenty-four hours. Five weeks
later Bestuzhev was made grand chancellor (July 15th). Before
the end of the year Elizabeth of Holstein was also expelled from
Russia, and Bestuzhev was supreme.</p>

<p>The attention of European diplomacy at this time was concentrated
upon the king of Prussia, whose insatiable acquisitiveness
disturbed all his neighbours. Bestuzhev&rsquo;s offer, communicated
to the British government at the end of 1745, to attack
Prussia if Great Britain would guarantee subsidies to the amount
of some £6,000,000, was rejected as useless now that Austria and
Prussia were coming to terms. Then he turned to Austria, and
on the 22nd of May 1746, an offensive and defensive alliance
was concluded between the two powers manifestly directed against
Prussia. In 1747, alliances were also concluded with Denmark
and the Porte. At the same time Bestuzhev resisted any
rapprochement with France, and severely rebuked the court of
Saxony for its intrigues with that of Versailles. About this
time he was hampered by the persistent opposition of the
vice-chancellor Mikhail Vorontsov, formerly his friend, now his
jealous rival, who was secretly supported by Frederick the Great.
In 1748, however, he got rid of him by proving to the empress
that Vorontsov was in the pay of Prussia. The hour of
Bestuzhev&rsquo;s triumph coincided with the peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle,
which altered the whole situation of European
politics and introduced fresh combinations, the breaking away
of Prussia from France and a rapprochement between England
and Prussia, with the inevitable corollary of an alliance between
France and the enemies of Prussia. Bestuzhev&rsquo;s violent political
prejudices at first prevented him from properly recognizing this
change. Passion had always been too large an ingredient
in his diplomacy. His Anglomania also misled him. His
enemies, headed by his elder brother Mikhail and the vice-chancellor
Vorontsov, powerless while his diplomacy was faultless,
quickly took advantage of his mistakes. When, on the 16th of
January 1756, the Anglo-Prussian, and on the 2nd of May the
Franco-Austrian alliances were concluded, Vorontsov advocated
the accession of Russia to the latter league, whereas Bestuzhev
insisted on a subsidy treaty with Great Britain. But his influence
was now on the wane. The totally unexpected Anglo-Prussian
alliance had justified the arguments of his enemies that
England was impossible, while his hatred of France prevented
him from adopting the only alternative of an alliance with her.
To prevent <span class="correction" title="amended from undergound">underground</span> intrigues, Bestuzhev now proposed
the erection of a council of ministers, to settle all important
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
affairs, and at its first session (14th-30th of March) an alliance
with Austria, France and Poland against Frederick II. was
proposed, though Bestuzhev opposed any composition with
France. He endeavoured to support his failing credit by a
secret alliance with the grand-duchess Catherine, whom he
proposed to raise to the throne instead of her Holstein husband,
Peter, from whom Bestuzhev expected nothing good either
for himself or for Russia. The negotiations were conducted
through the Pole Stanislaus Poniatowski. The accession of
Russia to the anti-Prussian coalition (1756) was made over his
head, and the cowardice and incapacity of Bestuzhev&rsquo;s friend,
the Russian commander-in-chief, Stephen Apraksin, after the
battle of Gross-Jagersdorf (1757), was made the pretext for
overthrowing the chancellor. His unwillingness to agree to
the coalition was magnified into a determination to defeat it,
though it is quite obvious that he could only gain by the
humiliation of Frederick, and nothing was ever proved against him.
Nevertheless he was deprived of the chancellorship and banished
to his estate at Goretovo (April 1759), where he remained till
the accession of Catharine II., who recalled him to court and
created him a field marshal. But he took no leading part in
affairs and died on the 21st of April 1768, the last of his race.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>The Sbornik of the Russian Historical Society</i>, vols. 1, 3, 5, 7,
12, 22, 26, 66, 79, 80, 81, 85-86, 91-92, 96, 99, 100, 103 (St Petersburg,
1870, &amp;c.); <i>Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen</i>, vols.
1-21 (Berlin, 1879-1904.); R. Nisbet Bain, <i>The Daughter of Peter the
Great</i> (London, 1899).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A copy of the letter was taken by way of precaution, beforehand,
by the Austrian ministers, and this copy is still in the Vienna archives.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span>
(1688-1760), Russian diplomatist, elder brother of the foregoing,
was educated at Berlin, and was sent by Peter the Great to
represent Russia at Copenhagen in 1705. In 1720 he was
appointed resident at London at a time when the English court
was greatly inflamed against Peter, who was regarded as a
dangerous rival in the Baltic; and Bestuzhev was summarily
dismissed for protesting against the lately-formed Anglo-Swedish
alliance. On the conclusion of the peace of Nystad in 1721 he
was sent as ambassador to the court of Stockholm. His first
official act was the signing of a defensive alliance between
Russia and Sweden for twelve years, in 1724. He was successively
transferred to Warsaw (1726) and to Berlin (1730), but
returned to Stockholm in 1732. How far Bestuzhev was concerned
in the murder (June 28th, 1739) of the Swedish diplomatic
agent Sinclair in Silesia on his journey home from Constantinople,
it is difficult to say. It is certain that Bestuzhev sent information
to his court of Sinclair&rsquo;s mission, which was supposed to
be hostile to Russia, and even supplied the portrait of the envoy
for recognition. The Swedish authorities are unanimous in
describing Bestuzhev as the arch-plotter in this miserable affair;
yet, while the active agents were banished to Siberia, Bestuzhev
was not even censured. The Sinclair murder led ultimately
to the Swedish-Russian War of 1741, when Bestuzhev was
transferred first to Hamburg and subsequently to Hanover,
where he endeavoured to conclude an alliance between Great
Britain and Russia. On his return to Russia in 1743, he was
made grand marshal, and married Anna, the widow of Paul
Yaguzhinsky, Peter the Great&rsquo;s famous pupil. A few months
later his wife was implicated in a bogus conspiracy got up by the
French ambassador, the marquis de La Chétardie, to ruin the
Bestuzhevs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Alexius</a></span>), and after
a public whipping, had her tongue cut out and was banished to
Siberia. Thither Bestuzhev had not the manhood to follow her,
but went abroad, and subsequently resumed his diplomatic
career. His last and most brilliant mission was to Versailles,
shortly after the conclusion of the coalition against Frederick
the Great, where he cut a great figure. He died at Paris on the
26th of February 1760.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>The Daughter of Peter the Great</i>
(London, 1899); Mikhail Sergyievich, <i>History of Russia</i>
(Rus.), vols. xv.-xxii. (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1897).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BET<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> and <b>BETTING</b> (probably from O. Fr. <i>abeter</i>, to instigate,
Eng. &ldquo;abet,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> with money). To &ldquo;bet&rdquo; is to stake money
or something valuable on some future contingency. Betting
in some form or other has been in vogue from the earliest days,
commencing in the East with royal and noble gamblers, and
gradually extending itself westwards and throughout all classes.
In all countries where the English tongue is spoken betting is
now largely indulged in; and in the United Kingdom it spread
to such an extent amongst all grades of society, during the 19th
century, that the interference of the legislature was necessary
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>). Bets can, of course, be made on
any subject, and are a common method of backing one&rsquo;s opinion
or skill, whether at games of cards or in any other connexion;
but the commonest form of betting is associated with the turf.
In the early days of horse-racing persons who wished to bet
often failed to gratify their inclination because of the difficulty
of finding any one ready to wager. To obviate this difficulty
the professional bookmaker arose. It was perceived that if a
man laid money against a number of horses, conducting his
business on discreet principles, he would in all probability receive
enough to pay the bettor who was successful and to leave a surplus
for himself; for the &ldquo;bookmaker,&rdquo; as the professional
betting man came to be called, had enormous advantages in his
favour. He was presumably shrewd and wary, whereas many
of those with whom he dealt were precisely the opposite, and
benefit arose to him from the mistakes and miscalculations
of owners and trainers of horses, and from the innumerable
accidents which occur to prevent anticipated success; moreover,
if he carried out the theory of his calling he would so arrange his
book, by what is called &ldquo;betting to figures,&rdquo; that the money he
received would be more than he could possibly be called upon to
pay. In practice, of course, this often does not happen, because
&ldquo;backers&rdquo; will sometimes support two or three horses in a race
only, and the success of one may result in loss to the bookmaker;
but in the long run it has been almost invariably found that the
bookmaker grows rich and that the backer of horses loses money.
It is the bookmaker who regulates the odds, and this he does,
sometimes by anticipating, sometimes by noting, the desire of
backers to support certain animals. Such things as stable secrets
can scarcely be said to exist at the present time; the bookmaker
is usually as well able as any one else to estimate the chances of
the various horses engaged in races. Notwithstanding that the
reports of a trial gallop are of comparatively little value to any
except the few persons who know what weights the animals
carried when tried, the bookmaker is extraordinarily keen, and
frequently successful, in his search for information; and on this
the odds depend.</p>

<p>Betting in connexion with horse-racing is of two kinds:
&ldquo;post,&rdquo; when wagering does not begin until the numbers of the
runners are hoisted on the board; and &ldquo;ante-post,&rdquo; when
wagering opens weeks or months before the event; though of
this latter there is far less than was formerly the case, doubtless
for the reason that before the introduction of so many new and
valuable stakes attention was generally concentrated on a
comparatively small number of races. Bets on the Derby, the
Oaks and the St Leger were formerly common nearly a year
before the running of the races, and a few handicaps, such as
the Chester Cup, used to occupy attention months beforehand;
the weights, of course, being published at a much longer interval
prior to the contest than is at present the rule. As regards
ante-post betting, bookmakers have their own ideas as to the relative
prospects of the horses entered. A person who wishes to back a
horse asks the price, and accepts or declines, as the case may be.
If the bet is laid it will probably be quoted in the newspapers,
and other persons who propose to wager on the race are so likely
to follow suit that it is shrewdly suspected that in not a few cases
bets are quoted which never have been laid, in order to induce
the backers to speculate. According to the public demand for
a horse the price shortens. If there is little or no demand the
odds increase, the market being almost entirely regulated by the
money; so that if a great many people bet on a certain animal
the odds become shorter and shorter, till in many cases instead
of laying odds against a horse, the bookmaker comes to take
odds, that is, to agree to pay a smaller sum than he would receive
from the backer if the animal lost. Post betting is conducted
on very much the same principles. When the numbers are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
hoisted bookmakers proclaim their readiness to lay or take
certain odds, which vary according to the demand for the
different animals. Backers are influenced by many considerations:
by gossip, by the opinions of writers on racing, and in many
cases, unfortunately, by the advice of &ldquo;tipsters,&rdquo; who by
advertisements and circulars profess their ability to indicate
winners, a pretence which is obviously absurd, as if these men
possessed the knowledge they claim, they would assuredly keep
it to themselves and utilize it for their own private purposes.</p>

<p>The specious promises of such men do infinite mischief, as
they so often appeal with success to the folly and gullibility
of the ignorant, and in recent years the extent to which betting
has grown has resulted in attempts to check it by organized
means. A society for the purpose was formed in England called
the Anti-Gambling League. A bookmaker named Dunn was
summoned in 1897 for betting in Tattersall&rsquo;s enclosure, which it
was contended contravened the Betting House Act of 1853.
This act had been aimed against what were known as &ldquo;list houses,&rdquo;
establishments then kept by bookmakers for betting purposes,
and associated with many disgraceful scandals. In the
preamble to his bill Lord Cockburn began by remarking that
&ldquo;Whereas a new form of betting has of late sprung up,&rdquo; and the
Anti-Gambling League sought to argue that this included a form
of betting which had not sprung up of late but had on the contrary
been carried on without interference for many generations.
The divisional court of the queen&rsquo;s bench (<i>Hawke</i> v. <i>Dunn</i>,
13 T.L.R. 281) held that such betting was an infringement of the
act, and that the enclosure was a &ldquo;place&rdquo; within the meaning
of the act, and had been used by the respondent for the
purpose of betting with persons resorting thereto, and that
he was liable to be Convicted. The case was remitted to
the justices, who convicted the defendant. A somewhat similar
case was decided on the same day (<i>M&lsquo;Inany</i> v. <i>Hildreth</i>, 1897,
13 T.L.R. 285), in which it was held that a professional bookmaker
who went to a place known as the &ldquo;pit heap&rdquo; at Jarrow,
to which the public had access at all times, and made bets with
persons assembled there, was properly convicted, and that the
&ldquo;pit heap&rdquo; itself and the place where he stood were &ldquo;places&rdquo;
within the meaning of the act. It was afterwards held by the
court of appeal (<i>Powell</i> v. <i>Kempton Park Racecourse Co., Ltd.</i>,
1897, 2 Q.B. 242), in an action brought to restrain a racecourse
company from opening or keeping an enclosure on a racecourse
by allowing it to be used by bookmakers, that the words &ldquo;other
place&rdquo; must be construed as meaning a defined place, that the
user of such a place implied some exclusive right in the
user against others, and that the racecourse owners had not
been guilty of permitting the enclosure to be used in the manner
prohibited by the act of 1853. The decision in <i>Hawke</i> v. <i>Dunn</i>
was disapproved of; and the House of Lords afterwards affirmed
the decision of the court of appeal.</p>

<p>The Street Betting Act 1906 enacted that any person frequenting
or loitering in streets or public places for the purpose of
bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, should be liable on summary
conviction, in the case of a first offence, to a fine not exceeding
ten pounds, in the case of a second offence, to a fine not exceeding
twenty pounds, and in the case of a third or subsequent offence,
or in any case where he is proved to have committed the offence
of having a betting transaction with a person under the age of
sixteen years, to a fine, on conviction on indictment, not
exceeding fifty pounds or to imprisonment with or without hard
labour for a term not exceeding six months. On summary
conviction the fine is a sum not exceeding thirty pounds or
imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not
exceeding three months. A wide definition is given to the words
&ldquo;street&rdquo; and &ldquo;public place,&rdquo; and racecourses are expressly
exempted from the operation of the act.</p>

<p>On all French racecourses (since 1866), as on others nearly
everywhere else on the continent, and likewise in the British
colonies, a system of betting known as the <i>Pari-Mutuel</i> or
Totalizator, is carried on. Rows of offices are established
behind or near the stands, on each of which lists are exhibited
containing the numbers of the horses that are to run in the
coming race. At some of these the minimum wager is five
francs, at others ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, five hundred and
in some cases a thousand. The person who proposes to bet
goes to the clerk at one of these offices, mentions the number,
as indicated on the card, of the horse he wishes to back, and states
whether he desires to bet on it to win or for a place only. He
receives a voucher for his money. After the race the whole
amount collected at the various offices is put together and divided
after a percentage has been deducted for the administration
and for the poor. As soon as this has been done, the money
is divided and the prices to be paid to winners are exhibited
on boards. These prices are calculated on a unit of ten francs.
Thus, for instance, if the winner is notified as bringing in
twenty-five francs, the meaning is that the backer receives his
original stake of ten and fifteen in addition, the money being paid
immediately by another clerk attached to the office at which
the bet was made. The great French municipalities derive
considerable revenue in relief of rates from the <i>Paris
Mutuels</i>. In Japan this system was made illegal in 1908.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETAÏNE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Oxyneurine, Lycine</span>), C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, a substance
discovered in the sugar beet (<i>Beta vulgaris</i>) in 1869 by C. Scheibler
(<i>Ber.</i>, 1869, 2, p. 292). It is also found in cotton seed, in the
vetch and in wheat sprouts (E. Schulz and S. Frankfurt, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893,
26, p. 2151). It may be synthetically prepared by oxidizing
choline with chromic acid (O. Liebreich, <i>Ber.</i>, 1869, 2, 13),
(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH &rarr; C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O;
by heating trimethylamine with monochloracetic acid (Liebreich),
(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N + CH<span class="su">2</span>Cl·COOH = (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N(Cl)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·COOH
(betaïne hydrochloride); and by heating amino-acetic acid (glycocoll)
with methyl iodide in the presence of an alkali (P. Griess, <i>Ber.</i>,
1875, 8, p. 1406). It crystallizes from alcohol in large deliquescent
crystals; and is readily soluble in water, but insoluble in ether.
It is a weak base. As is shown by the various syntheses of the
base, it is the methyl hydroxide of dimethyl glycocoll. This
free base readily loses water on heating and gives an internal
anhydride of constitution <img style="width:179px; height:34px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img827a.jpg" alt="" />
which is the type of the so-called &ldquo;betaïnes.&rdquo; These organic betaïnes
are internal anhydrides of carboxylic acids, which contain an
ammonium hydroxide group in the &alpha;-position. A. Hantzsch
(<i>Ber.</i>, 1886, 19, p. 31) prepared the betaïnes of nicotinic, picolinic
and collidine carboxylic acids from the potassium salts of the
acids, by treatment with methyl iodide, followed by moist silver
oxide. The reaction may be shown as follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:336px; height:81px" src="images/img827b.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p class="pt2">The methyl betaïne of nicotinic acid is identical with the
alkaloid <i>trigonelline</i>, which was discovered in 1885 by E. Jahns
in the seeds of <i>Trigonella faenum-graecum</i> (<i>Ber.</i>, 1885, 18, p. 2518).
It has also been obtained from nicotine by A. Pictet by oxidizing
the methyl hydroxide of nicotine with potassium permanganate
(<i>Ber.</i>, 1897, 30, p. 2117).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Substances closely related to betaïne are choline, neurine
and muscarine. Choline (bilineurine, sincaline), (Gr. <span class="grk" title="cholae">&#967;&#959;&#955;&#942;</span>, bile),
C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">2</span> or HO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH,
first isolated by A. Strecker in 1862 (<i>Ann.</i> 123, p. 353; 148, p. 76),
is found in the bile, in brain substance, and in yolk of egg in the form of
lecithin, a complex ester of glycerin with phosphoric acid and the fatty
acids. It is also found in combination with sinapic acid in sinapin,
the glucoside obtained from white mustard, and can be obtained from
this glucoside by hydrolysis with baryta water,</p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">23</span>NO<span class="su">5</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O</td>
 <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">+</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Sinapin.</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Choline.</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Sinapic acid.</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">It can be synthetically prepared by the action of trimethylamine
on an aqueous solution of ethylene oxide (A. Wurtz, <i>Ann. Suppl.</i>,
1868, 6, p. 201). It forms deliquescent crystals of strongly alkaline
reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. It is not poisonous.
By continued boiling of its aqueous solution, it is resolved into glycol
and trimethylamine.</p>

<p>Neurine, trimethyl vinyl ammonium hydroxide (Gr. <span class="grk" title="neuron">&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, nerve),
CH<span class="su">2</span> : CH·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH,
is a product of the putrefaction of albumen. It may be prepared by the
action of moist silver oxide on ethylene dibromide and trimethylamine,</p>

<p class="center">CH<span class="su">2</span>Br·CH<span class="su">2</span>Br &rarr; CH<span class="su">2</span>Br·CH<span class="su">2</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>Br
&rarr; CH<span class="su">2</span> : CH·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span></p>

<p class="noind">It is a crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and is strongly basic
and very poisonous. Muscarine, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, is an exceedingly
poisonous substance found in many fungi. It may be obtained synthetically
by oxidizing choline with dilute nitric acid (O. Schmiedeberg,
<i>Jahresb.</i>, 1876, p. 804). The exact constitution has not yet been
definitely determined.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETEL NUT<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span>. The name betel is applied to two different
plants, which in the East are very closely associated in the
purposes to which they are applied. The betel nut is the fruit
of the Areca or betel palm, <i>Areca Catechu</i>, and the betel leaf is
the produce of the betel vine or pan, <i>Chavica Betel</i>, a plant allied
to that which yields black pepper. The Areca palm is a native
of the Malay Peninsula and Islands and is extensively cultivated
over a wide area in the East, including southern India, Ceylon,
Siam, the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine Islands. It
is a graceful tree with a straight, slender, unbranched stem reaching
40 or 50 ft. in height and about 1½ ft. in circumference, and
bearing a crown of 6-9 very large spreading pinnate fronds.
The fruit is about the size of a small hen&rsquo;s egg, and within its
fibrous rind is the seed or so-called nut, the albumen of which is
very hard and has a prettily mettled grey and brown appearance.
The chief purpose for which betel nuts are cultivated and collected
is for use as a masticatory,&mdash;their use in this form being so
widespread among Oriental nations that it is estimated that
one-tenth of the whole human family indulge in betel chewing.
For this use the fruits are annually gathered between the months
of August and November, before they are quite ripe, and deprived
of their husks. They are prepared by boiling in water, cutting
up into slices, and drying in the sun, by which treatment the
slices assume a dark brown or black colour. When chewed a
small piece is wrapped up in a leaf of the betel vine or pan, with
a pellet of shell lime or chunam; and in some cases a little
cardamom, turmeric or other aromatic is added. The mastication
causes a copious flow of saliva of a brick-red colour, which dyes
the mouth, lips and gums. The habit blackens the teeth, but
it is asserted by those addicted to it that it strengthens the gums,
sweetens the breath and stimulates the digestive organs. Among
the Orientals betel is offered on ceremonial visits in the same
manner as wine is produced on similar occasions by Europeans.
Betel nuts are further used as a source of catechu, which is
procured by boiling the nuts in water. The water of the first
boiling becomes red and thick, and when this is inspissated
after the removal of the nuts it forms a catechu of high
astringency and dark colour called in Bombay &ldquo;Kossa.&rdquo; The nuts are
again boiled, and the inspissated juice of the second decoction
yields a weaker catechu of a brown or reddish colour. Betel
nuts have been used by turners for ornamental purposes, and
for coat buttons on account of the beauty of their structure.
At one time they were supposed to be useful as a vermifuge. The
nuts of other species of <i>Areca</i> are used by the poorer classes
in the East as substitutes for the genuine betel nut.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The alkaloid arecaidine, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">11</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, occurs in areca or betel nuts,
together with three other alkaloids: arecoline, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, guvacine,
C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, and arecaine, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">11</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>. Arecaidine forms white
crystals easily soluble in water, and difficultly soluble in alcohol.
Chemically it is methyl-tetrahydro-nicotinic acid. Dehydration results in the
formation of a &ldquo;betaïne,&rdquo; which is a tetrahydro-trigonelline (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Betaïne</a></span>). Arecoline is an oil, and the physiological action of the
betel nut is alone due to this substance. Chemically it is the methyl
ester of arecaidine. Guvacine, named from &ldquo;guvaca,&rdquo; an Indian
designation of the betel palm, forms white crystals. It is a secondary
base, but its constitution is uncertain. Arecaine is <i>n</i>-methyl-guvacine.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHANY<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (mod. <i>el-&lsquo;Azariyeh</i>), a village nearly 2 m. E.S.E.
from Jerusalem, on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives,
2208 ft. above the sea. It is interesting as the residence of
Lazarus and his sisters, and a favourite retreat of Jesus
(see especially John xi., which describes the miracle of the resurrection
of Lazarus at this place). From the 4th century down to the
time of the Mahommedan invasion several ecclesiastical buildings
were erected on the spot, but of these no distinct traces remain.
El-&lsquo;Azariyeh is a poor village of about thirty families, with few
marks of antiquity; there is no reason to believe that the houses
of Mary and Martha and of Simon the Leper, or the sepulchre
of Lazarus, still shown by the monks, have any claim to the
names they bear. Another Bethany (with the alternative
reading Bethabara) is mentioned in John i. 28, as
&ldquo;beyond Jordan&rdquo;; it has not been identified.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHEL<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Heb. &ldquo;House of God&rdquo;), originally called <i>Luz</i>,
an ancient city of Palestine, on the N.W. border of the tribe of
Benjamin, 11 m. N. of Jerusalem and nearly 2900 ft. above
sea-level. From very early times it was a holy place, a circumstance
probably due primarily to a very extraordinary group of
boulders and rock-outcrops north of the town. Abraham
recognized its sanctity (Gen. xii. 8); Jacob, in ignorance, slept
in the sacred enclosure and was granted a vision (&ldquo;Jacob&rsquo;s
ladder,&rdquo; Gen. xxviii). For a while the ark seems to have been
deposited here (Judg. xx. 27), and it was a place for consulting
the oracle (Judg. xx. 18). At the secession of the northern
kingdom under Jeroboam, Bethel became a royal residence
and a national shrine (1 Kings xii. 29-31, Amos vii. 13), for
which its position at the junction of main roads from N. to S.
and E. to W. well fitted it. It was taken from Jeroboam by
Abijah, king of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). It seems to have continued
to flourish down into the Christian era; remains of its
ecclesiastical buildings still exist. The present village, which
bears the name of Beitin, occupies about three or four acres,
and has a population of 2000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉTHENCOURT, JEAN DE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1360-1422), French explorer,
belonged to a noble family of Normandy, and held important
offices at the court of Charles VI., king of France. His spirit
was fired by hearing of the deeds of explorers and adventurers,
and having formed a plan to conquer the Canary Islands he
raised some money by pledging his Norman estates, and sailed
from La Rochelle on the 1st of May 1402 with two ships,
commanded by himself and Gadifer de la Salle. He was delayed
by a mutiny off the coast of Spain, but reached the island
of Lanzarote in July. Unable to carry out his project of conquest,
he left his men at the Canaries and went to seek help at
the court of Castile. He obtained men and provisions from
Henry III. king of Castile, through the good offices of his uncle,
Robert de Braquemont, who had considerable influence with
Henry; he also received the title of king, and did homage to
Henry for his future conquests. Returning to the Canaries in
1404 he found that Gadifer de la Salle had conquered Lanzarote
and Fuerteventura, and explored other islands. La Salle, unwilling
to accept a position of inferiority, left the Canaries and
appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile.
Béthencourt was unable to complete his work of conquest and
exploration. In 1405 he visited Normandy, and returned with
fresh colonists who occupied Hierro. In December 1406 he left
the islands to the government of his nephew, Maciot de Béthencourt,
reserving for himself the royal title and a share in any
profits obtained. He returned to Normandy, where he appears
to have spent the remainder of his days. He died in 1422, and
was buried in the church of Grainville-la-Teinturière. Béthencourt
wrote a very untrustworthy account of his &ldquo;conquest of the Canary
Islands,&rdquo; <i>Le Canarien, livre de la conquête et conversion
ses Canaries</i>. This has been published with introduction and
notes by G. Gravier (Rouen, 1874), and an English translation
was edited by R.H. Major for the Hakluyt Society (London, 1872).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canary Islands</a></span>, for the controversy as to the relations
between Béthencourt and La Salle.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHESDA<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;House of Mercy,&rdquo; John v. 2), better perhaps
<span class="sc">Bethzatha</span> or <span class="sc">Bethsaida</span>, a pool or public bath in Jerusalem,
where miraculous cures were believed to be performed. The
following identifications have been suggested: <i>Birket Isra&rsquo;il</i>,
near St Stephen&rsquo;s gate; a large cistern, near St Anne&rsquo;s church;
the &ldquo;Twin Pools,&rdquo; north of the Haram (the ancient Temple area);
the <i>Hammam esh-Shifa&lsquo;</i> or pool of healing, west of the Haram;
the Virgin&rsquo;s fountain, south of the Haram; and the &ldquo;Pool of Siloam.&rdquo;
Which, if any, of these identifications is correct, it is impossible to say.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHESDA,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> an urban district of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales,
5 m. from Bangor, by a branch of the London &amp; North-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 5281. It lies near the lower end of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
fine Nant Ffrancon (valley of the Ogwen stream). The
scriptural name is due, as often in Wales, to the village or
hamlet taking its title from the Nonconformist church. Here
are extensive slate quarries belonging to Lord Penrhyn. A
narrow-gauge railway connects these with Port Penrhyn, at the
mouth of the stream Cegid (hemlock, &ldquo;<i>cicuta</i>&rdquo;), which admits
the entry of vessels of 300 tons to the quay at low water.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETH-HORON<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (&ldquo;the place of the hollow way&rdquo;), the name
of two neighbouring villages, upper and lower Beth-horon, on
the ascent from the coast plain of Palestine to the high tableland
of Benjamin, which was until the 16th century the high road
from Jerusalem to the sea. The two towns thus played a conspicuous
part in Israelitish military history (see Josh. x. 10;
1 Sam. xiii. 18; 1 Kings ix. 17; 1 Macc. iii. 13-24, vii. 39 ff.,
ix. 50). Josephus (<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 19) tells of the rout of a Roman
army under Cestius Gallus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66. The Talmud states that
many rabbis were born in the place. It is now represented by
Beit &lsquo;Ur-el-foka and Beit &lsquo;Ur-et-tahta.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEM<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (Heb. &ldquo;House of Bread,&rdquo; or, according to a
more questionable etymology, &ldquo;of [the god] Lakhmu&rdquo;), a small
town in Palestine, situated on a limestone ridge (2550 ft. above
sea-level), 5 m. S. of Jerusalem. The neighbourhood produces
wheat, barley, olives and vines in abundance. It was occupied
in very early times, though the references in Judges xvii., xix.,
and Ruth<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> are of doubtful date. It was the early home of David
and of Joab (2 Sam. ii. 32). It was fortified by Rehoboam, and
in the neighbouring inn of Chimham the murderers of Gedaliah
took refuge (Jer. xli. 17). Micah (v. 2) and other writers speak
of it as Bethlehem-Ephrathah; perhaps Ephrathah was the
name of the district. Almost complete obscurity, however, was
gathering round it when it became (according to Matt. ii. and
Luke ii.) the birthplace of Jesus. The traditional scene of the
Nativity, a grotto on the eastern part of the ridge, is alleged to
have been desecrated during the reign of Hadrian by a temple
of Adonis. In 330 it was enclosed by a basilica built by the orders
of the emperor Constantine. This basilica (S. Maria a Praesepio),
which is still standing, was restored and added to by Justinian,
and was later surrounded by the three convents successively
erected by the Greek, Latin and Armenian Churches (see de Vogüé,
<i>Les Églises de la Terre Sainte</i>). Captured by the
Crusaders in the 11th century, Bethlehem was made an episcopal
see; but the bishopric soon sank to a titular dignity. Beside
the grotto of the Nativity other traditional sites are shown within
the church, such as the Altar of the Magi, the Tomb of Eusebius,
the cave wherein Jerome made his translation of the Bible, &amp;c.</p>

<p>There are several monasteries and convents, and British,
French and German schools. The village is well built and
comparatively clean. The population (8000) has contained few
Moslems since the Moslem quarter was destroyed by Ibrahim
Pasha, in revenge for the murder of one of his favourites, after
the insurrection of 1834. The carving of crucifixes and other
sacred mementoes gives employment to a large proportion
of the population. In 1850 a dispute arose between France and
Russia, in the name of the Latin and Greek Churches respectively,
concerning the possession of the key of the chief door of the
basilica, and concerning the right to place a silver star, with the
arms of France, in the grotto of the Nativity. The Porte,
after much futile temporizing, yielded to France. The
disappointment thus inflicted on Russia was a determining cause
of the outbreak of the Crimean War (see Kinglake, <i>Invasion
of the Crimea</i>, chap. iii.). [There is a tiny village of the same
name in Zebulun, 7 m. N.W. of Nazareth (Josh. xv. 19).]</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>. For the modern town see Palmer,
&ldquo;Das jetzige Bethlehem,&rdquo; in the <i>Zeitschrift</i> of the Deutsche
Palästina-Verein, xvii. p. 89.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The country of Moab is clearly visible from around Bethlehem.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEM,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a borough of Northampton and Lehigh
counties, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Lehigh
river, opposite South Bethlehem and 55 m. N. by W. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6762; (1900) 7293 (350 foreign-born);
(1910) 12,837. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the
Lehigh &amp; New England, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia
&amp; Reading railways, and is connected by two long
bridges with South Bethlehem. The borough lies on a ridge
of ground commanding delightful landscape scenery extending
north up the course of the river to the Blue Mountains 20 m. away.
In Church Street and its vicinity still stand several specimens
of the 17th-century style of architecture of eastern Germany.
The same sect that erected these buildings, the Moravians, or
United Brethren, maintain here the Moravian College and
Theological Seminary, and a well-known school for girls (the
Moravian Seminary), founded as a church boarding school in
1749 and reorganized in 1785, for girls of all denominations.
During the War of Independence, from December 1776 to
April 1777, and from September 1777 to April 1778, the old
Colonial Hall in this seminary (built 1748) was used as a general
hospital of the continental army. From its roof the famous
Moravian trombones were long played on festal or funeral
occasions, and later summoned the people to musical festivals.
The Moravians have given Bethlehem a national reputation as
a musical centre. Only a few years after the city was founded,
Benjamin Franklin was strongly impressed with the fine music
in its church, and towards the close of the 19th century a choir
under the direction of the organist, J. Frederick Wolle, became
widely known by rendering for the first time in America Bach&rsquo;s
<i>St John Passion</i> (in 1888), followed after short intervals by the
<i>St Matthew Passion</i>, the <i>Christmas Oratorio</i>, the <i>Mass in B
Minor</i>, and finally by an annual Bach festival continuing for
three days, which was discontinued after Wolle&rsquo;s removal to
the university of California in 1905. Bethlehem has often been
called the American Bayreuth. Among the borough&rsquo;s industrial
establishments, the manufactories of iron and steel are the most
important, but it also manufactures brass, zinc, and silk and
knit goods. The municipality owns and operates its
waterworks. Bethlehem was founded by the Moravians, led by
Count Nikolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, shortly before Christmas
in 1741, and the season of the year suggested its name; for the
first century of its existence it was almost exclusively a settlement
of that sect, and it is still their American headquarters.
Bethlehem was incorporated as a borough in 1845. In 1904
the borough of West Bethlehem (pop. in 1900, 3465) was
consolidated with Bethlehem.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See J.M. Levering, <i>A History of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</i>
(Bethlehem, 1903).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEMITES,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> a name borne at different times by three
orders in the Roman Catholic Church.
(1) A community of friars at Cambridge, in 1257, whose habit was
distinguished from that of the ordinary Dominicans by a five-rayed
red star (in reference to Matt. ii. 9 f).
(2) An order of knighthood similar to the Knights of St John,
established by Pius II. in 1459 to resist the inroads of the Turks.
(3) The Bethlehemite Order of Guatemala, a nursing community founded
in 1650 by Pedro Betancourt (d. 1667), extended by the brothers
Rodrigo and Antonio of the Cross, and raised to an order by Innocent XI.
in 1687. They wore a dress like that of the Capuchins, and Clement XI.
in 1707 gave them the privileges of the mendicant orders. They
spread throughout Central America and Mexico and as far south
as Lima, and with the order of sisters, founded in 1668 by
Anna Maria del Galdo, were conspicuous for their devotion
during times of plague and other contagious diseases. This
order became extinct about 1850. The name Bethlehemites has
also sometimes been given to the Hussites of Bohemia because
their leader preached in the Bethlehem church at Prague.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHLEN, GABRIEL<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gábor</span>) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania,
the most famous representative of the Iktári branch of a
very ancient Hungarian family, was born at Illyé, and educated
at Szarhegy, at the castle of his uncle András Lázár. Thence
he was sent to the court of Prince Zsigmond Báthory, whom
he accompanied on his famous Wallachian campaign in 1600.
Subsequently he assisted Stephen Bocskay to mount the throne
of Transylvania (1605), and remained his chief counsellor.
Bethlen also supported Bocskay&rsquo;s successor Gabriel Báthory
(1608-1613), but the prince became jealous of Bethlen&rsquo;s superior
abilities, and he was obliged to take refuge with the Turks.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
In 1613 he led a large army against his persecutor, on whose
murder by two of his officers that year Bethlen was placed on
the throne by the Porte, in opposition to the wishes of the
emperor, who preferred a prince who would incline more towards
Vienna than towards Constantinople. On the 13th of October 1613,
the diet of Klausenburg confirmed the choice of the sultan.
In 1615 Gábor was also officially recognized by the emperor
Matthias. Bethlen no sooner felt firmly seated on his throne
than he seized the opportunity presented to him by the outbreak
of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War to take up arms in defence of the
liberties and the constitution of the extra-Transylvanian Hungarian
provinces, with the view of more effectually assuring his
own position. While Ferdinand was occupied with the Bohemian
rebels, Bethlen led his armies into Hungary (1619), and soon won
over the whole of the northern counties, even securing Pressburg
and the Holy Crown. Nevertheless he was not averse to a
peace, nor to a preliminary suspension of hostilities, and
negotiations were opened at Pressburg, Kassa and Beszterczebánya
successively, but came to nothing because Bethlen insisted on
including the Bohemians in the peace, whereupon (20th of August
1620) the estates of North Hungary elected him king. Bethlen
accepted the title but refused to be crowned, and war was resumed,
till the defeat of the Czechs at the battle of the White
Hill gave a new turn to affairs. In Bohemia, Ferdinand II.
took a fearful revenge upon the vanquished; and Bethlen,
regarding a continuation of the war as unprofitable, concluded
the peace of Nikolsburg (31st of December 1621), renouncing
the royal title on condition that Ferdinand confirmed the peace
of Vienna (which had granted full liberty of worship to the
Protestants) and engaged to summon a general diet within six
months. For himself Bethlen secured the title of prince of
the Empire, the seven counties of the Upper Theiss, and the
fortresses of Tokaj, Munkács and Ecsed. Subsequently Bethlen
twice (1623 and 1626) took up arms against Ferdinand as the
ally of the anti-Habsburg Protestant powers. The first war
was concluded by the peace of Vienna, the second by the peace
of Pressburg, both confirmatory of the peace of Nikolsburg.
After the second of these insurrections, Bethlen attempted
a rapprochement with the court of Vienna on the basis
of an alliance against the Turks and his own marriage with
one of the Austrian archduchesses; but Ferdinand had no
confidence in him and rejected his overtures. Bethlen was obliged
to renounce his anti-Turkish projects, which he had hitherto
cherished as the great aim and object of his life, and continue
in the old beaten paths. Accordingly, on his return from Vienna
he wedded Catherine, the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg,
and still more closely allied himself with the Protestant powers,
especially with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, he hoped,
would assist him to obtain the Polish crown. He died before he
could accomplish any of his great designs (15th of November 1629),
having previously secured the election of his wife Catherine
as princess. His first wife, Susannah Károlyi, died in 1622.</p>

<p>Gabriel Bethlen was certainly one of the most striking and
original personages of his century. A zealous Calvinist, whose
boast it was that he had read the Bible twenty-five times, he
was nevertheless no persecutor, and even helped the Jesuit
Kaldy to translate and print his version of the Scriptures. He
was in communication all his life with the leading contemporary
statesmen, so that his correspondence is one of the most interesting
and important of historical documents. He also composed hymns.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best editions of his correspondence are those by Sándor
Szilágyi, both published at Buda (1866 and 1879). The best life of
him is that by the Bohemian historian Anton Gindely, <i>Acta et
documenta historiam Gabrielis Bethleni illustrantia</i> (Budapest, 1890).
This work has been largely utilized by Ignáe-Acsády in his excellent
<i>Gabriel Bethlen and his Court</i> (Hung., Budapest, 1890).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETHNAL GREEN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> an eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, E. by Poplar,
S. by Stepney and W. by Shoreditch. Pop. (1901) 129,680.
It is a district of poor houses, forming part of the area commonly
known as the &ldquo;East End.&rdquo; The working population is employed
in the making of match-boxes, boot-making, cabinet-making
and other industries; but was formerly largely devoted to
silk-weaving, which spread over the district from its centre in
Spitalfields (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stepney</a></span>). This industry is still maintained.
The Bethnal Green museum was opened in 1872. It contains exhibits
of food and animal products, formerly at South Kensington,
entomological collections, &amp;c.; and various loan exhibitions
are held from time to time. The Museum also housed the Wallace
collection until the opening of Hertford House, and the pictures
now in the National Portrait Gallery. It stands in public gardens;
there are several other small open spaces; and some 70
out of the 217 acres of Victoria Park are within the borough.
Close by the park there stood, until the 19th century, a house
believed to have belonged to the notorious Bishop Bonner, the
persecutor of Protestants in the reign of Mary; his name is
still attached to a street here. Among institutions are the
missionary settlement of the Oxford House, founded in 1884,
with its women&rsquo;s branch, St Margaret&rsquo;s House; the North-Eastern
hospital for children, the Craft school und the Leather
Trade school. The parliamentary borough of Bethnal Green
has two divisions, each returning one member. The borough
council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 759.3 acres.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). The <i>seigneurs</i> of Béthune, <i>avoués</i>
(<i>advocati</i>) of the great abbey of Saint-Vaast at Arras from the
11th century, were the ancestors of a great French house whence
sprang the dukes of Sully, Charost, Orval, and Ancenis; the
marquises of Rosny, Courville and Chabris; the counts of Selles
and the princes of Boisbelle and Henrichemont. Conon de
Béthune (<i>q.v.</i>), the crusader and poet, was an early forebear.
The most illustrious member of the Béthune family was
Maximilien, baron of Rosny, and afterwards duke of Sully (<i>q.v.</i>),
minister of Henry IV. His brother Philip, count of Selles and
of Charost, was ambassador to Scotland, Rome, Savoy and
Germany, and died in 1649. Hippolyte de Béthune, count of
Selles and marquis of Chabris, who died in 1665, bequeathed to
the king a magnificent collection of historical documents and
works of art. The Charost branch of the family gave France
a number of generals during the 17th and 18th centuries.</p>

<p>The last duke of Charost, Armand Joseph de Béthune (1738-1800),
French economist and philanthropist, served in the
army during the Seven Years&rsquo; War, after which he retired to his
estates in Berry, where, and also in Brittany and Picardy, he
sought to ameliorate the lot of his peasants by abolishing feudal
dues, and introducing reforms in agriculture. During the
Terror he was arrested, but was liberated after the 9th Thermidor.
He was mayor of the 10th arrondissement of Paris under the
Consulate, and died at Paris on the 20th of October 1800, of
small-pox, contracted during a visit to a workshop for the
blind which he had founded. He published essays on the way
to destroy mendicancy and to improve the condition of the
labourers, and also on the establishment of a fund for rural
relief and the organization of rural education. His life throws
light on some phases of the <i>ancien régime</i> which are often
overlooked by historians. Louis XV. said of Charost, &ldquo;Look at
this man, his appearance is insignificant, but he has put new
life into three of my provinces.&rdquo; His only son, Armand Louis
de Béthune, marquis de Charost, was beheaded on the 28th of
April 1794.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE, CONON<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Quesnes</span>, <b>DE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1150-1224), French
<i>trouvère</i> of Arras, was born about the middle of the 12th century.
He came about 1180 to the court of France, where he met Marie
de France, countess of Champagne. To this princess his love
poems are dedicated, and much of his time was passed at her
court where the <i>trouvères</i> were held in high honour. At the
French court he met with some criticisms from Queen Alix,
the widow of Louis VII., on the roughness of his verse and on his
Picard dialect. To these criticisms, interesting as proof of the
already preponderant influence of the dialect of the Île de France,
the poet replied by some verses in the satirical vein that best
suited his temperament. Some of his best songs were inspired
by anger at the delays before the crusade of 1188-1192. His
plain-speaking made him many enemies, and when he returned
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
with the rest after the fruitless capture of Acre, these were not
slow to take advantage of the opportunity for retaliation.
Conon took part with Baldwin of Flanders in the crusade which
resulted in 1204 in the capture of Constantinople, and he is said
to have been the first to plant the crusaders&rsquo; standard on the
walls of the city. He held high office in the new empire and died
about 1224. His verses, of which the crusading song <i>Ah!
amors com dure departie</i> is well known, are marked by a vigour
and martial spirit which distinguish them from the work of
other <i>trouvères</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The completest edition of his works is in the
<i>Trouvères belges</i> of Aug. Scheler (1876).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m. N.N.W.
of Arras, on the Northern railway between that town and
St Omer. Pop. (1906) 12,601. Béthune is situated on a low
hill at the confluence of the Lawe with the canal from Aire
to Bauvin. Once strongly fortified, it is now surrounded by
wide boulevards, and new quarters have grown up on its
outskirts. The old town is composed of winding streets and
<i>culs-de-sac</i> bordered by old houses in the Flemish style. In
the central square stands one of the finest belfries of northern
France, a square structure surmounted by a wooden campanile,
dating from the 14th century. St Vaast, the principal church
of Béthune, belongs to the 16th century. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
of commerce and a communal college among its public institutions.
Béthune lies in the midst of the richest coal mines in
France. Its industries include the distillation of oil, tanning,
salt-refining, brewing, and the manufacture of earthenware and
casks. Trade is carried on in flax, cloth, cereals, oil-seeds, &amp;c.</p>

<p>The town, which dates from the 11th century, was governed
by its own lords till 1248, after which date it passed through the
ownership of the counts of Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy,
and the sovereigns of Austria and Spain. Ceded to France by
the peace of Nijmwegen (1678), it was taken by the allied forces
in 1710, and restored to France by the treaty of Utrecht.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETROTHAL<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (A.S. <i>treowth</i>, &ldquo;truth&rdquo;), the giving &ldquo;one&rsquo;s
truth,&rdquo; or pledging one&rsquo;s faith to marry. Although left optional
by the church and not necessary in law, betrothal was anciently
a formal ceremony which in most cases preceded the actual
marriage service, usually by a period of some weeks, but the
marriage might for various reasons be delayed for years. The
canon law distinguished two types of betrothal:&mdash;(1) <i>Sponsalia
de praesenti</i>, (2) <i>Sponsalia de futuro</i>. The first was a true
though irregular marriage, and was abolished by the council
of Trent as leading to clandestine unions and therefore being
inimical to morality. The second, or betrothal properly so
called, was a promise to marry at a future date, which promise
without further ceremony became a valid marriage upon
consummation.  The church never precisely determined the form
of the ceremony, but demanded for its validity that it should
have been entered into freely and at a legal age, <i>i.e.</i> after the
seventh birthday. The church further declared that females
between the ages of seven and twelve, and males between
seven and fourteen, could be betrothed, but not married, and that
all such betrothals were to be public. The ill-defined laws as
to betrothals tended to encourage abuses; and the people, especially
in the rural districts, inclined to hold betrothal sufficient
justification for cohabitation. Such pre-contract is known to
have existed in the case of Shakespeare (<i>q.v.</i>). Francis Douce
(<i>Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Antient Manners</i>, 1807)
says that betrothal consisted of the &ldquo;interchange of rings&mdash;the
kiss&mdash;the joining of hands, to which is to be added the testimony
of witnesses.&rdquo; In France the presence of a priest seems to have
been considered essential, and though this was not so elsewhere
it was customary for the couple to get their parish priest to
witness their promise. In England solemn betrothal was almost
universally practised. Among the peasantry the place of rings
was taken by a coin which was broken between the pair, each
taking a part. But almost any gift sufficed. A case in 1582
is recorded where the lover gave the girl a pair of gloves, two
oranges, two handkerchiefs and a red silk girdle. Sometimes
the bride-elect received a bent or crooked sixpence. At the
conclusion of the ceremony, which by no means always took
place in a church, it seems to have been usual for the couple to
pledge each other in a cup of wine, as do the Jews and Russians
to-day. This drinking together was ever the universal custom
of parties in ratification of a bargain. Joseph Strutt (1749-1802)
states that by the civil law gifts given at betrothal could
be recovered by the parties, if the marriage did not take place.
But only conditionally, for if the man &ldquo;had had a kiss for his
money, he should lose one half of that which he gave. Yet with
the woman it is otherwise, for, kissing or not kissing, whatever
she gave, she may ask and have it again. However, this extends
only to gloves, rings, bracelets and such-like small wares.&rdquo;
Though the church abstained from prescribing the form of
the ceremony, it jealously watched over the fulfilment of such
contracts and punished their violation. Betrothal, validly
contracted, could be dissolved either by mutual consent, or
by the supervening of some radical physical or social change
in the parties, or by the omission to fulfil one of the conditions
of the contract. But here the church stepped in, and endeavoured
to override such law as existed in the matter by decreeing that
whoever, after betrothal, refused to marry <i>in facie ecclesiae</i>,
was liable to excommunication till relieved by public penance.
In England the law was settled by an act of 1753, which enacted
that an aggrieved party could obtain redress only by an action at
common law for breach of promise of marriage (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>).</p>

<p>Formal betrothal is no longer customary in England, but on
the European continent it retains much of its former importance.
There it is either solemn (publicly in church) or private (simply
before witnesses). Such betrothals are legal contracts. They
are only valid between persons of legal age, both of whom consent;
and they are rendered void by fraud, intimidation and duress.
In Germany if the parties are under age the consent of the parents
is needed; but if this be unreasonably withheld the couple may
appeal to a magistrate, who can sanction the betrothal. If the
parents disagree, the father&rsquo;s wish prevails. Public betrothal
carries with it an obligation to marry, and in case of refusal
an action &ldquo;lies&rdquo; for the injured party. In Germany the betrothal
is generally celebrated before the relatives, and the couple are
called bride and bridegroom from that day <i>until</i> marriage.
In Russia, where it was once as binding as marriage, it is now a
mere formal part of the marriage ceremony.</p>

<p>Among the ancient Jews betrothal was formal and as
binding as marriage. After the ceremony, which consisted of
the handing of a ring or some object of value to the bride and
formal words of contract, and the mutual pledging of the couple
in consecrated wine, a period of twelve months elapsed before the
marriage was completed by the formal home-taking; unless
the bride was a widow or the groom a widower, when this interval
was reduced to thirty days. Latterly the ceremony of betrothal
has become a part of the marriage ceremony, and the engagement
has become the informal affair it is in England.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For betrothal customs in China, the East and elsewhere, consult
L.J. Miln, <i>Wooings and Weddings in Many Climes</i> (London, 1900),
and H.N. Hutchinson, <i>Marriage Customs in Many Lands</i> (London, 1897).
On early English law as to betrothals see Sir F. Pollock and Maitland,
<i>History of English Law before the time of Edward I.</i> (2nd ed., 1898).
See also J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps, <i>Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare</i>
(London, 1848, 1883).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTERMENT<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;making better,&rdquo; as opposed to &ldquo;worsement&rdquo;),
a general term, used particularly in connexion with the
increased value given to real property by causes for which a
tenant or the public, but not the owner, is responsible; it is thus
of the nature of &ldquo;unearned increment.&rdquo; When, for instance,
some public improvement results in raising the value of a piece
of private land, and the owner is thereby &ldquo;bettered&rdquo; through
no merit of his own, he gains by the betterment, and many economists
and politicians have sought to arrange, by taxation or
otherwise, that the increased value shall come into the pocket of
the public rather than into his. A betterment tax would be so
assessed as to divert from the owner of the property the profit
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
thus accruing &ldquo;unearned&rdquo; to him. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Compensation</a></span>.)
The whole problem is one of the incidence of taxation and the
question of land values, and various applications of the principle
of betterment have been tried in America and in England,
raising considerable controversy from time to time.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A.A. Baumann, <i>Betterment, Worsement and Recoupment</i> (1894).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTERTON, THOMAS<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1635-1710), English actor, son of
an under-cook to King Charles I., was born in London. He was
apprenticed to John Holden Sir William Davenant&rsquo;s publisher,
and possibly later to a bookseller named Rhodes, who had been
wardrobe-keeper to the theatre in Blackfriars. The latter
obtained in 1659 a licence to set up a company of players at the
Cockpit in Drury Lane; and on the reopening of this theatre in
1660, Betterton made his first appearance on the stage. His
talents at once brought him into prominence, and he was given
leading parts. On the opening of the new theatre in Lincoln&rsquo;s
Inn Fields in 1661, Sir William Davenant, the patentee, engaged
Betterton and all Rhodes&rsquo;s company to play in his <i>Siege of
Rhodes</i>. Betterton, besides being a public favourite, was held
in high esteem by Charles II., who sent him to Paris to examine
stage improvements there. According to Cibber it was after his
return that shifting scenes instead of tapestry were first used in
an English theatre. In 1692, in an unfortunate speculation,
Betterton and his friend Sir Francis Watson were ruined; but
Betterton&rsquo;s affection for Sir Francis was so strong that he adopted
the latter&rsquo;s daughter and educated her for the stage. In 1693,
with the aid of friends, he erected the New Playhouse in the
tennis court in Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields. It was opened in 1695
with Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Love for Love</i>. But in a few years the profits
fell off; and Betterton, labouring under the infirmities of age
and gout, determined to quit the stage. At his benefit performance,
when the profits are said to have been over £500, he played
Valentine in <i>Love for Love</i>. In 1710 he made his last appearance
as Melantius in <i>The Maid&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>; he died on the 28th of
April, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>

<p>In appearance he was athletic, slightly above middle height,
with a tendency to stoutness; his voice was strong rather than
melodious, but in recitation it was used with the greatest dexterity.
Pepys, Pope, Steele and Cibber all bestow lavish praise
on his acting. His repertory included a large number of Shakespearian
roles, and although many of these were presented in the
tasteless versions of Davenant, Dryden, Shadwell and Nahum
Tate, yet they could not hide the great histrionic gifts which
Betterton possessed, nor does his reputation rest on these
performances alone. The blamelessness of his life was conspicuous
in an age and a profession notorious for dissolute
habits. Betterton was author of several adaptations which
were popular in their day. In 1662 he had married Mary Saunderson
(d. 1712), an admirable actress, whose Ophelia shared
the honours with his Hamlet.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Howe, <i>Thomas Betterton</i> (1891); <i>The Life and Times of Thomas Betterton</i> (1886).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTIA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Champaran district
of Bengal; situated on a former branch of the Harha river,
with a station on the Tirhoot section of the Bengal &amp; North-Western
railway. Bettia is the residence of one of the leading
noblemen of northern Behar, who enjoys a rent-roll of £66,000.
In 1901, owing to a disputed succession, the estate was under
the management of the court of wards. It comprises land
in no fewer than ten districts, much of which is let on permanent
leases to indigo-planters. Besides the palace of the maharaja,
the town contains a middle English school and a female dispensary,
entirely supported out of the estate. There is a Roman
Catholic mission, with about 1000 converts, which was founded
by an Italian priest in 1746.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTINELLI, SAVERIO<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1718-1808), Italian Jesuit and man
of letters, was born at Mantua on the 18th of July 1718. After
studying under the Jesuits in his native city and at Bologna
he entered the society in 1736. He taught the belles-lettres
from 1739 to 1744 at Brescia, where Cardinal Quirini, Count
Mazzuchelli, Count Duranti and other scholars, formed an illustrious
academy. He next went to Bologna, to pursue the study
of divinity, and there he enjoyed the society of many learned
and literary men. At the age of thirty he went to Venice,
where he became professor of rhetoric, and was on friendly terms
with the most illustrious persons of that city and state. The
superintendence of the college of nobles at Parma was entrusted
to him in 1751; and he had principal charge of the studies of
poetry and history, and the entertainments of the theatre. He
remained there eight years, visiting, at intervals, other cities of
Italy, either on the affairs of his order, for pleasure or for
health. In 1755 he traversed part of Germany, proceeded
as far as Strassburg and Nancy, and returned by way of
Germany into Italy, taking with him two young sons or
nephews of the prince of Hohenlohe, who had requested him
to take charge of their education. He made, the year following,
another journey into France along with the eldest of his pupils;
and during this excursion he wrote his famous <i>Lettere dieci di
Virgilio agli Arcadi</i>, which were published at Venice with his
<i>sciolti</i> verses, and those of Frugoni and Algarotti. The opinions
maintained in these letters against the two great Italian poets
and particularly against Dante, created him many enemies,
and embroiled him with Algarotti. In 1758 he went into
Lorraine, to the court of King Stanislaus, who sent him on a
matter of business to visit Voltaire. Voltaire presented him with
a copy of his works, with a flattering inscription in allusion to
Bettinelli&rsquo;s <i>Letters of Virgil</i>. From Geneva he returned to
Parma, where he arrived in 1759. He afterwards lived for some
years at Verona and Modena, and he had just been appointed
professor of rhetoric there, when, in 1773, the order of Jesuits
was abolished in Italy. Bettinelli then returned into his own
country, and resumed his literary labours with new ardour.
The siege of Mantua by the French compelled him to leave the
city, and he retired to Verona, where he formed an intimate
friendship with the chevalier Hippolito Pindemonti. In 1797
he returned to Mantua. Though nearly eighty years old, he
resumed his labours and his customary manner of life. He
undertook in 1799 a complete edition of his works, which was
published at Venice in 24 vols. 12mo. Arrived at the age of
ninety years, he still retained his gaiety and vivacity of mind,
and died on the 13th of September 1808. The works of Bettinelli
are now of little value. The only one still deserving remembrance,
perhaps, is the <i>Risorgimento negli studj, nelle Arti e ne&rsquo; Costumi
dopo il Mille</i> (1775-1786), a sketch of the progress of literature,
science, the fine arts, industry, &amp;c., in Italy.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTWS Y COED,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> an urban district of Carnarvonshire, North
Wales, 4 m. from Llanrwst and 16 m. from Llandudno, on a branch
of the London &amp; North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1070.
The name means &ldquo;warm place of the wood,&rdquo; according to Llyn&rsquo;s
definition of <i>bettws</i>. The other derivation of the word from
<i>Abbatis</i> (<i>domus</i>) agrees with its vicinity to Yspytty<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ifan (Ieuan),
<i>Hospitium Ioannis</i>, near Pentre&rsquo;r Foelas. The words &ldquo;y coed&rdquo;
are added to distinguish this Bettws from several others in Wales,
especially that near Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire, not far
from the Bettws hills. Bettws y coed is a favourite village for
artists and tourists. It is a centre for excursions towards Capel
Curig and Snowdon, or towards Blaenau Festiniog, via Roman
Bridge. There is excellent fishing for salmon and trout, and in
summer coaches leave their daily loads of tourists here. The
best-known streams and waterfalls are Llugwy, Lledr, with
Rhaiadr y wenol (Swallow falls), Conwy and Machno falls. In the
neighbourhood are Dolwyddelan castle and the hill of Moel
Siabod.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Other places named &ldquo;Yspytty&rdquo; are Y. Cynfyn and Y.
Ystwyth. For the name Yspytty, cf. Bale&rsquo;s <i>King John</i>, 2125:
&ldquo;So many masendeens (<i>maisons Dieu</i>), hospytals and <i>spyttle</i> howses.&rdquo;</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1791-1874), English
actor, known as &ldquo;the young Roscius,&rdquo; was born on the 13th of
September 1791 at Shrewsbury. He first appeared on the stage
at Belfast before he was twelve years old, as Osman in Aaron
Hill&rsquo;s <i>Zara</i>, an English version of Voltaire&rsquo;s <i>Zaire</i>. His success
was immediate, and he shortly afterwards appeared in Dublin,
where it is said that in three hours of study he committed the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
part of Hamlet to memory. His precocious talents aroused great
enthusiasm in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and he was favourably
compared with some of the greatest tragedians. In 1804 he first
appeared at Covent Garden, when the troops had to be called out
to preserve order, so great was the crush to obtain admittance.
At Drury Lane the house was similarly packed, and he played
for the then unprecedented salary of over 75 guineas a night.
He was a great success socially, George III. himself presenting
him to the queen, and Pitt upon one occasion adjourning the
House of Commons that members might be in time for his
performance. But this enthusiasm gradually subsided, and in
1808 he made his final appearance as a boy actor, and entered
Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. He re-appeared four years later,
but the public would have none of him, and he retired to the
enjoyment of the large fortune which he had amassed as a prodigy.
He died on the 24th of August 1874. His son Henry Betty
(1819-1897) was also an actor.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETUL,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda
division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the population of the
town was 4739. The administrative headquarters of the district
have been transferred to the town of Badnur (<i>q.v.</i>), 3 m. north.</p>

<p>The district of <span class="sc">Betul</span> has an area of 3826 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 285,363, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade,
due to the results of famine. The mean elevation above the
sea is about 2000 ft. The country is essentially a highland tract,
divided naturally into three distinct portions, differing in their
superficial aspects, the character of their soil and their geological
formation. The northern part of the district forms an irregular
plain of the sandstone formation. It is a well-wooded tract, in
many places stretching out in charming glades like an English
park, but it has a very sparse population and little cultivated
land. In the extreme north a line of hills rises abruptly out of
the great plain of the Nerbudda valley. The central tract alone
possesses a rich soil, well watered by the Machna and Sampna
rivers, almost entirely cultivated and studded with villages. To
the south lies a rolling plateau of basaltic formation (with the
sacred town of Multai, and the springs of the river Tapti at its
highest point), extending over the whole of the southern face of
the district, and finally merging into the wild and broken line of
the Ghats, which lead down to the plains. This tract consists of a
succession of stony ridges of trap rock, enclosing valleys or basins
of fertile soil, to which cultivation is for the most part confined,
except where the shallow soil on the tops of the hills has been
turned to account. The principal crops are wheat, millet, other
food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, and a little sugar-cane and cotton.
A large part of the area is covered with forests, which yield teak
and other timber. The only manufacture is cotton cloth. A
railway is projected from Itarsi through the district to Berar.
Good roads are few; and none of the rivers is navigable. This
district suffered very severely from the famine of 1896-1897,
in 1897 the death-rate being as high as 73 per 1000. It suffered
again in 1900, when in May the number of persons relieved rose
to one-third of the total population.</p>

<p>Little is known of the early history of the district except that
it must have been the centre of the first of the four ancient Gond
kingdoms of Kherla, Deogarh, Mandla and Chanda. According
to Ferishta, the Persian historian, these kingdoms engrossed
in 1398 all the hills of Gondwana and adjacent countries, and
were of great wealth and power. About the year 1418 Sultan
Husain Shah of Malwa invaded Kherla, and reduced it to a
dependency. Nine years later the raja rebelled, but although
with the help of the Bahmani kings of the Deccan he managed
for a time to assert his independence, he was finally subdued and
deprived of his territories. In 1467 Kherla was seized by the
Bahmani king, but was afterwards restored to Malwa. A century
later the kingdom of Malwa became incorporated into the
dominions of the emperor of Delhi. In 1703 a Mussulman
convert of the Gond tribe held the country, and in 1743 Raghoji
Bhonsla, the Mahratta ruler of Berar, annexed it to his dominions.
The Mahrattas in the year 1818 ceded this district to the East
India Company as payment for a contingent, and by the treaty
of 1826 it was formally incorporated with the British possessions.
Detachments of British troops were stationed at Multai, Betul
and Shahpur to cut off the retreat of Apa Sahib, the Mahratta
general, and a military force was quartered at Betul until June
1862. The ruined city of Kherla formed the seat of government
under the Gonds and preceding rulers, and hence the district was,
until the time of its annexation to the British dominions, known
as the &ldquo;Kherla Sarkar.&rdquo; The town of Multai contains an
artificial tank, from the centre of which the Tapti is said to take
its rise: hence the reputed sanctity of the spot, and the accumulation
of temples in its honour.</p>

<p>The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the
plains and the neighbourhood of extensive forests moderate the
heat, and render the temperature pleasant throughout the greater
part of the year. During the cold season the thermometer at
night falls below the freezing point; little or no hot wind is felt
before the end of April, and even then it ceases after sunset. The
nights in the hot season are comparatively cool and pleasant.
During the monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times even
cold and raw, thick clouds and mist enveloping the sky for many
days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. In the
denser jungles malaria prevails for months after the cessation
of the rains, but the Gonds do not appear to suffer much from its
effects. Travellers and strangers who venture into these jungles
run the risk of fever of a severe type at almost all seasons of the
year.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BETWA,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a river of India, which rises in the native state of
Bhopal in Malwa, and after a course of 360 m., for the most part
in a north-easterly direction, falls into the Jumna at Hamirpur.
A weir is thrown across the Betwa about 15 m. from Jhansi
town, whence a canal 168 m. long takes off, irrigating 106,000 acres
of the Jalaun district; similar works have been carried out
elsewhere on the river.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEUDANT, FRANÇOIS SULPICE<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1787-1850), French mineralogist
and geologist, was born at Paris on the 5th of September
1787. He was educated at the École Polytechnique and École
Normale, and in 1811 was appointed professor of mathematics
at the lycée of Avignon. Thence he was called, in 1813, to
the lycée of Marseilles to fill the post of professor of physics.
In the following year the royal mineralogical cabinet was committed
to his charge to be conveyed into England, and from
that time his attention was directed principally towards geology
and cognate sciences. In 1817 he published a paper on the
phenomena of crystallization, treating especially of the variety
of forms assumed by the same mineral substance. In 1818
he undertook, at the expense of the French government, a
geological journey through Hungary, and the results of his
researches, <i>Voyage minéralogique et géologique en Hongrie</i>,
3 vols. 4to, with atlas, published in 1822, established for him
a European reputation. In 1820 he was appointed to the
professorship of mineralogy in the Paris faculty of sciences,
and afterwards became inspector-general of the university.
He subsequently published treatises on physics and on
mineralogy and geology, and died on the 10th of December
1850.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1761-1835), French
politician, was born at Bar-sur-Aube. A magistrate under the
old régime, he was elected deputy to the Legislative Assembly
(1791), then to the Convention. He was involved in the
proscription of the Girondists and imprisoned until the 9th
Thermidor. He next entered into relations with the family
of Bonaparte, and in 1799, after the 18th Brumaire, again
entered politics, becoming successively prefect of the lower
Seine, councillor of state, and finance minister to Jerome Bonaparte,
king of Westphalia. In 1808 Beugnot, who had meanwhile
been appointed administrator of the duchy of Berg-Cleves,
received the cross of officer of the Legion of Honour with the
title of count. He returned to France in 1813, after the battle
of Leipzig, and was made prefect of the department of Nord.
In 1814 he was a member of the provisional government as
minister of the interior; and by Louis XVIII. he was named
director-general of police and afterwards minister of marine. He
followed Louis to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and became
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
one of his confidants. He contributed to draw up Louis&rsquo;s
charter, and in his memoirs boasted of having furnished the
text of the proclamation addressed by the king to the French
people before his return to France; but it is known now that
it was another text that was adopted. Lacking the support
of the ultra-royalists, he was given the title of minister of state
without portfolio, which was equivalent to a retirement. Elected
deputy, he attached himself to the moderate party, and defended
the liberty of the press. In 1831 Louis Philippe made him a peer
of France and director-general of manufactures and commerce.
He died on the 24th of June 1835.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Auguste Arthur Beugnot</span> (1797-1865), was an
historian and scholar, who published an <i>Essai sur les institutions
de Saint Louis</i> (1821), <i>Histoire de la destruction du paganisme en
occident</i> (2 vols., 1885), and edited the <i>Olim</i> of the parlement
of Paris, the <i>Assizes of Jerusalem</i>, and the <i>Coutumes de
Beauvoisis</i> of Philippe de Beaumanoir. He was a member of the
chamber of peers under Louis Philippe, and opposed Villemain&rsquo;s
plan for freedom of education. After 1848 he maintained the
same rôle, acting as reporter of the <i>loi Falloux</i>. He retired from
public life after the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Napoleon III., and died
on the 15th of March 1865.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of J.C. Beugnot were published by his grandson,
Count Albert Beugnot (2nd ed., Paris, 1868); see H. Wallon, <i>Éloges
académiques</i> (1882); and E. Dejean, <i>Un Préfet du Consulat:
J.C. Beugnot</i> (Paris, 1907).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEULÉ, CHARLES ERNEST<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1826-1874), French archaeologist
and politician, was born at Saumur on the 29th of June 1826.
He was educated at the École Normale, and after having
held the professorship of rhetoric at Moulins for a year, was sent
to Athens in 1851 as one of the professors in the École Française
there. He had the good fortune to discover the propylaea of the
Acropolis, and his work, <i>L&rsquo;Acropole d&rsquo;Athènes</i> (2nd ed., 1863),
was published by order of the minister of public instruction.
On his return to France, promotion and distinctions followed
rapidly upon his first successes. He was made doctor of letters,
chevalier of the Legion of Honour, professor of archaeology
at the Bibliothèque Impériale, member of the Académie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and perpetual secretary of the
Académie des Beaux-Arts. He took great interest in political
affairs, with which the last few years of his life were entirely
occupied. Elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871,
he zealously supported the Orleanist party. In May-November
1873 he was minister of the interior in the Broglie ministry.
He died by his own hand on the 4th of April 1874. His other
important works are: <i>Études sur le Péloponnèse</i> (2nd ed., 1875);
<i>Les Monnaies d&rsquo;Athènes</i> (1858); <i>L&rsquo;Architecture au siècle de
Pisistrate</i> (1860); <i>Fouilles à Carthage</i> (1861). Beulé was also
the author of high-class popular works on artistic and historical
subjects: <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art grec avant Périclès</i> (2nd ed., 1870);
<i>Le Procès des Césars</i> (1867-1870, in four parts; <i>Auguste, sa
famille et ses amis</i>; <i>Tibère et l&rsquo;héritage d&rsquo;Auguste</i>; <i>Le Sang de
Germanicus</i>; <i>Titus et sa dynastie</i>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Ideville, <i>Monsieur Beulé, Souvenirs personnels</i> (1874).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1752-1821),
French general. After service in the colonies, he married
a wealthy Creole, and returning to France purchased the post
of lieutenant of the Swiss guard of the count of Provence.
During the Revolution he was named lieutenant-general, and
took an active part in the battles of Valmy and Jemmapes.
Minister of war in February 1793, he denounced his old commander,
C.F. Dumouriez, to the Convention, and was one of
the four deputies sent to watch him. Given over by him to the
Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, Beurnonville was not
exchanged until November 1795. He entered the service again,
commanded the armies of the Sambre-et-Meuse and of the
North, and was appointed inspector of infantry of the army
of England in 1798. In 1800 he was sent as ambassador to
Berlin, in 1802 to Madrid. Napoleon made him a senator and
count of the empire. In 1814 he was a member of the provisional
government organized after the abdication of Napoleon,
and was created a peer of France. During the Hundred Days
he followed Louis XVIII. to Ghent, and after the second restoration
was made marquis and marshal of France.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. Chaquet, <i>Les Guerres de la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1886).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1809-1886), Austrian
statesman, was descended from a noble family which had
originally sprung from the Mark of Brandenburg, and of which
one branch had been for over 300 years settled in Saxony. He
was born on the 13th of January 1809 in Dresden, where his
father held office at the Saxon court. After studying at Leipzig
and Göttingen he entered the Saxon public service; in 1836
he was made secretary of legation at Berlin, and afterwards
held appointments at Paris, Munich and London. In March
1848 he was summoned to Dresden to take the office of foreign
minister, but in consequence of the outbreak of the revolution
was not appointed. In May he was appointed Saxon envoy at
Berlin, and in February 1849 was again summoned to Dresden,
and this time appointed minister of foreign affairs, an office
which he continued to hold till 1866. In addition to this he
held the ministry of education and public worship from 1849
to 1853; that of internal affairs in 1853, and in the same year
was appointed minister-president. From the time that he
entered the ministry he was, however, the leading member of
it, and he was chiefly responsible for the events of 1849. By
his advice the king refused to accept the constitution proclaimed
by the Frankfort parliament, a policy which led to the outbreak
of revolution in Dresden, which was suppressed after four days&rsquo;
fighting by Prussian troops, for whose assistance Beust had
asked. On Beust fell also the chief responsibility for governing
the country after order was restored, and he was the author of
the so-called <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of June 1850 by which the new
constitution was overthrown. The vigour he showed in repressing all
resistance to the government, especially that of the university, and
in reorganizing the police, made him one of the most unpopular
men among the Liberals, and his name became synonymous with
the worst form of reaction, but it is not clear that the attacks on
him were justified. After this he was chiefly occupied with foreign
affairs, and he soon became one of the most conspicuous figures
in German politics. He was the leader of that party which
hoped to maintain the independence of the smaller states, and
was the opponent of all attempts on the part of Prussia to
attract them into a separate union; in 1849-1850 he had
been obliged to join the &ldquo;three kings&rsquo; union&rdquo; of Prussia,
Hanover and Saxony, but he was careful to keep open a loophole
for withdrawal, of which he speedily availed himself. In
the crisis of 1851 Saxony was on the side of Austria, and he
supported the restoration of the diet of the confederation.
In 1854 he took part in the Bamberg conferences, in which
the smaller German states claimed the right to direct their
own policy independent of that of Austria or of Prussia, and he
was the leading supporter of the idea of the <i>Trias</i>, <i>i.e.</i> that
the smaller states should form a closer union among themselves
against the preponderance of the great monarchies. In 1863
he came forward as a warm supporter of the claims of the
prince of Augustenburg to Schleswig-Holstein (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein
Question</a></span>); he was the leader of the party in the
German diet which refused to recognize the settlement of the
Danish question effected in 1852 by the treaty of London, and
in 1864 he was appointed representative of the diet at the
congress of London. He was thus thrown into opposition to the
policy of Bismarck, and he was exposed to violent attacks in
the Prussian press as a &ldquo;particularist,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a supporter of the
independence of the smaller states. The expulsion of the Saxon
troops from Rendsburg nearly led to a conflict with Prussia.
Beust was accused of having brought about the war of 1866,
but the responsibility for this must rest with Bismarck. On
the outbreak of war Beust accompanied the king to Prague, and
thence to Vienna, where they were received by the emperor
with the news of Königgrätz. Beust undertook a mission to
Paris to procure the help of Napoleon. When the terms of
peace were discussed he resigned, for Bismarck refused to
negotiate with him.</p>

<p>After the victory of Prussia there was no place for Beust in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
Germany, and his public career seemed to be closed, but he
quite unexpectedly received an invitation from the emperor
of Austria to become his foreign minister. It was a bold decision,
for Beust was not only a stranger to Austria, but also a
Protestant; but the choice of the emperor justified itself. Beust
threw himself into his new position with great energy; it was
owing to him that the negotiations with Hungary were brought
to a successful issue. When difficulties came he went himself to
Budapest, and acted directly with the Hungarian leaders. In
1867 he also held the position of Austrian minister-president,
and he carried through the measures by which parliamentary
government was restored. He also carried on the negotiations
with the pope concerning the repeal of the concordat, and in this
matter also did much by a liberal policy to relieve Austria from
the pressure of institutions which had checked the development
of the country. In 1868, after giving up his post as
minister-president, he was appointed chancellor of the empire, and
received the title of count. His conduct of foreign affairs, especially
in the matter of the Balkan States and Crete, successfully
maintained the position of the empire. In 1869 he accompanied
the emperor on his expedition to the East. He was still to some
extent influenced by the anti-Prussian feeling he had brought
from Saxony. He maintained a close understanding with France,
and there can be little doubt that he would have welcomed
an opportunity in his new position of another struggle with his
old rival Bismarck. In 1867, however, he helped to bring the
affair of Luxemburg to a peaceful termination. In 1870 he did
not disguise his sympathy for France, and the failure of all
attempts to bring about an intervention of the powers, joined
to the action of Russia in denouncing the treaty of Paris, was
the occasion of his celebrated saying that he was nowhere able
to find Europe. After the war was over he completely accepted
the new organization of Germany.</p>

<p>As early as December 1870 he had opened a correspondence
with Bismarck with a view to establishing a good understanding
with Germany. Bismarck accepted his advances with alacrity,
and the new <i>entente</i>, which Beust announced to the
Austro-Hungarian delegations in July 1871, was sealed in August
by a friendly meeting of the two old rivals and enemies at Gastein.</p>

<p>In 1871 Beust interfered at the last moment, together with
Andrássy, to prevent the emperor accepting the federalist plans
of Hohenwart. He was successful, but at the same time he
was dismissed from office. The precise cause for this is not
known, and no reason was given him. At his own request
he was appointed Austrian ambassador at London; in 1878
he was transferred to Paris; in 1882 he retired from public life.
He died at his villa at Altenberg, near Vienna, on the 24th of
October 1886, leaving two sons, both of whom entered the
Austrian diplomatic service. His wife, a Bavarian lady,
survived him only a few weeks. His elder brother Friedrich
Konstantin (1806-1891), who was at the head of the Saxon
department for mines, was the author of several works on
mining and geology, a subject in which other members of the
family had distinguished themselves.</p>

<p>Beust was in many ways a diplomatist of the old school. He
had great social gifts and personal graces; he was proud of
his proficiency in the lighter arts of composing waltzes and
<i>vers de société</i>. His chief fault was vanity, but it was an
amiable weakness. It was more vanity than rancour which made him
glad to appear even in later years as the great opponent of
Bismarck; and if he cared too much for popularity, and was
very sensitive to neglect, the saying attributed to Bismarck,
that if his vanity were taken away there would be nothing left,
is very unjust. He was apt to look more to the form than the
substance, and attached too much importance to the verbal
victory of a well-written despatch; but when the opportunity
was given him he showed higher qualities. In the crisis of 1849
he displayed considerable courage, and never lost his judgment
even in personal danger. If he was defeated in his German
policy, it must be remembered that Bismarck held all the good
cards, and in 1866 Saxony was the only one of the smaller states
which entered on the war with an army properly equipped and
ready at the moment. That he was no mere reactionary the
whole course of his government in Saxony, and still more in
Austria, shows. His Austrian policy has been much criticized,
on the ground that in establishing the system of dualism he
gave too much to Hungary, and did not really understand
Austrian affairs; and the Austro-Hungarian crisis during the
early years of the present century has given point to this view.
Yet it remains the fact that in a crisis of extraordinary difficulty
he carried to a successful conclusion a policy which, even if it
was not the best imaginable, was probably the best attainable
in the circumstances.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Beust was the author of reminiscences:
<i>Aus drei Viertel-Jahrhunderten</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1887;
English trans. edited by Baron H. de Worms); and he also wrote
a shorter work, <i>Erinnerungen zu Erinnerungen</i> (Leipzig, 1881),
in answer to attacks made on him by his former colleague,
Herr v. Frieseri, in his reminiscences.  See also Ebeling,
<i>F.F. Graf v. Beust</i> (Leipzig, 1876), a full and careful account
of his political career, especially up to 1866; <i>Diplomatic Sketches:
No. 1, Count Beust</i>, by Outsider (Baron Carl v. Malortie); Flathe,
<i>Geschichte van Sachsen</i>, vol. iii. (Gotha, 1877); Friesen,
<i>Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben</i> (Dresden, 1880).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEUTHEN,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Niederbeuthen</span>, a town of Germany, in the
north of Prussian Silesia, on the Oder, the capital of the
mediatized principality of Carolath-Beuthen. Pop. (1900) 3164.
The chief industries of the place are straw-plaiting,
boat-building, and the manufacture of pottery; and a considerable
traffic is carried on by means of the river.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEUTHEN,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Oberbeuthen</span>, a town of Germany, in the
extreme south-east of Prussian Silesia, on the railway between
Breslau and Cracow, 121 m. S.E. of the former. Pop. (1905)
60,078. It is the centre of the mining district of Upper Silesia,
and its population is mainly engaged in such operations and in
iron and zinc smelting. Beuthen is an old town, and was
formerly the capital of the Bohemian duchy of Beuthen, which
in 1620 was ultimately granted, as a free lordship of the Empire,
to Lazarus, Baron Henckel von Donnersmarck, by the emperor
Ferdinand II., and parts of which, now mediatized, are held by
two branches of the counts Henckel von Donnersmarck.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEVEL<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (from an O. Fr. word, cf. mod. <i>biveau</i>, a joiner&rsquo;s
instrument), the inclination of one surface of a solid body to
another; also, any angle other than a right angle, and particularly,
in joinery, the angle to which a piece of timber has to
be cut. The mechanic&rsquo;s instrument known as a bevel consists of
a rule with two arms so jointed as to be adjustable to any angle.
In heraldry, a bevel is an angular break in a line. Bevelment,
as a term of crystallography, means the replacement of an edge
of a crystal by two planes equally inclined to the adjacent
planes. As an architectural term &ldquo;bevel&rdquo; is a sloped or canted
edge given to a sill or horizontal course of stone, but is more
frequently applied to the canted edges worked round the
projecting bands of masonry which for decorative purposes are
employed on the quoins of walls or windows and in some cases,
with vertical joints, cover the whole wall. When the outer face
of the stone band is left rough so that it forms what is known
as rusticated masonry, the description would be bevelled
and rusticated. The term is sometimes applied to the splaying
of the edges of a window on the outside, but the wide
expansion made inside in order to admit more light is known
as a splay.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1814?-1889), English
artist and scene-painter, was born at Richmond, Surrey, about
1814, the son of William Roxby, an actor-manager who had
assumed the name of Beverley. His four brothers and his sister
all entered the theatrical profession, and Beverley soon became
both actor and scene-painter. In 1831 his father and his brothers
took over the old Durham circuit, and he joined them to play
heavy comedy for several seasons, besides painting scenery. His
work was first seen in 1831 in London, for the pantomime
<i>Baron Munchausen</i> at the Victoria theatre, which was being
managed by his brother Henry. He was appointed scenic director
for the Covent Garden operas in 1853. In 1854 he entered
the service of the Drury Lane theatre under the management
of E.T. Smith, and for thirty years continued to produce
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
wonderful scenes for the pantomimes, besides working for Covent
Garden and a number of other theatres. In 1851 he executed
part of a great diorama of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, and
produced dioramic views of the ascent of Mont Blanc, exhibited
at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, and in 1884 a panorama of
the Lakes of Killarney. He was a frequent exhibitor of sea
pictures at the Royal Academy from 1865 to 1880. In 1884
failing eyesight put an end to his painting. He died in
comparative poverty at Hampstead on the 17th of May 1889. He
was the last of the old school of one surface painters, and famed
for the wonderful atmospheric effects he was able to produce.
Although he was skilled in all the mechanical devices of the
stage, and painted in 1881 scenery for <i>Michael Strogoff</i> at the
Adelphi, in which for the first time in England the still life of
the stage was placed in harmony with the background, he
was strongly opposed to the new school of scene-builders.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEVERLEY,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
Holderness parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 8 m. N.N.W. of Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 13,183. It lies in a level country
east of the line of slight elevations known as the Wolds, near
the river Hull, and has communication by canal with Hull.
The church of St John the Evangelist, commonly called Beverley
Minster, is a magnificent building, exceeding in size and
splendour some of the English cathedrals. A monastery was founded
here by John of Beverley (<i>c.</i> 640-721), a native of the East
Riding, who was bishop successively of Hexham and of York,
and was canonized in 1037. A college of secular canons followed
in the 10th century, the provostship of which subsequently
became an office of high dignity, and was held by Thomas
Becket, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the existing
building, the easternmost bay of the nave, the transepts with
east and west aisles, the choir with aisles and short transepts,
and the Lady chapel, are Early English, a superb example of
the finest development of that style. The remainder of the
nave is Decorated, excepting the westernmost bay which is
Perpendicular, as is the ornate west front with its graceful
flanking towers. The north porch is also a beautiful example
of this style. The most noteworthy details within the church
are the exquisite Early English staircase which led to the chapter
house (no longer remaining), and the Percy tomb, a remarkable
example of Decorated work, commemorating Eleanor, wife of
Henry Percy (d. 1328). The church of St Mary is a cruciform
building with central tower, almost entirely of Decorated and
Perpendicular work. Though overshadowed by the presence
of the minster, it is yet a very fine example of its styles, its most
noteworthy features being the tower and the west front. Beverley
was walled, and one gate of the 15th century remains; there
are also some picturesque old houses. The industries are tanning,
iron-founding, brewing and the manufacture of chemicals;
and there is a large agricultural trade. Beverley is the seat
of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of York. The municipal
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and
has an area of 2404 acres, including a large extent of common
pasture land.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Beverley (Beverlac) is said to be on the site of a British settlement.
Evidently a church had existed there before 704, since in that year
it was restored by St John of Beverley, who also founded a monastery
there and was himself buried in the church. In the devastation of
the north of England which followed the Conquest, Beverley is said
to have escaped by a miracle attributed to St John; the Norman
leader, while about to enter and pillage the church, fell from his
horse dead, and the king, thinking this a sign that the town was
under the protection of heaven, exempted it from pillage. From the
time of St John of Beverley until the dissolution of the monasteries,
the manor and town of Beverley belonged to the archbishopric of
York, and is said to have been held under a charter of liberties
supposed to have been granted by King Æthelstan in 925. This
charter, besides other privileges, is said to have granted sanctuary
in Beverley, and the &ldquo;leuga&rdquo; over which this privilege extended
was afterwards shown to include the whole town. Confirmations of
Æthelstan&rsquo;s charter were granted by Edward the Confessor and
other succeeding kings. In the reign of Henry I., Thurstan, archbishop
of York, gave the burgesses their first charter, which is one
of the earliest granted to any town in England. In it he granted
them the same privileges as the citizens of York, among these being
a gild merchant and freedom from toll throughout the whole of
Yorkshire, with right to take it at all the markets and fairs in their
town except at the three principal fairs, the toll of which belonged
to the archbishop. In 1200 King John granted the town a new
charter, for which the burgesses had to pay 500 marks. Other
charters generally confirming the first were granted to the town by
most of the early kings. The incorporation charter granted by
Queen Elizabeth in 1573 was confirmed by Charles I. in 1629 and
Charles II. in 1663, and renewed by James II. on his accession.
Parliamentary representation by two members began in the reign
of Edward I., but lapsed, until the corporation charter of 1573,
from which date it continued until the Reform Act of 1867. In
1554-1555 Queen Mary granted the three fairs on the feasts of St
John the Confessor, the Translation of St John and the Nativity of
St John the Baptist, together with the weekly markets on Wednesday
and Saturday, which had been held by the archbishops of York by
traditional grant of Edward the Confessor to the burgesses of the
town. Cloth-weaving was one of the chief industries of Beverley;
it is mentioned and appears to have been important as early as 1315.</p>

<p>See <i>Victoria County History&mdash;Yorkshire</i>; G. Poulson, <i>Beverlac;
Antiquities and History of Beverley and of the Provostry, &amp;c., of
St John&rsquo;s</i> (2 vols., 1829); G. Oliver, D.D., <i>History and Antiquities
of Beverley, &amp;c</i>. (1829).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEVERLY,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a seaboard city of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., situated on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay, opposite
Salem. It is 18 m. from Boston on the Boston &amp; Maine railway.
Pop. (1890) 10,821; (1900) 13,884, of whom 2814 were foreign-born;
(1910, census) 18,650. The land area of the city is
about 15 sq. m. The surface is the typical glacial topography,
with a few low, rocky hills, less than 100 ft. in height. There are
beautiful drives through well-wooded districts, studded with
handsome summer houses. In the city are a public library, the
Beverly hospital, the New England industrial school for deaf
mutes (organized, 1876; incorporated, 1870), and the Beverly
historical society (1891), which owns a large colonial house, in
which there is a valuable historical collection. The city has an
excellent public school system. There are a number of
manufacturing establishments; in 1905 the total factory product of
the city was valued at $4,101,168, boots and shoes accounting
for more than one-half of the total. Leather and shoe machinery
also are important manufactures; and the main plant of the
United Shoe Machinery Corporation is located here. Market
gardening is a considerable industry, and large quantities of
vegetables are raised under glass for the Boston markets. Fishing
is an industry no longer of much importance. Beverly is connected
by a regular line of oil-steamers with Port Arthur, Texas,
and is the main distributing point for the Texas oil fields. The
first settlement within the limits of Beverly was made by Roger
Conant in 1626. The town was a part of Salem until 1668, when
it was incorporated as a separate township; in 1894 it was
chartered as a city. In 1788 there was established here the first
cotton mill to be successfully operated in the United States. The
manufacture of Britannia ware was begun in 1812. George
Cabot lived for many years in Beverly, which he represented in
the provincial congress (1779); Nathan Dane (1752-1835) was
also a resident; and it was the birthplace of Wilson Flagg
(1805-1884), the author of <i>Studies in the Field and Forest</i> (1857),
<i>The Woods and By-Ways of New England</i> (1872), <i>The Birds and
Seasons of New England</i> (1875), and <i>A Year with the Birds</i> (1881).
It was also the birthplace and early home of Lucy Larcom (1826-1893),
and the scene of much of her <i>Story of a New England
Girlhood</i> (Boston, 1889).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEVIS OF HAMPTON,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> the name of an English metrical
romance. Bevis is the son of Guy, count of Hampton
(Southampton) and his young wife, a daughter of the king of
Scotland. The countess asks a former suitor, Doon or Devoun,
emperor of Almaine (Germany), to send an army to murder Guy
in the forest. The plot is successful, and she marries Doon.
When threatened with future vengeance by her ten-year-old son,
she determines to make away with him also, but he is saved from
death by a faithful tutor, is sold to heathen pirates, and reaches
the court of King Hermin, whose realm is variously placed in
Egypt and Armenia (Armorica). The exploits of Bevis, his love
for the king&rsquo;s daughter Josiane, his mission to King Bradmond
of Damascus with a sealed letter demanding his own death, his
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
imprisonment, his final vengeance on his stepfather are related
in detail. After succeeding to his inheritance he is, however,
driven into exile and separated from Josiane, to whom he is
reunited only after each of them has contracted, in form only,
a second union. The story also relates the hero&rsquo;s death and the
fortunes of his two sons.</p>

<p>The oldest extant version appears to be <i>Boeve de Haumtone</i>,
an Anglo-Norman text which dates from the first half of the 13th
century. The English metrical romance, <i>Sir Beues of Hamtoun</i>,
is founded on some French original varying slightly from those
which have been preserved. The oldest MS. dates from the
beginning of the 14th century. The French <i>chanson de geste</i>,
<i>Beuve d&rsquo;Hanstone</i>, was followed by numerous prose versions.
The printed editions of the story were most numerous in Italy,
where <i>Bovo d&rsquo;Antona</i> was the subject of more than one poem,
and the tale was interpolated in the <i>Reali di Francia</i>, the Italian
compilation of Carolingian legend. Although the English
version that we possess is based on a French original, it seems
probable that the legend took shape on English soil in the 10th
century, and that it originated with the Danish invaders. Doon
may be identified with the emperor Otto the Great, who was
the contemporary of the English king Edgar of the story.
R. Zenker (<i>Boeve-Amlethus</i>, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904) establishes
a close parallel between Bevis and the Hamlet legend as related
by Saxo Grammaticus in the <i>Historia Danica</i>. Among the
more obvious coincidences which point to a common source are
the vengeance taken on a stepfather for a father&rsquo;s death, the
letter bearing his own death-warrant which is entrusted to the
hero, and his double marriage.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The motive of the feigned
madness is, however, lacking in Bevis. The princess who is
Josiane&rsquo;s rival is less ferocious than the Hermuthruda of the
Hamlet legend, but she threatens Bevis with death if he refuses
her. Both seem to be modelled on the type of Thyrdo of the
Beowulf legend. A fanciful etymology connecting Bevis (Boeve)
with Béowa (Béowulf), on the ground that both were dragon
slayers, is inadmissible.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;<i>The Romance of Sir Beues of Hamtoun</i>, edited from
six MSS. and the edition (without date) of Richard Pynson, by
E. Kölbing (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1885-1886-1894); A. Stimming,
&ldquo;Der anglonormannische Boeve de Haumtone,&rdquo; in H. Suchier&rsquo;s
<i>Bibl. Norm</i>. vol. vii. (Halle, 1899); the Welsh version, with a translation,
is given by R. Williams, <i>Selections of the Hengwrt MSS</i>. (vol. ii.,
London, 1892); the old Norse version by G. Cederschiöld, <i>Fornsogur
Sudhrlanda</i> (Lund, 1884); A. Wesselofsky, &ldquo;Zum russischen
Bovo d&rsquo;Antona&rdquo; (in <i>Archiv für slav. Phil</i>. vol. viii., 1885); for the
early printed editions of the romance in English, French and Italian
see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i>, <i>s.vv.</i> Bevis, Beufues and Buovo.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On double marriage in early romance see G. Paris, &ldquo;La Légende
du mari aux deux femmes,&rdquo; in <i>La Poésie du moyen âge</i> (2nd series,
Paris, 1895); and A. Nutt, &ldquo;The Lai of Eliduc,&rdquo; &amp;c, in <i>Folk-Lore</i>,
vol. iii. (1892).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEWDLEY,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
Bewdley parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England;
137 m. N.W. by W. from London and 17¼ N. by W. from
Worcester by rail. Pop. (1901) 2866. The Worcester-Shrewsbury
line of the Great Western is here joined by lines east from
Birmingham and west from Tenbury. Bewdley is pleasantly
situated on the sloping right bank of the Severn, on the eastern
border of the forest of Wyre. A bridge by Telford (1797) crosses
the river. A free grammar school, founded in 1591, was re-founded
by James I. in 1606, and possesses a large library
bequeathed in 1812. The town manufactures combs and horn
goods, brass and iron wares, leather, malt, bricks and ropes.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 2105 acres.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Bewdley (<i>i.e.</i> Beaulieu) is probably referred to in the Domesday
survey as &ldquo;another Ribbesford,&rdquo; and was held by the king. The
manor, then called <i>Bellus Locus</i> or Beaulieu on account of its beautiful
situation, was afterwards granted to the Mortimers, in whose family
it continued until it was merged in the crown on the accession of
Edward IV. It is from this time that Bewdley dates its importance.
Through its situation on the Severn it was connected with the sea,
and in 1250 a bridge, the only one between it and Worcester, was
built across the river and added greatly to the commerce of the town.
From Edward IV. Bewdley received its charter in 1472, and there
appears to be no evidence that it was a borough before this time.
Other charters were granted in 1605, 1685 and 1708. By James I.&rsquo;s
charter the burgesses sent one member to parliament, and continued
to do so until 1885. A fair and a market on Wednesday were granted
by Edward III. in 1373 to his grand-daughter Philippa, wife of
Edmund Mortimer, and confirmed to Richard, duke of York, by
Henry VI. Edward IV. also granted the burgesses a market on
Saturdays, and three fairs, which were confirmed to them by Henry
VII. Coal-mines were worked in Bewdley as early as 1669, and the
town was formerly noted for making caps.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEWICK, THOMAS<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1753-1828), English wood-engraver,
was born at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in August
1753. His father rented a small colliery at Mickleybank, and
sent his son to school at Mickley. He proved a poor scholar,
but showed, at a very early age, a remarkable talent for drawing.
He had no tuition in the art, and no models save natural objects.
At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Mr Beilby, an
engraver in Newcastle. In his office Bewick engraved on
wood for Dr Hutton a series of diagrams illustrating a treatise
on mensuration. He seems thereafter to have devoted himself
entirely to engraving on wood, and in 1775 he received a premium
from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures
for a woodcut of the &ldquo;Huntsman and the Old Hound.&rdquo; In
1784 appeared his <i>Select Fables</i>, the engravings in which, though
far surpassed by his later productions, were incomparably
superior to anything that had yet been done in that line. The
<i>Quadrupeds</i> appeared in 1790, and his great achievement, that
with which his name is inseparably associated, the <i>British Birds</i>,
was published from 1797-1804. Bewick, from his intimate
knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his constant
excursions into the country, was thoroughly qualified to do
justice to his great task. Of his other productions the engravings
for Goldsmith&rsquo;s <i>Traveller</i> and <i>Deserted Village</i>, for Parnell&rsquo;s
<i>Hermit</i>, for Somerville&rsquo;s <i>Chase</i>, and for the collection of <i>Fables
of Aesop and Others</i>, may be specially mentioned. Bewick
was for many years in partnership with his former master, and
in later life had numerous pupils, several of whom gained
distinction as engravers. He died on the 8th of November
1828.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His autobiography, <i>Memoirs of Thomas Bewick, by Himself</i>,
appeared in 1862.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEXHILL,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a municipal borough and watering-place in the
Rye parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 62 m. S.E.
by S. from London, on the London, Brighton &amp; South
Coast, and the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railways. Pop.
(1891) 5206; (1901) 12,213. The ancient village, with the
Norman and Early English church of St Peter, lies inland on
the slope of the low hills fringing the coast, but the watering-place
on the shore has developed very rapidly since about
1884, owing to the exertions of Earl De la Warr, who owns
most of the property. It has a marine parade, pier, golf links,
and the usual appointments of a seaside resort, while the climate
is bracing and the neighbouring country pleasant. Bexhill
was incorporated in 1902, the corporation consisting of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8013 acres.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1766-1851),
English politician, was the fifth son of Henry Vansittart (d. 1770),
governor of Bengal, and was born in London on the 29th of April
1766. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he took his degree in
1787, and was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1791. He
began his public career by writing pamphlets in defence of
the administration of William Pitt, especially on its financial
side, and in May 1796 became member of parliament for Hastings,
retaining his seat until July 1802, when he was returned for Old
Sarum. In February 1801 he was sent on a diplomatic errand
to Copenhagen, and shortly after his return was appointed joint
secretary to the treasury, a position which he retained until the
resignation of Addington&rsquo;s ministry in April 1804. Owing to the
influence of his friend, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, he became
secretary for Ireland under Pitt in January 1805, resigning
his office in the following September. With Addington, now
Viscount Sidmouth, he joined the government of Fox and Grenville
as secretary to the treasury in February 1806, leaving
office with Sidmouth just before the fall of the ministry in March
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span>
1807. During these and the next few years Vansittart&rsquo;s reputation
as a financier was gradually rising. In 1809 he proposed
and carried without opposition in the House of Commons
thirty-eight resolutions on financial questions, and only his loyalty
to Sidmouth prevented him from joining the cabinet of Spencer
Perceval as chancellor of the exchequer in October 1809. He
opposed an early resumption of cash payments in 1811, and became
chancellor of the exchequer when the earl of Liverpool succeeded
Perceval in May 1812. Having forsaken Old Sarum, he had
represented Helston from November 1806 to June 1812; and
after being member for East Grinstead for a few weeks, was
returned for Harwich in October 1812.</p>

<p>When Vansittart became chancellor of the exchequer the
country was burdened with heavy taxation and an enormous
debt. Nevertheless, the continuance of the war compelled him
to increase the custom duties and other taxes, and in 1813 he
introduced a complicated scheme for dealing with the sinking
fund. In 1816, after the conclusion of peace, a large decrease in
taxation was generally desired, and there was a loud outcry
when the chancellor proposed only to reduce, not to abolish,
the property or income tax. The abolition of this tax, however,
was carried in parliament, and Vansittart was also obliged to
remit the extra tax on malt, meeting a large deficiency principally
by borrowing. He devoted considerable attention to effecting
real or supposed economies with regard to the national debt.
He carried an elaborate scheme for handing over the payment of
naval and military pensions to contractors, who would be paid
a fixed annual sum for forty-five years; but no one was found
willing to undertake this contract, although a modified plan on
the same lines was afterwards adopted. Vansittart became
very unpopular in the country, and he resigned his office in
December 1822. His system of finance was severely criticized
by Huskisson, Tierney, Brougham, Hume and Ricardo. On
his resignation Liverpool offered Vansittart the post of chancellor
of the duchy of Lancaster. Accepting this offer in February
1823, he was created Baron Bexley in March, and granted a
pension of £3000 a year. He resigned in January 1828. In
the House of Lords Bexley took very little part in public business,
although he introduced the Spitalfields weavers bill in 1823,
and voted for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities in
1824. He took a good deal of interest in the British and Foreign
Bible Mission, the Church Missionary Society and kindred
bodies, and assisted to found King&rsquo;s College, London. He died
at Foot&rsquo;s Cray, Kent, on the 8th of February 1851. His wife,
whom he married in July 1806, was Isabella (d. 1810), daughter
of William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, and as he had no issue
the title became extinct on his death. There are nine volumes
of Vansittart&rsquo;s papers in the British Museum.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Spencer Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1890); S.C.
Buxton, <i>Finance and Politics</i> (London, 1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEXLEY,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> an urban district in the Dartford parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 12 m. S.E. by E. of London by
the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 12,918.
Bexley, which is mentioned in Domesday Book, has had a church
since the 9th century. The present church of St Mary is Early
English and later. With the rental of the manor of Bexley,
William Camden, the antiquary, founded the ancient history
professorship at Oxford. Hall Place, which contains a fine
Jacobean staircase and oak-panelled hall, is said to occupy the
site of the dwelling-place of the Black Prince. The course of
Watling Street may be traced over Bexley Heath, where, too,
there exist deep pits, widening into vaults below, and probably
of British origin.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEY<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (a modern Turk, word, the older form being <i>beg</i>, cf.
Pers. <i>baig</i>), the administrator of a district, now generally an
honorific title throughout the Turkish empire; the granting
of this in Egypt is made by the sultan of Turkey through the
khedive. In Tunis &ldquo;bey&rdquo; has become the hereditary title
of the reigning sovereigns (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEYBAZAR,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> the chief town of a <i>kaza</i> of the Angora vilayet
in Asiatic Turkey, situated on an affluent of the Sakaria (anc.
<i>Sangarius</i>), about 52 m. W. of Angora. It corresponds to the
anc. <i>Lagania</i>, renamed <i>Anastasiopolis</i> under the emperor
Anastasius (491-518), a bishopric by the 5th century. Its well-built
wooden houses cover the slopes of three hills at the mouth
of a gorge filled with fruit gardens and vineyards. The chief
products are rice, cotton and fruits. From Beybazar come the
fine pears sold in Constantinople as &ldquo;Angora pears&rdquo;; its musk-melons
are equally esteemed; its grapes are used only for a
sweetmeat called <i>jevizli-sujuk</i> (&ldquo;nutty fruit sausage&rdquo;). There
are few remains of antiquity apart from numerous rock-cut
chambers lining the banks of the stream. Pop. about 4000 to
5000.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEYLE, MARIE HENRI<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1783-1842), better known by his
<i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Stendhal</span>, French author, was born at Grenoble
on the 23rd of January 1783. With his father, who was an
<i>avocat</i> in the parlement of Grenoble, he was never on good terms,
but his intractable disposition sufficiently explains his unhappy
childhood and youth. Until he was twelve years old he was
educated by a priest, who succeeded in inspiring him with a
lasting hatred of clericalism. He was then sent to the newly
established École Centrale at Grenoble, and in 1799 to Paris
with a letter of introduction to the Daru family, with which the
Beyles were connected. Pierre Daru offered him a place in the
ministry for war, and with the brothers Daru he followed
Napoleon to Italy. Most of his time in Italy was spent at Milan,
a city for which he conceived a lasting attachment. Much of his
<i>Chartreuse de Parme</i> seems to be autobiographical of this part of
his life.</p>

<p>He was a spectator of the battle of Marengo, and afterwards
enlisted in a dragoon regiment. With rapid promotion he
became adjutant to General Michaud; but after the peace of
Amiens in 1802 he returned to study in Paris. There he met an
actress, Mélanie Guilbert, whom he followed to Marseilles. His
father cut off his supplies on hearing of this escapade, and Beyle
was reduced to serving as clerk to a grocer. Mélanie Guilbert,
however, soon abandoned him to marry a Russian, and Beyle
returned to Paris. Through the influence of Daru he obtained
a place in the commissariat, which he filled with some distinction
from 1806 to 1814. Charged with raising a levy in Brunswick
of five million francs, he extracted seven; and during the retreat
from Moscow he discharged his duties with efficiency. On the
fall of Napoleon he refused to accept a place under the new
régime, and retired to Milan, where he met Silvio Pellico, Manzoni,
Lord Byron and other men of note. At Milan he contracted a
<i>liaison</i> with a certain Angelina P., whom he had admired fruitlessly
during his earlier residence in that city. In 1814 he
published, under the pseudonym of Alexandre César Bombet,
his <i>Lettres écrites de Vienne en Aulriche sur le célèbre compositeur,
Joseph Haydn, suivies d&rsquo;une vie de Mozart, et de considérations sur
Métastase et l&rsquo;état présent de la musique en Italie</i>. His letters on
Haydn were borrowed from the <i>Haydini</i> (1812) of Joseph
Carpani, and the section on Mozart had no greater claim to
originality. The book was reprinted (1817) as <i>Vies de Haydn,
Mozart et Métastase</i>. His <i>Histoire de la peinture en Italic</i> (2 vols.,
1817) was originally dedicated to Napoleon.</p>

<p>His friendship with some Italian patriots brought him in 1821
under the notice of the Austrian authorities, and he was exiled
from Milan. In Paris he felt himself a stranger, as he had never
recognized French contemporary art in literature, music or
painting. He frequented, however, many literary salons in
Paris, and found some friends in the &ldquo;<i>idéologues</i>&rdquo; who gathered
round Destutt de Tracy. He was the most closely allied with
Prosper Mérimée, a <i>dilettante</i> and an ironist like himself. He
published at this time his <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;amour</i> (1822), of which only
seventeen copies were sold in eleven years, though it afterwards
became famous, <i>Racine et Shakespeare</i> (1823-1825), <i>Vie de
Rossini</i> (1824), <i>D&rsquo;un nouveau complot centre les industriels</i> (1825),
<i>Promenades dans Rome</i> (1829), and his first novel, <i>Armance, ou
quelques scenes de Paris en 1827</i> (1827). After the Revolution
of 1830 he was appointed consul at Trieste, but the Austrian
government refused to accept him, and he was sent to Civita
Vecchia instead. <i>Le Rouge et le noir, chronique du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>
(2 vols., 1830) appeared in Paris after his departure, but attracted
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
small notice. He had published in 1838 <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;un touriste</i>,
and in 1839 <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i> (2 vols.), which was the last
of his publications, and the first to secure any popular success,
though his earlier writings had been regarded as significant by a
limited public. It was enthusiastically reviewed by Balzac in his
<i>Revue Parisienne</i> (1840). Beyle remained at Civita Vecchia,
discharging his duties as consul perfunctorily and with frequent
intervals of absence until his death, which took place in Paris on
the 23rd of March 1842. He wrote his own epitaph,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> describing
himself as a Milanese.</p>

<p>His posthumous works include a fragmentary <i>Vie de Napoléon</i>
(1875); <i>Mélanges d&rsquo;art et de littérature</i> (1867); <i>Chroniques
italiennes</i> (1885), including &ldquo;<i>L&rsquo;Abbesse de Castro</i>,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>Les Cenci</i>,&rdquo;
&ldquo;<i>Vittoria Accoramboni</i>,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>Vanina Vanini</i>,&rdquo; &ldquo;<i>La Duchesse de
Palliano</i>,&rdquo; some of which has appeared separately; <i>Romans et
nouvelles</i> and <i>Nouvelles inédites</i> (1855); <i>Correspondance</i> (2 vols.,
1855); Lamiel (ed. C. Stryienski, 1889); his <i>Journal 1801-1814</i>
(ed. Stryienski and F. de Nion, 1888), of which the section dealing
with the Russian and German campaigns is unfortunately lost;
<i>Vie de Henri Brulard</i> (1890), a disguised autobiography, chiefly
the history of his numerous love affairs; <i>Lettres intimes</i> (1892);
<i>Lucien Leuwen</i> (ed. J. de Mitty, 1894); <i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;égotisme</i>
(ed. C. Stryienski, 1892), autobiography and unpublished letters.</p>

<p>Stendhal&rsquo;s reputation practically rests on the two novels <i>Le
Rouge et le noir</i> and <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i>. In the former of
these he borrowed his plot from events which had actually
happened some years previously. Julien Sorel in the novel is
tutor in a noble family and seduces his pupil&rsquo;s mother. He
eventually kills her to avenge a letter accusing him to the family
of his betrothed, Mlle de la Mole. Julien is a picture of Beyle as
he imagined himself to be. The <i>Chartreuse de Parme</i> has less
unity of purpose than <i>Le Rouge et le noir</i>. For its setting the
author drew largely on his own experiences. Fabrice&rsquo;s experiences
at Waterloo are his own in the Italian campaign, and
the countess Pietranera is his Milanese Angelina. But of the two
novels it is more picturesque and has been more popular. Stendhal&rsquo;s
real vogue dates from the early sixties, but his importance
is essentially literary. In spite of his egotism and the limitations
of his ideas, his acute analysis of the motives of his personages
has appealed to successive generations of writers, and a great
part of the development of the French novel must be traced to
him. Brunetière has pointed out (<i>Manual of French Lit.</i>, Eng.
trans., 1898) that Stendhal supplied the Romanticists with the
notion of the interchange of the methods and effects of poetry,
painting and music, and that in his worship of Napoleon he
agreed with their glorification of individual energy. Stendhal,
however, thoroughly disliked the Romanticists, though Sainte-Beuve
acknowledged (<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. ix.) that his
books gave ideas. Taine (<i>Essais de critique et d&rsquo;histoire</i>, 1857)
found in him a great psychologist; Zola (<i>Romanciers naturalistes</i>,
1881) actually claimed him as the father of the naturalist school;
and Paul Bourget (<i>Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i>, 1883)
cited <i>Le Rouge et le noir</i> as one of the classic novels of analysis.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The 1846 edition of <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i> contains a prefatory
notice by R. Colomb, and a reprint of Balzac&rsquo;s article. In addition
to the authorities already mentioned see the essay on Beyle (1850)
by Prosper Mérimée; A.A. Paton, <i>Henry Beyle, a Critical and
Biographical Study</i> (1874); Adolphe Paupe, <i>Histoire des &oelig;uvres de
Stendhal</i> (1903); A. Chuquet, <i>Stendhal-Beyle</i> (1902); a review by
R. Doumic (<i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, February 1902), deprecating the
excessive attention paid to Beyle&rsquo;s writings; and Edouard Rod,
<i>Stendhal</i> (1892) in the &ldquo;Grands écrivains français&rdquo; series. See also
<i>Correspondance de Stendhal, 1800-1842</i>, with preface by M. Barrés
(Paris, 1908).</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Quì giace Arrigo Beyle Milanese; visse, scrisse, amò.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1815-1896), German
geologist, was born at Berlin on the 31st of August 1815, and
educated at the university in that city, and afterwards at Bonn,
where he studied under Goldfuss and Nöggerath. He obtained
his degree of Ph.D. in 1837 at Berlin, and was subsequently
employed in the mineralogical museum of the university,
becoming director of the palaeontological collection in 1857,
and director of the museum in 1875. He was one of the founders
of the German Geological Society in 1848. He early recognized
the value of palaeontology in stratigraphical work; and he
made important researches in the Rhenish mountains, in the
Harz and Alpine districts. In later years he gave special
attention to the Tertiary strata, including the Brown Coal of
North Germany. In 1854 he proposed the term Oligocene for
certain Tertiary strata intermediate between the Eocene and
Miocene; and the term is now generally adopted. In 1865
he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology in the
Berlin University, where he was eminently successful as a
teacher; and when the Prussian Geological Survey was instituted
in 1873 he was appointed co-director with Wilhelm Hauchecorne
(1828-1900). He published <i>Beiträgezur Kenntniss der Versteinerungen
des rheinischen Übergangs-gebirges</i> (1837); <i>Über einige
böhmische Trilobiten</i> (1845); <i>Die Conchylien des norddeutschen
Tertiärgebirges</i> (1853-1857). He died on the 9th of July
1896.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1823-1900), German Protestant
divine, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 5th of September
1823. He studied theology at Bonn and Berlin (1840-1844),
and in 1856 was appointed court-preacher at Karlsruhe. In
1860, he moved to Halle as professor ordinarius of practical
theology. A theologian of the mediating school, he became leader
of the <i>Mittelpartei</i>, and with Albrecht Wolters founded as its
organ the <i>Deutschevangelische Blätter</i>. As a representative of this
party, he took a prominent part in the general synods of 1875
and 1879. His championship of the rights of the laity and his
belief in the autonomy of the church led him to advocate the
separation of church and state. He died at Halle on the 25th of
November 1900. Among his numerous works are <i>Die Christologie
des Neuen Testaments</i> (1866), <i>Der Altkatholicismus</i> (three editions,
1882-1883), <i>Leben Jesu</i> (2 vols., 1885; 3rd ed., 1893), <i>Neutestamentliche
Theologie</i> (2 vols., 1891-1892; 2nd ed., 1896), <i>Christenlehre
auf Grund des kleinen luth. Katechismus</i> (1900), and an
autobiography <i>Aus meinem Leben</i> (2 parts, 1896-1898).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See P. Schaff, <i>Living Divines</i> (1887); Lichtenberger, <i>Hist. Germ.
Theol.</i> (1889); Calwer-Zeller, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZA<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (<span class="sc">de Bèsze</span>), <b>THEODORE</b> (1519-1605), French theologian,
son of <i>bailli</i> Pierre de Bèsze, was born at Vezelai, Burgundy,
on the 24th of June 1519. Of good descent, his parents were
known for generous piety. He owed his education to an uncle,
Nicolas de Bèsze, counsellor of the Paris parlement, who placed
him (1529) under Melchior Wolmar at Orleans, and later at
Bourges. Wolmar, who had taught Greek to Calvin, grounded
Beza in Scripture from a Protestant standpoint; after his
return to Germany (1534) Beza studied law at Orleans (May 1535
to August 1539), beginning practice in Paris (1539) as law licentiate.
To this period belong his exercises in Latin verse, in the
loose taste of the day, foolishly published by him as <i>Juvenilia</i>
in 1548. Though not in orders, he held two benefices. A severe
illness wrought a change; he married his mistress, Claude
Desnoz, and joined the church of Calvin at Geneva (October
1548). In November 1549 he was appointed Greek professor
at Lausanne, where he acted as Calvin&rsquo;s adjutant in various
publications, including his defence of the burning of Servetus,
<i>De Haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis</i> (1554). In 1558 he
became professor in the Geneva academy, where his career was
brilliant. His conspicuous ability was shown in the abortive
Colloquy of Poissy (1561). On Calvin&rsquo;s death (1564) he became
his biographer and administrative successor. As a historian,
Beza, by his chronological inexactitude, has been the source
of serious mistakes; as an administrator, he softened the rigour
of Calvin. His editions and Latin versions of the New Testament
had a marked influence on the English versions of Geneva (1557
and 1560) and London (1611). The famous codex D. was presented
by him (1581) to Cambridge University, with a characteristically
dubious account of the history of the manuscript.
His works are very numerous, but of little moment, except those
already mentioned. He resigned his offices in 1600, and died
on the 13th of October 1605. He had taken a second wife (1588),
Catherine del Piano, a widow, but left no issue. He was not the
author of the <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i> (1580), sometimes ascribed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
to him; nor, probably, of the vulgar skit published under the
name of Benedict Panavantius (1551).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Laingaeus, <i>De Vita et Moribus</i> (1585, calumnious); Antoine la Faye,
<i>De Vita et Obitu</i> (1606, eulogistic); Schlosser, <i>Leben</i> (1806); Baum,
<i>Th. Beza</i>, portrait (1843-1851); Heppe, <i>Leben</i> (1861).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZANT<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Byzant</span> (from Byzantium, the modern Constantinople),
originally a Byzantine gold coin which had a wide circulation
throughout Europe up to about 1250. Its average value
was about nine shillings. Bezants were also issued in Flanders
and Spain. Silver bezants, in value from one to two shillings,
were in circulation in England in the 13th and 14th centuries.
In Wycliffe&rsquo;s translation of the Bible he uses the word for a
&ldquo;talent&rdquo; (<i>e.g.</i> in Luke xv. 8). In heraldry, bezants are represented
by gold circles on the shield, and were introduced by the crusaders.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZANTÉE,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> in architecture, a name given to an ornamented
moulding much used in the Norman period, resembling the coins
(bezants) struck in Byzantium.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1747-1799),
grand chancellor of Russia, was born at Gluchova
on the 14th of March 1747, and educated at home and in the
clerical academy at Kiev. He entered the public service as a
clerk in the office of Count P.A. Rumyantsev, then governor-general
of Little Russia, whom he accompanied to the Turkish
War in 1768. He was present at the engagements of Larga and
Kaluga, and at the storming of Silistria. On the conclusion of the
peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) the field marshal recommended
him to Catharine II., and she appointed him in 1775 her
petition-secretary. He thus had the opportunity of impressing
the empress with his brilliant gifts, the most remarkable of
which were exquisite manners, a marvellous memory and a
clear and pregnant style. At the same time he set to work to
acquire the principal European languages, especially French,
of which he became a master. It was at this time that he wrote
his historical sketches of the Tatar wars and of Little Russia.</p>

<p>His activity was prodigious, and Catharine called him her
factotum. In 1780 he accompanied her on her journey through
White Russia, meeting the emperor Joseph, who urged him to
study diplomacy. On his return from a delicate mission to Copenhagen,
he presented to the empress &ldquo;a memorial on political
affairs&rdquo; which comprised the first plan of a partition of Turkey
between Russia and Austria. This document was transmitted
almost word for word to Vienna as the Russian proposals.
He followed this up by <i>Epitomised Historical Information
concerning Moldavia</i>. For these two state papers he was rewarded
with the posts of &ldquo;plenipotentiary for all negotiations&rdquo; in the
foreign office and postmaster-general. From this time he was
inseparably associated with Catharine in all important diplomatic
affairs, though officially he was the subordinate of the
vice-chancellor, Count Alexander Osterman. He wrote all
the most important despatches to the Russian ministers abroad,
concluded and subscribed all treaties, and performed all the
functions of a secretary of state. He identified himself
entirely with Catharine&rsquo;s political ideas, even with that of
re-establishing the Greek empire under her grandson Constantine.
The empress, as usual, richly rewarded her <i>comes</i> with pensions
and principalities. In 1786 he was promoted to the senate,
and it was through him that the empress communicated her
will to that august state-decoration. In 1787 he accompanied
Catharine on her triumphal progress through South Russia
in the capacity of minister of foreign affairs. At Kaniev he
conducted the negotiations with the Polish king, Stanislaus II.,
and at Novuiya Kaidaniya he was in the empress&rsquo;s carriage
when she received Joseph II.</p>

<p>The second Turkish War (1787-92) and the war with Gustavus
III. (1788-90) heaped fresh burdens on his already heavily
laden shoulders, and he suffered from the intrigues of his
numerous jealous rivals, including the empress&rsquo;s latest favourite,
A.M. Mamonov. All his efforts were directed towards the
conclusion of the two oppressive wars by an honourable peace.
The pause of Verelå with Gustavus III. (14th of August 1790)
was on the terms dictated by him. On the sudden death of
Potemkin he was despatched to Jassy to prevent the peace congress
there from breaking up, and succeeded, in the face of all
but insuperable difficulties, in concluding a treaty exceedingly
advantageous to Russia (9th of January 1792). For this service
he received the thanks of the empress, the ribbon of St Andrew
and 50,000 roubles. On his return from Jassy, however, he found
his confidential post of secretary of petitions occupied by the
empress&rsquo;s last favourite, P.A. Zubov. He complained of this
&ldquo;diminution of his dignity&rdquo; to the empress in a private
memorial in the course of 1793. The empress reassured him
by fresh honours and distinctions on the occasion of the solemn
celebration of the peace of Jassy (2nd of September 1793),
when she publicly presented him with a golden olive-branch
encrusted with brilliants. Subsequently Catharine reconciled
him with Zubov, and he resumed the conduct of foreign affairs.
He contributed more than any other man to bring about the
downfall and the third partition of Poland, for which he was
magnificently recompensed. But diplomacy by no means exhausted
Bezborodko&rsquo;s capacity for work. He had a large share
in the internal administration also. He reformed the post-office,
improved the banking system of Russia, regulated the finances,
constructed roads, and united the Uniate and Orthodox churches.</p>

<p>On the death of Catharine, the emperor Paul entrusted
Bezborodko with the examination of the late empress&rsquo;s private
papers, and shortly afterwards made him a prince of the Russian
empire, with a correspondingly splendid apanage. On the
retirement of Osterman he received the highest dignity in the
Russian empire&mdash;that of imperial chancellor. Bezborodko
was the only Russian minister who retained the favour of Paul
to the last. During the last two years of his life the control of
Russia&rsquo;s diplomacy was entirely in his hands. His programme
at this period was peace with all the European powers,
revolutionary France included. But the emperor&rsquo;s growing aversion
from this pacific policy induced the astute old minister to
attempt to &ldquo;seek safety in moral and physical repose.&rdquo; Paul,
however, refused to accept his resignation and would have sent
him abroad for the benefit of his health, had not a sudden stroke
of paralysis prevented Bezborodko from taking advantage of
his master&rsquo;s kindness. He died at St Petersburg on the
6th of April 1799. In private life Bezborodko was a typical
Catharinian, corrupt, licentious, conscienceless and self-seeking.
But he was infinitely generous and affectionate, and spent his
enormous fortune liberally. His banquets were magnificent,
his collections of pictures and statues unique in Europe. He
was the best friend of his innumerable poor relatives, and the
Maecenas of all the struggling authors of his day. Sycophantic
he might have been, but he was neither ungrateful nor vindictive.
His patriotism is as indisputable as his genius.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Sbornik</i> (Collections) of the <i>Imperial Russian Historical
Society</i> (Fr. and Russ.), vols. 60-100 (St Petersburg, 1870-1904);
Nikolai Ivanovich Grigorovich, <i>The Chancellor A.A. Bezborodko
in Connexion with the Events of His Time</i> (Rus., St Petersburg,
1879-1881).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZEL<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (from an O. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. <i>biseau</i>, <i>basile</i>,
possibly connected with Lat. <i>bis</i>, twice), a sloping edge, as of
a cutting tool, also known as basil. In jewelry, the term is used
for the oblique sides or faces of a gem; the rim which secures
the crystal of a watch in position or a jewel in its setting, and
particularly the enlarged part of a ring on which the device
is engraved (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ring</a></span>).</p>

<p>BÉZIERS, a town of southern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Hérault, 47 m. S.W.
of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906) 46,262. Béziers is situated
in a wine-growing district on a hill on the left bank of the river
Orb, which is joined at this point by the Canal du Midi. The
Allées Paul Riquet, named after the creator of the canal, occupy
the centre of Béziers and divide the old town with its
maze of narrow and irregular streets from the new quarter to
the east. They form a long and shady promenade, terminating
at one end in the Place de la République and the theatre, the
front of which is decorated with bas-reliefs by David d&rsquo;Angers,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
and at the other in a beautiful park, the Plateau des Poétes.
The most interesting portion of the town is the extreme west
where the old ramparts overlook the Orb. Above them towers
St Nazaire, the finest of the churches of Béziers; it dates from
the 12th to the 14th centuries and is a good specimen of the
ecclesiastical fortification common in southern France. Its
chief artistic features are the rose window in the western façade,
and the stained glass and curious iron grilles of the choir-windows,
which belong to the 14th century. Adjoining the south transept
there are Gothic cloisters of the 14th century. The Orb is
crossed by four bridges, the railway bridge, an ancient bridge
of the 13th or 14th century, a modern bridge and the fine aqueduct
by which the Canal du Midi is carried over the river. About half
a mile to the south-west of the town are the locks of Fonserannes,
in which in 330 yds. the water of the canal descends 80 ft.
to reach the level of the Orb. There are remains of a Roman
arena which have been built into the houses of the rue St Jacques.
Béziers is seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, communal colleges and several learned societies.
It is an agricultural market and carries on an active trade in
wine, brandy, fruit, leather and sulphur. Its industries are
chiefly connected with the wine trade (cask and cork making, &amp;c.)
and there are important distilleries. It also has iron-works
and tanneries.</p>

<p>The Romans established a colony at Béziers, and it was the
headquarters of the seventh legion, under the title of <i>Baeterrae
Septimanorum</i>. The present name occurs in the form <i>Besara</i>
as early as Festus Avienus (later 4th century). The town was
completely destroyed in 1209 by the forces of Simon de Montfort
in the crusade against the Albigenses, on which occasion 20,000
persons were massacred. The walls were rebuilt in 1289; but
the town again suffered severely in the civil and religious wars of
the 16th century, and all its fortifications were destroyed in 1632.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÉZIQUE<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (probably from Span. <i>besico</i>, little kiss, in allusion to
the meeting of the queen and knave, an important feature in
the game), a game at cards played with two similar packs
from which the twos, threes, fours, fives and sixes have been
rejected, shuffled together and used as one. It is modelled on
a group of card games which possess many features in common;
the oldest of these is <i>mariage</i>, then follow <i>brusquembille,
l&rsquo;homme de brou, briscan</i> or <i>brisque</i>, and <i>cinq-cents</i>.
Bézique (also called <i>besi</i> and <i>besigue</i>) is, in fact,
<i>brisque</i> played with a double pack, and with certain modifications
rendered necessary by the introduction of additional cards.  The cards
rank as follows:&mdash;Ace, ten, king, queen, knave, nine, eight, seven.</p>

<p>The usual game is for two players. The players cut for deal,
and the higher bézique card deals. The objects of the play are:
(1) to promote in the hand various combinations of cards, which,
when declared, entitle the holder to certain scores;
(2) to win aces and tens, known as &ldquo;brisques&rdquo;;
(3) to win the so-called last trick.
The dealer deals eight cards to each, first three, then two, and again
three. The top card of those remaining (called the &ldquo;stock&rdquo;) is turned
up for trumps. As sometimes played, the first marriage, or the first
sequence, decides the trump suit; there is then no score for the seven
of trumps (see below). The stock is placed face downwards between the
players and slightly spread. The non-dealer leads any card, and the
dealer plays to it, but need not follow suit, nor win the trick. If he
wins the trick by playing a higher card of the same suit led, or a
trump, the lead falls to him. In case of ties the leader wins. Whoever
wins the trick leads to the next; but before playing again each
player takes a card from the stock and adds it to his hand, the
winner of the trick taking the top card. This alternate playing
and drawing a card continues until the stock (including the trump
card or card exchanged for it, which is taken up last) is exhausted.
The tricks remain face upwards on the table, but must not be
searched during the play of the hand.</p>

<p>The scores are shown as follows:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p class="center pt1"><i>Table of Bézique Scores.</i></p>

<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Seven of trumps</i>, turned up, dealer marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Seven of trumps</i>, declared (see below) or exchanged, player marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Marriage</i> (king and queen of any suit) declared</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Royal marriage</i> (king and queen of trumps) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Bézique</i> (queen of spades and knave of diamonds) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Double bézique</i> (all the four bézique cards) declared</td> <td class="tcr">500</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four aces</i> (any four, whether duplicates or not) declared</td> <td class="tcr">100</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four kings</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">80</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four queens</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">60</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four knaves</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Sequence</i> (ace, ten, king, queen, knave of trumps) declared</td> <td class="tcr">250</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Aces and tens</i>, in tricks, the winner for each one marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Last trick</i> of all (as sometimes <i>played</i>, the last
    trick before the stock<br /> &emsp; is exhausted) the winner marks</td> <td class="tcrb">10</td></tr>
</table>
</div>

<p>A &ldquo;declaration&rdquo; can only be made by the winner of a trick
immediately after he has won it, and before he draws from the
stock. It is effected by placing the declared cards (one of which
at least must not have been declared before) face upwards
on the table, where they are left, unless they are played, as they
may be. A player is not bound to declare. A card led or played
cannot be declared. More than one declaration may be made
at a time, provided no card of one combination forms part of
another that is declared with it. Thus four knaves and a marriage
may be declared at the same time; but a player cannot
declare king and queen of spades and knave of diamonds together
to score marriage and bézique. He must first declare one
combination, say bézique; and when he wins another trick he
can score marriage by declaring the king. A declaration cannot
be made of cards that have already all been declared. Thus,
if four knaves (one being a bézique knave) and four queens
(one being a bézique queen) have been declared, the knave
and queen already declared cannot be declared again as bézique.
To score all the combinations with these cards, after the knaves
are declared and another trick won, bézique must next be made,
after which, on winning another trick, the three queens can be
added and four queens scored. Lastly, a card once declared
can only be used again in declaring in combinations of a different
class. For example: the bézique queen can be declared in
bézique, marriage and four queens; but having once been declared
in single bézique, she cannot form part of another single
bézique. Two declarations may, in a sense, be made to a trick,
but only one can be scored at the time. Thus with four kings
declared, including the king of spades, bézique can be declared
and scored, but the spade marriage cannot be scored till the
holder wins another trick. The correct formula is &ldquo;Forty, and
20 to score.&rdquo; The seven of trumps may be either declared or
exchanged for the turn-up after winning a trick, and before
drawing. When exchanged, the turn-up is taken into the
player&rsquo;s hand, and the seven put in its place. The second
seven can, of course, be declared. A seven when declared
is not left on the table, but is simply shown.</p>

<p>The winner of the last trick can declare anything hitherto
undeclared in his hand. After this all declarations cease. The
winner of the last trick takes the last card of the stock, and the
loser the turn-up card (or seven exchanged for it). All cards on
the table, that have been declared and not played, are taken up
by their owners. The last eight tricks are then played, but the
second player must follow suit if able, and must win the trick if
able. Finally, each player counts his tricks for the aces and tens
they may contain, unless (as is often done) they are scored at the
time. If a player revokes in the last eight tricks, or does not
win the card led, if able, the last eight tricks belong to his
adversary. The deal then passes on alternately until the
game (1000) is won. If the loser does not make 500, his opponent
counts a double game, or double points, according as they
have agreed. The score is best kept by means of a special
bézique-marker.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Three- and Four-Handed Bézique.</i>&mdash;When three play, three packs
are used together. All play against each other. The player on the left
of the dealer is first dealt to and has the first lead. The rotation
of dealing goes to the left. If double bézique has been scored, and
one pair has been played, a second double bézique may be made with
the third pair and the pair on the table. Triple bézique scores 1500.
All the cards of the triple bézique must be on the table at the same
time and unplayed to a trick. All may be declared together, or a
double bézique may be added to a single one, or a third bézique may
be added to a double bézique already declared. The game is 2000
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
up. Sometimes the three players cut, the one who cuts the highest
card plays against the other two in consultation, and continues to
do so till the allies win a game, when the two cut as before to see
who shall be the single player. Only two packs are then used.</p>

<p>When four play four packs are used. The players may then score
independently or may play as partners. A second double bézique
or triple bézique may be scored as before; to form them the béziques
may be declared from the hand of either partner. A player may
declare when he or his partner takes a trick. In playing the last
eight tricks, the winner of the last trick and the adversary to his
left play their cards against each other, and then the other two
similarly play theirs. Four people may also play in pairs by consultation,
only two packs being then required.</p>

<p><i>Polish Bézique</i> (also called &ldquo;Open Bézique&rdquo; and &ldquo;Fildniski&rdquo;)
differs from ordinary bézique in the following particulars. The game
is not less than 2000 up. Whenever a scoring card is played, the
winner of the trick places it face upwards in front of him (the same
with both cards if two scoring cards are played to a trick), forming
rows of aces, kings, queens, knaves and trump tens (called <i>open</i>
cards). Cards of the same denomination are placed overlapping
one another lengthwise from the player towards his adversary to
economise space. When a scoring card is placed among the open
cards, all the sevens, eights, nines, and plain suit tens in the
tricks are turned down and put on one side. Open cards cannot be
played a second time, and can only be used in declaring. Whether so used
or not they remain face upwards on the table until the end of the
hand, including the last eight tricks. A player can declare after
winning a trick and before drawing again, when the trick won contains
a card or cards, which added to his open cards complete any
combination that scores. Every declaration must include a card
played to the trick last won. Aces and tens must be scored as soon
as won, and not at the end of the hand. The seven of trumps can be
exchanged by the winner of the trick containing it; and if the turn-up
card is one that can be used in declaring, it becomes an open card
when exchanged. The seven of trumps when not exchanged is scored
for by the player winning the trick containing it.</p>

<p>Compound declarations are allowed, <i>i.e</i>. cards added to the open
cards can at once be used, without waiting to win another trick, in
as many combinations of different classes as they will form with the
winner&rsquo;s open cards. For example: A has three open kings, and
he wins a trick containing a king. Before drawing again he places
the fourth king with the other three, and scores 80 for kings. This
is a simple declaration. But suppose the card led was the queen
of trumps, and A wins it with the king, and he has the following
open cards&mdash;three kings, three queens, and ace, ten, knave of trumps.
He at once declares royal marriage (40); four kings (80); four
queens (60); and sequence (250); and scores in all, 430. Again:
ace of spades is turned up, and ace of hearts is led. The second
player has two open aces, and wins the ace of hearts with the seven of
trumps and exchanges. He scores for the exchange, 10; for the
ace of hearts, 10; for the ace of spades, 10; and adds the aces to
his open cards, and scores 100 for aces; in all, 130. If a declaration
or part of a compound declaration is omitted, and the winner of the
trick draws again, he cannot amend his score.</p>

<p>The ordinary rule holds that a second declaration cannot be made
of a card already declared in the same class. Thus: a queen once
married, cannot be married again; a fifth king added to four already
declared does not entitle to another score for kings. The fundamental
point to be borne in mind is, that no declaration can be
effected by means of cards held in the hand. Thus: A having
three open queens and a queen in hand cannot add it to his
open cards. He must win another trick containing a queen, when
he can declare queens. Declarations continue during the play of
the last eight tricks just the same as during the play of the other
cards.</p>

<p><i>Rubicon Bézique.</i>&mdash;Four packs are used. Nine cards are dealt by
three to each player. The rules of Polish bézique hold good in regard
to dealing, leading, playing to lead, drawing and declaring; but a
player who receives a hand containing no picture-card (king, queen,
or knave) scores 50 for <i>carte blanche</i>, which he shows. If he
does not draw a picture-card, he can again score for <i>carte blanche</i>. The
trump suit is decided by the first sequence or marriage declared.
As four packs are used, triple and quadruple bézique may be made.
Triple bézique counts 1500, quadruple 4500. Tricks are left face
upwards till a <i>brisque</i> (ace or ten) is played, when the winner takes
all the played cards and puts them in a heap; their only value is the
value of the <i>brisques</i>, which are only counted when the scores are very
close; then they are used to decide the game. They may be counted
during the play, provided there are not more than twelve cards in
the stock. Declarations can only be made after winning a trick and
before drawing. In addition to the ordinary bézique declarations,
sequence, counting 150, can be made in plain suits. Declared cards,
except <i>carte blanche</i>, remain on the table. If the holder of <i>carte
blanche</i> hold four aces and wins the first trick, he can declare his
aces. With the exceptions already made, the scores for declarations
are the same as at ordinary bézique. Declaration is not compulsory.
Cards led or played cannot be declared. There are three classes of
declarations, their order being (1) marriage and sequence, (2) bézique,
(3) fours. A card once declared can be used for a second declaration,
but only in an equal or superior class. If a card of a declared combination
be played to a trick, another card of the same rank may
be used to form a second similar combination; <i>e.g.</i> if aces be declared
and one of them be played by the playing of a fifth ace, aces can be
declared again. If a player has a chance of a double declaration he
can declare both, but can only score one at the time. As in other
variations of bézique he announces, say, &ldquo;forty, and twenty to
score.&rdquo; He should repeat, &ldquo;Twenty to score,&rdquo; after every trick,
until he can legally score it, but if he plays a card of the combination
he cannot score the points. To the last nine tricks, after the stock
is exhausted, the second player must follow suit and win the trick by
trumping or over-playing, if he can. The winner of the odd trick
scores 50. The game consists of one deal. In reckoning the score all
fractions of 100 are neglected; the winner scores 500 for game in
addition to the difference between his own points and his opponent&rsquo;s.
The loser is &ldquo;rubiconed&rdquo; if he does not score 1000 points, in which
case the winner adds the loser&rsquo;s points to his own, takes 300 for
<i>brisques</i> and 1000 for game, but the loser may claim his <i>brisques</i> to
save a rubicon, though they are not reckoned among his points.
If a rubiconed player has scored less than 100 the opponent counts
the score as 100.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BEZWADA,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Kistna district of
Madras, on the left bank of the river Kistna, at the head of its
delta. Pop. (1901) 24,224. Here are the headquarters of the
Kistna canal system, which irrigates more than 500,000 acres,
and also provides navigation throughout the delta. The anicut
or dam at Bezwada, begun in 1852, consists of a mass of rubble,
fronted with masonry, 1240 yds. long. Here also is the central
junction of the East Coast railway from Madras to Calcutta,
267 m. from Madras, where one branch line comes down from
the Warangal coalfield in the Nizam&rsquo;s Dominions, and another
from Bellary on the Southern Mahratta line. Ancient cuttings
on the hills west of Bezwada have been held by some to mark
the site of a Buddhist monastery; by others they are considered
to have been quarries. At Undavalle to the south are some
noted cave-shrines.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHAGALPUR,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> a city of British India, in the Behar province
of Bengal, which gives its name to a district and to a division;
situated on the right bank of the Ganges, 265 m. from Calcutta.
It is a station on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 75,760,
showing an increase of 9% in the decade. The chief educational
institution is the Tejnarayan Jubilee college (1887), supported
almost entirely by fees. Adjacent to the town are the two
Augustus Cleveland monuments, one erected by government,
and the other by the Hindus, to the memory of the civilian, who,
as collector of Bhagalpur at the end of the 18th century, &ldquo;by
conciliation, confidence and benevolence, attempted and
accomplished the entire subjection of the lawless and savage
inhabitants of the Jungleterry of Rajmahal.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhagalpur</span> stretches across both banks of
the Ganges. It has an area of 4226 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 2,088,953, showing an increase of 3% in the
decade. Bhagalpur is a long and narrow district, divided into
two unequal parts by the river Ganges. In the southern portion
of the district the scenery in parts of the hill-ranges and the
highlands which connect them is very beautiful. The hills are
of primary formation, with fine masses of contorted gneiss. The
ground is broken up into picturesque gorges and deep ravines,
and the whole is covered with fine forest trees and a rich undergrowth.
Within this portion also lie the lowlands of Bhagalpur,
fertile, well planted, well watered, and highly cultivated. The
country north of the Ganges is level, but beautifully diversified
with trees and verdure. Three fine rivers flow through the
district-the Ganges, Kusi and Ghagri. The Ganges runs a
course of 60 m. through Bhagalpur, is navigable all the year
round, and has an average width of 3 m. The Kusi rises
in the Himalayas and falls into the Ganges near Colgong within
Bhagalpur. It is a fine stream, navigable up to the foot of the
hills, and receives the Ghagri 8 m. above its debouchure.</p>

<p>In the early days of British administration the hill people,
the Nats and Santals, gave much trouble. They were the
original inhabitants of the country whom the Aryan conquerors
had driven back into the barren hills and unhealthy forests.
This they avenged from generation to generation by plundering
and ravaging the plains. The efforts to subdue or restrain these
marauders proved fruitless, till Augustus Cleveland won them by
mild measures, and successfully made over the protection of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
district to the very hill people who a few years before had been
its scourge. Rice, wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, various kinds
of millet, pulses, oil-seeds, tobacco, cotton, indigo, opium, flax
and hemp and sugar-cane, are the principal agricultural products
of Bhagalpur district. The jungles afford good pasturage in the
hot weather, and abound in lac, silk cocoons, catechu, resin and
the <i>mahuá</i> fruit, which is both used as fruit and for the manufacture
of spirits. Lead ores (chiefly argentiferous galena) and
building stone are found, and iron ore is distributed over the
hilly country. Attempts made to work the galena in 1878-79
and 1900 were abandoned, and the iron ore is little worked.
Gold is washed from the river sand in small particles.</p>

<p>The climate of Bhagalpur partakes of the character both of the
deltaic districts of Bengal and of the districts of Behar, between
which it is situated. The hot season sets in about the end of
March, and continues till the beginning of June, the temperature
at this time rising as high as 110° Fahr. The rains usually begin at
the end of June and last till the middle of September; average
annual rainfall, 55 in. The cold season commences at the beginning
of November and lasts till March. During December and
January the temperature falls as low as 41° Fahr. The average
annual temperature is 78°. Bhagalpur formed a part of the ancient
Sanskrit kingdom of Anga. In later times it was included in the
powerful Hindu kingdom of Magadha or Behar, and in the 7th
century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it was an independent state, with the city of Champa
for its capital. It afterwards formed a part of the Mahommedan
kingdom of Gaur, and was subsequently subjugated by Akbar,
who declared it to be a part of the Delhi empire. Bhagalpur
passed to the East India Company by the grant of the emperor
Shah Alam in 1765.</p>

<p>There are indigo factories, and other industries include the
weaving of tussur silk and the making of coarse glass. A large
trade is carried on by rail and river with Lower Bengal. The
tract south of the Ganges is traversed by the loop-line of the
East Indian railway, and there is also a railway across the
northern tract.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">Division of Bhagalpur</span> stretches across the Ganges
from the Nepal frontier to the hills of Chota Nagpur. It comprises
the five districts of Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Darjeeling,
and the Santal Parganas. The total area is 19,776
sq. m.; and in 1901 the population was 8,091,405.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHAMO,<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> a town and district of Burma. The town was in
ancient times the capital of the Shan state of Manmaw, later the
seat of a Burmese governor. It is now the headquarters of a
district in the Mandalay division of Upper Burma (Chinese
frontier). It is situated about 300 m. up the river from Mandalay.
It is the highest station on the Irrawaddy held by British troops,
and the nearest point on the river to the Chinese frontier. In
1901 it contained 10,734 inhabitants, of whom a considerable
number were Chinamen, natives of India and Shan-Chinese.
It stretches for a distance of nearly 4 m. along the Irrawaddy
bank in a series of small villages, transformed into quarters of the
town, but the town proper is confined mainly to the one high
ridge of land running at right angles to the river. The surface
of the ground is much cut up by ravines which fill and dry up
according to the rise and fall of the river. When the Irrawaddy
is at its height the lower portion of the town is flooded, and the
country all round is a sheet of water, but usually for no very
long time. Here or hereabouts has long been the terminus of
a great deal of the land commerce from China. For years
after its annexation by Great Britain in 1885 the trade routes
were unsafe owing to attacks from Kachins. These have now
ceased, and the roads, which were mere bridle-tracks, have
been greatly improved. The two chief are the so-called Santa
and Ponlaing route, through Manyün (Manwaing) and Nantien
to Momein, and the southern or Sawadi route by way of Namhkam.
Cart roads are now being constructed on both routes, and
that south of the Taiping river could easily be continued through
Manyün to Momein if the Chinese should be induced to co-operate.
There is a fairly large military garrison in Bhamo distributed
between two forts to the north and east of the town. There are
in general stationed here a native regiment, two sections of
a battery and the wing of a European regiment. Besides the
barracks there are a circuit house, dâk bungalow, courthouse,
and post and telegraph offices. There is a branch railway from
Myitkyina to Katha, whence there is daily communication by
river to Bhamo.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhamo</span> lies wholly in the basin of the Irrawaddy,
which, as well as its tributaries, runs through the heart of
it. On the east of the river is the Shan plateau, running almost
due north and south. West of the Irrawaddy there is a regular
series of ranges, enclosing the basins of the Kaukkwe, Mosit,
Indaw and other streams, down which much timber is floated.
Beyond the Kaukkwe there is a ridge of hills, which starts at
Leka, near Mogaung, and diverges to the south, the eastern
ridge dividing the Kaukkwe from the Mosit, and the western
forming the eastern watershed of the Nam Yin and running
south into Katha. It is an offshoot from the latter of these
ridges that forms the third defile of the Irrawaddy between
Bhamo and Sinbo. The district covers an area of 4146 sq. m., and
the population in 1901 was 79,515. It is mainly composed of
Shan-Burmese and Kachins. The Shan-Burmese inhabit the
valleys and alluvial plains on each side of the river. The Kachins,
who probably came from the sub-regions of the Himalayas,
occupy the hills throughout the district. There are also settlements
of Shans, Shan-Chinese, Chinese and Assamese. There are
extensive fisheries in the Shwegu and Mo-hnyin circles, and in the
Indaw, a chain of lakes just behind the Mosit, opposite Shwegu.
The district abounds in rich teak forests, and there are reserves
representing 60,000 acres of teak plantation. The whole of the
country along the banks of the Irrawaddy, the Mole, Taiping
and Kaukkwe, is generally in a water-logged condition during
the rains. The climate in the district is therefore decidedly
malarious, especially at the beginning and end of the rains. From
November to March there is very bracing cold weather. The
highest temperatures range a few degrees over 100° F. up to 106°,
and the lowest a few degrees under 40°. The average maximum
for the year is about 87°, the average minimum about 62°. The
rainfall averages 72 in. a year.</p>
<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHANDARA,<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the
Nagpur division of the Central Provinces. The town (pop. in
1901, 14,023) is situated on the left bank of the river Wainganga,
7 m. from a station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway. It has
considerable manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-ware, and
a first-grade middle school, with a library.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhandara</span> has an area of 3965 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 663,062, showing a decrease of 11%
since 1891 compared with an increase of 8% in the preceding
decade. The district is bounded on the N., N.E. and E. by
lofty hills, inhabited by Gonds and other aboriginal tribes,
while the W. and N.W. are comparatively open. Small branches
of the Satpura range make their way into the interior of the
district. The Ambagarh or Sendurjhari hills, which skirt the
south of the Chandpur pargana, have an average height of
between 300 and 400 ft. above the level of the plain. The
other elevated tracts are the Balahi hills, the Kanheri hills and
the Nawegaon hills. The Wainganga is the principal river in
the district, and the only stream that does not dry up in the hot
weather,&mdash;its affluents within the district being the Bawanthari,
Bagh, Kanhan and Chulban. There are 3648 small lakes and
tanks in Bhandara district, whence it is called the &ldquo;lake region
of Nagpur&rdquo;; they afford ample means of irrigation. More
than one-third of the district lies under jungle, which yields
gum, medicinal fruit and nuts, edible fruits, lac, honey and the
blossoms of the <i>mahuá</i> tree (<i>Bassia latifolia</i>), which are eaten
by the poorer classes, and used for the manufacture of a kind
of spirit. Tigers, panthers, deer, wild hogs and other wild
animals abound in the forests, and during the rainy season
many deaths occur from snake-bites. Iron is the chief mineral
product. Gold is also found in the bed of the Sone river.
Laterite, shale and sandstone occur all over the district. Native
cloth, brass wares, pot-stone wares, cartwheels, straw and reed
baskets, and a small quantity of silk, form the only manufactures.
The principal crops are rice, wheat, millet, other food-grains,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
pulse, linseed, and a little sugar-cane. The district is traversed
by the main road from Nagpur to the east, and also by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway. It suffered in the famine of 1896-1897,
and yet more severely in 1900.</p>

<p>Bhandara district contains 25 semi-independent chiefships.
These little states are exempted from the revenue system,
and only pay a light tribute. Their territory, however, is
included within the returns of area and population above given.
The climate of Bhandara is unhealthy,&mdash;the prevailing diseases
being fever, small-pox and cholera. Nothing is known of the
early history of the district. Tradition says that at a remote
period a tribe of men, called the Gaulis or Gaulars, overran and
conquered it. At the end of the 17th century it belonged to
the Gond raja of Deogarh. In 1743 it was conquered by the
Mahrattas, who governed it till 1853, when it lapsed to the
British government, the raja of Nagpur having died without
an heir.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHANG<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span>, an East Indian name for the hemp plant, <i>Cannabis
sativa</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemp</a></span>), but applied specially to the leaves dried and
prepared for use as a narcotic drug. In India the products of
the plant for use as a narcotic and intoxicant are recognized
under the three names and forms of Bhang, Gunja or Ganja,
and Churrus or Charas. Bhang consists of the larger leaves
and capsules of the plant on which an efflorescence of resinous
matter has occurred. The leaves are in broken and partly
agglutinated pieces, having a dark-green colour and a heavy
but not unpleasant smell. Bhang is used in India for smoking,
with or without tobacco; it is prepared in the form of a cake
or manjan, and it is made into an intoxicating beverage by
infusing in cold water and straining. Gunja is the flowering
or fruit-bearing tops of the female plants. It is gathered in
stalks of several inches in length, the tops of which form a matted
mass, from the agglutination of flowers, seeds and leaflets by
the abundant resinous exudation which coats them. Churrus
is the crude resinous substance separated from the plant. The
use of preparations of hemp among the Mussulman and Hindu
population of India is very general; and the habit also obtains
among the population of central Asia, the Arabs and Egyptians,
extending even to the negroes of the valley of the Zambezi and
the Hottentots of South Africa. The habit appears to date from
very remote times, for Herodotus says of the Scythians, that
they creep inside huts and throw hemp seeds on hot stones.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHARAHAT<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Barhut</span>, a village in the small state of
Nagod in India, lying about 24° 15&prime; N. by 80° 45&prime; E., about
120 m. S.W. of Allahabad. General A. Cunningham discovered
there in 1873 the remains of a <i>st&#363;pa</i> (<i>i.e.</i> a burial mound over
the ashes of some distinguished person) which were excavated,
in 1874, by his assistant, J.D. Beglar. The results showed
that it must have been one of the most imposing and handsome
in India; and it is especially important now from the large
number of inscriptions found upon it. The ancient name of
the place has not been yet traced, but it must have been a
considerable city and its site lay on the high road between the
ancient capitals of Ujjen&#299; and Kos&#257;mb&#299;. The <i>st&#363;pa</i> was circular,
70 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. high. It was surrounded by a
stone railing 100 ft. in diameter, so that between railing and
<i>st&#363;pa</i> there was an open circle round which visitors could walk;
and the whole stood towards the east side of a paved quadrangle
about 300 ft. by 320 ft., surrounded by a stone wall. On the
top of the <i>st&#363;pa</i> was an ornament shaped like the letter T, and
as the base of the <i>st&#363;pa</i> was above the quadrangle, the total
height of the monument was between 50 and 60 ft. But its
main interest, to us, lies in the railing. This consisted of eighty
square pillars, 7 ft. 1 in. in height, connected by cross-bars about
1 ft. broad. Both pillars and cross-bars were elaborately
carved in bas-relief, and most of them bore inscriptions giving
either the name of the donor, or the subject of the bas-relief,
or both. There were four entrances through the railing, facing
the cardinal points, and each one protected by the railing coming
out at right angles, and then turning back across it in the shape
of the letter <b>L</b>. This gave the whole ground plan of the monument,
and no doubt designedly so, the shape of a gigantic <i>swastika</i>
(<i>i.e.</i> a symbol of good fortune). By the forms of the letters of the
inscriptions, and by the architectural details, the age of the
monument has been approximately fixed in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
The bas-reliefs give us invaluable evidence of the literature, and
also of the clothing, buildings and other details of the social
conditions of the peoples of Buddhist India at that period.
The subjects are taken from the Buddhist sacred books, more
especially from the accounts given in them of the life of the
Buddha in his last or in his previous births. Unfortunately,
only about half the pillars, and about one-third of the cross-bars
have been recovered. When the <i>st&#363;pa</i> was discovered
the villagers had already carried off the greater part of the
monument to build their cottages with the stones and bricks of
it. The process has gone on till now nothing is left except
what General Cunningham found and rescued and carried off to
Calcutta. Even the mere money value of the lost pieces must
be immense, and among them is the central relic box, which
would have told us in whose honour the monument was
put up.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A. Cunningham, <i>The St&#363;pa of Bharhut</i> (London, 1879); T.W.
Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhist India</i> (London, 1903).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHARAL<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span>, the Tatar name for the &ldquo;blue sheep&rdquo; <i>Ovis</i> (Pseudois)
<i>nahura</i>, of Ladak and Tibet. The general colour is blue-grey
with black &ldquo;points&rdquo; and white markings and belly; and
the horns of the rams are olive-brown and nearly smooth, with
a characteristic backward curvature. In the absence of face-glands,
as well as in certain other features, the bharal serves to
connect more typical sheep (<i>q.v.</i>) with goats.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHARATPUR<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bhurtpore</span>, a native state of India,
in the Rajputana agency. Its area covers 1982 sq. m. The
country is generally level, about 700 ft. above the sea. Small
detached hills, rising to 200 ft. in height, occur, especially in the
northern part. These hills contain good building stone for ornamental
architecture, and in some of them iron ore is abundant.
The Banganga is the only river which flows through the state.
It takes its rise at Manoharpur in the territory of Jaipur, and
flowing eastward passes through the heart of the Bharatpur state,
and joins the Jamna below Agra.</p>

<p>Bharatpur rose into importance under Suraj Mall, who bore a
conspicuous part in the destruction of the Delhi empire. Having
built the forts of Dig and Kumbher in 1730, he received in 1756
the title of raja, and subsequently joined the great Mahratta
army with 30,000 troops. But the misconduct of the Mahratta
leader induced him to abandon the confederacy, just in time to
escape the murderous defeat at Panipat. Suraj Mall raised the
Jat power to its highest point; and Colonel Dow, in 1770, estimated
the raja&rsquo;s revenue (perhaps extravagantly) at £2,000,000
and his military force at 60,000 or 70,000 men. In 1803 the
East India Company concluded a treaty, offensive and defensive,
with Bharatpur. In 1804, however, the raja assisted the
Mahrattas against the British. The English under Lord Lake
captured the fort of Dig and besieged Bharatpur, but were
compelled to raise the siege after four attempts at storming.
A treaty, concluded on the 17th of April 1805, guaranteed the
raja&rsquo;s territory; but he became bound to pay £200,000 as
indemnity to the East India Company. A dispute as to the right
of the succession again led to a war in 1825, and Lord Combermere
captured Bharatpur with a besieging force of 20,000 men, after
a desperate resistance, on the 18th of January 1826. The
fortifications were dismantled, the hostile chief being deported
to Benares, and an infant son of the former raja installed under
a treaty favourable to the company. In 1853 the Bharatpur
ruler died, leaving a minor heir. The state came under British
management, and the administration was improved, the revenue
increased, a system of irrigation developed, new tanks and wells
constructed and an excellent system of roads and public buildings
organized. Owing to the hot winds blowing from Rajputana,
the climate of Bharatpur is extremely sultry till the setting in of
the periodical rains.</p>

<p>In 1901 the population was 626,665, a decrease of 2%. The
estimated revenue is £180,000. The maharaja Ram Singh, who
succeeded his father in 1893, was deprived of power of government
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
in 1895 on the ground of intemperate conduct; and in 1900
was finally deposed for the murder of one of his personal attendants.
He was succeeded by his infant son Kishen Singh.
During his minority the administration was undertaken by a
native minister, together with a state council, under the general
superintendence of the political agent. Imperial service cavalry
are maintained. The state is traversed for about 40 m. by
the Rajputana railway.</p>

<p>The <span class="sc">City of Bharatpur</span> is 34 m. W. of Agra by rail. The
population in 1901 was 43,601, showing a decrease of over 23,000
in the decade. The immense mud ramparts still stand. It has
a handsome palace, a new hospital and a high school. There
are special manufactures of <i>chauris</i>, or flappers, with handles
of sandalwood, ivory or silver, and tails also made of strips of
ivory or sandalwood as fine as horse-hair.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHATGÁON<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span>, a town of Nepal, 8 m. from Khatmandu. It
is a celebrated place of Hindu superstition, the favourite residence
of the Brahmans of Nepal, and contains more families of that
order than either Khatmandu or Patan. It has a population
of about 30,000, and its palace and buildings generally are of
a more striking appearance than in other Nepalese towns. The
town is said to possess many Sanskrit libraries.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHATTIANA<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span>, a tract of country in the Punjab province of
India, covering the Ghaggar valley from Fatehabad in the
district of Hissar to Bhatnair in Bikanir. It derives its name
from the Bhattis, a wild Rajput clan, who held the country
lying between Hariana, Bikanir and Bahawalpur. It skirts
the borders of the great sandy desert, and only contains a small
and scattered population. This tract was ravaged by Timur
in his invasion of India; and in 1795 paid a nominal allegiance
to George Thomas, the adventurer of Hariana. After the
victories of Lord Lake in 1803 it passed with the rest of the
Delhi territory under British rule, but was not settled until 1810.
A district of Bhattiana was formed in 1837, but in 1858 it was
merged in the Sirsa district, which was divided up in 1884.
The Bhattis number some 350,000, and are a fine tall race,
making capital soldiers.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHAU DAJI<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ramkrishna Vithal</span>) (1822-1874), Hindu
physician of Bombay, Sanskrit scholar and antiquary, was born
in 1822 at the village of Manjare, in the native state of Sawantwari,
of humble parents dealing in clay dolls. Dr Bhau&rsquo;s career
is a striking instance of great results arising from small accidents.
An Englishman noticing his cleverness at chess induced his
father to give the boy an English education. Accordingly Bhau
was brought to Bombay and was educated at the Elphinstone
Institution. He relieved his father of the cost of his education
by winning many prizes and scholarships, and on his father&rsquo;s
death two years later he cheerfully undertook the burden of
supporting his mother and a brother (Narayen), who also in
after-life became a distinguished physician and surgeon. About
this time he gained a prize for an essay on infanticide, and was
appointed a teacher in the Elphinstone Institution. He began
to devote his time to the study of Indian antiquities, deciphering
inscriptions and ascertaining the dates and history of ancient
Sanskrit authors. He then studied at the Grant Medical College,
and was one of the first batch who graduated there in 1850.
In 1851 he set up as a medical practitioner in Bombay, where
his success was so great that he soon made a fortune. He studied
the Sanskrit literature of medicine, and also tested the value
of drugs to which the ancient Hindus ascribed marvellous
powers, among other pathological subjects of historical interest
investigating that of leprosy. Being an ardent promoter of
education, he was appointed a member of the board of education,
and was one of the original fellows of the university of Bombay.
As the first native president of the students&rsquo; literary and scientific
society, and the champion of the cause of female education,
a girls&rsquo; school was founded in his name, for which an endowment
was provided by his friends and admirers. In the political
progress of India he took a great and active interest, and the
Bombay Association and the Bombay branch of the East Indian
Association owe their existence to his ability and exertions.
He was twice chosen sheriff of Bombay, in 1869 and 1871.
Various scientific societies in England, France, Germany and
America conferred on him their membership. He contributed
numerous papers to the journal of the Bombay branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society. He found time to make a large collection
of rare ancient Sanskrit manuscripts at great cost and
trouble. He died in May 1874. His brother, Dr Narayen
Daji (who helped him to set up the charitable dispensary in
Bombay), did not long survive him. Dr Bhau was a man
of the most simple and amiable character and manners; his
kindness and sympathy towards the poor and distressed
were unbounded, and endeared his memory among the Hindus
of Bombay.</p>
<div class="author">(N. B. W.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHAUNAGAR<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bhavnagar</span>, a native state of India in the
Kathiawar agency, Bombay. Its area covers 2860 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 412,664, showing a decrease of 12%
in the decade; the estimated revenue is £255,800, and the tribute
£10,300. The chief, whose title is thakor sahib, is head of the
famous clan of the Gohel Rajputs of Kathiawar. The enlightened
system of administration formed during the rule of the thakor
sahib maharaja Sir Takhtsinghji Jaswatsinghji, G.C.S.I., was
continued with admirable results under the personal supervision
of his son, the maharaja Bhausinghji, K.C.S.I. (b. 1875), and
forms a model for other native states. The Gohel Rajputs are
said to have settled in the district about 1260. Bhaunagar
suffered terribly from the famine of 1899-1900. About 60 m. of
the Bhaunagar-Gondal railway run through the state, with its
terminus at the town of Bhaunagar, which is the principal port.
The town of Bhaunagar is situated on the west coast of the gulf
of Cambay. The population in 1901 was 56,442. It is the chief
port in Kathiawar, though only admitting vessels of small burden.
It was founded in 1723 by the thakor sahib Bhausinghji, after
whom it is named, in place of his former capital, Sihor, which
was considered too exposed to the Mahratta power.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHEESTY<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (from the Persian <i>bihisti</i>, paradise), the Hindustani
name for a water carrier, the native who supplies water from a
pigskin or goat-skin bag.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHERA<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Shahpur district of the
Punjab, situated on the river Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 18,680. It is
the terminus of a branch of the North-Western railway. It is an
important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton goods,
metal-work, carving, &amp;c. Bhera was founded about 1540 on its
present site, but it took the place of a city on the opposite bank of
the river, of far greater antiquity, which was destroyed at this
period.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHILS<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bheels</span> (&ldquo;bowmen,&rdquo; from Dravidian <i>bil</i>, a bow), a
Dravidian people of central India, probably aborigines of Marwar.
They live scattered over a great part of India. They are found
as far north as the Aravalli Hills, in Sind and Rajputana, as well
as Khandesh and Ahmedabad. They are mentioned in Sanskrit
works, and it is thought that Ptolemy (vii. I. 66) refers to them
as <span class="grk" title="Phullitai">&#934;&#965;&#955;&#955;&#8150;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span> (&ldquo;leaf wearers&rdquo;), though this word might equally
apply to the Gonds. Expelled by the Aryans from the richer
lowlands, they are found to-day in greatest numbers on the hills
of central India. In many Rajput states the princes on succession
have their foreheads marked with blood from the thumb or
toe of a Bhil. The Rajputs declare this a mark of Bhil allegiance,
but it is more probably a relic of days when the Bhils were a
power in India. The Bhils eagerly keep the practice alive, and
the right of giving the blood is hereditary in certain families.
The popular legend of the Bhil origin assigns them a semi-divine
birth, Mahadeva (Siva) having wedded an earth maiden who
bore him children, the ugliest of whom killed his father&rsquo;s bull and
was banished to the mountains. The Bhils of to-day claim to be
his descendants. Under the Moguls the Bhils were submissive,
but they rebelled against the Mahrattas, who, being unable to
subdue them, treated them with the utmost cruelty. The race
became outlaws, and they have lived their present wild life ever
since. Their nomad habits and skill with their bows helped
them to maintain successfully the fight with their oppressors.
An unsuccessful attempt was made in 1818 by the British to
conquer them. Milder measures were then tried, and the Bhil
Agency was formed in 1825. The Bhil corps was then organized
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
with a view to utilizing the excellent fighting qualities of the
tribesmen. This corps has done good service in gradually
reducing their more lawless countrymen to habits of order, and
many Bhils are now settled in regular industries.</p>

<p>The pure Bhil is to-day much what he has always been, a
savage forest dweller. The Bhils are a stunted race, but well built,
active and strong, of a black colour, with high cheek-bones, wide
nostrils, broad noses and coarse features. Like all Dravidians
the hair is long and wavy. The lowland Bhils are not now
easily distinguished from the low-caste Hindus. Surgeon-major
T.H. Hendley writes:&mdash;&ldquo;The Bhil is an excellent woodman,
knows the shortest cuts over the hills; can walk the roughest
paths and climb the steepest crags without slipping or feeling
distressed. Though robbers, and timorous owing to ages of ill-treatment,
the men are brave when trusted, and very faithful.
History proves them always to have been faithful to their
nominal Rajput sovereigns, especially in their adversity. The
Bhil is a merry soul, loving a jest.&rdquo; The hill Bhils wear nothing
but a loin-cloth, their women a coarse robe; lowland Bhils wear
turban, coat and waist-cloth. The Bhils have oaths none of
them will break. The most sacred is that sworn by a dog, the
Bhil praying that the curse of a dog may fall on him if he breaks
his word. Their chief divinity is Hanuman, the monkey-god.
Offerings are made to the much-feared goddess of small-pox.
Stone worship is found among them, and some lowland Bhils
are Moslems, while many have adopted Hinduism.</p>

<p>The Bhils of pure blood number upwards of a million, and
there are some 200,000 Bhils of mixed descent.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Gustav Oppert, <i>The Original Inhabitants of India</i> (1893);
T.H. Hendley, &ldquo;Account of Marwar Bhils,&rdquo; in <i>Bengal Asiatic
Journal</i>, vol. 44; W.I. Sinclair in <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, vol. iv. pp. 336-338;
Col. W. Kincaid, &ldquo;On the Bheel Tribes of the Vindhyan
Range,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Anthrop. Institute</i>, vol. ix.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHIMA<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> (Sanskrit, &ldquo;The Terrible&rdquo;), in Hindu mythology, a
hero, one of the Pandava princes who figure in the <i>Mahabharata</i>.
He was distinguished by his huge body, strength and voracity.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHIWANI,<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the
Punjab, 38 m. S.E. of Hissar town by rail. Pop. (1901) 35,917.
It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has
factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and metal manufactures.
Its rise dates from 1817, when it was made a free market.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHOPAL,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> a native state of India, in the central India agency.
Its area is 6902 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 665,961,
showing a decrease of 30% in the decade. This seems to be in
part due to a difference in numeration, but the state suffered
heavily from famine in 1896-1897 and 1899-1900. Bhopal is
the principal Mussulman state in central India, ranking next
to Hyderabad among the Mahommedan states of India. The
surface of the country is uneven, being traversed by the Vindhya
ranges, a peak of which near Raysen is upwards of 2500 ft. above
sea-level. The general inclination of the country is towards the
north, in which direction most of the streams of the state flow,
while others, passing through the Vindhya ranges, flow to the
Nerbudda.</p>

<p>Bhopal state was founded in 1723 by Dost Mahommed Khan,
an Afghan adventurer. In 1778, when General Thomas Goddard
made his bold march across India, the state of Bhopal was the
only Indian power that showed itself friendly; and in 1809 when
another British expedition under General Close appeared in the
same parts, the nawab of Bhopal petitioned earnestly but in vain
to be received under British protection. But in 1817, at the
outbreak of the Pindari War, a treaty of dependence was concluded
between the chief and the British government. Since
then Bhopal has been steadily loyal to the British government,
and during the Mutiny it rendered good services. The throne
has descended in the female line since 1844, when Sikandar
Begum became ruler. Succeeding begums have taken a great
interest in the work of governing the state, which they carried on
with marked success. The sultan Jahan Begum, succeeded on
the death of her mother, Shah Jahan Begum, in June 1901,
being the only female ruler in India.</p>

<p>The estimated revenue of the state is £250,000, and the state
pays a subsidy of £13,000 for the Bhopal battalion. Besides the
Bhopal battalion, a regiment of imperial service cavalry is
maintained, under the name of the Victoria Lancers. There is a
branch railway from Itarsi to Bhopal city, continued to Jhansi.
The British currency has been introduced, and in 1897-1898,
Rs. 71,00,000 of Bhopali coins were converted. The residence of
the political agent and the headquarters of the Bhopal battalion
are at Sehore, 20 m. west of Bhopal city. The city of Bhopal,
a railway station, had a population in 1901 of 76,561. The
palace, with its rock fortress, is called Fatehgarh. An excellent
water-supply has been provided from two large artificial lakes.
There are two hospitals. There is an export trade in opium.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Bhopal Agency</span>, an administrative section of central India,
takes its name from the state of Bhopal, which is included in it.
The Bhopal agency is administered by the agent to the governor-general
in central India. Its area is 11,653 sq. m., and its
population in 1901 was 1,157,697. It was created in 1818. In
1900 this district suffered severely from famine owing to the complete
failure of the monsoon, and the cultivated area decreased
by 50 or 60%; but, on the whole, trade has improved of late
years owing to the new railways, which have stimulated
commerce and created fresh centres of industry.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHOPAWAR,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> an agency in central India. It consists of the
Dhar and Barwani states, three minor states, Ali Rajpur, Jhabua
and Jobat, and a number of districts and estates. Its total area
is 7684 sq. m., and its population on this area in 1901 was
547,546. But in 1901 and 1904 certain districts were transferred
from this agency to the Indore residency, created in 1899, and
the area of Bhopawar was thus reduced by 3283 sq. m. The
chief towns are Dhar (pop. 17,792), Barwani (6277) and Kukshi
(5402).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHOR,<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Poona political agency,
Bombay, forming one of the Satara Jagirs; situated among the
higher peaks of the Western Ghats. Its area covers 925 sq. m.
The population in 1901 was 137,268, showing a decrease of 12%
in the decade; the estimated gross revenue is £21,437; the
tribute, £310. The chief, whose title is <i>pant sachiv</i>, is a Brahman
by caste. The town of <span class="sc">Bhor</span> is 25 m. south of Poona. In 1901
the population was 4178. The Bhor Ghat, on the northern
border of the state, has always been the main pass over the
Western Ghats, or means of communication between the sea-coast
and the Deccan. Since 1861 it has been traversed by the
main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHUJ,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> a town of India, the capital of the native state of Kach,
in the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated at the base of a
fortified hill. Pop. (1901) 26,362. It contains some interesting
examples of architecture of the middle of the 16th century and
later; it was a place sacred to the snake-god Bhujanga.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BHUTAN,<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> an independent kingdom in the Eastern Himalayas,
lying between the Brahmaputra and the southern face of the
mountains. It is under various commercial and other arrangements
with the government of India, from whom it receives
an annual subsidy of £3333. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet;
on the E. by a tract inhabited by various uncivilized independent
mountain tribes; on the S. by the British province of
Assam, and the district of Jalpaiguri; and on the W. by the
independent native state of Sikkim. The whole of Bhutan
presents a succession of lofty and rugged mountains abounding
in picturesque and sublime scenery. This alpine region sends
out numerous rivers in a southerly direction, which, forcing their
passage through narrow defiles, and precipitated in cataracts
over the precipices, eventually pour themselves into the Brahmaputra.
Of the rivers traversing Bhutan, the most considerable
is the Manas, flowing in its progress to the Brahmaputra under
the walls of Tasgaon, below which it is unfordable. At the foot
of Tasgaon Hill it is crossed by a suspension bridge. The other
principal rivers are the Machu, Tchinchu, Torsha, Manchi and
Dharla. Information respecting the country accumulates but
slowly. In 1863 Captain Godwin Austen accompanied Sir
Ashley Eden&rsquo;s mission to the court of the Deb raja, and made
a survey of the route to Punakha. There has also been a certain
amount of geographical sketching combined with trigonometrical
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
observations; and there are the route surveys of native
explorers. In 1887-1888 two native Indian explorers &ldquo;R. N.&rdquo;
and &ldquo;P. A.&rdquo; traversed a part of Western Bhutan, but were
forced to retire owing to the disturbed state of the districts.
They re-entered the country on the east from Dewangiri. Here
they explored the Kuru, or Lhobrak Chu, which proves to be
the largest river in Bhutan. It drains the tract between the
Yamdok Tso and Tigu Lakes, and is fed by the glaciers of the
Kulha Kangri and other great ranges. The Lhobrak was finally
identified with the Manas river, a geographical discovery of
some importance. A previously unknown tribe, the Chingmis,
were discovered in Eastern Bhutan, who are socially on a higher
level than the Bhutias, and differ from them chiefly in the
matter of wearing pigtails. Some excellent survey work was
done in Bhutan by a native surveyor during the progress of
the Tibetan Expedition in 1904. The Monla Kachung pass
(17,500 ft.), by which &ldquo;R. N.&rdquo; crossed into Tibet, is nearly on
the meridian of Gualpara, and is one of the most important
passes between Bhutan and Tibet. East of Bhutan, amongst
the semi-independent hill states which sometimes own allegiance
to Tibet and sometimes assert complete freedom from all
authority, the geographical puzzle of the course of the Tsanpo, the
great river of Tibet, has been solved by the researches of Captain
Harman, and the explorations of the native surveyor &ldquo;K. P.&rdquo;
The Tsanpo has been definitely ascertained to be the same
river as the Brahmaputra. The tracts inhabited by the
aboriginal tribes entitled Lo Nakpo, Lo Karpo and Lo Tawa
(&ldquo;Lo&rdquo; signifies &ldquo;barbarous&rdquo; in Tibetan), are described as a
pleasant country; the lands on either side of the Tsanpo being well
cultivated and planted with mangoes, plantains and oranges.</p>

<p>Nothing is known certainly about the area and population
of Bhutan, the former being estimated at 16,800 sq. m. At
the head of the Bhutan government there are nominally two
supreme authorities, the Dharm raja, the spiritual head, and the
Deb raja, the temporal ruler. Recently official correspondence
has been written in the name of the Dharm raja, but it is not
known whether this change really signifies anything. To aid
these rajas in administering the country, there is a council of
permanent ministers, called the Lenehen. Practically, however,
there is no government at all. Subordinate officers and
rapacious governors of forts wield all the power of the state,
and tyranny, oppression and anarchy reign over the whole
country. The Dharm raja succeeds as an incarnation of the
deity. On the death of a Dharm raja a year or two elapses, and
the new incarnation then reappears in the shape of a child who
generally happens to be born in the family of a principal officer.
The child establishes his identity by recognizing the cooking
utensils, &amp;c., of the late Dharm raja; he is then trained in a
monastery, and on attaining his majority is recognized as raja,
though he exercises no more real authority in his majority than
he did in his infancy. The Deb raja is in theory elected by the
council. In practice he is merely the nominee of whichever of
the two governors of East and West Bhutan happens for the time
to be the more powerful. The people are industrious, and devote
themselves to agriculture, but from the geological structure of
the country, and from the insecurity of property, regular husbandry
is limited to comparatively few spots. The people are
oppressed and poor. &ldquo;Nothing that a Bhutia possesses is his
own,&rdquo; wrote the British envoy in 1864; &ldquo;he is at all times
liable to lose it if it attracts the cupidity of any one more powerful
than himself. The lower classes, whether villagers or public
servants, are little better than the slaves of higher officials.
In regard to them no rights of property are observed, and they
have at once to surrender anything that is demanded of them.
There never was, I fancy, a country in which the doctrine of
&lsquo;might is right&rsquo; formed more completely the whole and sole
law and custom of the land than it does in Bhutan. No official
receives a salary; he has certain districts made over to him,
and he may get what he can out of them; a certain portion of
his gains he is compelled to send to the durbar, and the more
he extorts and the more he sends to his superior, the longer his
tenure of office is likely to be.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Physically the Bhutias are a fine race, although dirty in their
habits and persons. Their food consists of meat, chiefly pork,
turnips, rice, barley-meal and tea made from the brick-tea of
China. Their favourite drink is <i>chong</i>, distilled from rice or
barley and millet, and <i>Marwá</i>, beer made from fermented
millet. A loose woollen coat reaching to the knees, and bound
round the waist by a thick fold of cotton cloth, forms the dress
of the men; the women&rsquo;s dress is a long cloak with loose sleeves.
The houses of the Bhutias are of three and four storeys; all the
floors are neatly boarded with deal; and on two sides of the
house is a verandah ornamented with carved work generally
painted. The Bhutias are neat joiners, and their doors, windows
and panelling are perfect in their way. No iron-work is used;
the doors open on ingenious wooden hinges. The appearance of
the houses is precisely that of Swiss chalets, picturesque and comfortable&mdash;the
only drawback being a want of chimneys, which
the Bhutias do not know how to construct. The people nominally
profess the Buddhist religion, but in reality their religious
exercises are confined to the propitiation of evil spirits, and the
mechanical recital of a few sacred sentences. Around the
cottages in the mountains the land is cleared for cultivation,
and produces thriving crops of barley, wheat, buckwheat, millet,
mustard, chillies, &amp;c. Turnips of excellent quality are extensively
grown; they are free from fibre and remarkably sweet.
The wheat and barley have a full round grain, and the climate
is well adapted to the production of both European and Asiatic
vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced. The Bhutias
lay out their fields in a series of terraces cut out of the sides of
the hills; each terrace is riveted and supported by stone
embankments, sometimes 20 ft. high. Every field is carefully
fenced with pine branches, or protected by a stone wall.
A complete system of irrigation permeates the whole cultivated
part of a village, the water being often brought from
a long distance by stone aqueducts. Bhutias do not care to
extend their cultivation, as an increased revenue is exacted in
proportion to the land cultivated, but devote their whole energies
to make the land yield twice what it is estimated to produce.
The forests of Bhutan abound in many varieties of stately trees.
Among them are the beech, ash, birch, maple, cypress and yew.
Firs and pines cover the mountain heights; and below these,
but still at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet, is a
zone of vegetation, consisting principally of oaks and rhododendrons.
The cinnamon tree is also found. Some of the roots
and branches were examined by Captain Samuel Turner during
his journey to Tibet; but the plant being neither in blossom
nor bearing fruit, it was impossible to decide whether it was the
true cinnamon or an inferior kind of cassia. The leaf, however,
corresponded with the description given of the true
cinnamon by Linnaeus. The lower ranges of the hills
abound in animal life. Elephants are so numerous as to be
dangerous to travellers; but tigers are not common, except
near the river Tista, and in the dense reed jungle and forests
of the Dwars. Leopards abound in the Hah valley; deer everywhere,
some of them of a very large species. The musk deer
is found in the snows, and the barking deer on every
hill side. Wild hogs are met with even at great elevations.
Large squirrels are common. Bears and rhinoceros are
also found. Pheasants, jungle fowls, pigeons and other small
game abound. The Bhutias are no sportsmen. They have a
superstitious objection to firing a gun, thinking that it offends
the deities of the woods and valleys, and brings down rain.
A species of horse, which seems indigenous to Bhutan, and is
used as a domestic animal, is called <i>tángan</i>, from Tangastan,
the general appellation of that assemblage of mountains which
constitutes the territory of Bhutan. It is peculiar to this tract,
not being found in any of the neighbouring countries of Assam,
Nepal, Tibet or Bengal, and unites in an eminent degree the
two qualities of strength and beauty. The <i>tángan</i> horse usually
stands about thirteen hands high, is short-bodied, clean-limbed,
deep in the chest and extremely active, his colour usually
inclining to piebald. In so barren and rude a country the
manufacturing industry of its people is, as might be expected,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
in a low stage, the few articles produced being all destined for
home consumption. These consist of coarse blankets and
cotton cloths made by the villagers inhabiting the southern
tract. Leather, from the hide of the buffalo, imperfectly
tanned, furnishes the soles of snow boots. Circular bowls are
neatly turned from various woods. A small quantity of paper
is made from a plant described as the <i>Daphne papyrifera</i>. Swords,
iron spears and arrow-heads, and a few copper caldrons,
fabricated from the metal obtained in the country, complete
the list of manufactures.</p>

<p>Trade connections are rather with Tibet than with India.
In 1901-1902 the value of the import and export trade with
British India amounted only to £57,000. The military resources
of the country are on an insignificant scale. Beyond the guards
for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a
standing army. The total military force was estimated by the
British envoy in 1864 at 6000. The climate of Bhutan varies
according to the difference of elevation. At the time when the
inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajas) are
afraid of exposing themselves to the blazing sun, those of Ghasa
experience all the rigour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual
snows. Yet these places are within sight of each other. The
rains descend in floods upon the heights; but in the vicinity of
Tasisudon, the capital, they are moderate; there are frequent
showers, but nothing that can be compared to the tropical rains
of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation and steepness of the
mountains, dreadful storms arise among the hollows, often
attended with fatal results.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Bhutan formerly belonged to a tribe called by the
Bhutias Tephu, generally believed to have been the people of
Kuch Behar. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1670 some Tibetan soldiers subjugated
the Tephus, took possession of the country and settled down
in it. The relations of the British with Bhutan commenced in
1772, when the Bhutias invaded the principality of Kuch Behar,
a dependency of Bengal. The Kuch Behar Raja applied for aid,
and a force under Captain James was despatched to his assistance;
the invaders were expelled and pursued into their own territories.
Upon the intercession of Teshu Lama, then regent of Tibet, a
treaty of peace was concluded in 1774 between the East India
Company and the ruler of Bhutan. In 1783 Captain S. Turner
was deputed to Bhutan, with a view of promoting commercial
intercourse, but his mission proved unsuccessful. From this
period little intercourse took place with Bhutan, until the
occupation of Assam by the British in 1826. It was then
discovered that the Bhutias had usurped several tracts of low
land lying at the foot of the mountains, called the Dwars or
passes, and for these they agreed to pay a small tribute. They
failed to pay, however, and availed themselves of the command
of the passes to commit depredations within the British territory.
Captain R.B. Pemberton was accordingly deputed to Bhutan to
adjust the points of difference. But his negotiations yielded no
definite result; and every other means of obtaining redress and
security proving unsuccessful, the Assam Dwars were wrested
from the Bhutias, and the British government consented to pay
to Bhutan a sum of £1000 per annum as compensation for the
resumption of their tenure, during the good behaviour of the
Bhutias. Continued outrages and aggressions were, however,
committed by the Bhutias on British subjects in the Dwars.
Nothwithstanding repeated remonstrances and threats, scarcely
a year passed without the occurrence of several raids in British
territory headed by Bhutia officials, in which they plundered the
inhabitants, massacred them, or carried them away as slaves.
In 1863 Sir Ashley Eden was sent as an envoy to Bhutan to
demand reparation for these outrages. He did not succeed in his
mission; he was subjected to the grossest insults; and under
compulsion signed a treaty giving over the disputed territory to
Bhutan, and making other concessions which the Bhutan
government demanded. On Sir A. Eden&rsquo;s return the viceroy
at once disavowed his treaty, sternly stopped the former allowance
for the Assam Dwars, and demanded the immediate restoration
of all British subjects kidnapped during the last five years. The
Bhutias not complying with this demand, the governor-general
issued a proclamation, dated the 12th of November 1864, by which
the eleven Western or Bengal Dwars were forthwith incorporated
with the queen&rsquo;s Indian dominions. No resistance was at first
offered to the annexation; but, suddenly, in January 1865, the
Bhutias surprised the English garrison at Dewangiri, and the
post was abandoned with the loss of two mountain guns. This
disaster was soon retrieved by General Sir Henry Tombs, and the
Bhutias were compelled to sue for peace, which was concluded on
the 11th of November 1865. The Bhutan government formally
ceded all the eighteen Dwars of Bengal and Assam, with the rest
of the territory taken from them, and agreed to liberate all
kidnapped British subjects. As the revenues of Bhutan mainly
depended on these Dwars, the British government, in return for
these concessions, undertook to pay the Deb and Dharm rajas
annually, subject to the condition of their continued good
behaviour, an allowance beginning at £2500 and rising gradually
to the present figure. Since that time the annexed territories
have settled down into peaceful and prosperous British districts.
The recent relations between the Indian government and Bhutan
have been satisfactory; and during the troubles with Tibet in 1904
the attitude of the Bhutias was perfectly correct and friendly.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet</i> (Deva
Dun, 1889); Tanner, &ldquo;Our present Knowledge of the Himalayas,&rdquo;
<i>R.G.S. Proceedings</i>, vol. xiii.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> (1662-1729), Italian astronomer
and antiquary, was born of a noble family at Verona on the
13th of December 1662. In 1684 he went to Rome, and became
librarian to Cardinal Ottoboni, who, as Pope Alexander VIII.
(1689), raised him to the offices of papal chamberlain and canon
of Santa Maria Maggiore. Clement XI. sent him on a mission to
Paris in 1712, and employed him to form a museum of Christian
antiquities. He died at Rome on the 2nd of March 1729. A
paper by him on G.D. Cassini&rsquo;s new method of parallaxes was
inserted in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> of Leipzig in 1685. He published
separately:&mdash;<i>Istoria Universale</i> (Roma, 1697), only one
volume of which appeared; <i>De Calendario et Cyclo Caesaris</i>
(1703); <i>Hesperi et Phosphori nova Phaenomena</i> (1729), in which
he asserted Venus to rotate in 24<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> days; and (posthumously)
<i>Astronomicae et Geographicae Observaliones Selectae</i> (1737) and
<i>Opuscula Varia</i> (1754).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Fontenelle&rsquo;s &ldquo;Éloge&rdquo;
(<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Acad. de l&rsquo;Histoire</i>, p. 102, Paris, 1729);
Mazzoleni, <i>Vita di Francesco Bianchini</i> (Verona, 1735);
Tipaldo, <i>Biografia degli Italiani Illustri</i>, vii. 288 (Venezia, 1840);
Mazzuchelli, <i>Scrittori d&rsquo; Italia</i>;
Maffei, <i>Verona Illustrata</i>, p. 254, &amp;c.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIARRITZ,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a watering-place of south-western France, in the
department of Basses-Pyrénées, on the sea-coast about 5 m.
W.S.W. of Bayonne. Pop. (1906) 13,629. From a mere fishing
village, with a few hundred inhabitants in the beginning of the
19th century, Biarritz rose rapidly into a place of importance
under the patronage of the emperor Napoleon III. and the
empress Eugénie, with whom it was a favourite resort. The
town is situated on a promontory jutting north-west into the
Bay of Biscay and on the coast which extends on each side of it.
The beach to the north-east is known as the Grande Plage, that
to the south-west as the Côte des Basques. The Grande Plage is
more than half a mile long and stretches to the Cap St Martin, on
which stands a lighthouse. It is divided into two parts by a
small headland once the site of the villa of the empress Eugénie,
between which and the main promontory are the two casinos, the
principal baths and many luxurious villas and fine hotels.
Towards the north-east the promontory of Biarritz ends in a
projection known as the Atalaye, crowned by the ruins of a castle
and surrounded by rocky islets. Some of these are united to the
mainland and to each other by jetties which curve round so as to
form the Port de Refuge, a haven available only in fair weather.
South-west of the Atalaye lies the Port-Vieux, a sheltered cove
now used only as a bathing-place. The Port des Pêcheurs, the
principal of the three harbours, is on the south-east side of the
Atalaye and is that most used by the fishermen of the town.
Apart from unimportant manufactures of pottery, chocolate, &amp;c.,
fishing is the only industry; Biarritz depends for its prosperity
on the visitors who are attracted by its mild climate and the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
bathing. The season is almost continuous; in the winter the
English, in the summer Russians, Spaniards and French fill the
hotels of the town. Among its attractions is a golf club, established
in 1888, with a course of 18 holes.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIAS<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> of Priene in Ionia, one of the so-called Seven Sages of
Greece, son of Teutamus, flourished about 570 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was
famous for his patriotism, the nobility of his character and his
eloquence. A number of gnomes or aphorisms are attributed to
him, which may be found collected in F.W.A. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta
Philosophorum Graecorum</i> (1860). He is said to have
written a poem on the best means of making Ionia prosperous.
His advice to its inhabitants, at the time of the Persian invasion,
to migrate to Sardinia and there found a single pan-Ionic city
(Herodotus i. 170), has generally been regarded as historical.
One much-quoted saying of his may be mentioned. When his
native town was besieged by the enemy, the inhabitants resolved
to escape with their most valuable belongings. One of them
seeing Bias without anything, advised him to follow the example
of the rest. &ldquo;I am doing so,&rdquo; said lie, &ldquo;for I carry all my belongings
with me&rdquo; (<i>omnia mea mecum porto</i>). He was honoured with
a splendid funeral, and a sanctuary called Teutamium was
dedicated to him.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Bohren, <i>De Septem Sapientibus</i> (1860).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIAS<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>biais</i>, of unknown origin; the derivation
from Lat. <i>bifax</i>, two-faced, is wrong), something oblique or
slanting. The term is used especially of a piece of cloth cut
obliquely across the texture, or of a seam of two such pieces
brought together; and in the game of bowls (<i>q.v.</i>) it is applied
alike to the one-sided construction of the bowl, flattened on one
side and protruding on the other, and to the slanting line the
bowl takes when thrown. The figurative sense of the word,
prejudice or undue leaning to one side of a subject, is derived
from this bowling term.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS,<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> Roman poet, flourished
during the last century of the republic. According to Jerome,
he was born at Cremona in 103 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and probably lived to a great
age. He wrote satirical poems after the manner of Catullus,
whose bitterness he rivalled, according to Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i. 196),
in his iambics. He even attacked Augustus (and perhaps
Caesar), who treated the matter with indifference. He was also
author of prose <i>Lucubrationes</i> and perhaps of an epic poem on
Caesar&rsquo;s Gallic wars (<i>Pragmatia Belli Gallici</i>). Otto Ribbeck
attributes to him one of the shorter poems usually assigned to
Virgil. It is doubtful whether he is the person ridiculed by
Horace (<i>Satires</i>, ii 5. 40) and whether he is identical with the
<i>turgidus Alpinus</i> (<i>Satires</i>, i. 10. 36), the author of an Aethiopis
dealing with the life and death of Memnon and of a poem on the
Rhine. Some critics, on the ground that Horace would not have
ventured to attack so dangerous an adversary, assume the
existence of a poet whose real name was Furius (or Cornelius)
Alpinus. Bibaculus was ridiculed for his high-flown and exaggerated
style and manner of expression.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Weichert, &ldquo;De M. Furio Bibaculo,&rdquo; in his <i>Poetarum Latinorum
Reliquiae</i> (1830); fragments in L. Müller&rsquo;s edition of <i>Catullus</i> in
the Teubner Series (1870).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> (1644-1704),
German violinist and composer, was for some time musical
conductor at Salzburg, and was ennobled by the emperor
Leopold in 1681. He is regarded as the earliest important German
composer for the violin, his works including sonatas and church
music.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIBERACH,<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,
on the Riss, a small affluent of the Danube, 22 m. S.S.W.
from Ulm. Pop. (1900) 8390. It is still surrounded by medieval
walls and towers, and is strikingly picturesque. Its principal
church dates from the 12th century, and it possesses a hospital
with rich endowments. Its main industries are cloth, bell-casting,
toys and zinc wares, and its fruit markets are famous.</p>

<p>Biberach appears as a village in the 8th century, and in 1312 it
became a free imperial city. During the Thirty Years&rsquo; War it
underwent various vicissitudes, and was for a while held by the
Swedes. In 1707 it was captured and put to ransom by the
French, who afterwards, in 1796 and 1800, defeated the Austrians
in the neighbourhood. In 1803 the city was deprived of its
imperial freedom and assigned to Baden, and in 1806 was
transferred to Württemberg. Biberach is the birthplace of the
sculptor Johann Lorenz Natter (1705-1763) and the painter
Bernhard Neher (1806-1886); Christoph Martin Wieland, born
in 1733 at the neighbouring village of Oberholzheim, spent
several years in the town.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BIBIRINE,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bebeerine</span>, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, an alkaloid obtained
from the bark and fruit of the greenheart (<i>q.v.</i>) tree, <i>Nectandra rodiaei</i>,
called <i>bibiru</i> or <i>sipiri</i> in Guiana, where the tree grows.
The substance was discovered about the year 1835 by Hugh
Rodie, a surgeon in Demerara, who used it as a febrifuge in
substitution for quinine.</p>

<hr class="art" />









<pre>





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